Pasargadae

در گستره دشت پاسارگاد و مناطق پیرامون آن مجموعه¬ای از سدها، بندها و کانال¬های گسترده آب¬رسانی وجود دارد که در بررسی های باستان شناسی شناسایی شده¬اند. در فاصله حدود 22 کیلومتری شمال شرق پاسارگاد در ابتدای تنگه¬ای که به تنگ حنا معروف است دو سد تاریخی شناسایی شده که مربوط به دوره هخامنشی است. هرکدام از این سدها سازه¬ای سنگی دارند که با دقت و مهندسی دقیق ساخته شده¬اند. سدها به وسیله کانالی به طول 2700 متر به هم متصل شده¬اند. در بخش دیگری از منطقه و در محدوده دشت علفی در 15 کیلومتری شمال شرق محوطه پاسارگاد دو سد دیگر وجود دارد که به سدهای علفی معروفند. این سدها روی چند جریان فصلی جهت کنترل سیلاب و ذخیره آب ایجاد شده¬اند. همچنین در پایین دست چشمه بناب یک بند تاریخی وجود دارد که به به نظر می رسد جهت کنترل آب چشمه بناب و هدایت آن به محوطه پاسارگاد ساخته شده باشد. بند تاریخی دیگری نیز در جنوب پاسارگاد در محلی که به دم دریا معروف است وجود دارد که جدای از کارکرد آن به عنوان بند، راه ارتباطی میان دشت پاسارگاد و دشت کمین بوده است. در انتهای جنوبی دشت پاسارگاد و نزدیک تنگ سعادت¬شهر سد دیگری وجود دارد که به سد سرپنیران معروف است و روی یک جریان فصلی ساخته شده است. در تنگ بلاغی، منطقه توابع ارسنجان نیز سدهای تاریخی دیگری شناسایی شده است. جدای از این سدها کانال¬ها و شبکه¬های گسترده آب¬رسانی جهت انتقال آب سدها به مناطق مورد نظر ایجاد شده که گسترده¬ترین آنها کانال بخش شرقی دشت پاسارگاد است که نزدیک به 45 کیلومتر درازا دارد. همچنین در دو سمت تنگ بلاغی نیز کانال¬های آب¬رسانی وجود دارد که در برخی از قسمت¬ها با برش صخره¬ها ساخته شده¬اند. کاربری این سدها کنترل سیلاب¬، تامین آب مورد نیاز مناطق مسکونی، زمین¬های کشاورزی، باغ¬ها، پردیس کوروش و محوطه حکومتی پاسارگاد است. با توجه به مطالعات و بررسی¬های انجام شده تاریخ ساخت سدها و کانال¬های آب¬رسانی منطقه پاسارگاد مربوط به دوره هخامنشی است.

The terrace of Pasargadae, Tall-i Takht, is one of the few Achaemenid period monuments in the Persian heartland that “directly” feature characteristics of Ionian-Lydian architecture. According to earlier scholarship, the beginning of construction of the platform of Tall-i Takht dates to the reign of Cyrus, but it remained unfinished when Cyrus died, and Darius changed its function. In fact, leaving aside some few blocks at the center of the western facade and on the southern one, the majority of blocks of the terrace still await final dressing. A new analysis of the unfinished state of these blocks has provided significant information about the construction of the terrace, including the organization of labor, allowing for a reconsideration of the origins of Achaemenid masonry and indeed of cross-cultural interaction between Persians and the West.

