Mason's marks

“Stitches to make dresses”, begins Latvian distaff spindle 389.
“A stack apart for money”, begins distaff spindle 386.
“Speech of heddles, Goddess with us, Goddess with us, Goddess with us, from our knit-mill”, begins the song on distaff spindle 390.
In 1907, linguist and historian August Johann Gottfried Bielenstien published a book to illustrate old wooden things he had found in Latvia, from houses to tools, and how these were made and decorated.
He included pages of House Marks and Owners Marks culled from his drawings. Three elaborately carved distaff spindles caught his eye as a possible extension of this mysterious writing system. These can now be deciphered from Old European syllabary, first proposed by Marija Gimbutas of Lithuania, plus a Finnish dictionary.

Mason’s marks in the Gothic Cathedral in Wrocław

The Cathedral in Wrocław is a brick construction that abundantly uses sandstone to make many architectural details (piers, shafts, vaults’ ribs, portals, windows). The first register of mason’s marks present in the Cathedral in Wrocław is included in the catalogue of historical monuments dating from 1930. It was not complete, but in spite of the war damages the occasionally taken inventory enabled to find new marks. Based on it some of the introductory conclusions about the number of masons employed, the intensity of their work, activities at other building sites in Wrocław and phases of building of the Cathedral can be drawn. The conclusions are only hypothetical on account of numerous replacements of the stone joints during reconstruction after 1945. When deciding about the chronology it is crucial to take into account the structure -and-style analysis of sculptural decorations.
About 35 stone-masons took part in building the chancel in the 3rd quarter of the 13th century. Only a few out of a more numerous group that worked at the level of the ambulatory, also participated in sculpting elements of choir’s upper windows, to which new stone-masons were employed as well.
Much more plentiful set of marks comes from the nave of the Cathedral erected between the 1st and the 3rd quarter of the 14th century. It was managed to recognize in it around 340 marks left by about 69 individual stone-masons. If we took into account the marks registered in the catalogue in 1930 and which did not remain to these days, the number of stone-masons employed at building of the nave would increase to 80. Based on the analysis of the registered marks it can be asserted that the oldest part of the nave is the ground level of western towers crowned with a cornice sculpted about year 1330 at earliest. Together with them the walls of aisles were arising, whereas the middle part of the nave starting from the western portal through all the piers and vaults of aisles up to windows of the upper storey belongs to a separate stage. In the crew working here there is a group of permanent masons employed continuously. We find some of them in some other buildings in Wrocław from about the mid-14th century.

The Vouga bridge was built in the 13 th century and then rebuilt by João III, João V and Maria I. The bridge deck was raised and extended to face the growing silting up of the river. De-silting in the second half of the 20 th century brought to light structures remaining from the medieval bridge showing that it had at least 10 arches / 150 m. In this article, the numerous glyphs that exist throughout the bridge, both in the remains of the medieval bridge and in the bridge that was later built over the medieval bridge, are studied. It was possible to detect 495 such glyphs, almost all of them alphabetically based. Considering their similarities and differences, these occurrences were organized in 109 types. Paleographically, these glyphs predominantly reflect Carolingian and Gothic (capitals) influences. Most of them (85%) are found in the ashlars and voussoirs of the arches of the current bridge. However, the vast majority of the glyphs, by comparison with similar glyphs existing in other monuments, have a chronology compatible with the time of the construction of the medieval bridge. Moreover, many of the most frequent glyph types in the current bridge also appear in the medieval bridge. Therefore, we are led to conclude that the ashlars and voussoirs obtained from the demolition of the medieval bridge were used to build the current bridge.

An exploration of a magically protective sign: the X or IXI marks found on metalwork, bone tools and Yorkshire's so-called 'witchposts'. The paper considers the meanings and uses of such marks, highlighting the varying symbolic frameworks within which makers, users and viewers operate. Practical, decorative, symbolic, religious and magical functions can overlap and indeed the use of a mark can be for more than one purpose at one and the same time.

