Ottoman Tobacco Pipes

“Hookah,” which is also known as “Narghileh,” “Maassel,”
or “Shisha,” is a form of waterpipe smoking. Hookah is
composed of a tobacco bowl known as the head where tobacco
(that is processed and flavored) is placed, a body, a water bowl,
a hose, and a mouthpiece. Charcoal is positioned on the top
of the head that contains tobacco. When the smoker inhales
through the hose, the air is drawn into and around the charcoal.
The generated heated air passes through heated tobacco to
produce the mainstream smoke aerosol. This smoke aerosol
passes through the water bowl producing bubbles and goes
through the hose to the smoker. The average hookah smoking
session consists of 171 inhalations (each approximately 0.5 L)
of 2.6 s duration at a frequency of 2.8 inhalations/min.

A first critique of the early archaeological literature whereby Otoman clay pipes had been incorrectly attrributed dates in the Mamluk period and, because this pre-dated the introduction of tobacco from the New World to the Old, led to the assumption that they had been used to ingest narcotica.

The pipe collection discussed here, being under the care of the Department of Mediaeval and Modern Times Archaeology at the Archaeological Museum in Krakow, consists of thirty-seven items, mostly clay bowls of one-piece pipes or stub-stemmed pipes; it also includes a few fragments of clay stems of one-piece pipes as well as unique porcelain bowls and water bags. The collection has been dated broadly to the period between the 17th century and the first half of the 20th century, with the predominance of pipes dated to the 19th century. All the artefacts have been uncovered during archaeological research and supervision in Krakow in 1956–2008.

The collection of the tobacco accessories is dominated by clay stub-stemmed pipes; among those, items without signatures and workshop marks, with multicoloured, mainly yellow or green glazing on their outer surfaces, are especially noteworthy (Photo 1:10-12). They were shaped in two-piece moulds both from ferruginous and kaolinic clays. Some of the pipes had complicated ornaments consisting of geometric or plant-like motifs (Photo 1:9, 14) made with diverse techniques, most often with mould impression. It is likely that the accessories were produced by local potters for the local market. The workshops may have operated near Krakow, as Magdalena Bis argues, quoting potteries in Alwernia and Biecz which also made such items (2009, 239). The workshops could have provided customers in Krakow with various ceramic goods, including tobacco accessories, particularly those for undemanding consumers. This thesis, however, cannot be verified without signatures or other marks helping to identify the products. It is worth stressing that archaeological research in Krakow has not confirmed so far the presence of workshops similar to those in Warsaw or Vilnius, recognisable on the basis of fragments of characteristic ceramic racks used in pipe firing (Zimmermann 1988, 17–18; Meyza 1997, 43, Fig. 7; 2004, 57–58, Abb. 6; Čivilytė, Kvizikevičius, Sarcevičius 2005, 64–65, Abb. 3; Bis 2009, 238).

Most of the pipes, signed items of sound workmanship in particular, came from trade exchange. Burghers of Krakow favoured so-called coffee-house type pipes (Photos 2:7, 9) or signed pipes from numerous Hungarian and Slovakian production plants (Photos 2:5, 8, 10–11). Those accessories, frequent especially in the 19th century, can be treated as evidence of Krakow’s developing trade exchange with large centres producing pipes made of red and kaolinic clays, popular among customers at that time. The great number of such pipes may also have resulted from trade policy of the Austrian authorities, who passed a law abolishing customs autonomy in West Galicia in 1784 and included the region into the overall Austrian system with markedly protectionist tendencies (Kulczykowski 1963, 36). In effect, West Galicia reoriented its trade from the northern to the southern directions, the latter being linked to the countries within the Habsburg Monarchy (Kulczykowski 1963, 36).