This paper focusses on a set of photographs of archaeological sites, bas-reliefs and inscriptions from the pre-Islamic Achaemenid (ca. 559-330 BCE) and Sasanian dynasties (224-651 BCE). In question are photographic reproductions with motifs from Persepolis, Pasargade and Persian rock tombs made in between 1904 and 1934 by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld. As a leading figure in ancient Near Eastern and Iranian studies during the first half of the twentieth century Ernst Herzfeld produced these images for purposes of further studies, research and publications. Just like most of the 3850 glass negatives that constitute the centrepiece of Herzfeld's photographic collection these images have been reprinted and replicated using the blueprint method. The discovery of cyanotype (blueprint) in 1842 commenced the third practical means of lasting image production after daguerreotype in 1839 and calotype in 1840. The increasing commodification and commercialisation of light-sensitive papers for blueprints during the 1870s advanced cyanotype to the first reprographic process. As such it was not merely a method for drawing copies but in fact became a crucial means of replicating photographs over the course of the coming decades. For its simplicity and low material costs the cyanotype printing process was also Herzfeld's reproductive choice for his extensive glass negatives and cut films that documented prehistoric artefacts, monuments and archaeological sites of the Near East, including Iran. Elaborating on the historical framework and distinctive particularities of the cyanotype process this paper discusses the significance of cyanotype in the replication of photographs of ancient Persian cultural sites, specifically focusing on the blueprints of Herzfeld's collection. Against this backdrop this paper further addresses the extent to which the dispersion of the discussed cyanotypes and Herzfeld's photographic heritage at large enabled, promoted and accelerated the revivification of Persian cultural awareness and thus the formation of a national identity.

Anadolu, Asya ile Avrupa arasındaki bir köprü olarak sayılınca, Sardeis bu köprünün başkentlerinden biri olarak tanıtılabilmektedir. Daha dağru bir tabirle, Sardeis sadece Asya ile Avrupa arasındaki köprünün başkenti değil, Coğrafi konumundan dolayı Doğu ve Batı Anadolu’nun kültürel geleneksellerinin birleşmiş özelliklerini gösteren Antik Dönem’deki yerleşimlerden biri sayılabilmektedir. Bundan hareketle Sardeis’te kültürün en önemli parçalarından biri olarak, ölü gömme geleneği de hem Doğu Anadolu hem de Batı Anadolu ve daha geniş bir ölçekle hem Ortadoğu hem de Doğu Avrupa’nın özelliklerini taşımaktadır. Sözü geçen konu farklı dönemler ve Sardeis’teki farklı uygarlıkların egemenliğine bağlı olarak, değişik gösterilerle Sardeis ve çevresindeki yerleşimlerde kazılıp kendi özelliklerini göstermektedir. Dolayısıyla bu makalede Sardeis’teki bütün mezar tipleri sınıflandırılıp, onların hangi kültürlerin ölü gömme türlerini içerdiği araştırılmaktadır.

The Iranian-French project resumed its archaeological work on the site of Pasargadae in the latter half of 2015, the capital founded by Cyrus the Great in the center of the ancient province of Persia. It is the first step of a program that will span over several years and during which we will gradually enrich the Pasargadae archaeological map on a large scale. In the continuity of the previous 1999-2009 programs, we tried to have a better understanding of the layout of the Achaemenid city that was developed following a new pattern where the garden, the park, plays a prominent role. We also would like to further study the territorial changes just before the Achaemenid Empire as well as after its fall until the Islamic period. To approach these topics we gather a pluridisciplinary team that carried out complementary survey works (geophysics, topography, fieldwalking, surface ceramic collection, geoarchaeology) to build a comprehensive reconstruction of the Pasargadae cityscape from the early Achaemenid to Islamic periods. The works were performed inside the protected area of the site as well as in its nearby surroundings. This article presents our methodology as well as our preliminary results. The important 2015 achievements were to demonstrate that the south Tol-e Taḵt hillslope is built, to firmly show that the Achaemenid/post-Achaemenid occupation extended southeast
of the Royal Garden and to shed light on the ancient settlement system
some kilometers north of the city core part. In the same time an important
topography work has been started to accurately document the whole
visible archaeological features over the site. The main fallout of these
surveys is to bring to light parts of the Cyrus project for Pasargadae as
well as the complex and evolving landscape of the site and its territory
before and after the Achaemenid period.

