Protozoa

A variety of chemicals including foaming agents are used to aid in the protection of forest resources from the wild land fires. The fire-fighting foams (FFFs) are formulations composed principally of surfactants. As a part of Japanese national project, environmentally inert FFFs have been developed. There is an emerging need for testing the impacts of these FFFs on the living organisms composing the typical landscapes or ecosystems in Japan. In the present report, we aimed to describe our latest attempt for assessing both the short-tem and long-term impacts of FFFs in aquatic (fresh water) and semi-aquatic (wetland) ecosystems , by employing the laboratory-sized model assays (preliminary studies) and the biotope-based observation, respectively. In the biotope assays which was based on the observation in compact biotopes mimicking the fresh water environments and wetland, both the acute and long-term eco-toxic impacts of two FFFs (soap-based and synthetic detergent-based) were assessed. Spraying of synthetic detergent-based foam formula was shown to be more toxic compared to soap-based formula and mock water treatment.

We designed a new toxic bioassay using the green paramecia Paramecium bursaria as testing organisms. P. bursaria is a unicellular organism that occurs widely in rivers and ponds. Since P. bursaria uses metabolites of endosymbiotic green algae in the cytoplasm as a nutritive source, culturing P. bursaria is much easier than culturing mammalian cells. The use of P. bursaria will thus make quicker and more convenient evaluation of toxicity of various polluting chemicals. Here, we selected thirty-two pollutants such as pesticides, toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Those substances were added at various concentrations to the culture medium of paramecia. Then the IC 50 values, defined as the concentrations of chemicals inhibiting the growth of organisms by 50%, obtained for both paramecia and mammalian cell cultures were compared. We found that parame-cia were much highly sensitive to some chemicals such as methylmercury chloride and mercuric chloride, compared to cultured mammalian cells. We conclude that P. bursaria is one of the best organism for assessing the effect of chemical pollutants in the aqueous environment.

Background and Aim: Dog blood parasites are important tick-borne diseases causing morbidity and mortality in dogs worldwide. Four dog blood parasites species are commonly found in Thailand: Babesia canis, Hepatozoon canis, Ehrlichia canis, and Anaplasma platys. They are transmitted easily by tick species. However, there is little prevalence data available in Thailand. Diseases presentation of blood parasites infection is similar, but the treatment of each species is different. Current diagnosis mainly relies on microscopic examination of a stained blood smear, which has low sensitivity. Therefore, accurate diagnosis is important. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of the conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method and routine blood smears in the detection of four blood parasites species in dogs from Buriram Province, Thailand.

Materials and Methods: In total, 49 EDTA-blood samples were collected from dogs in Buriram Province, Thailand. Blood parasite infection was compared using the Giemsa-stained blood smear technique to identify the parasite under a 100× oil immersion with PCR amplification of the 18S rDNA gene of B. canis and H. canis and the 16S rDNA gene of E. canis and A. platys.

Results: Only one dog out of 49 was positive for H. canis based on microscopic examination whereas the PCR results showed that 2.04% (1/49), 4.08% (2/49), 36.73% (18/49), and 30.61% (15/49) of dogs were positive for B. canis, H. canis, E. canis, and A. platys, respectively. Moreover, coinfection was found in 16.33% (8/49) of dogs.

Conclusion: This study is the first report to demonstrate the molecular prevalence of blood parasites in domestic dogs in Buriram Province. The results indicated that the PCR method exhibited much higher sensitivity and reliability for blood parasites diagnosis in dogs. Therefore, our data support serious concern regarding the diagnostic technique used in routine blood testing and also provide prevalence data for the management and control of blood parasites in this area.

Le Sénégal a mis en place des programmes pour lutter contre les parasitoses intestinales. Un suivi est nécessaire pour apprécier son efficacité et apporter des améliorations si possible. Nous apportons notre contribution avec ce travail réalisé au CHNU de Fann sur la prévalence hospitalière des parasitoses diagnostiquées.
Ainsi donc, de janvier 2012 à novembre 2014, les protozoaires identifiés chez les 2725 patients sont Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba coli, Endolimax nana, Chilomastix mesnili, Trichomonas intestinalis et Blastocystis hominis. La prévalence des parasitoses intestinales s’élève à 26,97% et celle des protozooses en particulier à 25,47%. Les helminthes sont de moins en moins représentés avec  2,02%.