Interestingly, the analysed collection contains few one-piece pipes, especially those of Prussian origin (Photo 1:1-7), which suggests that Krakow inhabitants favoured the eastern model of tobacco smoking, related to the Turkish tradition. This problem has been discussed by Katarzyna Meyza, who argues rightly that in the 17th and 18th centuries, Poland was situated at the borderline between West European culture, associated with one-piece pipes, and East European culture, more fond of Turkish stub-stemmed pipes (1997, 33). The impact of the Turkish tradition on the model of tobacco smoking in modern Krakow has also been pointed out by Joanna Dąbal, who notes that Krakow had good trade exchange with south-eastern Europe (2010, 82). Moreover, the scarcity of Prussian one-piece pipes might have resulted from the protectionist customs policy of the Austrian government. Mariusz Kulczykowski writes that the law passed in 1784 was primarily directed against Prussian merchandise imported in considerable amounts by Polish merchants in West Galicia (1963, 36). The few uncovered artefacts of that kind show that the West European model of tobacco smoking was not popular among burghers of Krakow, and pipes of the western type may have been brought to the city by travelling merchants or by soldiers.

The 19th-century assemblage of the tobacco accessories includes porcelain pipes, mainly from Austro-Hungarian manufactures producing china, e.g. in Vienna (Photo 3:1-10). Those artefacts gained popularity especially among soldiers. The Austrian authorities made Krakow a strategic location at that time, positioning many troops in the city. Numerous porcelain pipes uncovered in the barracks and forts built by the Austrians in Krakow confirm that such accessories were trendy among soldiers, which is also evidenced by the finds from the area of St. Benedict Church.

The tobacco accessories uncovered in Krakow reflect its inhabitants’ preferences related mainly to the eastern (Turkish) traditions. They also indicate that tobacco smokers in the city used both local products and high quality accessories from other European centres (Fig. 3). The subject, however, requires further historical and archaeological studies which should cover the Krakow collection as well as analogous finds uncovered in other Polish cities.

Only in the past few decades have scholars begun to publish collections of Ottoman tobacco
pipes from Palestine. The collection of 89 pipes presented in this chapter in four groups is the
first substantial publication of Ottoman pipes from Jaffa. They originated from a refuse pit
excavated during salvage excavations of the seawall on Razif Ha-‘Aliyah Ha-Sheniya St. Stylistic
analysis, archaeological contexts, and typologies suggest that most of these pipes represent the
last phase of use of clay pipes in Palestine before their replacement by cigarettes in the early
twentieth century.
For a PDF of article, email: Lior Rauchberger (lior.rauchberger@gmail.com)

Başur Höyük, Siirt’in batısındaki Botan vadisindeki Aktaş köyünde yer almaktadır. Höyüğün üzerinde  yakın zamana kadar bulunan modern köy tahrip olmuştur. Muhtemelen bu köy yerleşmesine ait olan lüleler büyük çoğunluğu yüzeyde ele geçirilmiştir. Başur Höyük’teki 2007–2009 yılı arasında yapılan kazılarda toplam 112 lüle ve lüle parçası bulunmuştur. Lüle parçaları arasında yedi tip görülmektedir.  Bu tipler arasında başta kaideli ve süzgeç çanaklı ile süzgeçli basık yuvarlak çanaklı lüleler olmak üzere yuvarlak çanaklı, basık yuvarlak çanaklı, silindir çanaklı lüleler, disk kaideli ve lale biçimli lülelere rastlanmıştır. Örnekleri arasında belli tiplerin yaygın olduğu görülen Başur Höyük lülelerinde tütünün yanı sıra afyonda içilmiş olabilir. Ağızlık, çubuk ve lüle olmak üzere üç parçadan oluşan lülelerde çubuk, çanağa veya duman yoluna takılmaktadır. Her iki tipteki lüleler, Başur Höyük lüle buluntuları arasında görülmektedir. Kilden  yapılmış olan lüleler genellikle sert, açık gri hamurlu ve siyah perdahlıdır. Özellikle üzeri kazıma, baskı ve rulet baskı tekniğiyle yapılan bezemeler örneklerde görülmektedir.“Kaideli ve süzgeç çanaklı lüle” ve “süzgeçli basık yuvarlak çanaklı lüle” tipinin diğer tiplere göre daha yoğun olması bu iki tipin daha çok tercih edildiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Genellikle Anadolu’da Çattepe Höyük, Türbe Höyük, Bitlis Kalesi, Hasankeyf ve Harput gibi yerlerde görülen bu iki tip, aynı  zamanda Anadolu dışında Tel Aphek, Horvat Zikhrin ve Khirbet Hatara gibi yerlerde de görülmektedir. Başur Höyük lüle buluntuları, 17. ile 19. yy arasındaki yerleşime ait buluntular arasında yer almaktadır.

