The Union of Kalmar

Queen Margaret (1353–1412) was the first female monarch of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.  Her title to the three Nordic kingdoms in 1387–1388 laid the political foundation for the Kalmar Union. Former research has alleged that Queen Margaret's accession to the crowns was irregular. Although Norway had hereditary succession, Her accession to the throne has been considered as an act of (illegal) election. On the basis of empirical data, this article argues that she inherited the Norwegian crown, and that all accessions were legitimate, legally warranted and founded on Margaret’s position as a widow in all three kingdoms. However, they were also based on political considerations. This process was driven by the councils and aristocracy in all kingdoms in accordance with the queen in order to avoid the house of Mecklenburg taking over the crowns.

Впервые в русскоязычной нумизматической литературе публикуется анализ чеканки серебряной монеты в Королевстве Норвегия на протяжении трех столетий – от завершающего этапа эпохи викингов до утери страной государственного суверенитета. Представлен каталог номиналов, рассмотрены два этапа финансовой политики. Первый охватывает переходный период от эпохи викингов к Средневековью (1050-1080). Второй касается суверенных денежных эмиссий в средневековом государстве (1080-1397). Делается вывод о том, что важным стимулом развития денежного дела Норвегии являлся переход от военной экспансии к широкомасштабной международной торговле. Отмечено влияние эпидемии чумы на прекращение работы последнего монетного двора в Осло. Использованы правила письменного перевода имен, принятые в современной Норвегии.
Ключевые слова: пеннинг, полпеннинга, четверть пеннинга, брактеат, эпоха викингов, Кальмарская уния, «норвежская империя», «Закат Норвегии»

For the first time in the Russian-language numismatic literature, an in-depth analysis of the three centuries’ silver coinage in the Kingdom of Norway has been published. It is limited by the political, military and monetary time framework from the final stage of the Viking Age to the loss of Norwegian state sovereignty in 1397 (the Kalmar Union). The catalog of denominations is presented, two stages of a financial policy are considered. The first is the transition period from the Viking Age to the Middle Ages (1050-1080). The second stage is about the sovereign money issues in the medieval state (1080-1397). The author has concluded that an important stimulus for the development of the monetary policies was the transition from the Viking military expansion to a large-scale international trade. The effect of the plague epidemic on the last Norwegian mint’s collapse is underlined. The translations of Norwegian medieval names to Russian are constructed according to modern Norwegian rules. 
Keywords: penning, half penning, quarter of penning, bracteate, Viking Age, Kalmar Union, «Norwegian empire», «Norwegian decline»

Artikkelen tar for seg det norske myntvesenet fra slutten av vikingtiden til Kalmarunionen i 1397. Med dette publiseres for første gang i russiskspråklig numismatisk litteratur norske mynter, utmyntet i regjeringstiden til en rekke norske konger. Den første delen gjelder utmyntinger i overgangsperioden fra vikingtiden til middelalderen (1050-1080). Det andre gjelder utmynting i middelalderstaten (1080-1397). Det konkluderes med at overgangen fra den militære og politiske ekspansjonen på 900- og 1000-tallet til internasjonal handel i stor skala, var en viktig pådriver i utviklingen av pengepolitikken i Norge. Svartedauen var avgjørende for at det siste myntverket i Oslo ble lagt ned. Oversettelsen av norske navn til russisk er gjort i henhold til moderne norsk uttale.
Nøkkelord: penning, halvpenning, kvartpenning, brakteat, vikingtiden, Kalmarunionen, Norgesveldet, «Norges nedgang»

Because the entries in the internet version of the ‘Den Store Danske Encyklopædi‘ (The Great Danish Encyclopedia. in Danish) seldom can compete with similar articles in Wikipedia, which in minor languages are often of poor quality, I decided to upload this article with an explanation for doing so. Netversion in  the Encyclopedia can be found here: http://denstoredanske.dk/index.php?sideId=133237

The short encyclopedial biography on Vinald Henriksson is written for IEMA-online. Vinald was archbishop in the formative years of the Kalmar Union and took part in all important political meetings, with the exception of the meeting in Kalmar in 1397. The reason was that he already had crowned the minor Erik of Pomerania in Oslo, probably in 1392. Vinald was recruited as bishop from the royal chapel clergy of which he was the head from 1378.

Авторское резюме. Впервые в русскоязычной нумизматической литературе публикуется анализ чеканки серебряной монеты в королевстве Норвегия на протяжении трех столетий-от завершающего этапа эпохи викингов до утери страной государственного суверенитета. Представлен каталог номиналов, рассмотрены два этапа финансовой политики. Первый охватывает переходный период от эпохи викингов к Средневековью (1050-1080). Второй касается суверенных денежных эмиссий в средневековом государстве (1080-1397). Делается вывод о том, что важным стимулом развития денежного дела Норвегии являлся переход от военной экспансии к широкомасштабной международной торговле. Отмечено влияние эпидемии чумы на прекращение работы последнего монетного двора в Осло. Использованы правила письменного перевода имен, принятые в современной Норвегии. Ключевые слова: пеннинг, полпеннинга, четверть пеннинга, брактеат, эпоха викингов, Кальмарская уния, «норвежская империя», «Закат Норвегии».

Abstract. For the first time in the Russian-language numismatic literature, an in-depth analysis of the three centuries' silver coinage in the Kingdom of Norway has been published. It is limited by the political, military and monetary time framework from the final stage of the Viking Age to the loss of Norwegian state sovereignty in 1397 (the Kalmar Union). The catalog of denominations is presented, two stages of a financial policy are considered. The first is the transition period from the Viking Age to the Middle Ages (1050-1080). The second stage is about the sovereign money issues in the medieval state (1080-1397). The author has concluded that an important stimulus for the development of the monetary policies was the transition from the Viking military expansion to a large-scale international trade. The effect of the plague epidemic on the last Norwegian mint's collapse is underlined.