INTRODUCCION El agua, al mismo tiempo que constituye el líquido más abundante en la Tierra, representa el recurso natural más importante y la base de toda forma de vida. En nuestro planeta, las aguas ocupan una alta proporción en relación con las tierras emergidas, y se presentan en diferentes formas: Mares y océanos, que contienen una alta concentración de sales y que llegan a cubrir un 71% de la superficie terrestre; Aguas superficiales, que comprenden ríos, lagunas y lagos; y aguas del subsuelo también llamadas aguas subterráneas, por fluir por debajo de la superficie terrestre. Los lagos por ejemplo, son representativos de las aguas superficiales ya que son depresiones de la tierra firme ocupadas por agua. Los lagos mexicanos, tienen una importancia ecológica e histórica ya que, algunas antiguas culturas mexicanas florecieron en los márgenes de algunos lagos como Cuicuilco, Teotihuacán y Tenochtitlán, que con el tiempo se convertiría en la ciudad más grande del mundo. En cuanto a la importancia ecológica, México cuenta con una gran diversidad de lagos, ya que, gracias a sus propiedades geográficas, la formación de lagos es muy variada presentando lagos de tipo volcánico como el Nevado de Toluca, Zempoala Cuitzeo, Pátzcuaro y los de la cuenca de México, lagos kársticos como los cenotes de Yucatán y Montebello en Chiapas, lagos que se forman por derrumbes en las altas montañas que constituyen represas como el de Metztitlán en el estado de Hidalgo y artificiales como son las presas de Tequesquitengo y Valle de Bravo en el Estado de México. En el estado de México, también se encuentra el lago de Zumpango, el cual está ubicado en el municipio de Zumpango de Ocampo. Este lago está presente desde el año 200 a.C. hasta el 100 d.C., ya que en esos años se establecieron pequeños grupos de poblaciones. Actualmente, es un municipio más del estado de México con gran cantidad de actividad humana. Una de las alteraciones en los sistemas acuáticos lacustres se presenta por la actividad humana, ya que produce contaminación principalmente por el desemboque de aguas negras provenientes de canales de desagüe locales y foráneos, lo cual provoca un incremento en la diversidad microbiana impactando significativamente la diversidad de especies presentes en el ecosistema incluido el humano (Solarte, 2006).

Protista adalah makhluk hidup bersel satu atau bersel banyak dan telah memiliki membran inti (selnya bersifat eukariotik). Umumnya, protista bersifat aerobic dan menggunakan mitokondria untuk respirasi. Pada kenyataannya, ada protista yang dapat berlaku sebagai produsen. Protista tersebut dapat melakukan fotosintesis (dapat membuat makanan sendiri). Nutrisi yang diperoleh dari fotosintesis protista tersebut dapat bersifat fototropik, heterotropik, atau keduanya. Protista memiliki flagella atau cilia dalam hidupnya dan dapat berkembang secara aseksual atau seksual. Pada kondisi yang kurang menguntungkan, protista dapat membentuk kistae. Secara taksonomis, protista dibagi menjadi tiga kelompok, yaitu protista yang menyerupai jamur, protista yang menyerupai tumbuhan (ganggang atau Algae), dan protista yang menyerupai hewan (Protozoa).

RESUMEN En éste trabajo se realizó el reconocimiento a los integrantes del dominio eukarya (protozoos, algas, hongos). En el caso de hongos, protozoos y algas se hizo un reconocimiento detallado de esto donde se pudo evidenciar sus tipos y el porqué de sus características físicas y biológicas. Además, para el fungi se aplicó la técnica del repique para Trichoderma, y se aisló otros hongos a partir de una gran variedad de productos naturales como el banano, aguacate, arepa, pan, fresa, mora, semillas de cannabis, semillas de naranja, entre otros. A partir del aislamiento, se logró observar las estructuras principales que facilitan ver la taxonomía del microorganismo y ésto se pudo realizar a través del microscopio. ABSTRACT In this work the recognition to members of the eukarya domain (protozoa, algae, fungi) was performed. In the case of fungi, protozoa and algae made a detailed analysis of where this was evident why their types and their physical and biological characteristics recognition. In addition to the fungi technique peal for Trichoderma it was applied, and other fungi was isolated from a variety of natural products such as bananas, avocado, corn bread, bread, strawberry, blackberry, cannabis seeds, orange seeds, among others. From isolation, it was possible to observe the main structures that facilitate see the taxonomy of the organism and this could be done through the microscope.