In the frame of his archaeological works carried out in Iran, Rémy Boucharlat provided seminal
contributions to our understanding of the Achaemenid royal foundations of Pasargadae and Persepolis.
During the 2000’s, the restart of fieldwork on these sites using innovative methodological solutions was based
on large-scale surveys beyond the royal palaces complexes. The new results obtained have shed light on the
layout of these sites that were real cities as it has been firmly demonstrated by analyses of written sources and
former archaeological data. A comprehensive view of these recent data allows us to suggest a draft reconstruction
of the cities layouts. Pasargadae and Persepolis provide us with two comparable examples of how the
Achaemenid Persians planned cities: they were designed as much open urban landscapes formed with several
divided settled places sheltering residents and activities of the city, distributed over hundreds of hectares and
encompassed by green areas. Compared to the “classic” Mesopotamian cities, the Persian cases were new
types of cities characterized by the central place of gardens and parks as well as by the absence of a single
populated and densely built core protected by ramparts. Characteristics shared with the Persian cities, that
finally we describe as diffuse, are present in some sites scattered over the whole Empire suggesting that this
new way of thinking the urban landscapes could have served as model. The thoughts presented here are the
starting point of further projects concerning more accurate definitions and analyzes of these particular
cityscapes.

The paper is devoted to one of the vessels, composing the Erebuni Treasure, found in 1968 – the silver, partly gilt rhyton in the form of a head of a young calf with a frieze on the neck, representing four figures, executed in relief. The combination of the elements of the composition typical for the scenes of symposion with the citations from the Greek art with the elements and gestures adopted from the works of the „Greco-Persian“ style, allows to suggest its manufacture in one of the peripheral workshops of Asia Minor, in the contact zone of Greek and Achaemenid civilizations. The dating of the complexes with the finds of silver rhyta of the type discussed in frames of the late 5th/early 4th to the middle of the 4th century BC and the iconographic parallels to the images of the frieze of the Erebuni rhyton allow to date it not later than the middle or the third quarter of the 4th century BC. In its turn, this date does not contradict to the suggestion of the possible hiding of the Treasure in ca. 330 BC, thus, it is most probably more or less simultaneous to the hoard from Pasargadae, which was also hidden in a clay vessel  and most probably, as the latter, marks the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.

Neo-Assyrian military annals list hundreds of Chaldaean and Elamite cities, towns, and natural features by name and geographic descriptions.  Yet despite this volume of data, historians and archaeologists have matched very few to the current accepted geography of southeast Iraq and southwest Iran.  This paper proposes an alternative to that geography.

The paper is devoted to the Treasure, found in 1968. The hoard in “a big jug”, consisting of three silver rhyta, a silver goblet and the fifth, now missing object, was found during the construction works at the foothill of the Erebuni citadel. The silver vessels were preserved in a jug in a flattened condition. Every piece of the Treasure is discussed in detail. The descriptions of the vessels are given in a catalogue section.
        The vessels from the Erebuni Treasure are represented by the items, which were probably manufactured in various time and different workshops, which nevertheless may be localized with more or less degree of certainty in the territory of Anatolia. Our analysis testifies that there are no grounds for the narrow dating of the vessels.
        The rhyta with the horse protome and the unique piece with a rider and horse protome (cat. 1–2) belong to a rather wide time span from the second half of the 5th to the middle (third quarter) of the 4th century BC. The parallels to the goblet with a hole in the bottom (cat. 4) are dating from the late 5th / early 4th to the first half of the 4th century BC and probably testify that the goblet from Erebuni Treasure also belongs to this period. A partly gilt rhyton in the form of a head of a young calf is decorated with a frieze on the neck, representing four figures, executed in relief (cat. 3). The combination of the elements of the composition, typical for the scenes of symposion with the citations from the Greek art with the elements and gestures adopted from the works of the „Greco-Persian“ style, allows to suggest its manufacture in one of the peripheral workshops of Asia Minor, in the contact zone of Greek and Achaemenid civilizations. The dating of the complexes with the finds of silver rhyta of the type discussed in frames of the late 5th/early 4th to the middle of the 4th century BC. and the iconographic parallels to the images of the frieze of the Erebuni rhyton allow to date it not later than the middle or the third quarter of the 4th century B.C.
Already B.N. Aralekyan, the first publisher of the Erebuni Treasure, suggested, that it could have been hidden either as a result of a thread of an enemy’s raid, or at the time of the fall of the Achaemenid supremacy over Armenia in the late 330s B.C., whereas the second option was considered more plausible to him. Ž. Hačatrian and A. Markarian followed by D. Stronach put forward the idea that the Treasure was hidden not earlier than in the beginning of the 3rd century BC. However, the latter dating of the complex is based solely on the chronological position of the rhyton in the form of a head of a young calf (cat. 3), which had not been grounded by the scholars. The results of our analysis do not contradict to the suggestion of the possible hiding of the Treasure in ca. 330 BC, thus, it is most probably more or less simultaneous to the hoard from Pasargadae, which was also hidden in a clay vessel and most probably, as the latter, marks the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.
"