Pipes Found at the Excavations of the Tumulus Başur
Başur Basur Tumulus is at the villages of Aktaş, in the Bohtan Valley northwest of Siirt. The modern village which h as be en on the tumulus until recently i s destroyed. Probably, most of the pipes which belong to the settlement of the village has been found on the surface. A t the excavations which were arranged at Basur Tumulus between the years 2007-2009, 112 pipes and pipe fragments have been  found out.There are seven types of pipe fragments. They are, mostly base and sieve bowl pipe, shallow rounded bowl pipe with sieve, and also rounded bowl, shallow rounded bowl, cylender bowl, disc-shaped and lily-bowl pipes. Especially “base and sieve bowl pipe” and “shallow rounded pipe with sieve” are common types. May be these two pipe prefered the other pipes. Not only tobacco but also opium may have been smoked at the Basur Tumulus pipes among whose samples some specific types are common.

For the pipes which consist of three parts as pipe, chibouk and mouthpiece, chibouk is inserted in stem socket or bowl. Both these two types of pipes are seen among the findings of Basur Tumulus. The majorty of the pipes made of clay are tough, pale gray clay and black slip. The decorations which are especially made with the techniques of incise, press and roulette press are seen in the samples.The fact that the types; “base and sieve bowl pipe” and “shallow rounded bowl pipe with sieve” are more superflous than the other types proves that these two types are more common in the area. These two types which are usually seen in the places such as Cattepe and Türbe Tumulus, Castle of Bitlis,  Harput and Hasankeyf in Anatolia, are at the same time seen in the places such as Tel Aphek, Horvat  Zikhrin and Khirbet Hatara in the out of Anatolia.The pipe fragments of Basur Tumulus have been among the findings belonging to the settlements between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries.

The paper deals with the collection of Ottoman ceramic pipes from the Local Museum Visoko, wich has four pipes in total. For these pipes we find analogies in Novi Sad, Belgrade, Dubrovnik and Timisoara, and they can be dated to the 18th and 19th centuries. One sample comes from the archaeological excavations of the Mile site in Arnautovići. Two other samples are accidental findings from the territory of the Minicipality of Visoko, and the last one is from the site of the park ’’Ravne 2’’. The pipes were processed according to Robinson’s and Vladislav-Nikolay typological schemes. Today, these ceramic pipes are part of the rich ethnographic collection of the Local Museum Visoko.

This paper considers new evidence for the relationship
between the Marseille clay pipe maker Morelli and pipe
producers in the Tophane neighbourhood of Istanbul. Were
the pipes sold under Morelli’s name made in Marseille or
procured in Istanbul?

This chapter of the book on Area I of Tell el Burak deals with the Mamluk-Ottoman remains (dating from the 13th to the 18th cent. C.E.). They have provided a modest contribution to our understanding of rural settlements from the Mamluk- Ottoman Periods. As their poor state of preservation has allowed for tentative dating only, the Tell el-Burak remains have contributed limited new information on the vernacular architecture (Houses I and II) and material culture (pottery, lamps and clay pipes) of the  period. The chapter also includes a short report on a Child Burial found in this excavation area.

The article discusses the results of limited fieldwork carried out in 2012 at the St. George's (Mar Girgis) church near the village of Rachkida, about 9 km northeast of Batroun. The church, which was probably built by a local Christian community like other villages in the region, was founded on remains from the Byzantine period. As far as could be ascertained, the main body of the building is a three-aisled basilica extended to include a porch on the west side and an additional chapel with two apses at the east end. The church was used in the 12th and 13th centuries and may have kept its sacral function throughout the early Mamluk period, perhaps even later. Throughout its post-ecclesiastical history it functioned as a relatively well-preserved, freestanding roofed building. A large number of diverse finds from the Late Ottoman and French Mandate periods indicate frequent use as a shelter or even a place of temporary habitation. The medieval and post-medieval pottery from the site forms a small but nevertheless significant assemblage, offering unique insight into the local material culture of northern Lebanon. More importantly, it provides a preliminary analysis of several categories of pottery which, to date, have been absent or only cursorily mentioned in archaeological research from Lebanon.

