Leather

This paper presents the LCA-based results of a research programme called Cicle Pell: Industrial ecology in the animal-to-leather chain funded by the EU in the framework of the Community Program Interreg III C, Regional Framework Operation, "Ecosind". The main aim of the Ecosind is to define the basis to implement a new strategy of industrial sustainable development in the Southern Europe regions. In the Ecosind framework, the general aim of the Cicle Pell project is to identify the economic and environmental improvements which can be achieved by companies in the leather industry and the related supply-chain by applying the industrial ecology principles and tools. In this paper the results of the LCA of bovine leather manufactured in Italy and Spain will be described in order to put in evidence the eco-profile of the two systems and to find out if the difference in the adopted technologies and cooperative management solutions have led to significant environmental differences.

Architectonic is a hybrid experiment which raises questions within the field of inter-disciplinary research. The study explores
the opportunities that the dynamic between the cross-fertilization of architecture and fashion approaches may offer. The research
is substantiated via the production of three-dimensional leather garments which initiate key synthesis of materials, techniques and
processes and interrogates fabric, form and function, to evaluate whether there is prospect for re-alignment, new methodologies
and practices within a fashion context?

Tanned fish skin has been used in binding for decorative elements such as inlays and onlays, but it has a much longer history of use for clothing, sword handles, objets d’art, and other applications across global cultures. This article describes the history of fish skin in bookbinding, how to prepare parchment, basic materials testing, and shows bindings works by the author and others.

Dentro de las colecciones argentinas encontramos un particular objeto denominado tabaquera que sirvió de accesorio personal para la guarda y transporte de tabaco. La utilización del cuero de ñandú para la confección de estas piezas al combinarse con otros materiales, en su mayoría textiles, tanto para los forros como las decoraciones realizadas en su superficie, despiertan gran interés para su investigación y análisis.
A través de su materialidad, el uso histórico, su elaboración artesanal y la interacción de sus elementos se propone una metodología de conservación analizando sus
principales agentes de deterioro.

The popularity of shoe polishes started in mid-19 th century and continued throughout the 20 th century leading to the rise of leather and synthetic shoe manufacture. Substances like wax and tallow have been used as starting materials for shoe polish hundreds of years ago, and these material combinations are still in use today. Modern shoe polish production employed a mixture of natural and synthetic materials that include wax, lanolin, naphtha, ethylene glycol; turpentine, oil soluble dyes, and gum Arabic were processed by straight forward chemical engineering method. Flow charts are drawn to show typical industrial process; the material balances are conducted through accumulation in which 70% and 30% feed solutions of MA and MB streams contained 2kg and 1kg respectively were mixed then fed into the heater unit at 100°C. The batch process showed that the law of mass conservation exists where input is equal to output. Laboratory determination of product quality was carried out, the shoe polish showed density ≤ 0.99kg/L, specific gravity of 1.01, flash point >93°C using setaflash closed cup, 84-89% of kiwi liquid wax shoe polish was volatile, shoe polish was dispersible in water. Appearance: liquid wax shoe polish can be neutral, black, brown, blue, or red.

Conservators have long struggled to replicate original surface textures on leather objects without the use of noxious solvents, expensive materials, or fastidious techniques. A treatment technique, now common in the United States, creates textured compensation fills by drying colored acrylic media and a repair substrate on a reverse mold. The silicone rubber mold is formed on a surrogate texture that approximates the original surface of the leather object. Using a surrogate prevents possible delamination, staining, or other types of damage. With care, these flat and highly-detailed molds can be reused indefinitely. Acrylic media are carefully selected and mixed to provide high pigment load, match color saturation and sheen, hold peaks, and maintain flexibility. Substrates of fabric, paper, or non-woven polyester are easy to incorporate into the wet acrylic blend and dry on the mold at the same time, creating a very thin but flexible repair material. The dried material can be shaped to size and applied to the object using easily reversible adhesives. The technique is particularly effective for bound volumes where there is partial or no access to the reverse of the original leather. Though created for and predominantly used in book conservation treatments, this technique has been adopted for other kinds of compensation repairs requiring a detailed surface on objects like cased photographs, modern art, textiles, costume, and natural history collections. Overall, the technique is highly controllable, customizable, and cost-effective without sacrificing durability or strength. It is, however, not suited to leather objects with sueded nap or hair.

