Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs

Key findings of this report are:

PFAS substances are poorly controlled in Indonesia
Indonesia became a Party to the Stockholm Convention in 2009 and the treaty added PFOS to its global restriction list in 2009. This amendment went into legal force in Indonesia in 2010. However, PFAS are essentially unregulated and not currently included in monitoring programs.

Breast milk is contaminated with PFAS substances
A 2008 study found PFAS in breast milk in women from Jakarta and Purwakarta. PFAS substances included PFOS, PFHxS, PFNA and PFHpA. PFOS was found in all twenty women and PFHxS was found in 45% of them. Overall, PFOS levels in Indonesian breast milk averaged 84 ppt – more than 4 times higher than the drinking water health advisory limit of 20 ppt for PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFHpA and PFNA combined in the US State of Vermont. The highest level of PFOS exposure in Indonesian breast milk was more than 12 times greater than this drinking water health advisory limit.

Fire extinguishers containing PFAS are available on the market for consumer use
In Indonesia, fire extinguishers containing PFAS (AFFF) are readily available for consumer purchase. In fact, vendors mention that the fire extinguisher contains PFOA and PFOS as a hydrocarbon-based surfactant and claim that the product is, “Not harmful to plants, animals, especially humans."

Soccer shoes and coats manufactured in Indonesia contain high PFAS levels.
A 2014 Greenpeace investigation found five types of soccer shoes manufactured in Indonesia that contained PFOA and PFBS. The levels ranged from 5.28 – 14.5 µg/m2 for PFOA and 14.5 – 37.9 µg/m2 for PFBS. A study from the German Federal Environmental Agency found a coat made in Indonesia with a variety of PFAS substances at a total level of 42.9 µg/m2. To illustrate how significant these levels are, note that the EU regulates PFOS at 1 µg/m² in textiles.

PFAS contaminates coastal sediments
A 2012 study found PFOS and PFOA in Jakarta Bay sediments collected in 2004. PFOS was found in all samples. PFOA ranged up to 6.1 ug/kg dry weight – approximately ten times higher than the highest level observed in San Francisco Bay in the USA.

PFAS elimination contributes to achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals
Actions to control and phase-out PFAS as a class contribute to achievement of several key Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) due to the impacts of the substances on health and ecosystems including water pollution. These include SDGs 3, 6, 9, 12, 14, 15, and 16

Many tons of intentionally produced obsolete halogenated persistent organic pollutants (POPs), are stored worldwide in stockpiles, often in an unsafe manner. These are a serious threat to the environment and to human health due to their ability to migrate and accumulate in the biosphere. New technologies , alternatives to combustion, are required to destroy these substances, hopefully to their complete mineralization. In the last 20 years mechanochemical destruction has shown potential to achieve pollutant degradation , both of the pure substances and in contaminated soils. This capability has been tested for many halogenated pollutants, with various reagents, and under different milling conditions. In the present paper, a review of the published work in this field is followed by a critique of the state of the art of POPs mechanochemical destruction and its applicability to full-scale halogenated waste treatment.

Thirteen persistent organic pesticides were investigated in the sediments of Vasai Creek near Mumbai to evaluate their pollution levels and potential risks. It was observed that ΣOCPs level was in the range of 597–1538 ng/g dw, with an average value of 1115.25 ng/g dw. The level of ΣOPPs was in the range of 492–1034 ng/g dw, with an average value of 798.15 ng/g dw. The values o,p′-DDT/p,p′-DDT ratio gives an indication of use of technical DDT as the prime source of DDT, while the α/γ-BHC ratio indicate that BHCs in study area might have been received from fresh lindane. The results of an ecological risk assessment showed that sediment bound organic pesticides are of more ecotoxicological concern as they might create adverse ecological risk to the marine breeding habitats. These pesticides residues may get remobilize and released to overlying waters creating adverse effects on terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