Výstava s podtitulem "Archeologické nálezy dýmek v Čechách a na Moravě" proběhla v Regionálním muzeu v Jílovém u Prahy od 17. 2. do 18. 6. 2017 a v Muzeu Nové Strašecí od 7. 9. do 15. 10. 2017. Představila více než 70 kusů hliněných a porcelánových dýmek (převážně z archeologických nálezů posledních 20 let). Většina nálezů pocházela z archeologických výzkumů společností Archaia, z.ú. a Archaia Praha z.ú. Dalšími dýmkami přispěly: Archaia Brno, z.ú., AÚ AV ČR (Pražský hrad), Městské muzeum v Čelákovicích, Muzeum T.G.M. v Rakovníku a Muzeum hlavního města Prahy. Vystavené dýmky doprovázely postery, které zde máte k dispozici ke stažení.

This is a preliminary study of the ceramic artifacts from the rescue excavations
carried out at Turnu Fortress, seasons 2018-2019. The following were analysed: four fragments of
faience represented by coffee cups and maybe a plate, one possible Chinese porcelain fragment, four
fragments of jugs, a candlestick, a stove tile and forty-two whole and fragmented clay pipes. The
faience fragments belong to the luxury vessel category and are products of Islamic workshops that
followed the Iznik and Kütahya styles. They can be chronologically dated to the sixteenth and
seventeenth-eighteenth centuries. The vessels for common use are represented by jugs that are
common forms of vessels widespread in the Ottoman provinces. Included in the category of special
objects are candlesticks for lighting and stove tiles for heating the rooms. They are common forms from
Ottoman contexts, widespread in the 16th - 17th centuries. The study also includes a large quantity of
clay pipes, some of which have the workshop stamp and possible inscriptions with Arab characters.

Nearly all discussion in historical archaeology exploring issues of consumption and commodities is focused on the Euro-American world. This paper contributes data from archaeological investigations in the Middle East for exploring modern consumption. Commodities of pleasure, such as tobacco and coffee, entered Middle Eastern social life after the fifteenth century and greatly impacted the cultural landscape of the Middle East, entangling the peoples of the region into larger socio-political arenas. Examples from provincial corners of the Ottoman Empire illustrate the potential of historical archaeology for uncovering the material self-definition of peoples in the Middle East and for breaking down perceived divisions between components of the modern world.

Clay tobacco pipes from the collection of the Archaeological Department of the Varaždin City Museum were found during archaeological research, with one exception, in the wider area of  Varaždin County. So, there is a pipe from the city of Lepoglava and two from the cave Vindija. Nevertheless, most of them were found in the area of  the historic nucleus of the city Varaždin (27), in the wet ditch of the varaždin fortress colled Stari grad. Also, more of them are a result of the archaeological surveillance in the city itself; In the streets of Branko Vodnik and Petar Preradović, and from the surroundings of the church of St. Florian. All of these pipes belong to the eastern or Mediterranean group, with one exception that we attribute to the west, that is found in the ditch of the Old Town (cat. 1). The east is represented by two main types; Austro-Hungarian and Turkish. Most of the findings belong to the Austro-Hungarian type (cat. 7-30), and within them there is a larger group of Schemnitza pipe from Ban Štiavnica or their imitations (Grades 7-16), with the stamps of the workshops M. Hönig Schemnitz, Bodnar Schemnitz, Leop. Gross Schemnitz, Selmecz. They are to be traced to the 19th century of the pipe group (cat. 18-23) and can be attributed to Austrian workshops, and to the workshop of Josepha Partscha in Theresienfeld due to the stamp of the pipe (cat. 18). The examples (cat. 17) with the stamp LSLESINGER are attributed to the Hungarian workshop in the town of Papa, and the postal code PODRECS (cat. 24) are attributed to the production at the slovak workshop in Podrečany. There is also a group of so called café tobacco pipe (cat. 25-30), which we attribute to the production in Meidling, Vienna (cat. 25), then in the german city Cologne (cat. 26) and slovak Kolin (cat. 27-30). This production in Kolin can be recognized by the typical net decorations, which all date to the half of the 19th century. Turkish type is represented by 5 samples (cat. 2-6). It is a group of pipes that can be attributed to the so-called Borderland-type pipes. They belong to the group of the oldest found pipes of Croatia in the second half of the 17th century, and were used in borderland areas colled Vojna krajina or Militärgrenze, the area under militar rule of Habsburg monarchy, bordering the Ottoman Empire. Chronologically, this whole group of pipes from the Varaždin City Museum with 30 samples covers the period from the very beginnings of smoking in the 17th century, until the end of mass production and production at the end of the 19th century.