The intention of this article is to investigate the cultural power associ­ ated with the gimp and the gimp mask. The gimp is a clothed or cost­ umed Sadomasochistic (SM) body, frequently a submissive that often wears a leather or rubber costume that covers and effectuates the entire body including the face. The gimp is also a representation of SM that circulates throughout fashion and film and other forms of popular culture. Since the gimp's first outing and naming in the film Pulp Fiction it has become the byword for the head­to­toe leather SM look that has been appropriated by a number of designers as way of exploring and

Longobard burials, especially the male ones, are characterized by the presence of many iron and bronze artifacts (weapons, tools, buckles and belt adornments). Mineralization processes can preserve the organic materials close to these objects. There are very small fragments of wood, leather, textile, and more rarely of other plant materials and feathers. The detailed analysis of these remains makes it possible to reconstruct, at least in part, the clothes and accessories and provides information on the wooden structures used in the burials (coffins, stretchers and elements of the "houses of the dead"). In this paper we present a summary of the data collected in ca. 70 tombs belonging to 23 different necropolises of northern Italy (late 6th century - 7th century AD).

A survey was carried out among sixty (60) students (thirty (30) males and thirty (30) females) in Federal University, Wukari to determine the fungi associated with leather shoes and the prevalence of the fungi. A total of fifty (50) isolates (twenty (20) from females and thirty (30) from males) were isolated using standard Microbiological techniques. These isolates belong to five (5) genera, namely: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Trichophyton (A dermatophyte) and lastly, Candida. The genus Aspergillus had the highest isolate with 50% and 40% for males and females respectively. The different species isolates of Aspergillus include Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus. The dermatophyte known as Trichophyton rubrum had lower number of isolate (1) 3.3% and (0) 0% for males and females respectively. The incidence of the other isolates was as follows: Candida was (4) 13.3% and (1) 5%, Penicillium notatum was (8) 26.7% and (1) 5% and lastly Fusarium oxysporum was (2) 6.7% and (0) 0.0% for both male and female respectively. Ninety-eight percent (98%) of the students harboured the nonpathogenic fungi while only two percent (2%) harboured the pathogenic organism in their shoes. This low prevalence rate of the pathogenic organisms is due to the fact that pathogenic organisms are easier to isolate from the feet of the infected host. In conclusion, Leather shoes worn by students in Wukari harboured a number of fungi which have effect on the wearers and the shoe itself. Students and other individuals should always try to dry and clean their shoes after each use, to avoid dampness as this facilitate the growth of fungi. Those that are affected with the pathogenic fungi should try and seek for medical help immediately it is discovered. Proper methods of preserving the leather shoes including dehydration and use of antifungal agent should be developed. More studies should be conducted to determine the genetic status of the pathogenic strains which is hitherto non-pathogenic. Finally, further work should also be carried out to know the fungi associated with shoes worn at different times of the day to determine any relationship between organisms and the weather condition, that is, hot or cold weather. 39 Imarenezor Edobor Peter Kenneth et al.: Fungi Associated with Leather Shoes Worn by Students of Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria

Several clothing fragments of leather and skin are kept in the teaching collection of the Institute of Prehistoric
and Historical Archaeology, University of Vienna. Some of these prehistoric artefacts from the “Much-
Collection”, which come from mining contexts, were analyzed. They include a fragment of a cap made of
(presumably) sheep skin from the Iron Age salt mines of Hallstatt and fragments of leather clothing from the
Late Bronze Age copper mining site Kelchalpe near Kitzbühel.
In der Studiensammlung des Instituts für Urgeschichte und Historische Archäologie der Universität Wien
werden mehrere Leder- und Fellobjekte aus prähistorischen Fundstellen mit montanarchäologischem Kontext –
darunter Kleidungsreste – aufbewahrt. Einige der Fellfragmente der „Much-Sammlung“, die als Basis der
Studiensammlung gilt, wurden untersucht. Unter den Funden aus den prähistorischen Salzbergwerken von
Hallstatt sticht ein Fellkappenfragment heraus, wie es von diesem Fundort mehrfach bekannt ist. Es ist
vermutlich aus Schaffell hergestellt. Zudem wird ein Lederwams vorgestellt, der von der spätbronzezeitlichen
Fundstelle Kelchalpe bei Kitzbühel stammt.