The excavations of the theatre at Stobi in the past 12 years have brought to light many new discoveries regarding the construction, use and abandonment of the building. Particularly interesting are the masons’ marks discovered on the walls. They were created during the construction process in the first and second phase of the building. The dipinti from the first phase (end of 1st century or beginning of 2nd century AD) are in the form of multiple red lines and Roman numerals. The graffiti from the second phase (first half of the 2nd century AD) are incised in the mortar joints and they represent floral and stylized motifs. The paper discusses the masons’ marks in the context of similar discoveries and offers an interpretation of their occurrence on the walls of the Roman theatre at Stobi.

Bitlis’in Ahlat ilçesi Türk-İslam medeniyetinin önemli şehirlerinden birisidir. Bölgenin doğusunda Van Gölü, kuzeyinde Adilcevaz ve güneyinde Tatvan yer almaktadır. Ahlat, tarihte Kubbet-ül İslam olarak anılmaktadır. Sırasıyla bölgeye Emeviler, Abbasiler, Mervaniler, Ahlatşahlar, Eyyubiler, Selçuklular, Moğollar, İlhanlılar, Akkoyunlular, Safeviler ve Osmanlı Devleti hâkim olmuştur. Bu dönemlerden günümüze çok sayıda mimari eser ulaşmıştır. Bölgede Ahlat taşı olarak bilinen andezit tüf taşının yoğun olarak bulunması, eserlerin bu taş ile yapılmasını zorunlu kılmıştır. Kolay işlenebilen bu taş, Ahlat’da, çok sayıda mimar, mezar taşı ustası ve taşçı ustası yetiştirmesini de sağlamıştır. Ahlatlı mimarların kendi bölgelerinde ve Anadolu’nun muhtelif yerlerinde eserler verdikleri bilinmektedir. Bölgedeki mezar taşı ve mimari taş ustasının çokluğu da dikkat çekmektedir. Fakat taşçı ustaları ve işaretleri bilimsel yayınlara yeterince yansımamıştır. Bölgedeki eserler incelendiğinde yapılardaki taşlar üzerinde çok sayıda taşçı işareti (imzası) dikkat çekmektedir. Ancak bu işaretler farklı biçimdedir ve yapıların her yerinde kullanılmıştır. Taşçı imzaları, Ortaçağ eserlerinde ve sonraki dönemlerde de kullanılmıştır. Ahlat’ta görülen taşçı işaretlerinin benzerlerini Orta Asya, Anadolu ve Avrupa’da farklı dönemlerde bulabilmek mümkündür. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Van Gölü Havzası’ndaki Ahlat’ın Ortaçağ dönemindeki taşçı ustaları ve imzalarını belirlemek ve Türk Mimarisi’nin gelişiminde arka planda yer alan kişilerin etki alanlarını ortaya çıkarmaktır. Böylece Türk mimarlık tarihinin bölgedeki izleri taşçı imzaları üzerinden takip edilecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Ahlat, Taşçı İşaretleri ve Türk-İslam Mimarisi
The “Ahlat stone” (andesite tuff), known by Ahlat's own name and unique to the region, has been used in architectural structures and tombstones throughout history as it can adapt to geographical conditions. The large number of quarries ultimately allowed many architects and craftsmen to grow. It is known that architects from Ahlat produced works in various parts of Anatolia. In addition, the historical cemetery in Ahlat contains the names of numerous tombstone masons. In addition, the signatures of the unidentified stonemasons we saw in the buildings are on the stones in the buildings. The number of these signs will never be clearly defined. The inscriptions on some of these buildings indicate whom they were built for, patron or architect names. However, there are various signs on some stones. These signs are called “stonemasonry signs” in archeology and art history terminology. It is possible to see these signs in the buildings constructed in various periods in the region. Numerous and different forms of stonemasonry signs are found on the buildings. Stonemasonry signs are defined as simple engravings, usually seen on cut stones, showing the craftsman who carved that stone, a group of stonemason masters or where to use it. It is thought that these signatures provide convenience on inspection and pricing times during the construction of the buildings. It is also possible to see stonemasonry signs in the medieval structures in the Ahlat region we have studied. Especially the quarry in the region is intense and the development of stonework has led to the emergence of many architects and stonemasons. Different and similar signs were detected in examinations made with the naked eye in the structures we investigated. Both in the same region and in different regions, the same stonemasonry signs can be seen without period difference. Stonemason signatures were frequently encountered in post-Medieval structures in Ahlat and