The paper deals with the collection of six Ottoman ceramic pipes from the Local museum collection in Gračanica. The pipes belong to archeological finds which in BiH were mostly not paid attention to, so this type of archaeological find has been largely neglected. We find analogies for these ceramic pipes in Serbia, Romania, even Egypt, and can be dated from the 17th to the 19th centuries. The pipes were processed
according to Robinson’s and Vladislav-Nikolay typological schemes. Today, these ceramic pipes are part of the main setting of the Local museum collection in Gračanica.

In 2018 the heirs of Nadežda Kafol from Bled handed over her collection of 65 pipes to the Department of History and Applied Arts of the National Museum of Slovenia. The collectress Nadežda Kafol (1917–2016), née Jovanović in Surčin, Serbia, graduated in psychology and pedagogy in Belgrade in the late 1930s. As a student she became acquainted with Ciril Kafol from Čepovan, whom she married in 1941, and the couple moved to nearby Zemun. Immediately after the end of the Second World War the family moved to Markovci near Ptuj, in the mid 1950s to Bohinjska Bistrica, and in 1964 to Bled, where Nadežda taught history and Serbo-Croatian at the Dr. Josip Plemelj Primary School for 20 years. Kafol’s collection grew, rather occasionally instead of systematically, over nearly 50 years, from the mid 1950s to around 2005, and especially in connection with places and persons with whom Nadežda Kafol and her family were connected in one or another way. The exact origin of the individual pipes is not known, though we do not doubt that the collectress knew the story of every single pipe. Some pipes are equipped with a label and a note on their origin. She was gifted many specimens by family friends or acquaintances, and acquired others for small sums of money. The Gorjuše pipes, artistic artisanal products made of pear wood, are undoubtedly from the time the collectress lived in Bohinjska Bistrica. She acquired the small clay pipes during her holidays on the Adriatic coast in Croatia, where her husband Ciril found some of them when diving. The Kafol Collection contains 34 porcelain pipes with depictions of military, love, hunting, plant, animal, local, and other motifs, portraits, and pipes without paintings. The porcelain pipes are divided into two types by form: pipes with a deep cylindrical chamber and a tube-shaped stem, and larger pipes. Seven pipes are made of meerschaum (sepiolite), a very soft clay mineral that is easy to shape. Six meerschaum pipes feature carved reliefs of coats-of-arms, dates, animals and portraits, and the biggest pipe with the Austro-Hungarian coat-of-arms, was certainly bought at an antique shop in Bled in 1997. There are eleven Gorjuše pipes, named after Gorjuše in Gorenjska; of these, two are of the višnarca type, and nine of the čedra type. The types of wood used for these pipes were alder, birch, yew, box and preferably pear, while spruce was used for the stems. The collection further contains seven clay pipes and six pipes made of different materials.

Published in memory of the late Paolo Fiorina, this paper reviews the written evidence for the introduction and rise of smoking in Iraq during the Ottoman period, and compares this with the growing amount of archaeological data for pipes found either on surface surveys or in excavations.