- Abstract:
Im.j-wt is the skin that embodies the skin of the bull Apis, in which Auxerre disappeared after he was killed by his brother Seth as a symbol of the hidden vessel in which the regeneration and resurrection of the dead body takes place.
The skin, which contains the remains of Wsir's essential remains, and blood, serves as the cocoon of the embryo or coffin in which the transformations of God take place after moving from the living world to another from the life of the dead. Especially since the presence of "Inpw" in addition to the skin bladders guarded by them, but they are the tool that facilitates all the transformations that occur to the "Wsir" deceased to protect his transformations and continued existence.
The skin containing the essential secretions of the god "Wsir", it serves as the preservative vessel of the element causing the continuation of his descendants and the presence of his successors after him.
The skin, which embodies an image of the god Inpw-Im.j-wt, as his name and surname are connected directly with the word wt, which means decomposition or decay, in which a gesture to the body as one of the elements of personality that quickly rot and decay On the one hand, and to these remains and those secretions that, if retained within that bladder released vital elements on the other hand, especially since the lymphatic secretions are the origin of the fertility of the earth, according to the Jumilhac papyrus.
The skin through which the god "Anty" representing the god "Hor" recovered his leather cover, which protected him from annihilation and nothingness thanks to the action of the goddess "Hesat" to put a few drops of her milk inside, it is thus a place that allows the opportunity to restore the nature of the god "Horus ".
The skin that embodies the manifestation of the god "Horus" as the son of "Wsir", especially that the proximity of "Im.j-wt" represents the stages of transformation through which the body of "Horus" moment created in the bushes of the delta on the one hand, and the moment In which Hor prepares to confront his uncle Seth corresponds to the final stages of the process of the god Wsir, which was about to be attached to the kingdom of the underworld as a second death.
The skin within which the transformations of recreation are carried out, since, according to some translations, the word “Im.j-wt” means “who is deposited inside the scrolls”, referring to the next-to-life object symbolically residing within the proximity of “Im.j-wt”.
The skin, which embodies the image of the god "Inpw" as the mummification of "Wsir" and the extraction of his remains, and the carrying of the title: "Im.j-wt" in itself not only because he is the mummification acts; but also because some translate it as "Mummification Supervisor ".
The Im.j-wt skin may also symbolize one of two things: the revival of the land of Abu Sir, to the growth of the penis of Auxerre through the blood of Set placed inside the compound after being drawn from it as a punishment;  Or giving Seth and his followers in the form of an animal sacrifice as an offerings to Wsir through their blood kept inside the skin after mummification.
The bottom line is that this skin, whether attributed to this or that god, in its entirety symbolizes the resurrection and publication on the one side, and regeneration and birth on the other, and conservation and mummification on the third, and life and survival on the fourth, And all of these views are suggest continuity.

While fish skin, generally tanned, has been used in binding for decorative elements such as in- or on-lays and to create protective wrappers for books, it has a long history of use for clothing, sword handles, objets d’art, and other applications, as well. Plentiful, strong, and visually quite interesting, its preparation can take the form of drying (parchment) or various tanning methods. Geographically, its use has been most prevalent in northern climes where the skins are less likely to rot because of lower temperatures. Most common have been oceanic species. This article provides an overview of fish skin as a binding material, provides instructions on making parchment from fish, how to work with the material, and shares other resources.

In the light of a new reading of archaeological data of this site we propose a new hypothesis. It is possible we are facing a monastery specialized in the production of parchment. We examine El Bolavar linking the site with its nearest geographical area, but also inserting it into the documented context of the parchment production in the former territories of the Roman Empire during Late Antiquity and High Middle Ages.

Rivista di Archeologia Cristiana, 90 ( 2014)

My research into prehistoric leather in Europe has led to an interest in the techniques and tools used to process animal skins by methods such as oiling, drying and smoking using stone and bone
tools (Harris 2011). There are many excellent sources outlining historical and present day methods of tanning or curing skins other than vegetable tanning (Aksaajuq Otak 2005, Kellogg 1984,88-95, Klokkernes 2007, Mason 1891, Oakes and Riewe 1996, Richards 2004). Like many archaeologists who wish to improve their understanding of the archaeological evidence, I have attempted several of these techniques myself. As those who have tried will know, preparing skins is not so straightforward and I have
several examples of hard, crinkly skins with the hair falling out. To improve my understanding I took Pier Chandler‟s course on “Natural Hideworking” which promised to teach a dry-scrape
technique using stone tools. I made these notes of the day and thought they may be of interest to other members.

