Phytoliths

The article presents the results of soil and archaeological study of the pedo-sedimentation sequence formed in the floodplain of the Derkul River (West Kazakhstan). The aim of the study was to reconstruct the stages of the alluvial sedimentogenesis alternating with relatively prolonged spans of soil formation, corresponding to the periods of floodplain agricultural development. It was established that floodplain sediment layer started to form as a result of stream sedimentation in the early Holocene; then this stage was followed by the relatively long-term soil formation period (5.6–3.8 cal. yr BC) resulting in a humus quasi-gleyic soil in the low floodplain (120–200 cm). The last period of soil formation (4.6–3.6 cal. yr BC) the floodplain was developed by man, which is displayed by the identified cultural horizon containing artifacts and having increased phosphorus content. At the end of the Subboreal period the next stage of alluvial sedimentation, started by the changed river hydrology regime, was found to be chronologically separated from the stage of stationary development of the floodplain by settled humans.

This chapter examines two distinct but related issues. First,
is the historical and archaeological question of the movement
of the practice of maize agriculture, and maize itself,
into the American Southeast during prehistoric times.
Second, is the application of the “assemblage approach” of
phytolith analysis as a methodology of identifying maize
varieties remnant in archaeological deposits. These two
issues are linked on one hand by an understanding of the
relationship between maize genetics and phytolith morphology,
and on the other hand by the link between the identification
of maize varieties and the historical biogeography of
this important food crop. It is my contention that the present
inadequacies regarding the identification and classification
of maize require a new approach to examine the introduction
and diffusion of this crucial crop.

Investigating plants used for building and craft activities is important for understanding how environments surrounding archaeological settlements were exploited, as well as for considering the social practices involved in the creation and use of plant objects. Evidence for such plant uses has been observed at many Near Eastern Neolithic sites but not widely discussed. Survival may occur in a number of ways, including as impressions in clay, and as charred or desiccated macroremains. Another, less well-known, way in which plant artifacts can be found is as silica skeletons (phytoliths). Formed by the in situ decay of plants, their analysis may tell us about taxa exploited, and locations in which plant artifacts were used or discarded. At Catalhöyük, an abundance of silicified traces of plants used in building materials and for craft activities survive, and are found in domestic and burial contexts. Their analysis demonstrates the routine use of wild plants, especially from wetland areas, for basketry (mats, baskets and cordage) and
construction, as well as the secondary use of cereal husk chaff in certain types of building materials. The numerous finds suggest that plant-based containers played an important role as an artifactual class, even after the adoption of early pottery.

The relationship between climate change at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary (ca. 12,600-10,200 cal B.P.) and cultural responses to attendant shifts in the environment remains a vexing issue for archaeologists. This study compiles and analyzes glacial, palynological, faunal, and stratigraphic/geomorphological proxy datasets for climate change in the Pacific Northwest of North America and compares them to the coeval archaeological record. The primary purpose of this exercise is to consider the potential ways in which climate change at the Pleistocene-Holocene Boundary affected cultural development for Late Paleoindian-Early Archaic peoples in the Pacific Northwest. Results indicate that climatic and environmental change at this interval was rapid or abrupt, and of a magnitude that likely produced varying adaptational responses by peoples of different cultural traditions who appear across the region at this period. Transformations in tools and technology, shifts in dietary habits, migration and regionalization, and trade intensification are all elements of Late Paleoindian-Early Archaic cultural responses to rapid climate change.

Archaeobotanical evidences for the presence of wild plants at Fremont archaeological sites
are numerous. However, little can be positively argued for why those plants are present, if they
were used by site inhabitants, and how they were used. Additionally, there are likely several wild
plants that were used but that do not appear in the archaeobotanical record as pollen or
macrobotanicals, the two most commonly identified plant remains. I argue that it is possible to
provide better interpretations for how and why the Fremont used plants by researching how their
historic counterparts, the Goshute, Shoshone, Ute, and Southern Paiute, used the same plants that
are identified at prehistoric sites. I further argue that a phytolith typology for Fremont archaeology
can provide more insight into prehistoric plant use. I demonstrate its utility through a phytolith
analysis of ground stone tools from Wolf Village, a Fremont site in Utah County.