The Toolkit is divided into five main modules, as described below. Figure 1 illustrates how the content of the modules fits into the overall approach to POP-contaminated site management recommended by this Toolkit.
Module 1, Policy and Legal Issues, outlines the basic legal and policy issues for POPs, and explains the fundamental principles being used to set regulation and to develop criteria and permissible levels of POPs. Areas of discussion include site inventory initiatives, land acquisition and disposal, permissible levels of contaminants, toxic tort actions, risk-based remediation goals, and the key role of sustainability in site remediation. The module also covers how remediation can be facilitated by tax and non-tax incentives, institutional arrangements and inter-sectoral collaboration.
Module 2, Conducting a Site Investigation, provides guidelines for investigating a potentially contaminated site through two distinct phases. A preliminary site investigation (PSI), which is made up of two stages (PSI Stage 1 and PSI Stage 2), confirms whether a site is contaminated or not, and a detailed site investigation (DSI) delineates the extent of the contamination. The site investigation process is illustrated in case studies from Nigeria and Ghana.
Module 3, Assessing Site Risks, provides guidelines for assessing the human health risks of a POP-contaminated site. It outlines two different approaches to risk assessment. The generic Tier 1 assessment uses the information collected during the site investigation to compare contaminant concentrations against the recommended values for soil and groundwater. The more complex Site-Specific Risk Assessment identifies a site's contaminants, exposure pathways and receptors, which can then be used as the basis for developing a risk management process in situations when complete remediation is not a viable option for a contaminated site.
Module 4, Managing Contaminated Sites, provides guidance on developing a strategy for contaminated site management. It presents risk management options to assist users in selecting the best option for a specific site and a classification/categorization system for prioritizing sites for remediation, according to risk. The module introduces a simple screening matrix system as a low-cost tool to help in the selection of the appropriate technique for a specific site according to its local situation. The application of the screening system is illustrated through three case studies. The technology and limitations of different remediation techniques are summarized, and the module concludes with a discussion of post-remediation site monitoring requirements.
Module 5, Costing and Financing Site Remediation, provides guidance to analysts in the economic analysis of POP–related environmental policy issues. A carefully thought-out cost-benefit analysis of remediation options (as outlined step by step in this module), and the selection of the most appropriate financing mechanism, will greatly enhance the likelihood of success in the implementation of POP-contaminated site management and control policy.

Globally, it is evident from the researches that the usage of solvents had became hazardous to human as well as the whole environment. They are highly toxic to human health physically and also mentally. This paper represents some of the toxic effects and usage of hazardous solvents

Filamentous fungi that produce mycotoxins also
demonstrate the ability to degrade a wide variety of naturally
occurring and anthropogenically generated hazardous wastes.
Hence, these are emerging as excellent candidates for bioremediation.
Their mycelia exhibit the robustness of adapting to
highly restrictive environmental conditions often experienced
in the presence of persistent pollutants, which makes them
more useful compared to other microbes. However, it now
appears that several regulatory factors that govern mycotoxin
synthesis in these toxigenic strains also regulate their bioremediation
abilities. To this end, mycoremediation and mycotoxin
synthesis have been thoroughly but independently investigated;
hence, much less is understood about the overlaps
between the two processes. This review aims to shed light on
this critical knowledge gap and provide some useful insights
into the future research that might overcome the challenges
associated with these shared regulatory modules. This will
enable the harnessing of the full potential of mycoremediation
by minimizing mycotoxin contamination.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistent pesticides whose usage have been banned or restricted worldwide and the presence of its residues in vegetables could affect its nutritional quality as well cause adverse health effects. This study quantified the OCP residue levels in commonly grown and consumed vegetables and assessed the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks from the consumption of the contaminated vegetables. The OCP residues levels in the extract from the vegetables were determined using a Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD). Health risk estimates were analysed using Estimated Average Daily Intake (EADI), Hazard Index (HI), and Hazard Ratio (HR) for children (16.7 kg) and adults (60 kg) weight categories. The residue analysis indicated that amaranths had the highest mean concentration of endrin aldehyde (2.987 AE 0.391 mg kg-1) and endosulfan sulfate (0.661 AE 0.280 mg kg-1), while in fluted pumpkin, the highest mean concentrations were endrin aldehyde (3.491 AE 0.376 mg kg-1) and endosulfan sulfate (2.775 AE 0.644 mg kg-1). The percentage of the detected OCP residues above Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) ranged from 25% to 100% for both vegetables. Non-carcinogenic health risk estimates for the children weight category showed that aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, and heptachlor detected in both vegetables had HI > 1. While for adults, only aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and endrin aldehyde revealed non-carcinogenic effect in both vegetables. Human risk estimations for the carcinogenic health effect for the two vegetables showed that aldrin and dieldrin could pose carcinogenic health risks to adult, while aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide could pose carcinogenic health risks to children. The results revealed both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks for the consumers of the contaminated vegetables from the selected locations in Southwestern Nigeria.