understood that similar signs still persist. The six medieval works in Ahlat were studied. There are two structures belonging to Ahlatshahs period and four to Ilkhanid period. Especially in the Zawiye and Çifte Hamam built by Ahlatshahs, there are intense signatures of stonemasons. This quantity decreases in Ilkhanid tombs. A great number of stonemasonry signs were identified in the Seljuk Age structures in Ahlat, while a few signs were observed in the tombs of the Ilkhanid period. This may be related to the dimensions of the structure or repairs. The fact that the Zawiye and Çifte Hamam was located under the ground until the last years, and its size, has helped numerous stonemasonry signs to preserve and reach the presecupolant day. Due to the small size of the tombs belonging to the Ilkhanid period, few stonemasons could have worked and the renovation works of these structures could have prevented these stonemason signatures from reaching the present day.
In the Seljuk zawiye, stonemasonry signs were found only on the walls. The signs disappeared due to the facades being under the ground. The presence of a large number of signs in the structure suggests that these signatures could have been on the facades. In addition, the presence of these signs is likely on the invisible faces of some stones. The stonemason signatures in Zawiye and Çifte Hamam are simple, geometric, complex and directional arrow-shaped. In the tombs of the Ilkhanid period, the signs resemble a simple and ornamental form. In addition, it is seen that the same stonemason signatures were small and large in size. But these are usually simple signs. This shows that the stonemasons acted sloppy or they acted fast due to the purchase of wages per stone produced. It was found that some of the signs were the same in the buildings, but some of them had extra lines and a different signature appeared. This suggests that people working in the same group, such as master-apprentice or father-son, use similar signs. Stonemason signatures are usually engraved in the middle of the processed stones while some stones are engraved on the edge.
Stones signatures belonging to the works of the Ahlatshahs period are evident, but they are hardly detected in the tombs of the Ilkhanid period. The work of a large number of stonemasons in the Ahlatshah structures must have led to the desire of each craftsman to make his signature clear due to the resulting competition. In addition, since the signatures on the stone are engraved with different building tools, the depth may change. The presence of the stonemasonry sign in the muqarnas nest in the Usta Şagird Tomb indicates that some of these stonemasons can decorate at the same time. In addition, the mark that stands in a prominent place in this muqarnas ornament shows the effort of the stonemason to show his own work. In addition, the fact that there are two different signatures in this arrangement suggests that the people making this decoration work together.
Similar stonemasonry signs can be seen in buildings of the same period or works built in different periods, as well as in different geographies of Anatolia in the same period. Researchers attribute this situation to groups of mobile craftsmen. For example, it is understood that some stonemasonry signs seen in Hüseyin-Timur and Usta Şagird Tombs were repeated in Güroymak Norşin Tomb and Ahlat Emir Bayındır Masjid. However, the fact that the same signs appear in different centuries actually shows that stonemason signatures are constantly used in the memory of architectural activities.
In all the works that have reached to the present day, firstly the period it was made, the patron or the architect of the work are examined then the evaluations and analyzes were made. However, the masonry and stonemasons in the labor part were not mentioned much. The most important factor in this situation is the low historical records of these people. With the studies carried out, stonemasons and their signatures in history will be determined and the parts that are missing in the development adventure of Turkish-Islamic architecture will be tried to be completed. In addition, preservation of signed stones as much as possible and the determination of the quarry it comes from as a result of analyzes are important for the healthy conduction of renovation works. This statement is the first step of the extensive studies on the stonemasonry signs in the Lake Van basin. Keywords: Ahlat, Stonemason Marks ve Turkish-Islamic Structures