The St. Lawrence River valley was home to the northernmost case of plant cultivation in Northeastern North America prior to the arrival of the first Europeans. Recent analyses of phytoliths recovered from ancient pottery vessels in this area were dated to the third century BC, possibly representing the oldest evidence for maize cultivation in this area. These and other similar data from Ontario and New York State, along with ethnohistorical descriptions from the 15th and 16th centuries, allow for a better understanding of the origins of plant cultivation on the edge of North America’s temperate zone.

In Micronesia, and more broadly in the Pacific Islands, human-introduced plants, especially vegetatively-propagated root/tuber and tree crops, form a large part of local diets. Archaeobotanists working in the region often employ phytolith analysis to understand the landscapes these plants help create, the role that they play in human migration and settlement, and socio-cultural aspects of food production systems. However, to more fully understand the benefits and limitations of this method, it is necessary to develop and analyze regional, archaeologically oriented phytolith reference collections, as has been done in other regions of the world. This paper presents an analysis of one such reference collection to more fully understand the potential and limitations of phytolith analysis in the archaeology of the Pacific Islands, specifically oriented towards the island of Pohnpei, Micronesia. In this analysis, 77 plant taxa were processed, individual phytolith morphologies were recorded, and plants and plant parts were categorized according to phytolith production. Results confirm that phytoliths in the taxa of this region are abundant and specific, and can be used for both understanding landscape use and the function of artifacts and features. However, there are some notable limitations that may be specific to the Pacific region and the crops that grow here.

RESUMO: A região cárstica de Lagoa Santa (Minas Gerais) contém dezenas de sítios
arqueológicos, cujos mais antigos datam do Holoceno Inicial (período entre 10.000 e
7000 anos A.P.), com coleções numerosas de remanescentes esqueletais humanos bem preservados. O sítio em abrigo Lapa do Santo, localizado ao norte do carste, contém mais de 30 sepultamentos humanos escavados, tendo sido identificadas práticas funerárias complexas que incluem o descarnamento, a decapitação e a remoção intencional de dentes. A matriz sedimentar que contém os vestígios é constituída de cinzas de antigas estruturas de combustão, acesas em um período de 3000 anos. Muitos artefatos líticos foram escavados no sítio, a maioria com pequenas dimensões (comprimento com cerca de 22 mm). Os líticos do sítio são lascas (raramente retocadas), núcleos e resíduos de lascamento, grande parte produzidos com cristais de quartzo hialino. Estudos tecnológicos e experimentais prévios sugerem que os líticos seriam usados para cortar e raspar materiais pequenos e macios, como plantas. Nesta pesquisa, para verificar o uso dos líticos da Lapa do Santo para o processamento de plantas, foram realizadas análises de microvestígios botânicos (fitólitos e amido) recuperados em 20 líticos do sítio. Esses artefatos foram recuperados de três unidades de escavação diferentes e do contexto de um sepultamento, seguindo um protocolo específico para evitar a contaminação durante a coleta. Amostras de sedimento do sítio também foram analisadas para verificar a possível contaminação dos microvestígios retidos nos líticos com os microvestígios presentes no sedimento. As análises revelaram fitólitos nos líticos (n = 19) e no sedimento (em todas as amostras), assim como amido na maioria dos líticos (n = 16) e em uma única amostra de sedimento. Os morfotipos de fitólitos identificados são diagnósticos dos seguintes táxons de plantas: Aristidoideae, Bambusoideae, Chloridoideae, Arecaceae (palmeiras), Poaceae (gramíneas) incluindo Panicoideae e, dentre essas, Zea mays (milho), Cyperaceae, inclusive Cyperus/Kyllinga
sp; Zingiberales e Eudicotiledôneas (arbóreas). Os grãos de amido identificados
apresentam semelhanças, embora nem sempre totalmente, com aqueles pertencentes aos táxons: Araceae (taioba), Arecaceae, Poaceae incluindo gramíneas selvagens e Zea mays; Ipomoea batatas (batata-doce), Capsicum sp. (pimenta e pimentão) e Dioscorea sp. (cará). Os resultados indicam que os instrumentos foram usados para processar plantas amiláceas cruas. Na quadra N23 quase todos os fitólitos que estão presentes nos líticos estão presentes também no sedimento (com exceção de Cyperaceae, presentes nos líticos, mas não no sedimento). Isso sugere uma possível contaminação dos líticos com os fitólitos do sedimento. Na quadra P11 há fitólitos de dois táxons de plantas (Aristidoideae e Zingiberales) nos líticos que não estão presentes no sedimento. Na quadra AE1 há fitólitos de quatro táxons de plantas (Bambusoideae, Chloridoideae, Cyperus/Kyllinga sp. e Zingiberales) nos líticos, que não estão presentes no sedimento ao redor. A presença exclusiva desses fitólitos nos líticos das quadras P11 e AE1, mas não no sedimento, indica que tais plantas foram, de fato, processadas com os artefatos.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Microarqueobotânica, Lagoa Santa, Fitólitos, Amido,
Instrumentos Líticos, Holoceno Inicial.

