Roman Judea

« Rendez à César ce qui est à César et à Dieu ce qui est à Dieu » : cette phrase bien connue des Évangiles s’éclaire d’un jour nouveau à mesure que se poursuivent les enquêtes historiques portant sur la fiscalité en Judée du tournant de notre ère.
Cette première synthèse complète sur la fiscalité de Judée invite à se demander si cette matière froide et technique ne serait pas, au contraire, une matière brûlante, « éveilleur de révoltes », à la fois un reflet et un condensé des complexités économiques, politiques, sociales voire théologiques ?
Quels sont les impôts prélevés ? Quels sont les moyens de paiement ? Est-il vrai que le temple de Jérusalem n’acceptait que les shekels de Tyr ? Pourquoi l’impôt romain dérangeait-il les contemporains de Jésus ? Quelle est la place des relations financières dans l’histoire politique de la Judée ? Ces questions, parmi tant d’autres, reçoivent ici une réponse à la fois à jour des découvertes les plus récentes et accessible au public spécialiste autant que curieux.

In the wake of the Gospels' accounts, modern scholars do not pay much attention to the role Romans played in Jesus of Nazareth's arrest, and are prone to give credit to manifestly biased sources. Besides, some misconceptions (e.g. that the military in pre-War Judaea was exclusively confined to its largest cities) prevent them from seriously weighing up the possibility that the role of the Romans in Jesus' fate was more decisive than usually recognized. In this article, we reconsider a number of issues in order to shed light on this murky topic. First, the nature and functions of the Roman military in Judaea are surveyed (for instance, Palestine before the Jewish War had a robust network of fortlets and fortresses, which Benjamin Isaac has argued largely served to facilitate communication into the hinterlands). Second, we track some traces of anti-Roman resistance in the prefects' period (6-41 CE), Third, the widely overlooked issue of the intelligence sources available to Roman governors is tackled. Fourth, the extent of the problems of the Passion accounts is seriously taken into account. The insights obtained are then applied to the Gospels' story, thereby rendering it likely that Pilate had some degree of "intelligence" regarding Jesus and his followers before their encounter in Jerusalem that led to the collective execution at Golgotha.

Jesus is one of the central figures of history, but we actually know very little about his life with any certainty. This article, which is extracted from my book in progress (Inventing God: How Religion Shaped Our Western World), lists the outer limits of what is likely known about the historical Jesus.

Theories abound about the Dead Sea Scrolls, nearly all of which have been published and studied for decades by expert historians and scholars. Included among these theories is the claim that the home of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the ancient Judean desert town Qumran, might have also once been the hometown of Jesus or his brother James for a time. Others also have been put forward. In this article, historian Daryn Graham analyses all the known links between Jesus, Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls by examining the Gospels, the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves, and other ancient features of evidence, drawing upon the research and findings of the most respected and best DSS historians and scholars to date.

The study of ancient Judaism has enjoyed a steep rise in interest and publications in recent decades. However, much of this study has focused on the ideas and beliefs represented in ancient texts, with only limited study regarding the daily lives and material culture of Jewish individuals and their communities. The nascent institution of the synagogue formed an increasingly important venue for communal gathering and daily or weekly practice. This collection of essays is intended to bring together a broad spectrum of new archaeological and textual data with various emergent theories and interpretive methods in order to address the need to understand the place of the synagogue in the daily and weekly procedures, community frameworks, and theological structures in which Judaeans, Galileans, and Jewish people in the Diaspora lived and gathered. The interdisciplinary studies will be of great significance for anyone studying ancient Jewish belief, practice, and community formation.

The paper aims to study Hadrian’s reputation as a ruler on the move in Latin, Greek, Syriac, and Byzantine histories and chronicles from the third to the twelfth century. The paper also assesses how early Roman, late antique and medieval historians’ opinions on mobile and sedentary modes of governing influenced Hadrian’s portrait. In addition, it will study how his attitudes towards Jews and Christians were depicted in conjunction with his journeys.

The present study explores the origins of Jewish ritual immersion – inquiring when immersion first appeared as a rite of purification and what the reasons may have been for this development specifically at this time. Textual and archaeological evidence suggest that immersion emerged at some point during – or perhaps slightly prior to – the first half of the first century B.C.E. It is suggested here that the practice grew out of contemporary bathing practices involving the Hellenistic hip bath. Through a process of ritualization, full-body immersion emerged as a method of purificatory washing clearly differentiated from profane bathing. By way of a subsequent process of 'hyper-ritualization', some ventured further to distinguish purificatory ablutions from profane bathing by restricting use of 'drawn water' for purification and by assigning impurity to anyone who bathed in such water. Before us is an enlightening example of one of the many ways wherein Jewish religious practices evolved and adapted in response to Hellenistic cultural innovations.

