Sea Cucumber

The study sites are located within two different ecosystems, the coral reef and seagrass bed within Phang-Nga Bay. For coral reef, there were 10 stations, which were divided into two zones, the reef flat and reef slope. For seagrass bed, there were also 10 stations, which were divided into two zones, the intertidal zone and the submerge zone. The distribution and abundance of sea cucumbers was recorded with 200 x6 m belt transects (of 1200 m 2 area) with 3 replicated. There were six species of sea cucumbers recorded during the survey, i.e. Cercodemas anceps, Holothuria scabra, Holothuria leucospilota, Holothuria atra, Synapta maculata and unidentified species is Synaptid sp.1 The abundance of sea cucumber was highly varied on species and habitat. The number of sea cucumbers recorded in the coral reef were higher than in the seagrass bed. The density of sea cucumbers was highest at the Leam Panwa reef, where H. leucospilota was the most abundant species with 0.5017+0.0525 individual/m 2 .

La pesca de pepino de mar en Honduras se realiza bajo la modalidad de Protocolo de investigación desde la temporada 2014-2015. Se extienden licencias de pesca a embarcaciones artesanales/avanzadas (seudo artesanal) e industriales. La producción pesquera durante la temporada 2018-2019 asciende a 876,043.83 libras/cocida de pepino de mar. La cuota global para las embarcaciones industriales se cumplió en un 95% (333,294.37 libras/cocidas). En cambio, para las embarcaciones artesanales/avanzadas se efectuó en un 94% (542,749.46 libras/cocido). El estado de la población, densidad reproductiva efectiva y ciclo reproductivo de las especies de interés comercial de pepino de mar para Honduras, no se ha estimado desde la apertura del protocolo. Se carece de monitoreos independientes de la pesca para cumplir los objetivos principales del protocolo. Estableciéndose desde la temporada 2014-2015 una pesquería abierta.

Se debe elaborar un nuevo protocolo de evaluación biológica y monitoreo pesquero de pepino de mar en el Caribe de Honduras. De manera que se establezcan monitoreos independientes de la pesca para obtener datos poblacionales y ciclos reproductivos de las especies de interés comercial. Por consiguiente, establecer un periodo de un año de veda para la pesca de pepino de mar.

Marine microorganisms are important sources for novel natural products. Hence, the aim of this study was to introduce marine microorganisms with the capability of producing antioxidant and cytotoxic metabolites. For this purpose, ten live sea cucumbers (Holothuria leucospilota) were collected from Larak Island, Persian Gulf. Then, their intestine contents were serially diluted and treated by heating (55°C). 100 µL of treated samples were inoculated on starch casein nitrate agar medium, which is supplemented with nalidixic acid and cycloheximide. The plates were incubated at 28 °C for 4 weeks and the colonies were purified. The antioxidant activity of extracted metabolites from the isolated actinobacteria was evaluated using DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity assay and the cytotoxic activity was screened by Brine-Shrimp micro well cytotoxicity method. In addition, the cytotoxic effect was evaluated against HCT 116 and SW 480 cell lines by MTT cell proliferation assay. A new strain of marine actinobacterium represented maximum antioxidant and cytotoxic activity among 17 actinobacterial isolates. The ethyl acetate culture extract of the isolate scavenged DPPH radicals with IC 50 value of 211.2 µg mL-1. In addition, the extract exhibited high toxicity against HCT 116 and SW 480 tumor cell lines with IC 50 values of 26.48 and 18.53 µg mL-1 respectively. The isolate was identified as Streptomyces sp. strain SC 156 and showed 98% similarity with type strains in NCBI database. These results suggested that Streptomyces sp. strain SC 156 could be considered as promising candidate for antioxidant and cytotoxic compound discovery.