Selected heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in marine sediment from 28 sites Djibouti city. The concentrations of trace elements varied from 0 to 288.1 mg/kg with relative abundance of trace metals in sediments was in the order of Zn > Cu > Ni > Cr > Co > Pb > Cd. Zn, Cu and Ni exceeded consensus based sediment quality guideline values 7, 14, 15 sites respectively. Enrichment factor and pollution load index showed relatively low to moderate contamination. The concentrations of total 16 PAHs varied widely depending on the sample location and ranged from 2.65 to 3760.11 ng·g− 1, with the mean concentration value of 387.87 ng·g− 1. Compositions and relative abundance of individual PAH using molecular diagnostic ratio using congener's m/z 178 and 202 indicated pyrolytic origin and reflecting a petroleum combustion, grass/wood and coal combustion and a petrogenic source. This study represents the first pollution baseline and a reference for future studies in Djibouti.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were the first brominated persistent organic pollutants (POPs) listed in the Stockholm Convention. Parties to the convention are currently establishing inventories for developing action plans for the environmentally sound management of PBDE-containing materials. The major use of commercial octabromodiphenyl ether (c-OctaBDE) has been in casings from cathode ray tube (CRT) TVs and computer monitors. Large quantities of used e-waste and electronic equipment have been exported to developing countries with Nigeria being a major importer in Africa. The casings from 382 TVs and computers imported from major world regions to Nigeria were sampled in backyards and waste dumps. The samples were screened with X-ray flourescence (XRF) for bromine and analysed by gas chromatography/ electron capture detection (GC/ECD) for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). A high proportion of the CRT casings (61 %) contained more than 10,000 ppm bromine from BFRs. Decabromodiphenyl ether (DecaBDE) was the major flame retardant used in TV sets and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) for computer CRTs. The screening suggests that average PBDE levels (of c-OctaBDE+DecaBDE) in Nigerian-stockpiled CRT casings were 1.1 % for TV and 0.13 % for PC CRTs. These are above the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) limit and should be separated for RoHS compliant recycling. The Nigerian e-waste inventory of 237,000 t of CRT plastic would therefore contain approx. 594 t c-OctaBDE and 1,880 t of DecaBDE. In Nigeria, as for most developing countries, there is currently no adequate e-waste management, plastic separation or destruction capacity. The data highlight the urgent need to develop environmentally sound management for this large material flow.

A B S T R A C T This study examined the adsorption of pentachlorophenol (PCP) on geosorbents (original bulk soil and soils treated to significantly remove organic carbon and oxides of Fe and Mn) under oxic and anoxic experimental conditions. pH effects on adsorption capacities were maximal at pH < pK a of PCP (4.7). Decrease in redox potential and an increase in dissolve organic carbon inhibited PCP sorption. While contribution of Mn oxide to PCP sorption was negative due to decreasing charge interference, the study equally implied negligible role of surface area compared to organic matter contents and oxides of Fe with R 2 0.825. The rate of Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ release under anoxic condition reduced interactions of phenolate with iron oxides and consequently, the distribution coefficients coupled with increased dissolve organic carbon. Pseudo second order and Langmuir isotherm provided the best kinetic and isotherm models respectively, although adsorption processes appeared to involve more than one kinetic stage based on intra-particle diffusion model (R 2 0.982). The study suggests that soil treatment to remove Mn oxide may encourage transitory PCP sinks in some reductomorphic environments.

Biphasic apatite-carbon biochar-type materials were prepared from pyrolysed cod fish bones and were assessed for the adsorption of persistent organic pollutants (pharmaceuticals diclofenac and fluoxetine), and heavy metals (Pb(II)). The materials, prepared with a simple pyrolysis process at different temperatures (200–1000 °C), were characterised with XRD, FTIR, Raman and SEM. Results showed that the pyrolysis temperature had a significant effect on the features / composition of the materials: up to 800 °C, carbonate apatite Ca10(PO4)6(CO3) was the main component, while for higher temperatures oxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6O was the dominant phase. Graphitic carbon was also detected. The mixed apatite-carbon products (bone char) exhibited high adsorption efficiency. Graphite carbon was the main adsorber for the pharmaceuticals, the best performing material being that pyrolysed at 1000 °C. X m values of 43.29 and 55.87 mg/g were observed (Langmuir fitting), while K F values of 5.40 and 12.53 (mg/g)(L/mg) n F were obtained with the Freundhlich model (diclofenac and fluoxetine respectively). This is the first time that a biochar-like material has been used for fluoxetine adsorption. For Pb (II), the powder pyrolysed at 600 °C was the most effective, with the apatite playing a key role (X m = 714.24 mg/g). This work shows that a by-product of the fish industry could be converted into efficient materials for environmental remediation; according to the pyrolysis conditions, powders effective in the removal of either organics or heavy metals can be obtained. Moreover, with pyrolysis at intermediate temperatures, materials capable of adsorbing both kinds of pollutants can be produced, even if less efficient.