The events of the Bible are steeped in history, so discoveries about political figures from the time of the Bible raise a certain amount of curiosity and excitement. This was the case in January 2016, when a new seven-line Greek dedicatory inscription was discovered off the coast of Dor  by Haifa University underwater archaeologists, under the direction of Professor Assaf Yasur-Landau, that mentioned the name of a previously unproven governor of Judea (Gargilius Antiquus). This article will examine, not only the new inscription but also survey the history of Governors in Judea. David E. Graves, “Fresh Light on the Governors of Judea,” Bible and Spade 30, no. 3 (2017): 58–68.

Herod’s Temple is exceptional among the great monumental buildings of classical antiquity in being well-documented by eyewitness accounts. It stood at the forefront of the Augustan programme of cultural renewal. At the same time, its vast scale and magnificence reflected Herod’s resolute ambition to achieve immortal fame, manifested in his grandiose building programme as a whote.

The Papers in this volume, edited by David Jacobson and Nikos Kokkinos, are based on presentations at an international two-day conference held at Spink & Son in London on 13-14 September, 2010. The period covered spans the Roman conquest of Judaea by Pompey through to the last major Jewish uprising against Rome under Shimon Bar-Kokhba, encompassing the age of the Herods and the birth of Christianity. These contributions focus on the relations between Rome and Judaea as reflected in the numismatic record, during this momentous period of history. The past few decades have seen considerable advances in numismatic scholarship dealing with this period, partly stimulated by archaeological exploration and numerous coin finds, which have shed light on these historical events and associated political, social and economic issues.
My article, entitled "The Significance of the Caduceus between Facing
Cornucopias in Herodian and Roman Coinage" is reproduced in full below.

Info about the alpha-numeric qualities of ancient languages and their usage within the New Testament by the original authors. Also, info regarding the number system involved in '666' and the "checking number" that proves the true meaning of 666 in The Revelation. Extremely important information.

No history of a population is, probably, as ‘mysterious’ as the Roma
(“Gypsy”) people. However, the contemporary mitochondria, DNA,
phylogenetic and population history research confirms the Classical Greek
writers such as Herodotus’ position that Europe is but peopled by people
from East Africa known as Ancient Cushites or Ethiopians or Egyptians.
The Roma are consistently clear—they count themselves to Ancient
Nubian-Africans. This paper hypothesized the Roma People cannot be
different from the Ancient African Cushites, who ruled, lived and civilized
the three oldest continents. Classical as well as contemporary Roma and
Oromo-Cush, as well as Ancient Egypto-Meroitic, linguistic and cultural
lexicons were collected and analyzed in the wider comparative culturalhistorical-
evolutionary perspectives. The findings indicate that there is
significant lexical, grammatical and cultural-historical similarity which
supports the Ancient Cushite origin of the Roma language and people. Key
implications have emerged. The Roma people cannot be different from the
whole Euroasians who populated Europe and Asia moving out of Africa in
the three Millennia preceding the Christian era as well as the first Millennia
of this era. The Roma people populated Euroasia in the same way and
time the rest peopled the two continents moving out of (East-North)
Africa. Europe is as much homeland to them as it is to the rest of their
friends. The whole Indo-European languages must have been the
offshoots of these pioneers of human civilizations. The continuing racism
against the Roma People is but an irrational and crazy existent in the
heart of the ‘Modern’ and ‘Civilized’ Europe.

Early Church Historians spare no efforts in blaming Emperor
Nero for the Great fire of Rome.Nero,on the contrary blamed the Christians for the fire and persecuted them.Who is the real
culprit? Christians or Nero?A journey into the history of first century A.D.Rome, Judea and Greece opens up many channels of information,hitherto untold by historians.
We can now locate Christ,Peter,Paul,Judas,John and several Biblical and historical personalities with new identities.A study of the Book of Revelations reveals stunning facts regarding the great fire of Rome,the evolution of Christianity from the vedic culture of the Indus valley civilisation etc.