Sea cucumbers play an important role in the recycling and remineralization of organic matter (OM) in reef sands through feeding, excretion, and bioturbation processes. Growing demand from Asian markets has driven the overexploitation of these animals globally. The implications of sea cucumber fisheries for shallow coastal ecosystems and their management remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, the current study manipulated densities of Holothuria scabra within enclosures on a reef flat in Fiji, between August 2015 and February 2016, to study the effects of sea cucumber removal on sedimentary function as a biocatalytic filter system. Three treatments were investigated: (i) high density (350 g m −2 wet weight; ca. 15 individuals); (ii) natural density (60 g m −2 ; ca. 3 individuals); and (iii) exclusion (0 g m −2). Quantity of sediment reworked through ingestion by H. scabra, grain size distribution, O 2 penetration depth, and sedimentary oxygen consumption (SOC) were quantified within each treatment. Findings revealed that the natural population of H. scabra at the study site can rework ca. 10,590 kg dry sediment 1,000 m −2 year −1 ; more than twice the turnover rate recorded for H. atra and Stichopus chloronotus. There was a shift towards finer fraction grains in the high treatment. In the exclusion treatment, the O 2 penetration depth decreased by 63% following a 6 • C increase in water temperature over the course of two months, while in the high treatment no such change was observed. SOC rates increased ca. twofold in the exclusion treatment within the first month, and were consistently higher than in the high treatment. These results suggest that the removal of sea cucumbers can reduce the capacity of sediments to buffer OM pulses, impeding the function and productivity of shallow coastal ecosystems.

In the present study, the alcalase-generated proteolysates obtained after 8 h of proteolysis of stone fish flesh showed the most potent antioxidant activity in terms of DPPH• radical scavenging activity (77.43%, IC50 of 0.5 mg/mL), ABTS• radical scavenging activity (92.73%, IC50 of 0.33 mg/mL) and FRAP value (39.2 mmol/100 mL FeSO4). These proteolysates profiled and characterized as antioxidative peptides. The proteolysates were initially subjected to ultrafiltration using MWCO Spin-X UF. Potent fractions were further characterized based on hydrophobicity using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and isoelectric point using an OFFGEL isoelectric focusing fractionator. Results indicated that most of the antioxidative peptides found in fractions with a molecular weight (MW) of less than 2 kDa, hydrophilic (hydrophilicity >80%) and basic (pI = 9.7). The final purified fraction with the highest antioxidant activity was selected for peptide identification and sequencing using Q-TOF mass spectrometry. A total of four peptides were identified, from which Peptide 1 (GVSGLHID) showed the highest antioxidant activity and this has potential as a novel bioingredient of nutraceuticals and functional foods to promote human health.

The first official records of the exploitation of Holothuria scabra in Oman were reported around 10 years ago. Unfortunately, the population of this exploited stock followed the same rapid decline as most exploited population of this sea cucumber elsewhere. H. scabra has always been part of the traditional exploitation of the benthos in Ghubbat Hashish of Mahout Bay but the foreign demand for the product overseas has put increased pressure on the resource and led to overfishing. To fill the need for a management strategy as well as to establish the background studies necessary to assess the aquaculture potential of this species in Oman, it was thus necessary to assess its reproductive biology. The reproductive cycle of H. scabra population in Mahout was determined from monthly variations of the gonad somatic index based on dry weight relationships. Its reproductive status was examined from October 2008 to May 2010 with 15-30 individuals collected monthly. An annual period of reproduction was observed during late spring (pre-monsoon period) when a peak of GI index was recorded at 12% and 9% in April 2009 and 2010, respectively. The size at first maturity was estimated at 16.5 cm which corresponds to approximately 600 g fresh weight. The spawning appeared to be correlated to high temperature and precipitation which both may serve as exogenous cues for H. scabra gamete release. The application of this study in fisheries management and aquaculture is discussed.