ABSTRACT: The karstic region of Lagoa Santa (Minas Gerais state) contains several archaeological sites dating back to the early Holocene with an astonishing number of well-preserved human remains. The Lapa do Santo rockshelter site, in the northern part of the karst, contains more than 30 human interments in which complex funerary rituals were identified, including defleshing, decapitation and intentional teeth removal. The sedimentary matrix containing the skeletal remains is mostly made of ashes from
ancient combustion structures, lit within a period of about 3000 years. Several lithic
artifacts have been recovered from the site, most of them of small dimensions (length
around 22 mm). Lithics are mostly flakes (rarely retouched), cores and splinters made
from single crystals of hyaline quartz. Previous technological research suggests that
lithic artifacts were used to cut and scrape small and soft materials, like plants. To
verify whether the lithics from Lapa do Santo were indeed used to process plant
resources, analyses of plant microremains (phytoliths and starch) were undertaken in 20 artifacts from the site. The artifacts were recovered from three different excavation units (1 m x 1 m) and one interment, following a specific protocol to prevent contamination during collection. Sediment samples from the site were also analyzed in order to differentiate between microremains retained in the lithics after their use or incorporated later from the surrounding sediments. The analyses revealed a larger amount of phytoliths in the lithics (19 of them) and sediment (all samples) and starch in most of the artifacts (16 of them) and in one sediment sample. The identified phytolith morphotypes are diagnostic of the following plant taxa: Aristidoideae, Bambusoideae, Chloridoideae, Arecaceae, Poaceae, including Panicoideae and among these, Zea mays (corn), Cyperaceae, including Cyperus/Kyllinga sp; Zingiberales and Eudicots. The starch grains show resemblances (even though not completely sometimes) to those belonging to: Araceae, Arecaceae, Poaceae, including wild grasses and Zea mays, Ipomoea batatas, Capsicum sp. and Dioscorea sp. The results indicate that the instruments were used to process raw (non cooked) starchy plants. Almost every phytolith from the N23 excavation unit that are present in lithics, are also present in the sediment from this unit (except the ones of Cyperaceae, present in lithic but not in the sediment), which strongly suggest contamination of the lithics with the phytoliths and starch from the sediment. From the P11 excavation unit there are phytolithis of two plant taxa (Aristidoideae and Zingiberales) in the lithics that are not present in the sediment. From the AE1 excavation unit there are phytoliths from four plant taxa (Bambusoideae, Chloridoideae, Cyperus/Kyllinga sp. and Zingiberales) in the lithics that are not present in the sediment. This suggests that the phytoliths in these artifacts may have been originated by their use and not by contamination with the sediment.

KEYWORDS: Microarchaeobotany, Lagoa Santa, Phytoliths, Starch, Lithic Artifacts,
Early Holocene.

"Se presentan los resultados del análisis fitolítico
realizado sobre artefactos de molienda pertenecientes
a la localidad arqueológica Tapera Moreira,
ubicada a 38° 33’ de latitud sur y 65° 33’ de longitud
oeste (departamento de Lihué Calel, provincia de
La Pampa). Se destaca la presencia de fitolitos correspondientes
a células bulliformes, células cortas y
largas de gramíneas, como también pelos y tricomas,
entre otras morfologías. En algunos casos, los microrrestos
observados se encuentran incluidos en material
coloreado aún no identificado, que posiblemente
constituyan restos de materia orgánica. A pesar de ser
resultados preliminares, la presencia de fitolitos en los
artefactos analizados sugiere un posible uso de los
mismos en actividades relacionadas con la molienda
de vegetales, siendo los primeros indicadores del desarrollo
de tales actividades para la localidad arqueológica
Tapera Moreira propuestos desde una vía de
análisis independiente.