Stonemasonry workshops and stonemasons between Świdnica /Schweidnitz, Strzegom/Striegau and Wrocław/Breslau (ca. 1370 - ca. 1470)

From the 14th c., the growing economic potential and political autonomy of Silesian towns were reflected not only in the intensity and scale of building activity but also in the organization of construction work. Moving from town to town became an integral part of professional life for many in building trades, particularly those with special skills, like stonemasons. Although brick architecture dominated in Silesia, carved stone was used extensively for structural elements and decorative details. As written sources are scarce, tracing the itinerary of individual stonemasons and workshops is only possible on the basis of stylistic analysis and/or interpretation of standard stonemason’s marks. They give us some idea of the mobility of stonemasons in Silesia from town to town and between various construction sites within the same town. Thanks to stonemason’s marks, we can see how the same stonemason would perform a wide range of tasks while working for a workshop employing many tradesmen and undertaking jobs of varying scale and artistic ambition. The article focuses on two towns in the Duchy of Świdnica and Jawor: Świdnica and Strzegom, both of which saw intense building activity during the final years of Duke Bolko II (d. 1368) and under the rule of his widow Agnieszka (d. 1392). The stonemasonry workshop responsible for some of the stone portals and their sculptural decoration as well as corbels of the vaulting of the parish churches in both towns from the 1360s through the late 1370s-early 1380s also worked in Legnica. Ducal patronage which facilitated the mobility of stonemasons between the towns was also likely instrumental in the choice of the workshop and the style of stonemasonry, both of which originated in Nuremberg.
During the following period, when the Duchy of Świdnica and Jawor was incorporated into the Kingdom of Bohemia and was administered by royal officials (capitanei, Hauptmänner), affluent burghers continued to use the services of stonemasons who moved between towns. The analysis of the stonemason’s marks found on the western portals of the parish church in Świdnica (today Świdnica Cathedral) and the portals’ stylistic features has shown that this section of the church was erected in two construction phases separated by several decades and dating to ca. 1390 and 1455-1470, respectively. The leading stonemasons employed during both phases were also active in Strzegom and in some other localities in the duchy. Importantly, those involved in the second construction phase had earlier worked in Wrocław on one of the most splendid monuments of the mid-15th c.: the architectural sacrament house at St Elizabeth’s Church. On a par with this splendid structure was the so-called Burghers’ Gallery in the church in Świdnica, whose principal stonemason had earlier worked in Wrocław. In this case, the choice of the same workshop might have been influenced by connections and contacts between the town elites in Wrocław and Świdnica and the fact that the parish priests in Świdnica came from Wrocław where they continued to hold church offices.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the research on the role of individuals in medieval architecture has exclusively used documentary evidence. Nevertheless, it is fundamental to consider any personal involvement in the construction and use of buildings besides historical figures.

Apart from the few known medieval master builders, a large number of people with varying levels of craftsmanship participated in the different construction processes. Likewise, there were many more users than the prominent personalities and the patrons of each building.

The analysis of their role is important because it should be able to uncover vital clues about how architecture was perceived and used. Furthermore, data about everyday life is scarce in official records and in common art forms, but it is essential to grasp the reality of the Middle Ages.

It may seem hard to find information resources to carry out research into this field, but the fact is that a trail of the activity of these ordinary people can be usually found in many medieval structures. The aim of this paper is to examine especially interesting examples of these testimonies in order to bring to light their relevance.

With regard to the builders and artisans, a systematic study on the remaining mason's marks in each area provides valuable insight into aspects as the continuity and composition of the workshops, the different tasks that an individual was capable to perform, and even their aesthetic tastes. In some exceptional cases, inscriptions secretly carved by craftsmen on inaccessible places have also been discovered.

As for the anonymous users of architecture, a significant number of medieval graffiti has been preserved. Although their study is quite challenging, it is also worthy because it gives a basic idea of the circumstances in which they were made and the preferences and needs of their authors.

For the first time, 17th century Mason Marks from two Masonic lodges in Scotland are deciphered. Both lodges, Dumfries Kilwinning #53 and Operative Dumfries #140, share Freemason’s Hall.
Mason Marks are not entirely from stone masons; most are trademarks that follow a common format of 2, 3 or 4 letters stacked to form a single figure, which then reads from top to bottom. In 1892 when James Smith published these marks, knowledge of the writing system had vanished.
The letters comprise a Consonant-Vowel syllabary in Finnish, whose decipherment was made possible by the discovery of a hundred bilingual owners marks that employed the same syllabary. Rules for writing parallel those of Linear B in Greece, circa 1500 BC, but to better effect since the syllabary was designed for Finnish.

in En el principio: Génesis de la Catedral Románica de Santiago de Compostela. Contexto, construcción y programa iconográfico, ed. J.L. Senra (Pontevedra, 2014).



