Juan de Onate statue

This essay analyzes the historical construction of "Spanish" icons in northern New Mexico and the complex Hispanic and Chicano identities they both evoke and mask. It focuses on the January 1998 vandalism of a statue depicting New Mexico's first Spanish colonial governor, Don Juan de Oñate. The removal of the Oñate statue's foot references a brutal colonial encounter in 1599, when Oñate ordered the amputation of one foot each from Pueblo men in the rebellious Native American village of Acoma. In this case study, national and regional narratives as well as self-consciously oppositional narratives collude, conflict, and supplement one another. I conclude that the vandalized statue offers a dynamic and "open" icon that powerfully represents the contradictions of New Mexican Chicana/o identity, shedding light on the complex and contradictory identities of all Mexican-origin peoples in the United States.

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This guide supports viewers in discussing the power of art, the role of history, conflict resolution, and the nature of trying to work in the public interest.

FILM SYNOPSIS: Renowned sculptor John Houser has a dream: to build the world's tallest bronze equestrian statue for the city of El Paso, Texas. He envisions a stunning monument to Spanish conquistador Juan de Oñate that will honor the contributions Hispanic people made to building the American West. But as the project nears completion, troubles arise. Native Americans are outraged — they remember Oñate as the man who brought genocide to their land and sold their children into slavery.

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The 1680 Pueblo Revolt was the single largest native uprising in New Mexico colonial history (1540-1821). The event, which resulted in the temporary expulsion of Spanish colonists from New Mexico, was the culmination of nearly a century of tension between invading Spaniards and the Pueblo Indians. However, this large-scale revolt was not the only act of rebellion that took place throughout the 16th and 17th centuries in colonial New Mexico. In Acoma Pueblo, a native settlement in western New Mexico, a rebellion took place in 1599 that permanently altered the nature of native-Spanish relations in the region. The Acoma Massacre, a tragedy that would forever haunt the Pueblo people, was one of several major cultural clashes foreshadowing the later Pueblo Revolt. This book explores the many social, political, and economic causes of the Pueblo Revolt, and how these causes are reflected today in the archaeological record.

At the same time the Olmec culture flourished in Mesoamerica and the Chavín culture in South America, the Adena Culture (800 B.C.E. to the birth of Christ). It was characterized by conical burial mounds. The people were hunter-gatherers, who use atlatls (spears hurled by a sling) to hunt small game and deer. The Hopewell Culture (200 B.C.E. to the birth of Christ) was an extension of the Adena Culture. It was based in southern Ohio and extended over a major part of the southeastern United States. The Hopewell people built monumental earthworks. The Serpent Mount in Peebles, Ohio, is an earthwork in the form of a curved serpent. The Hopewell people engaged in agriculture, but there is no evidence of corn cultivation. They had domestic pottery and more refined pottery with cross-hatched patterns and bird motifs as well as ceramic and stone figurines buried in the graves.

During the Mississippian Period (800 C.E. to European Contact) settlement shifted from the Ohio River Basin to the lower Mississippi River Basin. Mississippian culture was divided into four individual centers: the Middle Mississippian, the Caddo Region, the Plaquemine region, and the Oneotic region around the Great Lakes. All had huge flat-top mountains and open plazas surrounded by tall log palisades. They had a leadership by paramount chiefs. Cahokia was on the east bank of the Mississippi River in Illinois, across the river from St. Louis, Missouri. It is a complex of 120 small earthen mounds arranged around a four-level great platform mound. There was also a plaza with a Chunky court (a game in which players tossed spears at a rolling disc) and a woodhenge (a circle of wooden posts around a center post). The layout of Cahokia is celestially arranged.

The Four Corners Region in southwest Colorado, northwest New Mexico, southeast Utah, and northeast Arizona today is a region of mountains, canyons, and mesas (literally “tables” in Spanish). During the Late Archaic Period (5,000 to 3,000 years ago) maize agriculture from Mesoamerica appears for the first time, people began to live in sedentary villages, and they began to weave baskets and sandals. This was the beginning of what has been called the Basketmaking cultures of the American Southwest, which were divided into the Early Basketmaker I, Late Basketmaker II, and Basketmaker III.

Basketmaker cultures were succeeded by the Pueblo Culture, which was also divided into Pueblo I, Pueblo II, Pueblo III, Pueblo IV, and Pueblo V.  Pueblo I was the period of the Ancestral Pueblo (50 C.E.-500 C.E.) previously known as the Anasazi. During the Pueblo II period (900-1150) Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde developed with 3-story apartment complexes, multiple kivas, and a system of 8 major roads from Chaco Canyon suggesting the importance of trade. Chaco Canyon was one of the largest urban complexes in Native America. Its largest city is Pueblo Bonito, consisting of 12 great houses, five-stories high, and up the 800 rooms as well as 30 kivas (circular, covered pits) in which men and women conducted different ceremonies. Chaco Canyon was abandoned during the in 1150 probably because of a 50-year drought in 1130, and the population was dispersed. The Ancestral Pueblo People began to move into the canyons to be closer to the sources of water for their fields. They began to build elaborate cliff dwellings and imported pottery, shells, and turquoise from the plains west of the mesas. By 1260 most of the people in Mesa Verde lived in large houses in which more than 100 people lived. By 1285 most of the inhabitants left Mesa Verde, and many migrated to eastern Arizona and northwest New Mexico, where they became the ancestors of the Pueblo Indians, including Acoma, Zuni, Jemez, and Laguna.

There were five culture regions on the Great Plains: the Northwest Plains occupied by nomadic bison hunters; the Northeastern Periphery by the lakes and woodlands Sioux; the Middle Missouri Valley by midsize farming villages with round, grass lodges and seasonal bison-hunting; the Central Plains by village dwelling Caddoan-speakers; and the Southern Plains most bison-hunters by influenced by the Pueblo culture. During the Middle-Archaic period the bison-hunters would corral the bison and/or force them to drop into canyons at what are known as bison drop sites.

In the sixteenth century, Spanish conquistadors in search of gold laid claim to the North American Southeast, Southwest, and Great Plains. They included Ponce de León in 1513, Pánfilo de Narváez and Álvar Núnez Cabeza de Vaca between 1527 and 1536, Hernando de Soto between 1539 and 1542; Francisco Vazques Coronado between 1540 and 1542; and Juan de Oñate between 1558 and 1605. While none of these were successful in finding gold, they altered the pre-Columbian cultures of North America by introducing horses, pigs, and sheep to the Native peoples.