Palabras clave: cazadores recolectores - recursos vegetales
- La Pampa.

Abstract

This work will present an overview of
phytoliths research done in a sample of grinding
stone tools from the archaeological locality Tapera
Moreira (38 33 S and 65 33 W), district of Lihué
Calel, province of La Pampa. The analysis of the
artefact residue sample revealed among other things,
the presence of bulliform, short and long cells of
grass-types, hair bases, and unciform hair cells. In
some cases, the micro remains observed are included
in a coloured material not yet identified, possibly of
organic nature. In spite of being preliminary results,
the presence of phytoliths in the analyzed artefacts
suggests a possible use in activities related to plant
processing, constituting the firsts independent
indicators of those tasks for the archaeological locality
of Tapera Moreira.

Key words: hunter-gatherers – vegetable resources -
La Pampa
"

and Keywords The banana (Musa) is one of the world's most important crops and the most valuable fruit in the global market. In the search for varieties that are more pest-and disease-resistant plant breeders are increasingly looking to the wild progenitors,—as understanding its evolution is key to genetic improvement. The banana was also an important economic crop in prehistory although it is difficult to track its history of domestication and evolution due to preservation issues, the lack of reliable species identification criteria and limited archaeological evidence. Just two archaeobotanical studies of macro-remains and phytoliths, in New Guinea and Cameroon, have provided reliable identifications and interpretations to help our understanding of the origins and evolution of the banana. But to track the spread and growing importance of this plant in the diet, across the tropics and through time, we need to combine information drawn from botany, genetics, linguistics and archaeology.

Changing rice and millet arable systems were closely linked to social and environmental changes in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in Central China. Two methods are used here to distinguish between rainfed millet farming and rice farming, using phytoliths from crop weeds found in ash middens and mixed cultural layer contexts. Samples were taken from three sites, Xipo and Huizui, in the Yellow River Valley in Henan, and Baligang which is situated towards the south of the province. The samples are from three cultural phases, Yangshao, Longshan and Erli-tou. The phytoliths used are from grass leaves, so are not identified to genera or species but rather grouped into ecological categories, and canonical correspondence analysis was applied. Next, the ratios were calculated of phy-tolith morphotypes from cells that are genetically predisposed to form phytoliths (fixed), compared to silica bodies from cells that will form silica bodies when there is sufficient water uptake (sensitive). The results show differentiation between millet and rice and differences in how wet the rice fields were. The region experienced social and climate change throughout this time and this is reflected in the results.

In an effort to identify a distinctive phytolith morphotype recovered from archaeological sites in North America that resembled that described by Chandler-Ezell et al. (2006) as being diagnostic for Calathea allouia (Marantaceae), an extensive modern reference study of the genus Thalia (Marantaceae) was conducted.  When Thalia, the only member of the Marantaceae native to North America north of Mexico, failed to produce a match for these unknown phytoliths, other members of New World Marantaceae with economic significance were studied, namely species of Maranta and Calathea.  It was during this part of the study that I was unable to replicate the findings of Chandler-Ezell et al. (2006) that Calathea allouia tubers/rhizomes produced a diagnostic flat domed rhizome cylinder (26IAb).  Recent modern reference work by Eichhorn (2010) and myself have revealed Commelina (Commelinaceae) seed phytoliths with a striking similarity to type 26IAb. Based on experimental data that illustrates both cleaned (sonicated) and uncleaned (non-sonicated) Calathea allouia tubers can harbor phytoliths derived from the surrounding soil matrix, it seems likely that phytolith type 26IAb recovered from Calathea allouia reference material in Chandler-Ezell et al. (2006) represents contamination from the soil.