Sea cucumber plays an important role in marine communities besides it’s great economical importance to man. By 2000, production
increased from 20 tones in 2000 to 2310 tones in 2002, and then dramatically decreased to 6 tons in 2006 [1]. The present study
presents abundance, distribution size composition of Holothurians along Alexandria coast of Egypt. Samples were anaesthetized in
MgCl (2.5%) solution to overcome the error resulted from contraction and relaxation of body muscles.

"BACKGROUND:
Unlike the mammalian central nervous system (CNS), the CNS of echinoderms is capable of fast and efficient regeneration following injury and constitutes one of the most promising model systems that can provide important insights into evolution of the cellular and molecular events involved in neural repair in deuterostomes. So far, the cellular mechanisms of neural regeneration in echinoderm remained obscure. In this study we show that radial glial cells are the main source of new cells in the regenerating radial nerve cord in these animals.

RESULTS:
We demonstrate that radial glial cells of the sea cucumber Holothuria glaberrima react to injury by dedifferentiation. Both glia and neurons undergo programmed cell death in the lesioned CNS, but it is the dedifferentiated glial subpopulation in the vicinity of the injury that accounts for the vast majority of cell divisions. Glial outgrowth leads to formation of a tubular scaffold at the growing tip, which is later populated by neural elements. Most importantly, radial glial cells themselves give rise to new neurons. At least some of the newly produced neurons survive for more than 4 months and express neuronal markers typical of the mature echinoderm CNS.

CONCLUSIONS:
A hypothesis is formulated that CNS regeneration via activation of radial glial cells may represent a common capacity of the Deuterostomia, which is not invoked spontaneously in higher vertebrates, whose adult CNS does not retain radial glial cells. Potential implications for biomedical research aimed at finding the cure for human CNS injuries are discussed."

After a complete transection, the radial nerve cord (RNC) of the adult sea cucumber Eupentacta fraudatrix quickly regrows and reconnects. The description of the major cellular events that accompany this regeneration is derived from light and transmission electron microscopy. Shortly after lesioning, the extensive nerve fiber degeneration and neuronal apoptosis occur. The gap in the cord created by the transection is rapidly bridged, at first by connective tissue and subsequently by regenerating nerve tissue. On either side of the wound, the ectoneural and hyponeural components of the injured RNC form separate tubular rudiments, whose epithelial walls are composed mostly of dedifferentiated glial cells, capable of mitotic division, but also contain some nerve fibers and occasional neuronal perikarya. It is suggested that the glial cells play a crucial role in regeneration not only by providing the supporting guiding scaffold for regrowing nerve fibers, but also by producing new neurons. Other mechanisms of post-traumatic neurogenesis may involve proliferation and/or migration of existing perikarya. The anterior and posterior regenerates grow towards one another and eventually fuse to restore the anatomical continuity of the RNC. Re-differentiation of gliocytes and accumulation of nerve cells in the newly formed regions of the nervous tissue make histological organization of the fully regenerated RNC indistinguishable from that of the intact cord. The authors suggest that the holothurian RNC provides a valuable experimental model, which opens new possibilities for exploring the fundamental mechanisms underlying regeneration of the nervous system in deuterostomes.

Some biochemical studies (protein, fat, moisture and ash) were done on three species of holothurians namely Holothuria scabra, Actinopyga echinites and Holothuria atra, which were collected from Abu Hashish and Kilo Tammania areas in Sudanese Red Sea. Statistical analysis showed that there was a significant difference (P<0.05) in moisture, ash and protein content of the air-dried and processed animals. However, a non-significant difference (p>0.05) in fat content is encountered. Differences in moisture and fat content of H. atra collected from the two sites are insignificant while the difference in protein and ash contents are significant. All the measured contents in A. echinites are assumed not to differ significantly between the two areas except in their fat content.