A Research On The Figurative Bird Ornamentation On Pipes
Various numbers of pipes were produced both in Istanbul and in the central Anatolia in the Ottoman Empire. They are usually called in respect to the shape of their bowls. Pipes vary in their figuration, ornamentation and types. Geometric, plantal, written or figurative ornamentations might be seen either all together or each separately on pipes. Lion, mask or bird depictions might be seen among the samples of figurative. In light of the scientific articles in the field, the number of the pipes with bird depictions can be said to be much further than the pipes with lion and mask depictions. On this article, the primary aim of this article is about the pipes with figurative bird ornamentations. On the other hand, it should be underlined that the number of the pipes with bird depictions is not plentiful when the found-examples are taken into consideration. It is noteworthy that this figure has been used in times with pleasure.
This article, therefore, aims at analyzing and clarifying on which pipes bird depictions are represented, on which part of the pipes those depictions are located in and to what extent the bird depictions are represented either separately or with some other figurative decorations. Found in various places, the pipes with bird ornamentations are also going to be considered in comparison to other bird decorations existing in some other branches of arts in the rubric of Islamic Art.
Key Words: pipe, clay, type, ornament, bird figure

The pipes which are the subject of this study are in the collection of the Archaeological Museum in Krakow. The collection consists of 24 clay bowls – 23 stub-stemmed pipes and 1 one-piece pipe. They come from research conducted in Poland and Ukraine, and are largely lacking in documentation from field work. We can base only on information included in the specification certificates and entries in museum inventory ledgers, on the basis of which it is rather difficult to establish the archaeological context of the finds. The collection mainly consists of bowls of stub-stemmed pipes, of undetermined provenance; but in some cases marks have been preserved which could indicate pipe manufacturing centres operating in e.g. Poland and Slovakia.

Hasankeyf’te 1986 ile 2009 yılları arasında, 1992 ile 1998 yılları arası hariç olmak üzere, kazısı yapılabilen alanlardan çok sayı da bütün veya bütüne yakın, tipi belirlenebilen ya da kırık parçalar halinde 750 lüle ve lüle parçası ele geçirilmiştir. Hasankeyf Kazısı lüle buluntuları içerisinde 12 tip tespit edilebilmiştir. Bunlar arasında silindir çanaklı, torba biçimli çanaklı, karinalı çanaklı, yuvarlak çanaklı, basık yuvarlak çanaklı, süzgeçli basık yuvarlak çanaklı, lale çanaklı, krater biçimli çanaklı, dikdörtgen çanaklı, kaideli ve süzgeç çanaklı, disk kaideli ve silindir kaideli lüle tipleri yer almaktadır.
Hasankeyf lüle buluntuları, bölgenin lüle tiplerini yansıtması açısından önem taşımaktadır. Hasankeyf lülelerinin tipleri, hamur ve astar renkleri ile süsleme repertuvarı doğrultusunda merkezdeki lüle kullanımının 17. ile 20. yüzyılın başları arasında var olduğu anlaşılmaktadır.

Smyrna Antik Kent, Agora Kazıları’nda çıkan Osmanlı seramikleri arasında önemli bir grubu lüleler oluşturmaktadır. 2007 ve 2008 yıllarında Agora ve Basmane olmak üzere iki mevkide yapılan kazı çalışmalarında 2251 lüle ve lüle parçası ele geçirilmiştir. Lülelerin bu kadar yoğun ele geçmesi, çok sayıda tipin varlığının tespit etmemizi sağlamaktadır. Silindir çanaklı, yuvarlak çanaklı, yivli çanaklı, nervür çanaklı, yayvan çanaklı, basık yuvarlak çanaklı, süzgeç çanaklı, kaideli ve süzgeçli çanaklı, basık kaideli, disk kaideli ve lale çanaklı lülelere yoğun olarak rastlanmaktadır. Bu tiplerin yanı sıra sadece bir örneği bulunan tipler de görülmektedir.
Smyrna lüleleri, Agora ve çevresinde yoğun lüle kullanımının olduğunu göstermekle birlikte bu kadar yoğun lüle buluntusu, yakınlarda bir kahvehane veya imalathanenin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Ancak lülelerin büyük çoğunluğunun kullanılmış olması ilk ihtimali kuvvetlendirmektedir.
2007-2008 yıllarına ait tarihi tespit edilebilen Smyna lüleleri, 17.yüzyılın başı ile 20.yüzyılın başı arasına tarihlenmektedir. Örnekler, lüle üretiminin başından sonuna kadarki dönemi kapsamaktadır.
Smyrna örneklerinin bire bir benzerlerine diğer merkezlerde görmek mümkündür. Bu bağlamda Smyrna’da ele geçen lüleler, zengin bir lüle panoraması sunmaktadır.