Remediation of organic pollutant matrixes from wastewater by photodegradation using different heterojunctions is extensively studied to improve performance for potential application. Brilliant black (BB) and p-nitrophenol (PNP) have been detected in the environment and implicated as directly or indirectly carcinogenic to human health. This work analyzes their elimination from aqueous solutions under visible-light irradiation with composites of cobalt(II, III) oxide and bismuth oxyiodides (Co 3 O 4 /Bi 4 O 5 I 2 /Bi 5 O 7 I). The synthesized nanomaterial properties were investigated using various techniques such as BET, SEM/EDS, TEM, XRD, FTIR, PL, and UV−vis. All the nanocomposites absorbed in the visible range of the solar spectrum with band gaps between 1.68 and 2.79 eV, and the specific surface area of the CB2 composite increased by 35.8% from that of Bi 4 O 5 I 2 /Bi 5 O 7 I. There was an observed massive reduction in the rate of electron and hole recombination, and the band gaps of the composites decreased. The mineralization of PNP and BB was followed by determination of the total organic carbon with reductions of 93.6 and 83.7%, respectively. The main active species were the hydroxyl radicals, while the superoxide anion radical and generated holes were minor as confirmed by radical trapping experiments. The optimum pHs for degradation of PNP and BB were 9.6 and 5.3, respectively. The enhanced performance of the catalyst was due to C-scheme heterojunction formation that reduced the electron and hole recombination rate and was attributed to strong adsorption of the pollutants on the photocatalyst active surface. The nanocomposite is apposite for solar energy-driven remediation of organic pollutants from environmental aqueous samples.

In this work, we compare the extraction effectiveness of three methods commonly applied for the determination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the spiked soil by transformer oil (Askarel oil). The techniques included are the Soxhlet extraction (SE), the Ultrasonic extraction (UE), and the Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). Also a comparison of organic extracting solvents was performed in this study. The extraction conditions were not optimized for these techniques; we note that the choices of extraction parameters were based on the experience from pervious successful investigation published by a number of research groups worldwide. This study focused on the variation of the extraction quantities for each PCB congener (29 PCBs) with different extraction methods. The chromatographic analysis results obtained have showed that the mixture (n-hexane-acetone, v/v) can give the highest recoveries when compared to other solvents. The comparison made between the MAE, UE and SE methods has showed that MAE is a suitable alternative to SE for the analysis of PCBs in soils, but UE did not give a good recovery in the present work.

Soils from cocoa plantations treated with Boudreaux mixture in two southwestern states of Nigeria were collected at different depths, 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm, and subjected to five-stage sequential extraction to obtain the speciation forms of copper: exchangeable, carbonate, manganese and iron oxides, organic and residual fractions. The Cu content in the extracts from the sequential extraction was read with an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). The total Cu content of the soil and the physicochemical parameters of the soils were also determined. The results from the study showed that the soils had high organic matter and copper is mostly bounded to the more mobile exogenic phase much more than the stable lithogenic phase, indicating higher mobility. Within the exogenic species, carbonate fraction was the highest followed by the organic bound and the exchangeable fraction in decreasing order. Cu was not detected in the Fe/Mn bound fraction. The implication is that the fate of the administered Cu-based pesticide is more in the relatively stable carbonate bound species than the other, more mobile phase. The results showed variation in the distribution of the copper species from one depth to another. The most transported metal from the surface to the lower layer is the exchangeable fraction. The carbonate bound species is less mobile and is not readily transported into the bottom soil layer. The organic bound Cu has nearly equal distribution between the top and bottom soils and there was little or no transport of the residual metal specie from the top to the bottom. The existence of copper in the soil largely in the anthropogenic (exogenous) phase is not the most desirable for the ecosystem. This may increase the availability of Cu in the cocoa plant and bean and may lead to potential exposure risk.

Secondary copper recovery is attracting increasing interest because of the growth of copper containing waste including e-waste. The pyrometallurgical treatment in smelters is widely utilized, but it is known to produce waste fluxes containing a number of toxic pollutants due to the large amount of copper involved, which catalyses the formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (" dioxins "). Dioxins are generated in secondary copper smelters on fly ash as their major source, resulting in highly contaminated residues. In order to assess the toxicity of this waste, an analysis of dioxin-like compounds was carried out. High levels were detected (79,090 ng TEQ kg −1) in the ash, above the Basel Convention low POPs content (15,000 ng TEQ kg −1) highlighting the hazardousness of this waste. Experimental tests of high energy ball milling with calcium oxide and silica were executed to assess its effectiveness to detoxify such fly ash. Mechanochemical treatment obtained 76% dioxins reduction in 4 h, but longer milling time induced a partial de novo formation of dioxins catalysed by copper. Nevertheless, after 12 h treatment the dioxin content was substantially decreased (85% reduction) and the copper, thanks to the phenomena of incorporation and amorphization that occur during milling, was almost inactivated.