The Micronesian island of Guam has been an important site for the study of littoral tropical holothurian taxonomy for almost 200 years. Despite substantial attention by both expeditions and resident taxonomists, new records are still regularly added to the fauna, demonstrating the challenge of documenting even such large and well-known animals in a small hyper-diverse area. Guam is the type locality of species described by Quoy & Gaimard (1833) and Brandt (1835). A survey of the sea cucumber fauna by Rowe & Doty (1977) led to one of the most used guides for the identification of tropical Pacific sea cucumbers because of the color illustrations of living animals it presented. Focus on echinoderms including holothurians continued with numerous new records added in the following decades. Paulay (2003a) summarized the fauna last, recording 46-47 species. At this stage the fauna was thought to be well documented. A week-long workshop on holothurian systematics sponsored by the National Science Foundation PEET (Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy) project in 2010 included a substantial field work component, sampling both during the day and night, with snorkeling and SCUBA, across a variety of habitats. This survey yielded 40 species, including numerous new records and even species. Further sampling by Kerr’s lab since the workshop has added additional records. The littoral holothuroid fauna of Guam now comprises 65 species in 17 genera and 7 families. Half of the 19 newly recorded species are the result of unravelling cryptic species in complexes, the other half are based on new collections. Eleven species are known from single specimens, suggesting that much still remains to be learned about the fauna.

Development of a holothurian, Cucumaria japonica, is examined. Holoblastic radial equal cleavage results in formation of a coeloblastula. Gastrulation begins on the second day. It is represented by an invagination and accompanied by immigration of the mesenchyme cells and marks the start of development of the vitellaria larva. The archenteron immediately divides into rudiments of the hydrocoel, the somatocoel and the rudiment of the gut. No unified enterocoel is formed. Ends of the hydrocoel fuse to form a ring canal on which five primary tentacles, radial canals, a polian vesicle, and a hydroporic canal are formed. The somatocoel divides into right and left somatocoels, which then fuse to form a united coelomic sac, encircling the gut. The ventral mesentery then disappears. Thus, by day 6 the pentactula is completely formed. At day 10 the tentacles move from the ring canal to the radial canals, and the somatocoel gives rise to two derivatives: the preoral and anal coelomes. By the end of the second week of development, three parts can be distinguished in the alimentary canal, and a longitudinal muscle band begins developing in the mid-ventral ambulacrum. At the stage of two months, a rudiment of the respiratory system appears.

The aim of this randomised, parallel, double-blind study, in which 28 adult patients diagnosed with chronic gingivitis or early stages of chronic periodontitis were recruited, was to evaluate the efficacy of 'Gamadent' toothpaste compared to a placebo toothpaste. 'Gamadent' toothpaste has all the basic constituents of a toothpaste with the addition of a sea cucumber extract (SCE) of the species Stichopus sp. 1 to improve the healing potential of tissues. The placebo has the same basic constituents minus the extract. Out of the 28 patients, 14 were placed in the test group who used the 'Gamadent' toothpaste, and 14 patients were placed in the control group (2 control subjects defaulted and were excluded), who brushed using the placebo toothpaste. The longitudinal study was carried out over a period of 3 months with assessments made at baseline, 1 month, 2 months and 3 months after conventional therapy at the baseline visit. The clinical parameters used during the trial were Plaque Index (PI), Gingival Index (GI), Papilla Bleeding Index (PBI) and Probing Pocket Depth (PPD). A predetermined number of sites on a molar, premolar, canine and an incisor were examined and evaluated in each quadrant. After the baseline assessment, the patients had full mouth scaling and debridement as well as oral hygiene instructions. Patients were instructed to brush their teeth twice a day with the toothbrush provided (Oral-B plus, size 35) and toothpaste (test or control), using the Bass technique. At the 1-month assessment, there were significant mean reductions to baseline mean values in PI (P < 0.005) and GI (P < 0.001) in the test group as compared to the control group. At the end of the 2-month interval, significant reductions were observed in PI, PBI and PPD (P < 0.001). By the end of 3 months, there were significant differences in the mean reduction of all the parameters i.e. PI, PBI, GI and PPD (P < 0.001), between the test and control sites. In conclusion, 'Gamadent' toothpaste provided noteworthy benefits, producing statistically significant improvement in all clinical parameters compared to the placebo during the healing phase after conventional initial therapy.