Morphological and chemical characterization of phytoliths from aerial and underground parts of Arundo donax L. and Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. was undertaken to substantiate their taxonomic demarcation with reference to one representative species of each genus. Thirty phytolith morphotypes including some new ones were recovered. Apart from individual types, diagnostic phytolith assemblages unique to Arundo donax L. included long trapezoids, narrow bilobates, orbicular, polylobate, spiral and rugose elongate morphotypes. Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. was marked by an assemblage of polyhedral, tracheid, cylindric, cross, dendritic, quadrilobate and the rondel morphotypes. Morphometric data for shape descriptors were analysed by descriptive statistics and t-test (for independent-samples) using Paleontological Statistics (PAST) software. Estimation of total silica content revealed higher values for Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. than Arundo donax L. from most of the parts. Elemental analysis of phytolith morphotypes from various parts in both the species revealed the presence of Aluminium (Al), Calcium (Ca), Chlorine (Cl), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K) and Titanium (Ti) in small amounts in addition to major elements including Carbon (C) and Oxygen (O) and Si (Silicon). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of elemental composition grouped Arundo donax L. (leaf) and Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. (leaf) together in a single group. The Si (wt%) amounts varied significantly among various parts of Arundo donax L. (p ≤ 0.05), whereas differences with Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. parts were insignificant. Similarly, Si (wt%) between the various parts of both species showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Chemical characterization of silica from leaf and synflorescence of both the species using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) showed polymorphic forms of silica and zeolites. Fourier Transform-Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy has confirmed the presence of silanol group and siloxane linkages in all the samples.

"Recent excavations at Althiburos, northern Tunisia, have shown the existence of permanent pre-roman occupations in the central area of the urban settlement. Significantly, the  site  has  been  found  to contain one of the most complete Numidian sequences, spanning from the Early Numidian (at least from the 10the9th century BC) to its final stage. Research at the site addresses questions related to the identification of settlement patterns at this time. The combined study of phytoliths and spherulites recovered from well defined archeological contexts at the site have provided new data for identifying  husbandry activities carried out by the ancient Numidian populations. The results show that there is abundant evidence for both cooking and processing cereals, primarily from common or bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). Also significantly, was the abun- dance of faecal spherulites in certain areas of the site, indicative of dung accumulation. The correlation between large amounts of spherulites and rich phytolith sediments in specific contexts, suggested that grasses were brought to the site or consumed offsite and deposited onsite as livestock dung or dung- products. The identification of dung accumulations in the site raises questions about the diversity of economic practices developed by Protohistoric communities in northern Africa. Future research questions regarding such dung rich layers will also be examined."

The production of alcoholic beverages is connected to a wide range of activities associated with growing social complexity. Beer production has a long history in the southern Levant, where the first evidence appeared during the later Epipalaeolithic period. However, there is meager evidence between then and the Early Bronze Age period, when advanced regional trade systems developed. To fill this gap, the current paper presents evidence for beer production and consumption based on microfossil analysis of two ceramic strainers unearthed at two Chalcolithic sites: Tel Tsaf (ca. 5200-4700 cal. BC), a settlement site in the Jordan Valley with evidence for large scale storage and long-distance ties, and Peqi'in Cave (ca. 4500-3900 cal. BC), a burial site in the Upper Galilee. The microfossils (phytoliths, starch granules, yeast cells, and fibers) indicate that both strainers once contained fermented beverages made from Triticeae (wheat/barley), Panicoideae, and Cyperus tubers. These results suggest that beer production and consumption using strainers may have been regularly practiced during different phases of the Chalcolithic, and beer appears to have played an important role in various social settings for communication among social groups as well as between the living and the deceased.

Phytolith studies are now an established subbranch of archaeobotanical studies. However, there is a very limited number of phytolith studies focused on Anatolia. Kinet Höyük is one of the eligible sites since extensive archaeobotanical studies were conducted and studies are ongoing. From Kinet, 23 samples are studied for phytolith analysis. 13 of them are extractions from soil samples and 10 of them are samples which are suspected to contain phytolith fibers. The contexts vary between room floor sediments to storage pits. For this study, the focus is on the multicellular phytoliths, since they can be used for a higher resolution of identification (Rosen, 1992). This study aims to observe the chronological changes in storage pit use, if there are any, and the variation between contexts. Another focus will be the use of reed in these contexts and the possible reasons for their use. For this thesis, quantifiable data was obtained and they were subject to statistical analysis. The results suggest that there are no contextual difference in the phytolith assemblage of Kinet; however, chronological changes were observed.