Resumen. Los asentamientos urbanos, y las actividades agrícola-ganaderas e industriales, llevan asociadas el uso y/o generación de una gran diversidad de compuestos químicos que pueden ser nocivos para el hombre y el ambiente. Muchas sustancias, ampliamente utilizadas en el pasado, fueron paulatinamente cuestionadas y prohibidas. Se identifican como contaminantes orgánicos persistentes (COPs) a una serie de compuestos de naturaleza orgánica y origen antropogénico que, además de su toxicidad, se caracterizan por ser resistentes a la degradación. Estos pueden ser transportados por el aire, el agua y especies migratorias, y depositarse lejos del lugar de su liberación. El estudio del movimiento de las masas de aire resulta entonces de gran importancia, porque pueden transportar estas sustancias desde lugares muy distantes a los sitios de estudio. Se aplicó el modelo Hybrid Single–Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) para estimar las trayectorias regresivas de las masas de aire incidentes en tres sitios del sudoeste bonaerense, seleccionados como parte de un estudio espacio-temporal de COPs en aire y suelo. Los resultados permiten observar los canales característicos de transporte de masas que reciben estos sitios tanto de capas bajas (del sudoeste, noroeste y sudeste), así como de capas altas (desde el oeste) y sus variaciones estacionales.

It is essential to develop proper emission inventories for the PCDD/PCDFs pollutants in Jordan in order to assess
the possible effects of these pollutants on the environment. This study presents PCDD/PCDF emission inventory in Aqaba
using a standardized toolkit developed by UNEP Chemicals. The total emission rate in Aqaba was estimated as 0.875 g
TEQ yr–1. The year 2012 is the reference date for this inventory. The category with the highest estimated emission is the
transport sector (i.e. diesel engines). The latter was ranked the first in contributing to nearly 64.3 % of total emissions to
air. Heat and power generation are responsible for nearly 5.6 % of the total emission to air. Disposal and land filling is
estimated to be the only source of dioxin emissions to water and the highest estimated source of emission to residues with
annual release of 0.007 g TEQ yr–1 for water and 0.112 g TEQ yr–1 for residues. Sewage/sewage treatment contributes to
nearly 43 % of the total emission to water and 98 % to residue. Open water dumping contributes to nearly 57 % of the total
emission to water. Open burning processes is estimated to be the only significant source of dioxin emission to land through
the 77 accidental fires in houses and factories, and 50 accidental fires in vehicles which annual release of 0.003 g TEQ yr–1.

Purpose

The Biomec process, a two-stage treatment based on a short mechanochemical (MC) pretreatment and then followed by an aerobic biological degradation, was developed and tested for detoxifying marine sediments that were largely contaminated by polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs).
Materials and methods

Clean marine sediment spiked with PCBs (Aroclor 1260) and, alternatively, with decachlorobiphenyl in slurry conditions was ultramilled for 1 min in a nutational high energy ball mill, then was treated aerobically in a bioreactor with a purposely selected commercial bacterium (Burkholderia xenovorans).
Results and discussion

With ∼66 % overall PCB biodegradation achieved in less than 3 months, laboratory experiments confirmed the remarkable effectiveness of Biomec process when compared to direct bioremediation. The investigation showed in particular that the MC pretreatment decreased the chlorination degree of high-chlorinated PCB congeners, and consequently their biorecalcitrance, through the substitution of some chlorine atoms with hydroxyl groups. This reaction eases the aerobic degradation of the hydroxyl-substituted PCBs by B. xenovorans, allowing bacteria to skip the cell stressing step of aromatic ring bi-hydroxylation along the biodegradation pathway.
Conclusions

After short MC treatment of the sediments, a common biological aerobic treatment can degrade PCB congeners, the highly chlorinated ones were included, in a fast, effective and cheap manner.

Secondary copper recovery is attracting increasing interest because of the growth of copper containing waste including e-waste. The pyrometallurgical treatment in smelters is widely utilized, but it is known to produce waste fluxes containing a number of toxic pollutants due to the large amount of copper involved, which catalyses the formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (&quot; dioxins &quot;). Dioxins are generated in secondary copper smelters on fly ash as their major source, resulting in highly contaminated residues. In order to assess the toxicity of this waste, an analysis of dioxin-like compounds was carried out. High levels were detected (79,090 ng TEQ kg −1) in the ash, above the Basel Convention low POPs content (15,000 ng TEQ kg −1) highlighting the hazardousness of this waste. Experimental tests of high energy ball milling with calcium oxide and silica were executed to assess its effectiveness to detoxify such fly ash. Mechanochemical treatment...