In 2006 several valuable leather objects were found during archaeological excavation of Ghalee-Kooh-i Ghaen (a historic stronghold from the Seljuk period, 11th–13th centuries) in the South Khorasan province of Iran. When examined after 5 years, there were red stains on the remnants of a shoe with poor strength and powdery surface similar to red rot decay. Since red rot is more common in manufactured leathers from the mid-19th century, the purpose of this research was to clarify the structural features and degradation factors responsible for red stains on the shoe. Chemical spot tests, isolation and identification of fungi, pH measurements, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were used to achieve these aims. These measurement results corresponded to lime depilation, tanning with alum and vegetable tannins, and the possible use of CuSO4 as a preservative of skin in leather-making process. Cladosporium sp. and Penicillium sp. were isolated from the shoe, but Trichophyton sp. was characterized as the main biodeterioration factor. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and pH measurements indicated hydrolysis and acidic degradation of the leather. The characteristics of the red stains were similar to those exhibited by red rot. Therefore, archaeological leathers tanned with alum and vegetable tannins may be exposed to acidic degradation like red rot decay.

During the inventory-arranging works inside the western and eastern crypts under the presbytery conducted in the church
of The Name of the Holy Virgin Mary in Szczuczyn, two examples of women’s eighteenth-century shoes were found. The
first specimen represents a slip-on, leather shoe decorated with silk ribbons. The second one belongs to the class of footwear
with a textile upper fastened with a buckle. Excellent conditions prevailing in the crypts ensured that the artefacts have been
preserved in very good condition. This permitted detailed research on the raw materials used in constructing the footwear to
be conducted. Textiles, leather and wood were subjected to microscopic analysis.

Lo studio dei materiali deperibili, che costituiscono una parte importante del record archeologico di qualsivoglia sito, trova delle evidenti imitazioni di carattere sia quantitativo che qualitativo. Alimenti, vestiario, vesti funebri e altre categorie di materiali possono fornire una serie di informazioni dirette sulla società che li ha prodotti ma che, sfortunatamente, hanno spesso carattere poco
rappresentativo proprio perché si tratta di rinvenimenti sporadici. In quei siti, europei e non, dove si ha la fortuna di trovare una combinazione di caratteristiche climatiche  adatte,  condizioni  del  terreno  ideali, pratiche  antropiche  inconsapevolmente  atte  alla conservazione dei resti e, perché no, una buona dose di casualità, lo studio scientifico dei reperti,
affiancato all’analisi delle fonti letterarie e iconografiche, ha prodotto pregevoli risultati per quanto riguarda in particolare l’universo delle calzature. Si sono aperte così alcune questioni degne di nota: esistono tipologie classificabili su base geografica? Si tratta di materiali che seguivano la moda e il costume, erano portatori di particolari convenzioni e significati sociali, o rispondevano semplicemente a criteri funzionali? Ed è possibile, tracciando una linea immaginaria, seguirne le evoluzioni fisionomiche attraverso il tempo?
Nella seguente trattazione, si è considerato il problema analizzando le testimonianze emerse in alcuni contesti peculiari di siti specifici; il proseguimento delle ricerche, nella maggior parte dei casi ancora in corso, sarà dunque fondamentale per una sempre maggiore comprensione di questo notevole aspetto che soltanto negli ultimi anni ha raggiunto una giusta rilevanza.