ABSTRACT
In this work the recognition to members of the eukarya domain (protozoa, algae, fungi) was performed. In the case of fungi, protozoa and algae made a detailed analysis of where this was evident why their types and their physical and biological characteristics recognition. In addition to the fungi technique peal for Trichoderma it was applied, and other fungi was isolated from a variety of natural products such as bananas, avocado, corn bread, bread, strawberry, blackberry, cannabis seeds, orange seeds, among others. From isolation, it was possible to observe the main structures that facilitate see the taxonomy of the organism and this could be done through the microscope.

Protozoans are single celled eukaryotes found worldwide with rich biodiversity. The protozoan species live in different habitats as free living or parasite having different shapes and adapted for various physiological activities. These are microscopic unicellular eukaryotes that have a relatively complex internal structure and carry out complex metabolic activities within a cell by highly specialized subcellular organelles like pseudopodia, flagella and cilia. Initially protozoans were kept in phylum Protozoa under kingdom Animalia as per classification of Linnaeus but later placed under kingdom Protista from three to six kingdom systems. In present article, author attempted to discuss the position of protozoa from two to six kingdom system of biological classification and finally concluded that protozoans are now protists, and not the animals.

Protozoa merupakan jenis protista yang menyerupai hewan. Protozoa berasal dari bahasa Yunani, yaitu proto yang berarti pertama dan zoa yang berarti hewan. Sifat umum protozoa adalah uniselluler, heterotrofik, dan merupakan cikal bakal hewan yang lebih kompleks.

Lebih dari sejuta spesies hewan masih hidup saat ini, dan terdapat kemungkinan bahwa setidaknya sejuta organisme baru akan diidentifikasi oleh generasi ahli biologi masa depan. Hewan dikelompokkan sekitar 35 filum, namun jumlah sebenarnya bergantung pada perbedaan pandangan para ahli sistematika. Hewan menempati hampir semua lingkungan di bumi, tetapi anggota terbanyak sebagian besar filum adalah spesies akuatik. Lautan, yang kemungkinan merupakan rumah bagi sejumlah besar filum hewan. Fauna air tawar sangatlah banyak, tetapi tidak sekaya keanekaragaman fauna laut. Kebanyakan istilah dalam Zoologi itu berasal dari bahasa Latin atau Yunani. Contoh analisis asal kata adalah sebagai berikut proto (Yunani) artinya 'pertama' dikombinasikan dengan zoa (Yunani) artinya 'hewan' , jadi Protozoa adalah nama untuk hewan-hewan yang paling primitive. Anggota Protozoa terdiri atas makhluk hidup eukariotik sederhana yang memiliki ciri-ciri hewan. Misalnya, mampu bergerak berpindah tempat dan mencerna makanan. Dahulu, para ilmuwan menganggap Protozoa sebagai hewan yang pertama kali terbentuk di permukaan bumi. Namun, dalam perkembangannya ternyata anggapan tersebut sudah tidak tepat. Meskipun demikian, penggunaan istilah Protozoa masih dipertahankan untuk suatu pengetahuan. Protozoa merupakan hewan bersel tunggal, berinti sejati (eukariotik) da tidak memiliki dinding sel. Protozoa berasal dari kata protos yang berarti pertama dan zoo yang berarti hewan sehingga dapat diartikan sebagai hewan pertama. Ukurannya antara 3-100 mikron dan merupakan organisme mikroskopis bersifat heterotrof. Tempat hidupnya adalah tempat yang basah yang kaya zat organic, air tawar atau air laut sebagai zooplankton, beberapa jenis bersifat parasit dan menyebabkan penyakit pada manusia dan hewan ternak. Protozoa merupakan kelompok lain protista eukariotik. Kadang-kadang antara algae dan Protozoa kurang jelas perbedaannya. Kebanyakan Protozoa hanya dapat dilihat di bawah mikroskop. Protozoa hidup di air atau

Protease function is essential to many biological systems and processes. In parasites, proteases are essential for host tissue degradation, immune evasion, and nutrition acquisition. Helminths (worms) depend on several classes of proteases for development, host tissue invasion and migration, and for degradation of host hemoglobin and serum proteins. The protozoa, which cause malaria, depend on both cysteine and aspartic proteases to initiate host hemoglobin digestion. Other types of proteases are involved in erythrocyte cell invasion and cell exit. Surface metalloproteases in kinetoplastids are implicated in the evasion of complement-mediated cell lysis and cell entry. Cysteine proteases in Entamoeba facilitate invasion of the host colon. Giardia utilizes a cysteine protease for both encystation and excystation. This review will summarize published data using protease inhibitors as tools to identify the function of parasite proteases in the development, virulence, and pathogenesis of parasites; as well as the role of endogenous parasite protease inhibitors in regulation.