Marine microorganisms are important sources for novel natural products. Hence, the aim of this study was introducing the marine microorganisms with capability to produce antioxidant and cytotoxic metabolites. For this purpose, ten live sea cucumbers (Holothuria leucospilota) were collected from Larak Island. Then, their intestine contents were serially diluted and treated by heating (55 °c). 100 µl of treated samples were inoculated on Starch casein nitrate agar, which is supplemented with nalidixic acid and cycloheximide. The plates were incubated at 28 °C for 4 weeks and the colonies were purified. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using DPPH radical scavenging activity and the cytotoxic activity of the isolates was screened by Brine-Shrimp micro well Cytotoxicity method. In addition, cytotoxic effect of potent crude extract was evaluated against HCT 116 and SW 480 cell lines by MTT cell proliferation assay. A new strain of marine actinobacterium was isolated with maximum ant...

Sea cucumber body wall contains several naturally occurring bioactive components that possess health-promoting properties. Isostichopus badionotus from Yucatan, Mexico is heavily fished, but little is known about its bioactive constituents. We previously established that I. badionotus meal had potent anti-inflammatory properties in vivo. We have now screened some of its constituents for anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Glycosaminoglycan and soluble protein preparations reduced 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced inflammatory responses in HaCaT cells while an ethanol extract had a limited effect. The primary glycosaminoglycan (fucosylated chondroitin sulfate; FCS) was purified and tested for anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. FCS modulated the expression of critical genes, including NF-ĸB, TNFα, iNOS, and COX-2, and attenuated inflammation and tissue damage caused by TPA in a mouse ear inflammation model. It also mitigated colonic colitis caused in mice by dextran...

Sea cucumber body wall contains several naturally occurring bioactive components that possess health-promoting properties. Isostichopus badionotus from Yucatan, Mexico is heavily fished, but little is known about its bioactive constituents. We previously established that I. badionotus meal had potent anti-inflammatory properties in vivo. We have now screened some of its constituents for anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Glycosaminoglycan and soluble protein preparations reduced 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced inflammatory responses in HaCaT cells while an ethanol extract had a limited effect. The primary glycosaminoglycan (fucosylated chondroitin sulfate; FCS) was purified and tested for anti-inflammatory activity in vivo. FCS modulated the expression of critical genes, including NF-ĸB, TNFα, iNOS, and COX-2, and attenuated inflammation and tissue damage caused by TPA in a mouse ear inflammation model. It also mitigated colonic colitis caused in mice by dextran...

Bromelain-generated biopeptides from stone fsh protein exhibit strong inhibitory efect against ACE
and can potentially serve as designer food (DF) with blood pressure lowering efect. Contextually, the
DF refer to the biopeptides specifcally produced to act as ACE-inhibitors other than their primary role in
nutrition and can be used in the management of hypertension. However, the biopeptides are unstable
under gastrointestinal tract (GIT) digestion and need to be stabilized for efective oral administration.
In the present study, the stone fsh biopeptides (SBs) were stabilized by their encapsulation in sodium
tripolyphosphate (TPP) cross-linked chitosan nanoparticles produced by ionotropic gelation method.
The nanoparticles formulation was then optimized via Box-Behnken experimental design to achieve
smaller particle size (162.70nm) and high encapsulation efciency (75.36%) under the optimum
condition of SBs:Chitosan mass ratio (0.35), homogenization speed (8000rpm) and homogenization
time (30min). The SBs-loaded nanoparticles were characterized for morphology by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM), physicochemical stability and efcacy. The nanoparticles were then
lyophilized and analyzed using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray difraction
(XRD). The results obtained indicated a sustained in vitro release and enhanced physicochemical
stability of the SBs-loaded nanoparticles with smaller particle size and high encapsulation efciency
following long period of storage. Moreover, the efcacy study revealed improved inhibitory efect of the
encapsulated SBs against ACE following simulated GIT digestion.