The present review aims to delve into persistent organic pollutants (POPs), as xenobiotics, in correlation to human health. POPs exhibit a group of common characteristics, including lipophilicity, persistence to decomposition and bioaccumulation in tissues. POPs have been thoroughly studied by former researchers, as they offer a particular interest in the elucidation of metabolic, endocrine and immune perturbation caused by their synergy with intracellular mechanisms. Herein particular focus is attributed to the relationship of POPs with obesity provocation. Obesity nowadays receives epidemic dimensions, as its prevalence elevates in an exponential degree. POPs-induced obesity rotates around interfering in metabolic and endocri-nal procedures and interacting with peroxisome-proliferator and retinoic receptors. Moreover, polymorphisms in CYP gene families exert a negative result, as they incapacitate detoxification of POPs. Obesity could be deemed as a multidimensional condition, as various factors interact to lead to an obesogenic result. Therefore, concomitant disorders may occur, from mild to lethal, and get intensified due to POPs exposure. POPs exact function mechanisms remain rather enigmatic, thus further investigation should be prospectively performed, for a more lucid picture of this issue, and, consequently for the establishment of alternative solutions.

"With the introduction of the integrated pollution and waste management policy South African government is combatting the lack of management and implementation in global environmental issues. The textile industry has increased imports to 300% over the last 5 years, these imports contain Nonylphenol (NP) and Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs) which enter and contaminate surface and ground water as well as soils.

These chemicals are manmade chemicals and do not occur naturally, NPs are bioaccumulated, persistent and toxic to aquatic organisms as well as being used in the manufacture of NPEs. Paper, pulp, textile and chemical industries discharge NPEs into the rivers, where 78 products were tested and 71 contained NPEs in concentrations above the limit of 1mg/kg of which the toxic imported textiles are washed in local waters releasing hormones.

Nonlyphenol (NP) and NPEs are released in waters releasing hormones and affecting apoptotic cells, kidneys and liver weights of fish and rats. These hormones decreased the sperm density and testosterone levels while Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) triggering ovulation and stimulating testosterone production. In insects, bees specifically, NPs affect the behaviour, navigation and temperature, genetics, growth and cause mortality as the chemicals are highly toxic. In toxic records, the affects on humans include burning with coughing, laboured breathing and sore throat in inhalation, with ingestion pain, nausea, diarrhoea, shock and collapse.

Various methods were used to establish toxicity such as risk assessment on the exposure and ecotoxicity data, the measurements of raw sewerage and final effluents in rivers as biproducts of textile manufacture and the treatment of paper and pulp sludge in soils. Chronic values for survival, growth and reproduction in fish, aquatic vertebrae and algae were plotted for support data in analysis. Field tests in vivo comparative bioassays were used representing the effects of EDCs and biodegradation metabolites in terms of end points such as sex ratio, secondary sex characteristics, liver vitellogenin (VTG) and testis-ova changes. Laboratory analysis done on clothing material via acetonitrite-water mixtures and analysed with reversed phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and mass spectrometry.

Remediation and clean up methods were discussed and proposed with the ultimate process of the removal of NPs and NPEs from the supply chain of all practices as there is a need to protect the food and water resources by reversing accumulated damage or taking steps towards stopping the damage, by building and maintaining policy as well as creating a paradigm shift in human kind. South African government has called for pollution prevention, minimisation at the source and impact management of pollution, the discharge of NPEs, NPs and EDCs into South African water as well as soils must be addressed and supported by all sectors of the country"

The occurrence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of six sites with different emission sources in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, was analyzed. The sites included urban, industrial, agricultural, and mountain areas. Samples were collected using passive air samplers (PAS) consisting of polyurethane foam disks (PUF). Samples were analyzed for 12 PAHs, 31 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 12 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and 11 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The concentrations of PAHs in the atmosphere were elevated at urban sites and were even higher at the industrial site. With respect to OCPs, it was observed that the concentrations of endosulfan were greater at the agricultural site (AGR) (416 ± 4 pg m −3). For hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), only the alpha isomer was detected and there were minimal differences between the different sampling sites (5.9-13.3 pg m −3). In the case of dieldrin, the highest concentrations (33.6 pg m −3) were found at the mountain site, which may have been due to its use for insect control. Although heptachlor epoxide was not detected, the concentration of heptachlor was significantly higher at the agricultural and downtown sites (∼ 3.6 pg m −3). Regarding DDTs, the isomers p,p′-DDT and p,p′-DDE showed the highest concentrations at the mountain site (ΣDDT 120 ± 12 pg m −3) and downtown site (ΣDDT 157 ± 62 pg m −3). The relationship between the isomers suggested that at the downtown site, the contribution of this pesticide to the environment was recent, probably for the control of diseases vectors. The congener pattern of PBDEs was dominated by BDE-47, and BDE-99 at all sites, with the downtown site having the highest concentrations of compound esters (ΣPBDEs 118 ± 38 pg m −3). Finally, high concentrations of PCBs were found at the industrial site (ΣPCBs 1677 ± 134 pg m −3), and the predominating homologs were 5-Cl and 6-Cl, in contrast to the other sites where PCBs were dominated by 3-Cl and 4-Cl. This is the first study of POPs carried out in the province of Córdoba.