A fonte mais conhecida e estudada sobre a Primeira Guerra entre judeus e romanos, certamente é Bellum Iudaicum de Flávio Josefo. Esta se trata da obra mais consultada quando queremos estudar as relações estabelecidas entre os judeus e os romanos no século I E.C., principalmente, quando objetivamos lidar com Identidades e Alteridades no Mundo Antigo. No entanto, outro autor dedicou um espaço em uma de suas coletâneas de livros. Falamos de Tácito. Este autor viveu entre 55-120 E.C., mas só passou a produzir obras a partir de 98 E.C., com sua Germânia e Vida de Agrícola. Mas foi em sua obra Histórias (105 E.C.), no seu quinto livro, que encontramos a narrativa desse conflito, cujas devidas atenções daremos nesta produção monográfica. Para o esclarecimento dessas relações judaico-romanas, segundo a ótica de um autor necessariamente romano, optamos por discutir temos como Imperialismo, Romanização e Identidade na Roma Antiga. Além destes, buscamos situar os romanos (os gregos) e os judeus no contexto que precedeu essa primeira guerra em 70 E.C., isto é, como se deram as negociações entre esses grupos humanos nesse período. As culturas judaica, romana e a de alguns outros povos, terão espaço célebre neste trabalho. Isto seria importante para buscarmos entender os alicerces por trás da eventualidade do conflito. Apresentaremos e analisaremos a fonte (o Livro V), em seus treze primeiros capítulos, incluindo uma tradução em língua portuguesa, objetivando o acesso dos falantes desta, à leitura na íntegra dessa fonte latina.

In this essay I reconstruct the events surrounding the construction of the third temple that Herod the Great built in honor of the emperor Augustus using all existing historical and archaeological documentation. While the historical texts are long known, to my knowledge nobody has yet woven them together. The archaeological evidence has been uncovered over many years by various teams of researchers though the uneven pace of research has led to contested identifications and historical reconstructions. I weave together all of this information, embed it within the known historical circumstances of the time, and provide a robust context in which to understand this episode in Herod's life, as well some of the aftereffects of his decision.

Resumen
La Revelación de Gabriel es una inscripción
pétrea encontrada en el lado
jordano del Mar Muerto de carácter mesiánico.
Se basa en la exégesis de Daniel,
al igual que otros textos de Qumrán que
proclaman la divinidad del Mesías. Juntos,
estos textos del Mar Muerto desvelan
que la creencia en un Mesías divino
que muere y resucita al tercer día existió
antes de que naciera Jesús de Nazaret.

The aim of this paper was to comparatively analyze some
(Proto)Indo-European and Oromo-Cush phonological, lexical and
grammatical items and roots. It was triggered by competing
debates and models on (Proto-)Indo-European ((P-)IE) origin, one
of which is the Ancient Model pointing to Africa. (P-)IE and closest
relatives, Eurasiatic and Anatolian, data was collected from the
literature. Pertinent Oromo corpora and native speaker data were
collected. They were subjected to the Comparative Model analysis.
Quite intriguing results showing significant level of resemblance,
both in form and meaning, and implications emerged.

The first installation to be identified as an ancient Jewish ritual bath (miqweh) was discovered by Yigael Yadin at Masada in 1963–4, and consisted of a stepped pool connected to an adjacent pool via a hole in the wall shared by the two installations. Yadin identified one installation as the immersion pool of the miqweh, and the second as an ’ôṣār (lit., ‘reservoir’), used to ritually purify the water in the immersion pool. Yadin’s explanation regarding the functioning of this double-pool ritual bath has gone unchallenged since it was first suggested almost half a century ago, and set the stage for future identifications of ’ôṣār installations found adjacent to other Second Temple period ritual baths. The present paper argues that the ’ôṣār is an innovation of the modern period, and that the commonly accepted view that an ’ôṣār was employed in ritual baths dating to as early as the Second Temple period is no more than an unqualified anachronism.

In excavations conducted between 1997 and
1999 south of the Temple Mount, remains
dating from the Iron Age IIC until the destruction
of the Second Temple were uncovered. The
excavations were carried out in two areas: one
adjacent to the Triple Gate (sometimes called
the eastern Hulda Gate); the other next to the
southeastern corner of the Temple Mount.1*

This paper explores several examples of Judean coinage from the late Second Temple Period (up until the Jewish Revolt in 66 CE) and what that coinage might tell us about how Roman rule effected the identity Jewish people and how they responded to foreign rule and influence.

The authors present two unpublished bronze coins of Iamneia (Yavneh), a mint unknown so far from the Early Roman period. In addition, the authors suggest attributing another type to this mint, one previously assigned to Gaza. The historical and numismatic context of the coins
and their implications for our understanding of Iamneia are discussed.

Architectural affinities between Machaerus and the Jerusalem Temple of Herod the Great have been identified in two features:
1. Stairways of the large miqveh at Machaerus and between the Court of the Priests and the Temple Sanctuary in Jerusalem.
2. Doric porticoes in both complexes.