This paper presents pipes from the area of Veštar Harbour, recovered from excavations on land and during the archaeological investigation of the seabed. They are a diverse group and include pipes from the Po valley, Choggia, and the Netherlands as well as English style WM pipes. They range in date from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century.

Tobacco is a plant product derived from a variety of plants belonging to the genus Nicotiana. The alkaloid nicotine present in the plant leafs is a stimulant and has an addictive effect. The tobacco plants have been historically grown and used for recreational purposes by the American local population. The dried tobacco leaves are consumed as chewing tobacco, snuff, and smoked in a variety of dispensations. Tobacco use (TU) has an adverse effect on various body systems and is a determinant for different diseases ranging from cancers to atherosclerosis. TU is a modifiable environmental risk factor for various diseases. Hence, with public health education and behavior modification, its burden can be reduced in a given society. Thus, the understanding of the incidence and prevalence of its use is necessary. This review attempts to sum up the significance and determinants of TU.

Modern pipe accessories discovered in Cracow during excavation, suggest that townsfolk used mainly variety settled in East (Turkish) tradition. These resources tell that contemporaneous consumers used not only local product but also got at high quality goods imported from far countries.

In potsherds definitely prevail not signed pipes made of both gray clay and kaolin clay which are distinguished by multicoloured glazes (with advantage of yellow and green colours). Worthy of note are little size specimen which in terms of chronology can be bracket to group of the oldest specimens. Early chronology, can also suggest in the context of noted for finds in Cracow Turkish Pipes that are dated at XVII-XVIII century.

In XIX century, among Cracow townsmen enjoyed significant popularity Café-type pipes and signed pipes, produced in numerous pipe factories specifically operating in Austria, Hungary and Slovakia. The findings of this kind of accessories can be an evidence of the development of Cracow commercial relations with large pipe factories producing at that time fashionable among consumers of tobacco, high quality pipes made of kaolin clay and red clay.

Modern pipes discovered during excavation in Cracow, in most cases are anonymous relics devoid of archeological context. It largely inhibits works on identifying the relative chronology of the large number of small characteristic copies, in particular without stamps. Nowadays, studies should focus on creating such research approach which would allow systemize this kind of material chronologically showing distinguishing characteristics of given period of time. These works should be leading both on artifacts from Krakow, as well as in the broader sourcing context, referring to the historical territory of Cracow Land.

We present a number of 29 pipes and fragments of clay pipes found during the preventive archaeological excavation carried out in 2014 on
Lucian Blaga and Radu Negru streets in Timișoara. According to the typology, we have three main groups: I. Reddish undecorated pipes, II. Ottoman
pipes, III. Hungarian pipes, grouped by similar characteristics in shape, decorative pattern and clay type of which they were manufactured.

The items display features characteristic of pipes produced in the Balkan and Central European area. Some resemble those discovered in 2006 in the historical
centre of Timișoara (Sfântul Gheorghe and Libertății squares and 9 Mai Street) and published in 2012. The most common material used was very good
quality grey clay, followed by reddish clay and kaolin. The items are serial, produced in moulds, simple or decorated predominantly with geometric,
floral or combined pattern, or, later, by stamping or with cogwheel into the smooth paste before baking.

The earliest pipe (Cat. 11) is smaller in size, made of gray clay and carefully worked, similar to the earlier clay pipes produced in the Ottoman
Empire in the 17th century. Pipes made of kaolin (Cat. 15–23) are of different sizes, and were used during the 17th century, except one undecorated
pipe (Cat. 27), which can be dated to the beginning of the 18th century. Ottoman clay pipes made of reddish‐colored clay are larger compared to
previous specimens and can be dated in the second half of 17th and in the early 18th century. The earliest pipes have short and thickened stem, and the
ring very well shaped (Cat. 12), smaller volume of the bowl or of the combustion chamber (Cat. 14, 24), then, gradually, the stem has been elongated
(Cat. 13, 25), the opening on the inside of the ring became larger, and the bowl and the combustion chamber became larger too (Cat. 26–27, 29).