The " Loy Krathong " festival is a major annual Thai event that includes firework displays. It takes place on the evening of the full moon in the 12th month of the traditional Thai lunar calendar. Since fireworks are widely considered a major source of PAHs, it is considered reasonable to expect a significant increase in PAH levels during this event. The overall PAH profile at the six air quality observatories operated by the Pollution Control Department (PCD), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE), showed that the Kingdom of Thailand's atmosphere was dominated by 5e6-ring PAHs during the firework display period. A significant increase in SPAHs (153%) was observed during firework displays. A statistical analysis coupled with the application of diagnostic binary PAH ratios was conducted to determine whether the detected increase in PAH congeners during the festival period was due to firework combustion or whether it was a coincidental effect caused by vehicular exhausts, long-range atmospheric transportation, photolysis and chemical degradation. The average incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) values of adults and children living in Bangkok as estimated by three different TEQs for ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation exposure pathways were greatly lesser than the US EPA baseline, further highlighting that the cancer risk of bonfire night falls into the ''acceptable level'' range.

As an oil producing Nation with large mineral deposits, coal is one source of energy generation in Nigeria. However, bye-products of these minerals as alternative energy sources include heavy soot, high emissions of greenhouse gases and resultant organo-contaminates, which are bye-products (i.e., wastes) of heavy machineries. These wastes constitute hazards to the environment and public health. Consequently, Nigeria faces the challenge of organic waste with reverberations and negative impacts on the social, political and economic development of the nation. In this paper we examine the exploration, mining and generation of energy in Nigeria and how the practices involved results in hazards that include exposure to Organo-Chlorinated Compound, Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyl (PCB), classified amongst a group of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Drawing from empirical data captured, we analyze the environmental and public health implications of PCB and other chemicals such as mercury. Our findings reveal that environmental pollution from POPs and indeed chemical sources have increased in Nigeria, due mainly, to the expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial activities. We conclude by providing recommendations for the management and governance of POPs and address the policy implementations of the findings.

Melting glaciers are natural redistributors of legacy airborne pollutants, affecting exposure of pristine proglacial environments. Our data shows that melting Himalayan glaciers can be major contributors of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for surface water in the Gangetic Plain during the dry season. Glacial emissions can exceed in some cases inputs from diffuse sources within the catchment. We analyzed air, deposition and river water in several sections along the Ganges River and its major headwaters. The predominant glacial origin of these contaminants in the Himalayan reach was demonstrated using airewater fugacity ratios and mass balance analysis. The proportion of meltwater emissions compared to pollutant discharge at downstream sections in the central part of the Gangetic Plain was between 2 and 200%. By remobilizing legacy pollutants from melting glaciers, climate change can enhance exposure levels over large and already heavily impacted regions of Northern India.

Aim: The elucidation of temporal trends in human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 17 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) since the previous Irish human milk surveys and to evaluate the impacts of legislative bans and restrictions on human exposure to these compounds.

Methods: Concentrations of PCBs and 17 PCDD/Fs were measured in 16 pools of human milk collected from 92 Irish primiparas participating in the Irish EPA-funded ELEVATE project between October 2016 and April 2018, using Gas-Chromatography coupled with Mass spectrometry.

Results: The geometric mean upper bound concentration of 16 pooled human milk samples [PCDD/Fs + dioxin-like (dl)-PCB TEQ; 4.5 ng kg-1 lipid weight] are on the lower end of those reported internationally. WHO-TEQ PCDD/Fs + dl-PCB are significantly lower (P < 0.005) compared to those reported in the previous Irish human milk studies in 2010 and 2002.