A lo largo de su historia el Imperio romano tuvo que hacer frente a numerosas revueltas, debido al enorme territorio que controlaba. De entre los pueblos que las protagonizaron, los hebreos se contaban entre los que con mayor insistencia lucharon por recuperar su independencia. En cuanto a los diversos conflictos que enfrentaron a judíos y romanos, la que, a la postre, seria recordada como la Primera Guerra Judeo-romana (66-73 d.C.) pasó a la historia como el más importante de todos. Ello se debe tanto a que requirió de la participación de dos futuros emperadores al mando de las tropas romanas que debían restablecer la paz en la provincia de Judea, Vespasiano y su hijo Tito, como al hecho de que la ciudad de Jerusalén y el Gran Templo que albergaba acabaron completamente destruidos.

En el año 66 d.C. numerosos factores se unieron al odio que sectores radicales hebreos sentían hacia sus conquistadores romanos, provocando la caída del procurador de Judea, Gesio Floro, y la derrota del Legado de Siria, Cestio Galo, en Beth Horón, quien acudió con sus tropas a pacificar la región sin conseguirlo. El movimiento fue cobrando fuerza tras estos éxitos, y Jerusalén se convirtió en el epicentro del independentismo judío. Roma no podía permanecer pasiva ante estos acontecimientos y Nerón envió allí a Vespasiano, un general experimentado, para acabar de una vez por todas con el problema. La resistencia implacable que demostraron los rebeldes y los problemas políticos que, durante ese tiempo, se produjeron en Roma, provocaron que la conquista final quedara en manos de su capaz hijo Tito quien, a la postre, consiguió conquistar Jerusalén y acabar con la revuelta. El gran triunfo que se celebró en Roma para conmemorar la victoria era lo que la nueva dinastía Flavia necesitaba para afianzar su poder. Sin embargo, la campaña no finalizó hasta el año 73 d.C., tras la toma de la fortaleza de Masada, donde los últimos insurrectos prefirieron suicidarse antes de ser derrotados. El enfrentamiento se saldaría con una enorme pérdida de vidas, tanto entre los soldados romanos como entre los insurrectos judíos y la población civil. Gracias a la obra de Flavio Josefo, podemos reconstruir lo sucedido para poder así conocer con detalle uno de los grandes episodios de la Historia Antigua.

The titles 'ethnarch' and 'tetrarch' are discussed in relation to their usage in the classical world and Judaea, in particular. Coin motifs used on the coins of the Judaean ethnarch, Herod Archelaus, and tetrarchs, Herod Antipas and Philip are then examined.

Foreign taxes were hated in Judaea, it seems, by a people proud to pay from its funds the cult of the temple of Jerusalem. Such an idea, widespread as it is in historiography, indeed finds its roots inside the ancient sources, but is it historical? Exploring various sources and recent discoveries (texts from the literary tradition, Dead Sea Scrolls, coins, inscriptions, archaeological remains) and borrowing from transdisciplinary methodology (sociology, social psychology, fiscal law), this book aims to study taxation in Hellenistic and Roman Judaea as a fundamental part of political history of the region. Since taxes are a marker of domination, a few Jewish groups wondered whether it was permitted to pay tribute to foreign master while they already paid a compulsory offering to God. However, such a discourse was multiform, it was not universally shared and changed according to groups and conjunctural evolutions, sometimes visible, sometime invisible following historical events. Moreover, far from being consubstantial to Ancient Judaism, this idea was the product of a political instrumentalization, a rhetorical tool used in order to motivate people to insurrection. Born at the time of Maccabees, it was inherited in more or less radical ways by diverse schools in the Roman era. Yet, on the other hand, it is nowhere to be seen beyond speeches, even those most hostile to tribute raised taxes after taking power, using the former tribute to their own advantage. By confronting this omnipresence of anti-tax protest in the speeches, with the data on the actual taxation during this period, this book sheds light on the distance between politics and everyday life and endeavours to bring into question some well-accepted elements. For instance, that the tribute was oppressive, that population was impoverished by the foreign exploitation of resources, or that the masters of the region only searched their interests and not the consent of the taxpayers.

https://ausoniuseditions.u-bordeaux-montaigne.fr/collections/catalogue?coll=Scripta%20antiqua

It is well known that the flans used for all Bar Kokhba coins (both silver and bronze) were not newly made flans but coins withdrawn from circulation and restruck. Based on previous studies of host types, coins of Ascalon and Gaza seem to have been the main sources of medium-sized and small Bar Kokhba bronzes. The following paper deals with this subject with focus on the evidence related to the city of Gaza.