Uherské Hradiště belongs to a small number of our cities in which well preserved objects made
of organic materials are regularly found as a result of uncovering of high medieval situations. This is
mainly because of the high level of underground water which allows the survival of these otherwise
rare finds among which leather artefacts can be found as well. These were discovered during almost
all planar researches in the historical core of the city. One of them was a preservation research in
Prostřední Street (Old townhall), Masaryk Square (Reduta), and Františkánská Street. The study
aims to present the results of technological-typological and material analysis of leather artefacts
from the three above-mentioned localities dated back to the period between second half of 13th up to
14th century.
The three selected collections from Uherské Hradiště consists of more than 670 artefacts out of
which only a fraction can be identified from the point of view of their original function. This illustrates
the character of the collection, which can definitely be considered as secondary waste deposited simply
in the area of the town plots, or in the area of public roads network. This way of waste treatment was
totally common in medieval towns and besides archaeological researches it was also proven by written
records (cf. Winter 1982, 179–196).
Among the objects the function of which could be identified are mostly respective parts of footwear
though not in such high numbers as in similar localities both in our country and abroad. This fact was
already mentioned in the study written by I. Shromáždilová (2001). Among the above-mentioned finds
pieces from the upper parts of footwear prevail unambiguously, mainly the type which was attached
to a leg by means of one or more rows of belts (type 10, according to Goubitz 2001, 135–144). Parts
decorated by cutting through or cutting out. Unfortunately, it was not possible to determine which
product they originally came from in none of them. Generally, these parts were used a s a decoration of
a vamp of a shoe (Fig. 11). A nice find is a finger part of a glove of mitten type which were in medieval
times used mostly as work gloves. Four little drop shaped cases which were used for keeping change and were used in payment everyday payment system are absolutely unique finds among the uncovered
objects.
Cumulation of scraps of leather of various sizes which were uncovered in Františkánská Street (test
pit C) is also worth mentioning (ca 140 pieces). From the technological point of view, they come from
both used leather as well as from the so-called primary production. Such a concentration of obviously
manufacturing waste most probably indicates presence of a shoemaker’s workshop.
Generally it can be concluded that the analysed collections represent a very interesting example of
medieval clothing culture, equipment and gear from the second half of 13th and 14th century which
exactly fits the context of the period of the last of Přemyslid dynasty and the beginning of the reign of
Luxemburg dynasty.

Entre 1370 et 1406 des vêtements en peaux de chamois sont confectionnés à la cour de Savoie. Ce n’est pas une spécificité des comtes de cette principauté située près des lieux de chasse de cet animal : les cours de France, de Bourgogne ou de Berry s’intéressent tout autant à cette matière première à la même époque. Toutefois, le chamois n’a pas encore fait l’objet d’une étude par des historiens du costume. Cette première approche, centrée sur les comptabilités de la maison de Savoie permet d’aborder plusieurs problématiques.
La première partie s’intéressera à la technique et à l’économie de la matière. À cette époque, les peaux mégies sont en effet utilisées dans la ganterie et pour les petits accessoires de mode, mais très rarement dans le vêtement. La peau de chamois au cours de ses différents traitements, tannage à l’alun ou en graisse (chamoisage), acquière des propriétés intéressantes pour un usage vestimentaire : souplesse, couleur fauve, surfaces veloutés, mais aussi résistance à l’humidité. L’approvisionnement quant à lui n’est pas si aisé même dans une région où l’animal est abondant. Les premiers achats, avant les années 1390, se font au coup par coup et les peaux sont rarement prêtes à l’usage. Les intendants doivent s’adresser à divers artisans, comme des escoffiers ou des gantiers capables de les mégir puis de leur apporter les dernières finitions. Après 1390, l’approvisionnement semble s’organiser, car les peaux arrivent déjà apprêtées dans la taillerie. Ce ne sont pas uniquement les pelletiers qui font commerce de peaux de chamois, la cour s’adresse aussi à des gantiers et des parcheminiers. Dans un premier temps les fournisseurs résident dans des villes ou régions proches des zones de production (val d’Aoste, Briançonnais, Maurienne), puis les pelletiers officiels des comtes de Savoie, localisés dans des villes d’importance comme Chambéry, Lyon ou Bourg-en-Bresse, prennent en main l’approvisionnement.
La seconde partie s’attache aux différents types de vêtement produits et à leurs usages. Les pièces en peaux de chamois sont toujours confectionnées en hiver. Les propriétés de la peau jouent un rôle évident dans la saisonnalité des achats. La moitié de ces vêtements est liée à des activités d’extérieur. Il s’agit, de houpelande et de vestes, presque tous doublés de fourrures, mais il ne faudrait pas en conclure que cette matière n’est utilisée que pour des vêtements fonctionnels. L’esthétisme de la peau conduit également les princes à commander des vêtements d’intérieur et même des costumes d’apparat teints et brodés de devises et de motifs divers.
La troisième partie met en avant la distribution parcimonieuse et très sélective des peaux de chamois. Elle ne concerne que des hommes et seuls les comtes et quelques personnes de leur familia vont en bénéficier. La moitié des peaux achetées par la trésorerie ne reste pas en Savoie. Fortes de leur rareté et d’un certain exotisme pour les aristocrates français, bourguignons ou berrichons, les peaux de chamois sont envoyées à ces différents princes en guise de cadeaux diplomatiques.
L’exemple de la cour de Savoie est une première approche de l’histoire de la peau de chamois dans le vêtement au Moyen Âge. Il y a encore beaucoup d’interrogations autour des techniques de mégissage et des spécificités de cette peau, et de l’effet de mode qu’elle engendre à plus large échelle.