This paper is devoted to treasure found in 1968. The hoard in “a large jug”, consisting of three silver rhyta, a silver goblet and a fifth, now missing object, was found during construction works at the foothill of the Erebuni citadel. The silver vessels were preserved in a jug in a flattened condition. Every piece of the Treasure is discussed in detail. Descriptions of the vessels are provided in a catalogue section.
The vessels from the Erebuni Treasure are items, which were probably manufactured at various times and in different workshops, which nevertheless can be located with a greater or lesser  degree of certainty in the territory of Anatolia. Our analysis shows that there are no grounds for a narrow dating of the vessels.
The rhyta with the horse protome and the unique piece with a horse-and-rider protome (Cat. 1–2) belong to a rather wide time span from the second half of the 5th to the middle (third quarter) of the 4th century BC. Parallels for the goblet with a hole in the base (Cat. 4) date from a period between the late 5th/early 4th century to the first half of the 4th century BC and probably indicate that the goblet from the Erebuni Treasure also belongs to this period. A partly gilded rhyton in the form of a head of a young bull is decorated with a frieze on the neck, representing four figures, executed in relief (cat. 3). The combination of the elements in the composition, typical for the scenes of a symposion with references to Greek art, and elements and gestures adopted from the works of the „Graeco-Persian“ style, makes it possible to suggest that it was manufactured in one of the peripheral workshops of Asia Minor, in the contact zone of the Greek and Achaemenid civilizations. The dating of the assemblages using with the finds of silver rhyta of the type discussed within the time-frame of the late 5th/early 4th to the middle of the 4th century BC and the iconographic parallels for the images in the frieze of the Erebuni  rhyton allow us to date it no later than the middle or the third quarter of the 4th century BC.
V.N. Aralekyan, the first publisher of the Erebuni Treasure, had already suggested, that it could have been hidden either as a result of the threat of an enemy incursion, or at the time of the collapse of Achaemenid supremacy over Armenia in the late 330s BC, but the second option appeared  more plausible to him. Ž. Hačatrian and A. Markarian, followed by D. Stronach, put forward the idea that the Treasure was hidden no earlier than the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Yet the latter dating of the complex is based solely on the date of the rhyton in the form of a head of a young bull (Cat. 3), which had not been substantiated by the scholars. The results of our analysis do not contradict the suggestion that the Treasure was possibly hidden in ca. 330 BC, thus assigning it a date more or less the same as that of the hoard from Pasargadae, which was also hidden in a clay vessel and most probably, like the Erebuni Treasure, coincided with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.

In this paper, the main features of Achaemenid garden design of the VI-IV centuries B.C. are discussed, with the royal garden of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae as the main case study. The remains of the irrigation system at Pasargadae allow the study of the plan of the garden-paradise, as well as its specific role in the organization of this palatial ensemble. The offered typology of Achaemenid gardens is based on the archaeological researches and ancient sources. Special attention is paid to the etymology of the word "paradise" in the Old Persian language, which provides additional material for the study of garden types in the Achaemenid Empire. The author describes the main features of the Persian paradise at Pasargadae, and also highlights the characteristics and differences of the two other types of Achaemenid garden monuments of the V-IV centuries B.C.

This paper probes the relationship between visual representations and visitation practices at Pasargadae, a UNESCO World Heritage site in southern Iran. Presenting a systematic analysis of publicly available online images of Pasargadae, the paper examines the complex relationship between the place and its visual representations. Through analysis, the paper elaborates on a sense of intimacy that, while grounding Pasargadae, is also a potential common ground in pre-Islamic heritage in which the Iranian state and society could at once meet and contest versions of identity. Examining this relationship facilitates reflections into both heritage and the peculiarities of its visual representation in the Iranian context.