The Natufian culture was a critical junction in human subsistence, marking the first steps towards sedentism and the domestication of cereals and pulses. The Natufians are known to have collected large seeded grasses (wild barley and wheat) and small-seeded grasses prior to the onset of cultivation but in most of the Levant little direct evidence of this survives. A variety of stone mortars and mortars carved into bedrock are common on Natufian sites. These were often interpreted as reflecting intensification of cereal or acorn food preparation, though the proposition was rarely tested. This study uses phytoliths to interpret Late Natufian plant-use at Raqefet Cave in southeastern Mount Carmel, Israel. Phytolith analysis focused on 35 samples from bedrock mortars, human burials, and cave floor sediments in the cave. We show that the Late Natufians at Raqefet were consuming both small-grained grasses and wheat and barleys. Our findings also suggest that the mortars did not serve primarily as specialised grass-seed processing implements. There is also evidence the occupants of Raqefet Cave continued to utilise forest resources, even as Late Natufians shifted towards more exploitation of wild grasses elsewhere in the southern Levant.

This paper examines evidence on animal diet
through the study of dung and its contents in order
to discuss animal-related mobility and the use of
ecological resources at Neolithic Koutroulou Magoula
in central Greece. Micromorphological analysis of
intact sediments was employed in order to identify
the presence of animal dung in archaeological
deposits, thereby providing direct evidence of animal
diet. Building on these observations, phytolith and
archaeobotanical analyses were used to further
investigate plant content of dung-rich deposits.
Micromorphology showed that dung was a major
contributor to sediment accumulation at the site.
It was encountered in trampled (likely penning)
deposits, secondary refuse accumulations, and insitu
fuel. It was also found that the dung is extremely
rich in phytoliths, including wild-grass- and reedderived
morphotypes and domesticated cereals. Plant
macroremains from dung-rich contexts revealed a
similarly diverse picture of animal diet, including
cereals, weeds, and fruits. It is thereby suggested
that a combination of animal foddering and grazing
practices were employed by the inhabitants of
Koutroulou. The integration of micromorphology
with archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and
other analytical methods, as well as with broader
archaeological, on-site and off-site data, provides
a more holistic understanding of human and animal
relationships with the environment.

The mosaic ecology of the Late Pleistocene Levant has been referred to by many authors investigating Epipaleolithic use of wild cereals as a prelude to cultivation, but it has rarely been the focus of studies investigating hunter-gatherer adaptations and diverse wild plant collection strategies. Partly, this was due to poor preservation of macro-botanical remains at Epipaleolithic sites with the exception of Ohalo II. Our analyses of 100 phytolith samples from four sites in the eastern Levant, compared with phytoliths from Ohalo II, reveal evidence for how foragers used the unique local ecological opportunities in these regions. Abundant phytoliths from reeds and sedges indicate the critical importance of wetlands in hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies. Wild cereals and grasses point to steppe and parkland exploitation, and woody plants indicate use of woodlands. From the Late Upper Paleolithic through the Middle Epipaleolithic our evidence indicates that wetland, steppe/parkland and woodland zones formed an integrated resilient system of plant-use, with wetlands providing an especially important focal point. We also found that different wetland types and their productivity relative to the surrounding landscape have a clear impact on hunter-gatherer adaptation and plant-use. Focusing subsistence and settlement around the reliable wetland zones provided a dependable natural food-storage repository and allowed greater risk-taking strategies for other types of plant and animal exploitation beyond the wetland zones.

The Early Rice Project, at the UCL Institute of Archaeology, is clarifying the origins of Asian rice agriculture. In the Lower Yangtze region of China, we have found the tipping point when domesticated forms first outnumber wild types c. 4600 BC. Investigations of assorted weed flora are also revealing how the cultivation of rice changed over time, with early cultivation in small, irregular, dug-out paddy fields in the Lower Yangtze from c. 4000 BC, providing a means for the careful control of water conditions. We also work on early ...