Global agriculture is currently challenged to provide increasing supplies of food for a growing population due to the changing trends of insect attacks and climatic conditions. There is overwhelming evidence that the use of chemical pesticides have created many other serious problems like ecological backlashes in pest species, environmental pollution and degradation, threat to biodiversity conservation, loss of beneficial fauna (predators, parasites, pollinators etc) and human beings in particular. Keeping in view, the new generation of pesticides have attracted attention in pest management in recent years, Biorational pesticides as “third-generation pesticides” are derived from some natural source and impose minimum or no adversarial threats on the environment or beneficial organisms. Some examples of biorational pesticides are the microbial pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Kurstaki), neonicotinoids, avermectins, phenlpyrazoles, spinosyns, pyrroles, oxadiazines and various groups of insect growth regulators. With a narrower target range of pests, they also tend to have a more specific mode of action. This new class of pesticides are often designed to control a pest population to a manageable level rather than completely eradicate a target pest. These products have great potential for replacing the persistent conventional insecticides, confirming effective cost-benefit ratio, tackling ecological backlashes and ensuring food security with safe environment. The field of biorational pesticides is deep; consequently they are a source of both optimism and concern. However, these bio-products are not only winning the reliability of the market and end user; but also demonstrating their worth and potential in sustainable integrated pest management (IPM) program.

Abstract
This study has been conducted for the period from the first of March 2014 until September 2014 and included the auditors to Diwaniya General Hospital and Women's Hospital and children in the province of Diwaniya and civil analytical laboratories in the province. A sample of 679 of auditors' stool have been examined by using the direct swab from different age groups and both sexes. The study shows that 61.26% of people have been infected by screened amoeba parasite. The infected rate of both sexes is 58.2% and 41.9%, respectively, but it does not show significant differences between them. The study also shows that the different age groups and different infected rates are the highest in the age group 1-15 years and the lowest rate in the age group 65 years and over(76.68% and 0.7%), respectively and the study does not show significant differences that are statistically significant in the infected rate of the population of the city and the countryside. The infection rate is 52.4% and 47.6%, respectively. The monthly distribution of infection shows that the highest percentage of infection is in August (31.49%) and the lowest is in March (7.93%). The impact of the quality of drinking water used on the emergence of the infection has been also noted which amounts (83.89%) in people who drink sterile or distilled water and (16.1%) in people who drink non-sterile or undistilled water. Also, it has been noted that the emergence of the highest infections in financially poor families in (787.78%) rate. Finally, it is observed that there are differences in the rate of infection among individuals who keep animals in their homes, but they are not significant statistically.
Keyward: E. histolytica , E. dispar , E. moshkoviskii

The efficacy of synthetic organic insecticides is compromised by
increased mosquito resistance to insecticides and use of inorganic insecticides
raises environmental toxicity concerns. Therefore, O. africana,
plant-based biodegradable insecticides would be used as alternatives
to synthetic mosquitocides for the control of mosquito. Malaria
remains to be one of the most important diseases in tropical countries
including Ethiopia. Attempts to wipe out the mosquito vector, which
have been pursued for many years, have so far, yielded no tangible results
in the country. Plant product has become an important component
in organized mosquito control, due to public and user concerns
about synthetic insecticides for their adverse effects to the environment
and insecticide resistance. Oreosyce africana was used for many
ailments, ranging from anti-malarial to anti-gonorrhea treatment and
anthelminthic. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of O. africana
crude extracts is known to possess bioactive characteristics. The O.
africana purified fractions had the most potent mosquitocidal active
components with potency of impregnated nets lasted for two months.
The structural elucidation of the active ingredients in first fraction
was determined using a combination of 1H- 13C-NMR, DEPT-135 and
GC-MS measurements. This revealed the presence of linoleic acid (9,
12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)- as the major chemical constituent
and similar analysis of second fraction showed the presence of dibutyl
phthalate as the major chemical constituent. Both compounds have
proven insecticidal effects. Use of these botanical derivatives in mosquito
control instead of synthetic insecticides could reduce the cost
of malaria control in addition to reducing environmental pollution.
Keywords
Cucurbitaceae; Mosquitocide; Oreosyce Africana; Phytoconstituents