This paper describes the analytical investigation of a pair of women's shoes (known as slippers) from Pyrgi of Chios Island. The shoes belong to the Lyceum Club of Greek Women (Lykeion ton Hellenidon) traditional costume collection. They are dated to 1905 and were typically used on festive occasions. Shoes are composite objects with small dimensions with a complex construction and decorative elements and as such they pose difficulties to conservators. Moreover, shoes from that time are only rarely found in collections in Greece. Thus it was decided to perform a systematic investigation in order to obtain technological knowledge about the materials and techniques used for their manufacture. Analytical methods used to characterize the shoes' components include Optical Microscopy (OM); Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM/EDX); Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR/ATR); X-radiography and X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT). The results obtained from the materials characterization study were also used to determine the condition of the slippers and plan for the appropriate treatment methodology.

Tests for sharpness and durability were conducted on a range of double-edged razor blades to judge their suitability for bookbinders who pare leather. Three brands proved particularly suitable for this type of work: Feather, Polsilver and Wilkinson Sword. Some other brands would work but were not optimal, and there are others that under-performed.

Deri insanoğlunun ilkçağlardan beri, kendini olumsuz iklim şartlarından koruyabilmek için kullandığı materyallerden biri olmuştur. Başlangıçta en doğal haliyle kullanılan deriler, zaman içerisinde bilgi birikiminin artması ve geliştirilen yöntemlerle (bitkisel tabaklama) daha dayanıklı hale getirilmiş ve giysi dışında günlük yaşamın diğer alanlarında da kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Böylece dericilik bir zanaat kolu olarak pek çok medeniyet tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Her ne kadar deri eşya üretiminin tarihi antik Mısır medeniyetine dayansa da, dericilik faaliyetlerindeki asıl önemli gelişmeler Orta Asya Türk topluluklarında olmuştur. Orta Asya’dan Anadolu’ya yapılan göçlerle dericilik alanındaki bilgiler, Anadolu’ya aktarılmış ve dericilik faaliyetlerinin Anadolu coğrafyasında gelişimi sağlanmıştır.
Dericilik, Selçuklar döneminde üzerinde önemle durulan faaliyet kollarından biri iken, Osmanlı döneminde çeşitli teknik ve yöntemlerle daha da geliştirilmiş, 16. ve 17. yüzyıllarda en zirve dönemini yaşamıştır. Bu dönemde Ortadoğu coğrafyası dericilik faaliyetlerinde yer küre üzerindeki en büyük üretim sahası olmuştur. 18. yüzyılda ise sanayi devriminin etkisiyle ortaya çıkan teknolojik gelişmeler sayesinde dericilik faaliyetleri Batı Avrupa’da bir sanayi kolu olarak gelişimini sürdürmüştür. 19. yüzyılda ise Batı Avrupa’da, deri sanayisinde yaşanan muazzam gelişmeler ve üretim artışları, deri sektörünün merkezinin Osmanlı coğrafyasından Batı Avrupa’ya kaymasına neden olmuştur.
Türkiye’deki dericilik faaliyetleri ise Osmanlıdan devralınan yıkık dökük deri kuruluşlarıyla başlamıştır. 1960’lara kadar basit usul ve araçlarla sürdürülen dericilik faaliyeti, 1960’larda uygulamaya konulan beşer yıllık kalkınma planları sayesinde sanayinin bir kolu olarak gelişimini sürdürmüştür. 1980’lere kadar yerel pazarlara yönelik yapılan üretim, 1980’ler ve sonrasında dış pazarlara yönelik olarak da geliştirilmiştir. 1990’lar ve sonrasında ise Türkiye’nin birçok şehir ve kasabasında faaliyet gösteren deri kuruluşları pazar alanlarına yakınlık, ulaşım avantajı, su kaynakları vb. sebeplerden dolayı Marmara ve Ege bölgelerinde kurulan deri OSB merkezlerinde faaliyet göstermeye başlamışlardır. Günümüzde Türkiye deri sanayisi içinde bulunduğu çeşitli sorunlara (kaliteli ham deri bulamama, sermaye sıkıntısı ve nitelikli işçi temini vb.) rağmen, ürettiği kaliteli deri mamulleri sayesinde dünya deri ürünleri pazarında önemli bir yere sahiptir. Ayrıca deri sanayisi, binlerce kişiye sağladığı iş olanakları ve ekonomiye sağladığı katkı ile Türkiye’nin dış ticareti içinde önemli bir yere sahiptir.
Tez çalışmamızda öncelikli olarak deri sanayinin dünyadaki ve Türkiye’deki tarihsel gelişim süreci ele alınmıştır. Ardından Türkiye’de deri sanayisinin kuruluş ve işleyişinde etkili olan başlıca faktörler, deri sanayisinin alt sektörleri ve deri sanayinin coğrafi dağılışı incelenmiştir. Tezin hazırlanma sürecinde çeşitli yöntem ve teknikler (literatür çalışması, anket, mülakat vb) yanında, arazi çalışmaları ve fabrika gezileri de gerçekleştirilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler harita, tablo, şekil ve fotoğraflarla görsel olarak da sunulmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Dünya, Türkiye, Deri Sanayi, İthalat, İhracat.