Following the same features of Ottoman production, the pipe manufactured in Hungary, probably in the Austrian period, is richly decorated with
patterns of lines and dots, spread on the entire surface of the piece (Cat. 28). An angle of approximately 900 between the stem and the bowl
characterizes the earliest pipes analyzed in this study. Gradually, the opening angle begins to shrink, so that the angle of some pieces dated in the 18th
century measures approximately 450. Another observation regards the position of the ring. For the earliest pieces, the ring is located towards the lower
half of the stem, leaving its end more or less visible (Cat. 12–13, 15–17, 19–20), while for the later pipes the ring is very prominent and situated at the
end of the stem (Cat. 1–7, 18, 25, 27–28).

Only one pipe was fully preserved, while the rest are fragmentary. The items were found in various archaeological contexts. Three pipes were
found in archaeological features, two of them discovered during the excavation on Lucian Blaga Street, in the structures named C1 (Cat. 1) and C3
(Cat. 9). A third one came from Radu Negru Street, from the filling of C8 (Cat. 19). According to the analogies, these clay pipes were manufactured in
the second half of the 17th century and the first half of 18th century. Although clay pipes are chronological markers, they could not be corroborated
with the rest of the archaeological discoveries, so the absolute dating of the two wooden structures belonging to the Ottoman period remains unknown.
We only know that, in the filling of C1 structure, two fragments of porcelain, dating from the 17th century, were found.

Six clay pipes were found in the undisturbed filling of the archaeological layers, during the excavation on Lucian Blaga Street. The dating of the
archaeological levels during the second half of the 17th century and at the beginning of 18th century is indicated by two pipes (Cat. 12, 27). The last
Ottoman level of habitation from the end of 17th century to the first half of the 18th century is confirmed by the discovery of four fragments of clay
pipes (Cat. 6, 11, 14, 25). The rest of the pipes were discovered in secondary position, in layers with mixed soil, in fillings with rubble resulting from the
construction the Austrian drainage system, or in levels affected by urban interventions from modern times.

Seven of the eight pipes originating from clearly Ottoman archaeological context were found in the northern half of the excavated section on
Lucian Blaga Street, in the first three sectors, close to nowadays Libertății Square, where the ruins of a bath, used during the Ottoman period, were
found (Fig. 5). It is quite possible that the agglomeration of pipes may have been generated by the presence of these structures which, in that period,
were not only a facility for cleaning the body, but also for a place for spending the free time.

Statistically, most clay pipes are dated in the second half
of the 17th century, this being probably the period when the smoking habit was most widespread in Timișoara (Fig. 14). We cannot know their origin,
because the pipes are not stamped. There is a possibility that two of the pipes have been brought from workshops in Varna, identified by the analogies
in decoration (Cat. 24) or shape (Cat. 27).

The majority of the clay pipes found at Timișoara (41.12%) belong to group I (reddish undecorated pipes). Relatively frequent is the group II.3
(pipes from kaolin with glaze), which in Timișoara represents 18.69%, a high percentage compared to Greece (0.3–2%) or Bulgaria (0.9–3.8%). Their
presence in Timișoara is probably due to the trade with nearby centres such as Budapest, Szekszárd, those in Serbia, or even Corinth, where the pipes
are colored in shades of green, yellow and brown, similar to our items.
Taking into account the large proportions of the archaeological excavation in Timișoara, the stratigraphic position of the pipes, in conjunction
with the known chronology of the items published, may be a chronological marker for dating clay pipes found in other excavations, unpublished for
the time being.

Together with other artifacts, clay pipes are good indicators for the identification of the trade conducted between Ottoman Timișoara
and cities or towns in the European provinces.

Publication of four (4) partially preserved clay bowls and stems of chibouks discovered at the fortifications of Chania and Rethymno, Crete. Their forms and characteristic decorative patterns are representative of different types spanning the late 17th through the late 19th century. The catalogue is preceded by a concise introduction to the terminology, typology, and production history of Ottoman period clay tobacco pipes.