Introduction: Intestinal parasites are among the most prevalent foodborne diseases worldwide, and raw vegetables and herbs are among the primary sources of human infection by these parasites. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of parasitic contamination of fresh herbs in Shushtar, Khuzestan Province, Southwest of Iran. Methods: In this study, 129 herb samples from various farms were collected and washed with water. The washing waters were centrifuged, and the resulting sediments were examined by formol-ether concentration and Sheather's sugar flotation procedure, as well as a wet smear and Ziehl-Neelsen staining. Results: Among the 129 samples, 73.6% (n=95) showed contamination with at least one parasite, including trophozoite like amoebae (52.6%), followed by Giardia lamblia (14.7%), Cryptosporidium spp. (2.1%), Blastocystis sp. (21%), free-living nematodes larvae (3.1%), Trichostrongilid nematodes (1.05%), Ascaris lumericoids eggs (2.1%), Hymenolepis spp. (2.1%) and Taeniid eggs (1.05%). Conclusion: A high prevalence rate of parasitic contaminations of herbs in Shushtar necessitates proper washing of herbs and vegetables by consumers to prevent parasitic infections.

Protozoa secara umum dapat dijelaskan bahwa protozoa adalah berasal dari bahasa Yunani, yaitu “protos” artinya pertama dan “zoon” artinya hewan. Jadi, protozoa adalah hewan pertama.
Vakuola kontraktil pada anatomi protozoa dapat berperan sebagai pompa untuk mengeluarkan kelebihan air dari sel, atau untuk mengatur tekanan osmosis.
Beberapa jenis  protozoa seperti Foraminifera mempunyai kerangka luar sangat keras yang tersusun dari Si dan Ca. Beberapa protozoa seperti Difflugia, dapat mengikat partikel mineral untuk membentuk kerangka luar yang keras. Radiolarian dan Heliozoan dapat menghasilkan skeleton.

Nebela collaris s.l. is the best studied species complex within the family Hyalospheniidae. This complex includes 11 taxa established on the basis of small differences in shell shape and size. The type species for this complex (N. collaris s.s.) was defined based on only four specimens. Here we present morphological and morphometric data from moss-dwelling population of N. collaris s.s. from Krečko Brdo Hill (East Herzegovina), based on 765 specimens. Shell length ranged from 87 to 115 μm (previously reported 95-115 μm), shell width from 53 to 73 μm (previously reported 74-81 μm) and aperture width from 21 to 31 μm (previously reported 28-32 μm). In the literature, reported shell length/shell width ratios range from 1.38 to 1.47, however subsequent morphometric analysis yielded values from 1.33 to 1.91. These data show that N. collaris s.s. can be considered to be a very variable pseudocryptic species among testate amoebae. Coefficients of variation were low for all measured characters in the studied population. Minimal variability (4.28%) was observed for shell length, while maximal variability (6.45%) was recorded for aperture width/shell length ratio. Analysis of the size frequency distribution suggests that the studied population of N. collaris s.s. is size-monomorphic.

Paramecium bursaria is an unicellular organism that lives widely in fresh water environments such as rivers and ponds. Recent studies have suggested that in vivo cellular robotics using the cells of P. bursaria as micro-machines controllable under electrical and optical stimuli, has a variety of engineering applications such as transport of micro-sized particles in the capillary systems. The present study aimed to test if the swimming cells of P. bursaria, implementable in capillaries or on chips, are applicable for detection of metal ions. For model assays, rare earth elements (REEs) were chosen as target chemicals. In P. bursaria, LC 50 values for REE ions ranged between 2.0 and 62.7 µM. Among them, Sc was shown to be most toxic. In addition to the lethal impacts of REE ions, most of REE ions at sub-lethal concentrations at around 10-30 µM, showed inhibitory action against the motility of the cells during the electrically forced motility known as galvanotaxisis. In conclusion, in the non-lethal ranges of REE concentration, swimming cells of P. bursaria report the presence of REE ions, by lowering the motility.