This study explored the viability of the Ghanaian indigenous vegetable tanned leather for the production of aesthetic masks for ornamental purposes. The study was basically experimental, and all processes were observed and recorded carefully for analysis. Modeling technique was principally used in three experiments to produce masks with three different thicknesses of leather acquired from cow hides. The thicknesses were purposively selected. The outcome of the study has confirmed the versatility of leather as alternative material for mask production. The study has strategically created another impetus in diversifying and expanding the utility of Gha-naian indigenous vegetable tanned leather aside the conventional usage for making bags, san-dals and footrests.

An overview is provided of the processing of hides in southern Africa as reflected in ethnographies and other written sources. Although some of these techniques may still be in use today, the wave of modernization in recent times likely led to the loss or disuse of many processes, knowledge and utensils.The processing of hides consists mainly of three steps : dehairing, scraping and tanning. A variety of methods have been used to process hides, which was in part determined by the availability of particular plants and trees. Both men and women were often involved in the processing of hides. While hides were usually processed by their owner, some groups such as the Zulu employed specialists, and others processed skins as part of a communal activity.

Livestock has been a fundamental resource for humanity since breeding spread during the Neolithic period and until the recent debates about the ecological impact of animal production. Meat and leather answer basic needs such as food and clothing, but they have long been neglected by economic history in favour of cereal production and textile. The two volumes of the Cambridge Economic History of Europe about the Middle Ages devoted specific chapters to agriculture, the woollen industry, mining and metallurgy or "building in stone" but none to cattle or leather. Isolated historians and archaeologists have nevertheless demonstrated how important meat and leather were in the medieval economy 1. The average meat consumption was probably higher in many European cities in the Middle Ages than in the 19 th century 2 and the taxes on leather were often among the most profitable. New breeds and new techniques circulated between East and West 3 : the Merinos sheep were probably introduced in Spain from the Near East in the 12 th century and leather tawed with alum became associated with the city of Cordoba 4. However only a few studies have addressed the leather crafts in the medieval Islamic world because of the scarcity of information from the available sources 5. In the Christian areas, the variations in the species used for meat, hide or leather remain a fruitful field of research. What was the proportion between cattle and sheep? To what extent could goats, horses, or even chamois and small wild mammals like rabbits be resources in this industry? Considering the leather production, archaeological artefacts can now enlighten the characteristics of the animals and of the pastoral farming systems 6 , the technics of production 7 , or the nature of the objects 8. Historians still investigate meat supply, the leather trade, shoemaking or the numerous products derived from leather (belts, parchments, book covers, furniture…). But those research fields often stay apart. We would like to impulse a transversal