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Two upright basalt stones found near the pyramids of Teotihuacan are fashioned from letters that match those from Europe. Both stones may serve the same purpose. The Cross of the Serpent describes the task of this god, ‘I am to take care of the direction of storms, to bind storms from the east, to club those as well’. The Cross of Teotihuacan boasts that ‘I, Spearpoint (Kehoa), will club and beat him to the ground’.

The activity carried out in the period 2009-2014 as part of the archaeological mission of the Ca' Foscari University of Venice in Montenegro, directed by Sauro Gelichi, concerned the archaeology of stone production and in particular the production of early medieval interwoven sculptures; the production of functional and decorative architectural elements of residential buildings between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries; lithotechnics and glyptography of religious and residential buildings; the production and circulation in the long term of stone products with different functions.

The study of medieval litho-technology and in particular of the aspects connected with the production of stone elements for functional and/or decorative use, with regard to the introduction of instruments and techniques and the dynamics inherent in their diffusion, have made it necessary to extend a vast territorial area, the Balkans, review and documentation. The attention paid to the glyptographic aspects has been extended to some medieval and post-medieval graffiti, related to the attendance of buildings and related spaces.

In support of the analytical investigations conducted in the city and territory of Antivari (today Stari Bar, Republic of Montenegro), in which the introduction of a toothed blade instrument with direct percussion is highlighted here, the contribution also presents some results of the documentation activities carried out in southern Dalmatia, particularly in the city of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia), where already in the fourteenth century are documented several times stonemasons from Antivari.

Con motivo de la campaña de arqueología de la arquitectura realizada en el año 2018 en la iglesia encastillada de San Miguel de Turégano por Caminos del Románico se realizó un estudio de los signos lapidarios visibles en la obra románica de la iglesia. Este trabajo no sólo ha servido de refuerzo al análisis arqueológico de la arquitectura, sino también para la obtención de datos y conclusiones relevantes que permiten comprender el funcionamiento de los talleres medievales dedicados a la construcción.

Archives are defined as a organic whole of records; structured groups of recorded data with an «archival bond», proof of administrative and legal actions. Although new means of codifying information have changed recently the traditional state of affairs, giving rise to «hybrid fonds» in which new types of records are kept alongside conventional ones, this is not entirely novel: this is not the first time that a single process has been used for issuing and receiving both ordinary documents and others information-bearing objects that, without using the written word, relied on social conventions to provide proof of rights and to bear witness to activities with legal relevance: records «avant la lettre», so to speak. Is the case of the medieval stone mason’s marks, sometimes used as signatures or seals to constitute proof of economic rights: reliable legal instruments which bear witness to the rights and obligations that hold between two parties, making them records/archives in the true sense of the word, accumulated and deposited “stratigraphically,”inside the fonds as a structure and outside the archive as a physical place.

Chapt. 4 contains an analysis of the architectural elements found in the area of block 140. In particular, torsade molding and denticulated cornices, brackets, fluted cornices, elements from double and triple lancet windows; these were mass produced objects which are characteristic of a specific residential type which was developed in the second half of the 15th century. After analyzing the construction techniques, we attempted to formulate a preliminary typological chronology. On the basis of the distribution analysis inside of the city we created a preliminary map which revealed that the buildings that included these elements represented a minority with respect to all the other buildings. These kinds of architectural elements, infact, can be found almost everywhere in the territories which where dominated by Venetians but which originated in the civil and ecclesistical architecture whic developed in Venice durinig the first half of the XV century. On the basis of the written documents we have concerning local craftsmen working along the Dalmatian coast starting in the Late Middle Ages, we can attribute architectural elements of this type to these workshops. The fact that they were mass produced would also imply that they were not very expensive.