Pengepolitikken i Norge fra slutten av vikingtiden til Kalmarunionen (1050-1397)
Artikkelen tar for seg det norske myntvesenet fra slutten av vikingtiden til Kalmarunionen i 1397. Med dette publiseres for første gang i russiskspråklig numismatisk litteratur norske mynter, utmyntet i regjeringstiden til en rekke norske konger. Den første delen gjelder utmyntinger i overgangsperioden fra vikingtiden til middelalderen (1050-1080). Det andre gjelder utmynting i middelalderstaten (1080-1397). Det konkluderes med at overgangen fra den militære og politiske ekspansjonen på 900- og 1000-tallet til internasjonal handel i stor skala, var en viktig pådriver i utviklingen av pengepolitikken i Norge. Svartedauen var avgjørende for at det siste myntverket i Oslo ble lagt ned. Oversettelsen av norske navn til russisk er gjort i henhold til moderne norsk uttale.
Nøkkelord: penning, halvpenning, kvartpenning, brakteat, vikingtiden, Kalmarunionen, Norgesveldet, «Norges nedgang»

The article's point of departure is Duke Christian's (later Christian 3.) visit to Norway in 1529. Christian was eager to reorganise fundamentally the government of Norway, in accordance with his own German political-ideological ideals. The Duke did not succeed in his plans then, but was able to accomplish his policy when he became King Christian III in 1536. He carried out the reformation in both Denmark and Norway and subordinated Norway politically to Denmark. One of Christian's main arguments for stripping Norway of its political independence was insufficient resources to finance its own royal house. The article discusses the question of Norway's resources in the Middle Ages and the extensive historiography on this subject. The author discusses the political-administrative apparatus in Norway in High and Late Middle Ages, including the town's role as economic and administrative centre. Based on this the author questions the validity of the widespread materialistic view that Norway did not have sufficient resources to finance its political independence in late Middle Ages irrespective of political and socio-economic structures.

Queen Margaret (1353–1412) was the first female monarch of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Her title to the three Nordic kingdoms in 1387–1388 laid the political foundation for the Kalmar Union. Former research has alleged that Queen Margaret's accession to the crowns was irregular. Although Norway had hereditary succession, Her accession to the throne has been considered as an act of (illegal) election. On the basis of empirical data, this article argues that she inherited the Norwegian crown, and that all accessions were legitimate, legally warranted and founded on Margaret’s position as a widow in all three kingdoms. However, they were also based on political considerations. This process was driven by the councils and aristocracy in all kingdoms in accordance with the queen in order to avoid the house of Mecklenburg taking over the crowns.

Obituary Notice of Eric I, Duke of Pomerania (1449–1459
In the Polish historiography the death date of Eric I, Duke of Pomerania (1449–1459),
differs from the one in the German historiography, and the difference has inspired the
author to write this article, which includes an obituary notice – so far unknown – concerning
the Duke. The notice has been found in the records of the Cathedral Chapter in
Kamień Pomorski (German: Cammin), which are kept in the State Archives in Szczecin.
More precisely, the notice is to be found on the first folio of one of the lists of the benefices
pertaining to the Cathedral Church in Kamień. Thanks to the notice the death date
of Eric I, one of the rulers of the states which were parts of the Kalmar Union, seems
not to have fallen – as most researchers assumed – between May 3 and June 16, 1459.
The obituary notice unmistakably indicates that the ruler must have died on May 23, 1459
in Darłowo, where he was also buried.

[Maribo Abbey and town - The relation between monastery and town in Maribo with comparative views to other urban monasteries on Lolland-Falster and southern Sjælland]

Although medieval Denmark as a whole was a predominantly rural society, its monasticism was for the greater part an urban phenomenon: 80 (or 60 per cent) out of the 134 Danish monasteries were situated in towns and cities. Especially in the period 1050-1250, urban monasteries were founded in already well-established cities, while those following from around 1250 to 1500 more often were placed in newly established towns, apparently partly to help securing the young and growing towns their urban status. A third sub-group within urban monasteries in medieval Scandinavia, distinct from all others, was the houses belonging to the Brigittine Order. The convent foundations in Vadstena (1384), Maribo (1416), Nådendal/Naantali (1441-43) and Mariager (1440-46) all took place in originally rural sites, but after Queen Margrethe I in 1400 ordered the foundation of an actual town with urban privileges outside the Abbey of Vadstena, the establishing of similar urban settlements seem to have become an integrated part of the subsequent monastic foundations in Maribo, Nådendal and Mariager right from the beginning (only for Munkeliv in Bergen, where the Brigittines took over a former Benedictine house, there was obviously no need to found a new town). The reason for this apparently systematic foundation of towns adjacent to new Brigittine monasteries has, to my knowledge, never received any scholarly attention. Based on a case study of the foundation in Maribo, with comparative use of evidence from the other Scandinavian houses, this article presents the suggestion that the towns first and foremost were meant to facilitate the extensive pilgrimage, which the Brigittine churches could be expected to attract - a traffic that not least Queen Margrethe and her successor Erik ‘the Pomeranian’ were inclined to endorse, as they eagerly aimed to promote St. Brigitte as the great pilgrim saint for the United Kingdoms of Scandinavia.

The article, which is written in Danish, is published in the jubilee anthology “Maribo Domkirke : Kloster-, by- og domkirke gennem 600 år”, ed. Henrik B. Frederickson (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2016), pp. 22-33. The book (with ISBN 9788776749590) can be purchased from Syddansk Universitetsforlag/University Press of Southern Denmark for DKK 299 (or currently DKK 239 online): http://www.universitypress.dk/shop/maribo-domkirke-3518p.html.