Health tourism is one of the most influential parameters that can play a significant role in the tourism development of the country. Although this concept has been given special attention in the developed countries, developing countries such as Iran, in spite of the richness of capabilities and potentials, have not made a worthwhile investment in this field. Despite the fact that health tourism in Iran is in its infancy, it can strengthen its foundations in Iran by creating new opportunities and competitiveness of the tourism industry. This paper seeks to provide a first assessment of this emerging phenomenon in the area, which aims at introducing and designing a health tourism centre or health village in the Pasargadae region of Fars province, due to the high potential of this region to attract tourists and excellent positions to construct health village. For this purpose, by identifying strengths and opportunities for sustainable health tourism development, as well as by examining...

[ukrainian version]

The analysis of the book "Peregrinación del mundo" published by a pilgrim traveler Pedro Cubero Sebastian in 1682 is made. The main directions of his trip, its dating is determined and put forward a hypothesis about the artificial route depicted in his book. We can draw a conclusion about the discoveries that was made by Pedro Cubero in his travel. As we have found out Pedro Cubero 1) was the first to made a trip around the world in an easterly direction and 2) the journey by land and sea; 3) the first to found the location of Troy (before Schliemann); 4) he was also the first who refuted the testimony of ancient authors about the existence in distant countries of "monsters", and he suggested that it was only a metaphor or mistranslation of metaphors (citing the example of the Chinese people and their understanding of metaphorical expression "one-eyed  people"); 5) the first described bison, 6) the cinnamon plant and 7) he was the first to describe the fire-ball in action; 8) the first wrote about the different traditions of alcoholic beverages production (beer, kvass, vodka, mash, mead, wine, etc.) and mentioned the correct components required for their production. We have also singled out issues that need further research.

Key words: ethnography, historical geography, circumnavigation, pilgrimage, Pedro Cubero Sebastián, Eastern Europe

Abstract Casting Darius as a descendant of the Achaemenid main line of kings, and Cyrus as one belonging to a secondary branch, Franpois Vallat has argued that Darius's contempt for his paternal cousin stemmed from the perception that Cyrus usurped his forefather's title and position. As it happens, it parallels my own theory by which I had explained that Darius’ kingly ideology reflected his antagonism toward the Median ideology. Whereas Vallat sees Cyrus as the one who banished Zoroaster from his land, I propose instead that the real culprit was Astyages, and that in revenge, Zoroastrian priests eventually turned him into a Ḍaḥḥāk portrayed with two serpents on his shoulders. They also modified Iran's ancient history to include “friends” and to banish “enemies”. The antagonism between the followers of Zoroaster and their enemies, however, was exacerbated by an ongoing feud between the caste of the Median magi and that of the Persian fire priests, the pārsās, to which belonged Darius and his ancestors.

Background and Objective: Biodeterioration is an irreversible damage that is caused by colonization of microorganisms on the surface of different materials. Among all microorganisms, fungi play an important role in deterioration of materials.
Fungi can colonize on stone surfaces and by secreting different enzymes, organic and inorganic acids and pigments, can cause bio-weathering and changing not only the substrate materials but the color of stones. Furthermore, fungal mycelia can penetrate into the internal surfaces of stones and change the interior chemical contents of stones. Pasargadae including Cyrus the Great Tomb is entitled by UNESCO as one of the World Heritage Sites. This study was focused on the identification of fungi that were colonized on the tomb limestone monument.
Materials and Methods: Sampling of stone was carried out to identify inhabiting molds and yeasts. biochemical and microscopic methods were used for isolated strains. In addition, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the PCR products were done. Finally, phylogenic tree was constructed basde on the sequences of ITs region. Results and Conclusion: The common inhabiting fungi which isolated from the tomb limestone belong to Caldosporium sp., Embellisia sp., Cryptococcus sp., Candida sp., Meyerozyma sp., Arthirinium sp., Ulocladium sp., Fusarium sp., Humicola sp. and Pseudozyma sp.. Stereomicroscopic and Scanning Electron Microscope images and XRD, were taken from pieces of stone samples and indicated the severe pattern damages such as pitting, biomineralization, etching and sugaring on the surfaces of stones.