Conclusion: Detected concentrations in this study are comparable to those reported for less industrialised countries in the last WHO/UNEP global surveys for PCDD/Fs. This downward temporal trend likely reflects the impact of regulatory bans and restrictions on the emissions of dioxins and PCBs. While mean upper bound WHO PCDD/F PCB TEQ concentrations are lower than those estimated by EFSA to be associated with adverse health effects in children age 9, maximum upper bound concentrations do exceed EFSA reference concentrations. While the positive health benefits of breastfeeding to both mother and child significantly outweigh potential adverse health effects at reported concentrations, continued action to reduce human body burdens of dioxins and PCBs is required.

Abstract This study examined the adsorption of pentachlorophenol (PCP) on geosorbents (original bulk soil and soils treated to significantly remove organic carbon and oxides of Fe and Mn) under oxic and anoxic experimental conditions. pH effects on adsorption capacities were maximal at pH  K a of PCP (4.7). Decrease in redox potential and an increase in dissolve organic carbon inhibited PCP sorption. While contribution of Mn oxide to PCP sorption was negative due to decreasing charge interference, the study equally implied negligible role of surface area compared to organic matter contents and oxides of Fe with R 2  ≤ 0.825. The rate of Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ release under anoxic condition reduced interactions of phenolate with iron oxides and consequently, the distribution coefficients coupled with increased dissolve organic carbon. Pseudo second order and Langmuir isotherm provided the best kinetic and isotherm models respectively, although adsorption processes appeared to involve more than one kinetic stage based on intra-particle diffusion model ( R 2  ≤ 0.982). The study suggests that soil treatment to remove Mn oxide may encourage transitory PCP sinks in some reductomorphic environments.

In this work, we compare the extraction effectiveness of three methods commonly applied for the determination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the spiked soil by transformer oil (Askarel oil). The techniques included are the Soxhlet extraction (SE), the Ultrasonic extraction (UE), and the Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). Also a comparison of organic extracting solvents was performed in this study. The extraction conditions were not optimized for these techniques; we note that the choices of extraction parameters were based on the experience from pervious successful investigation published by a number of research groups worldwide. This study focused on the variation of the extraction quantities for each PCB congener (29 PCBs) with different extraction methods. The chromatographic analysis results obtained have showed that the mixture (n-hexane-acetone, v/v) can give the highest recoveries when compared to other solvents. The comparison made between the MAE, UE and SE method...

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are persistent pesticides whose usage have been banned or restricted worldwide and the presence of its residues in vegetables could affect its nutritional quality as well cause adverse health effects. This study quantified the OCP residue levels in commonly grown and consumed vegetables and assessed the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks from the consumption of the contaminated vegetables. The OCP residues levels in the extract from the vegetables were determined using a Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD). Health risk estimates were analysed using Estimated Average Daily Intake (EADI), Hazard Index (HI), and Hazard Ratio (HR) for children (16.7 kg) and adults (60 kg) weight categories. The residue analysis indicated that amaranths had the highest mean concentration of endrin aldehyde (2.987 ± 0.391 mg kg-1) and endosulfan sulfate (0.661 ± 0.280 mg kg-1), while in fluted pumpkin, the highest mean concentratio...

Brominated organic pollutants are considered of great concern for their adverse effect on human health and the environment, so an increasing number of such compounds are being classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Mechanochemical destruction is a promising technology for POPs safe disposal because it can achieve their complete carbonization by solvent-free high energy ball milling at room temperature. However, a large amount of co-milling reagent usually is necessary, so a considerable volume of residue is produced. In the present study a different approach to POPs mechanochemical destruction is proposed. Employing stoichiometric quantities of Bi 2 O 3 or La 2 O 3 as co-milling reagent, brominated POPs are selectively and completely converted into their corresponding oxybromides (i.e. BiOBr and LaOBr), which possess very peculiar properties and can be used for some actual and many more potential applications. In this way, bromine is beneficially reused in the final product, while POPs carbon skeleton is safely destroyed to amorphous carbon. Moreover, mechanochemical destruction is employed in a greener and more sustainable manner.

Abstract Honeybees are exposed to several antropogenic environmental pollutants and able to transfer these compounds to their products. There are limited research on detection of several pollutants at the same time in bee products. This study aimed to investigate the residues of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in honey and propolis, which are among the most important products of honeybees. Target analytes in honey and propolis were extracted by solid phase extraction and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The method was validated according to Eurachem guidelines. Only PAH compounds were detected in honey samples, while for propolis, in addition to PAH, certain OCPs, PCBs, and PBDE85 compounds were also found. Detected concentrations were evaluated for their risks, where 32.5 % of the detected residual honey samples and 67.5 % of the propolis samples would not be suitable for human consumption.Present study reveal that, propolis samples collected from the same area were more contaminated than the honey samples; indicating the potential transfer of these environmental pollutants to this bee product at higher level.