Decoding Signs of Identity is the volume of proceedings resulting from the symposium with the same name and held in Leiden, 13-15 December 2013, in the framework of the NWO research project ‘Symbolizing Identity: Identity marks and their relation to writing in New Kingdom Egypt’. The aim of the project, and indeed of the symposium, was to investigate identity marks of Ancient Egyptian workmen, both in a specialist, in-depth manner, and in a more general, comparative perspective. The reader will recognise both of these approaches in the present collection of papers. In the course of its three sections, the topic is narrowed down from general considerations and non-Egyptian cases, to various sorts of Ancient Egyptian identity marks, and finally to the specific marking system of the royal necropolis workforce of the Egyptian New Kingdom, which was the core material of the NWO project. This volume can be considered a follow-up to Pictograms or Pseudo Script? (EU XXV, 2009), and testifies to the continuing scholarly interest in systems of identity marks, both in Egyptology and outside.

Riassunto: Le Terme del Foro di Augusta Praetoria hanno restituito, durante quasi un secolo di campagne di scavo, migliaia di reperti testimoni della vita e delle fasi di trasformazione dell'edificio. Tra questi manufatti spiccano centinaia di frammenti architettonici, strutturali e decorativi. Molte lastre e partiture architettoniche moda-nate, realizzate in Bardiglio (un litotipo locale usato soprattutto a scopo ornamen-tale) e in marmi bianchi e venati, sono caratterizzate da segni iscritti sulle superfici a vista: confronti con contesti simili sembrano far prevalere l'ipotesi che si tratti di sigle funzionali ad operazioni di cantiere e manutenzione.

L’intervento intende prendere in esame le pratiche di segnatura, posa e localizzazione di membrature architettoniche messe in atto dalle maestranze dei marmorari mediante l’utilizzazione di simboli alfabetici, numerici o puramente grafici. L’apposizione di questi segni, particolarmente funzionali all’assemblaggio di quegli elementi seriali che andavano a costituire colonne, trabeazioni, archi, gradinate, è notevolmente diffusa nell’architettura greco-romana: in questa sede si prenderanno in considerazione esempi noti, come ad esempio il portico di Tiberio ad Aphrodisias di Caria, assieme ad altri inediti, privilegiando un arco temporale che abbraccia l’età romano imperiale fino ad arrivare ai primi secoli dell’età bizantina e alle straordinarie soluzioni adottate nel cantiere della Santa Sofia di Costantinopoli.

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the especially detailed accounts of the Chambéry toll (Savoy, France) sometimes bear a sketch of the merchants’marks that were drawn on the balls, to justify their exemption from the toll rights. This corpus of about sixty different marks offers an insight into their formal typology (the cross, its support, and letters of the alphabet are the main recurring graphical elements), but also their evolution, and even in one exceptional case the similar graphical features of a merchant’s mark and another identification device, his signature. A series of letters, linked to the accounts and requesting exemption from the toll rights, sheds further light on the wide range of practical uses of the merchants’ marks.

The Dalmatian city of Traù (Trogir, Croatia) has been known since ancient times for the extraction of stone used in the construction of numerous construction sites in Dalmatia. The Seget quarry, mentioned by Pliny the Elder and located near the city, is still active.
The presence of specialized craftsmen, builders and sculptors, active in construction sites that became emblematic, is proven. Numerous craftsmen are mentioned in the records of the "Operaria" of the cathedral, where at least from the fourth decade of the thirteenth century were registered contracts with the workers.
The phenomenon is such as to suggest to extend to the entire urban context the preliminary review of construction techniques and simultaneously of litho-technology, in order to help define the technical environment. In particular, the contribution studies the church of St. John the Baptist (Sv. Ivana Krstitelja), a Benedictine monastery.
This building represents a fundamental text for the study of litho-technology in this area.
In particular, the reading of the face and the architectural components has highlighted the widespread use of an instrument that can be interpreted as a toothed hammer. The use of the toothed hammer and the proven litho-technical performance, with similarities found in the face of the cathedral, take on additional significance being associated with the presence of numerous mason’s marks.
Some of the graffiti traced around the perimeter of the building and relevant to the subsequent stages are instead traceable to playful patterns.
The study of this context, accompanied by a review of the numerous lapidary signs, suggests reflecting on the chronological phases of the introduction of the toothed hammer in Dalmatian construction sites.