In recent years, survey programs and salvage excavations of predominantly rural settlement sites of Achaemenid date in the Tang-i Bolaghi and the attested find of several hydrological off-sites traces in the Pasargadae area, provide a substantial base for a new approach to the surroundings of the first palatial site of the Achaemenids. They hint at the economic impact and rural setting of the Achaemenid capital of Pasargadae within its wider hinterland, probably from the onset of its construction. Though results presented in this article are largely preliminary, an early evaluation of the available data discusses elements and possible logics behind the apparent unfinished character of many of the water-related features discovered so far.

Established by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, Pasargadae is the first dynastic capital of the Achaemenid Empire. One of its most important stone monuments is the tomb of Cyrus the Great (559-530 BC) which was built with large pieces of limestone.
Pasargadae is generally identified as the second largest archaeological site after the
imperial palace complex of Persepolis. Today, this monument is entitled by UNESCO
as a World Heritage Sites. This study aimed to survey the role of fungi in
biodeterioration of Pasargadae stone monuments for the first time. In general, 33 fungal
isolates were attained from stone surfaces of the Cyrus tomb. All the isolates were
subcultured on Potato Dextrose Agar and Sabouraud Dextrose Agar. For microscopic
observations, slide culture technique was carried out. The isolates were identified based
on macro- and micromorphological characteristics. Overall, dematiaceous
hyphomycetes and yeasts were isolated. Among the isolated fungal genera, Alternaria
sp., Cladosporium sp., Ulocladium sp., Fusarium sp., Humicula sp., Arthirinium sp. and
yeasts were dominant. To observe the biodeterioration process caused by fungi,
Scanning Electron Microscopy was used for stone samples. The results confirmm
biopitting, sugaring and etching damages caused by growth of fungal hyphae on and
inside the stone surfaces. The identity of the isolates will be examined by molecular
sequence level data. Isolation and characterization of biodeteriorants are the first step
for conservation of any stone surface of monuments

Health tourism is one of the most influential parameters that can play a significant role in the tourism development of the country. Although this concept has been given special attention in the developed countries, developing countries such as Iran, in spite of the richness of capabilities and potentials, have not made a worthwhile investment in this field. Despite the fact that health tourism in Iran is in its infancy, it can strengthen its foundations in Iran by creating new opportunities and competitiveness of the tourism industry. This paper seeks to provide a first assessment of this emerging phenomenon in the area, which aims at introducing and designing a health tourism centre or health village in the Pasargadae region of Fars province, due to the high potential of this region to attract tourists and excellent positions to construct health village. For this purpose, by identifying strengths and opportunities for sustainable health tourism development, as well as by examining challenging issues and threats, guidelines for converting the weaknesses into opportunities, and effectual usage of strengths and positive points with the applicable approach are presented.

Pasargadae is an Achaemenid archaeological site in south of Iran. There are some remains of stone monuments in this site such as Cyrus Tomb, Tomb of Cyrus' son and successor (Cambyses II), two royal palaces, and the fortress of Toll-e Takht. The monuments have been made out of three different types of carbonate stones in beige, green gray and dark gray colours. Despite of the same climate, deteriorations of three stone types are different in appearance; meanwhile, the beige type is in better conditions than the others in respect of deterioration. Also, some decay morphologies such as exfoliation and scaling have occurred on the dark gray stone. The aim of this research is to determine the reasons of deteriorations related to the nature of stones that caused different decay ratio and morphological deformation of stones in the same conditions. To clarify the nature of related factors of decay and deformation reasons, we prepared high resolution photos from thin sections and SEM images. The results of this research revealed that, the microfabric of beige stones are a low rate of metamorphism (marble like) of grain-to-grain pressure-solution and inequigranular hypiodiotopic fabric as well as the dolomitization phenomenon in one sample. The dark gray is a biomicrite (microbial micrite) with some stylolites and micro cracking. The lower part of the palaces' floor made of sandstone in two sizes of grains (fine and medium). The presence of calcite, opal, bioclast particles and clay cement whereby different resistance between grains of sandstone caused a high percentage of decays during the long time. In SEM micrographs, calcite dehydration, dehydration channels, sugaring phenomenon, and some bio-mineralized pitting are visible in stones. Hence, the presence of porosity (stylolite, interparticle and microporosity), recrystallized calcite, and difference of resistance between different grains in the sandstone and the biomicrite stone as well as the chemical nature of them caused the high ratio of decay by comparing to other used stones in the Pasargadae site during the time.