While both human and animal trypanosomiasis continue to present as major human and animal public health constraints globally, detailed analyses of trypanosome wildlife reservoir hosts remain sparse. African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) affects both livestock and wildlife carrying a significant risk of spillover and cross-transmission of species and strains between populations. Increased human activity together with pressure on land resources is increasing wildlife–livestock–human infections. Increasing proximity between human settlements and grazing lands to wildlife reserves and game parks only serves to exacerbate zoonotic risk. Communities living and maintaining livestock on the fringes of wildlife-rich ecosystems require to have in place methods of vector control for prevention of AAT transmission and for the treatment of their livestock. Major Trypanosoma spp. include Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, and Trypanosoma cruzi, pathogenic for humans, and Trypanosoma vivax, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma evansi, Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma dionisii, Trypanosoma thomasbancrofti, Trypanosma elephantis, Trypanosoma vegrandis, Trypanosoma copemani, Trypanosoma irwini, Trypanosoma copemani, Trypanosoma gilletti, Trypanosoma theileri, Trypanosoma godfreyi, Trypansoma simiae, and Trypanosoma (Megatrypanum) pestanai. Wildlife hosts for the trypansomatidae include subfamilies of Bovinae, Suidae, Pantherinae, Equidae, Alcephinae, Cercopithecinae, Crocodilinae, Pteropodidae, Peramelidae, Sigmodontidae, and Meliphagidae. Wildlife species are generally considered tolerant to trypanosome infection following centuries of coexistence of vectors and wildlife hosts. Tolerance is influenced by age, sex, species, and physiological condition and parasite challenge. Cyclic transmission through Glossina species occurs for T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. brucei, and T. b. rhodesiense, T. b. gambiense, and within Reduviid bugs for T. cruzi. T. evansi is mechanically transmitted, and T. vixax is also commonly transmitted by biting flies including tsetse. Wildlife animal species serve as long-term reservoirs of infection, but the delicate acquired balance between trypanotolerance and trypanosome challenge can be disrupted by an increase in challenge and/or the introduction of new more virulent species into the ecosystem. There is a need to protect wildlife, animal, and human populations from the infectious consequences of encroachment to preserve and protect these populations. In this review, we explore the ecology and epidemiology of Trypanosoma spp. in wildlife.

A study of microfauna, associated with pathological changes in the gills of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., was conducted over 2001–2002. Monthly samples of 1+ salmon smolts were taken, protozoan populations were quantified and gill health was assessed histologically. Protozoan densities were correlated with pathological changes, in order to determine their possible role in lesions in the gills. The most severe gill tissue changes were observed in summer/autumn and the least in spring. A diverse polyphyletic protozoan community was observed colonizing the gills, including Neoparamoeba sp., other amoebae, scuticociliates, Ichthyobodo-like flagellates, trichodinid ciliates and prostomatean ciliates. The earlier gill tissue changes in the gill were not always associated with the presence of these microorganisms, whereas amoebae (other than Neoparamoeba sp.), Ichthyobodo-like flagellates and trichodinid ciliates correlated with augmenting gill lesions. Neoparamoeba sp. was present, but its abundance did not correlate with the disease. This study suggests that a diversity of protozoans including Ichthyobodo-like flagellates, trichodinid ciliates and amoebae other than Neoparamoeba sp. are involved in the aetiology of amoebic gill disease in the Irish situation.

This paper presents a checklist of freshwater free-living species of unicellular heterotrophic protists in the territory of Serbia. The list was made based on published papers and field research of the authors. A total of 161 taxa were recorded: 160 taxa of three supergroups, Amebozoa, SAR and Excavata, and one taxon from Incertae sedis Eukaryota. Most of the taxa are generally widespread. Several new species of Difflugiidae, unknown to science, were discovered from Vlasina peat bog and the Danube River.

PROTOZOA Protozoa merupakan kelompok lain protista eukariotik. Kadang-kadang antara algae dan protozoa kurang jelas perbedaannya. Kebanyakan Protozoa hanya dapat dilihat di bawah mikroskop. Beberapa organisme mempunyai sifat antara algae dan protozoa. Sebagai contoh algae hijau Euglenophyta, selnya berflagela dan merupakan sel tunggal yang berklorofil, tetapi dapat mengalami kehilangan klorofil dan kemampuan untuk berfotosintesa. Semua spesies Euglenophyta yang mampu hidup pada nutrien komplek tanpa adanya cahaya, beberapa ilmuwan memasukkannya ke dalam filum protozoa. Contohnya strain mutan algae genus Chlamydomonas yang tidak berklorofil, dapat dimasukkan ke dalam kelas Protozoa genus Polytoma. Hal ini merupakan contoh bagaimana sulitnya membedakan dengan tegas antara algae dan protozoa. Protozoa dibedakan dari prokariot karena ukurannya yang lebih besar, dan selnya eukariotik. Protozoa dibedakan dari algae karena tidak berklorofil, dibedakan dari jamur karena dapat bergerak aktif dan tidak berdinding sel, serta dibedakan dari jamur lendir karena tidak dapat membentuk badan buah.