The Micronesian island of Guam has been an important site for the study of littoral tropical holothurian taxonomy for almost 200 years. Despite substantial attention by both expeditions and resident taxonomists, new records are still regularly added to the fauna, demonstrating the challenge of documenting even such large and well-known animals in a small hyper-diverse area. Guam is the type locality of species described by Quoy & Gaimard (1833) and Brandt (1835). A survey of the sea cucumber fauna by Rowe & Doty (1977) led to one of the most used guides for the identification of tropical Pacific sea cucumbers because of the color illustrations of living animals it presented. Focus on echinoderms including holothurians continued with numerous new records added in the following decades. Paulay (2003a) summarized the fauna last, recording 46-47 species. At this stage the fauna was thought to be well documented. A week-long workshop on holothurian systematics sponsored by the National S...

Marine microorganisms are important sources for novel natural products. Hence, the aim of this study was introducing the marine microorganisms with capability to produce antioxidant and cytotoxic metabolites. For this purpose, ten live sea cucumbers (Holothuria leucospilota) were collected from Larak Island. Then, their intestine contents were serially diluted and treated by heating (55 °c). 100 µl of treated samples were inoculated on Starch casein nitrate agar, which is supplemented with nalidixic acid and cycloheximide. The plates were incubated at 28 °C for 4 weeks and the colonies were purified. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using DPPH radical scavenging activity and the cytotoxic activity of the isolates was screened by Brine-Shrimp micro well Cytotoxicity method. In addition, cytotoxic effect of potent crude extract was evaluated against HCT 116 and SW 480 cell lines by MTT cell proliferation assay. A new strain of marine actinobacterium was isolated with maximum ant...

The Micronesian island of Guam has been an important site for the study of littoral tropical holothurian taxonomy for almost 200 years. Despite substantial attention by both expeditions and resident taxonomists, new records are still regularly added to the fauna, demonstrating the challenge of documenting even such large and well-known animals in a small hyper-diverse area. Guam is the type locality of species described by Quoy & Gaimard (1833) and Brandt (1835). A survey of the sea cucumber fauna by Rowe & Doty (1977) led to one of the most used guides for the identification of tropical Pacific sea cucumbers because of the color illustrations of living animals it presented. Focus on echinoderms including holothurians continued with numerous new records added in the following decades. Paulay (2003a) summarized the fauna last, recording 46-47 species. At this stage the fauna was thought to be well documented. A week-long workshop on holothurian systematics sponsored by the National S...

Research on the involvement of retroelements in developmental processes has been gaining momentum recently; however, most of the studies published so far have been focused on embryonic development. This commentary presents two recent papers, which document significant changes in transcriptional activity of retroelements in two different model systems, salamander limb regeneration and regeneration of radial organs in the sea cucumber Holothuria glaberrima. We hypothesize that transcriptional activity of the retrotransposons can be specifically controlled by the host and may play some hitherto unrecognized role in regeneration.

Sandfish culture had been implemented for more than 20 years but has frequently failed to yield the expected results due to low survival rates. A decrease in salinity during the rainy season was suspected as a cause of sandfish mortality. This study aimed to assess the influence of salinity on sandfish survival rates. Treatments included sudden shock and gradual acclimation trial methods. Even though the results of this study indicate a mean survival rate of 50% at 14.6 ppt, the survival rate fell drastically as water salinity was reduced below the salinity of saltwater bony fish body fluids (around 18 ppt). Sandfish cannot live in water with salinity lower than the osmotic body fluid of freshwater bony fish (around 14 ppt). Therefore, for the cultivation of sandfish in coastal ponds, salinity should not be allowed to fall below a minimum of 18 ppt.