Iron and Steel (History)

The 18th century water-powered ironworks at Agoreggi, in the Basque country, was reconstructed based on contemporary historical records and archaeological investigations. In 1994-1999 three campaigns of experiments were carried out with the aim of reproducing the scale and technology of the iron production. This paper is a fully illustrated description of the experiments and, in particular, of the practical problems of the air delivery system and the use of the copper tobera (tuyere). In 1999 six agoas (blooms) were made of varying quality and size, the largest being a 30kg ferritic agoa smelted from 140kg of ore, but this is only about half the scale of the 18th century production.
It subsequently transpired that the mouth of the tobera used for the experiments should have been 170% larger, thus allowing more air to be blown into the furnace, and the making of agoas closer to the 18th century size. See Crew 2013, 'Twenty five years of bloomery experiments...', pages [46-48], for an overview of the experiments and a brief discussion of the tobera problem.

Au début des années 1860, Eugène Schneider prépare un programme de transformation de ses établissements sidérurgiques du Creusot, pour augmenter significativement la production de fonte et de fer ; celle de l'acier ne commence à être envisagée que comme un complément des produits que les usines du Creusot proposent à leur clientèle. Il devient nécessaire d'approvisionner les hauts fourneaux sur une base beaucoup plus élevée que celle retenue quelques années plus tôt. En octobre 1862, un grand programme d'approvisionnement est élaboré. L'essentiel des minerais que l'usine doit consommer est censé provenir de Bourgogne, et en particulier de la mine de Mazenay-Change, située à quelques kilomètres du Creusot. Il est aussi fait mention des minerais riches de l'île d'Elbe et de ceux en cours de reconnaissance en Algérie. Mais il reste une interrogation quant à la capacité de l'usine à se doter des minerais très purs indispensables à l'obtention de fontes aciéreuses. C'est pourquoi, dès 1862, sans que l'entreprise ait pris de quelconques dispositions, la direction du Creusot mentionne la possibilité de disposer de quelque 8 000 tonnes de minerais de fer des Alpes, accompagnée de la mention sibylline : « Nous ne sommes pas encore très exactement fixés à l'égard de ce minerai, mais nous pouvons prévoir qu'il ressortirait à peu près comme l'Espagne ».

This paper studies steel built-up guns made in Josiah Vavasseur's London Ordnance Works in 1880s that were sold to China and used in coastal forts and warships. It uses the Vavasseur album in the collection of Southwark Local History Library to identify each type of Vavasseur guns that was used in China and has drawings, photos or surviving examples.

This article explores the import to England and uses of oregrounds iron, made in an area north of Stockholm.  This was the raw material for most steel made by the cementation  process and was much used in naval dockyards.  In the 18th century, its import was controlled by a small group of importers, including the Sykes family of Hull, through advance payments through exporting houses in Stockholm.

The Tees (Newport) Bridge officially opened in February 1934 to much fanfare and public celebration, the event receiving extensive local, regional and national media attention. The bridge provided a crucial link across the River Tees to the emerging industrial works on the north bank of the river and beyond, and similarly provided access to the industrial, commercial and retail businesses on the Middlesbrough side of the river. However, delays in the project meant approximately fourteen years had elapsed from initial discussions of a crossing to its fruition in the form of the world’s largest vertical-lift bridge.

LIEN pour la lecture / LINK to read it
https://www.yumpu.com/fr/document/read/16922453/universite-paris-sorbonne-e-sorbonne

Etude archéologique des techniques d’acquisition et de transformation du métal dans le cadre de la production des lames de sabre au Japon (IXe -XVIe siècle). / "Cette thèse a pour thème les techniques d’acquisition et de transformation du fer dans le cadre de la production des lames japonaises, sur une période courant du IXe à la toute fin du XVIe siècle. Une partie préliminaire est présente afin de donner une idée de l’évolution de la métallurgie du fer jusqu’à cette date. Le type de minerais, les sables ferrifères, est alors abordé avec ses techniques d’acquisition et d’extraction. S’en suit une étude des méthodes de transformation par le biais des techniques de réduction. L’étude des différents sites permet de mettre en lumière deux types majeurs de fourneau dans l’archipel : un type à cheminée semi-enterré et un type en forme de boîte rectangulaire. Ce dernier débouche d’ailleurs sur la mise au point, au début du XVIIe siècle, du fourneau traditionnel, le tatara. En outre, l’archipel présente un développement des techniques de forge antérieur aux techniques de réduction. A partir du IXe siècle, la forge japonaise se retrouve donc déjà à un niveau technique particulièrement élevé, ayant développé, en plus des techniques de mise en forme, des techniques d’affinage, de carburation et de grappage, autorisant un recyclage du fer, permettant d’affranchir en partie les forgerons de la production des sites de réduction. C’est donc sur cette base technique particulièrement développée qu’a pu se mettre en place une partie de la production des lames. Ce recyclage explique en partie la disparition d’un très grand nombre de lames, auquel il faut adjoindre à partir de la fin du XVIe siècle, des chasses au sabre, permettant de distinguer la classe des guerriers, les samouraïs par un port d’arme qui leur était réservé.

This thesis is dealing with the iron smelting and forge techniques in the
production of Japanese swords, from the 9th to the end of the 16th century.
A preliminary part presents the evolution of iron smelting techniques in Japan,
from the origin to the 9th century.
The types of ore (iron sand) and their acquisition and extraction techniques
are discussed for a period during from the 9th to the 16th century in a
second part.
The smelting techniques used at the same period are then studied. The
archaeological research sheds light on two major types of furnace in the
archipelago: a semi-buried shaft furnace and a rectangular box shape
furnace. This last one leads in the early 17th century to the development
of the traditional Japanese furnace, the tatara.
Concerning the forging techniques, their development in the archipelago was
prior to the smelting techniques. Therefore, from the 9th century, the
technology of the Japanese forge had already reached a high level,
having developed in addition to the basic forge techniques, the
refining, carburizing and clustering (oroshigane) techniques, allowing
the smith to not be entirely dependent on the iron production of the
smelting furnace, but to also be able to rely on the recycled iron.
Consequently, a large part of the blade production in this period might
have relied on that techniques. This recycling helps to explain the
disappearance of a large number of blades, associated to sword hunts in
the late 16th century which led to distinguish a warrior class, the
samurai, carrying a weapon which is, from the early 17th century,
reserved to them."

Archaeological assessment and management plan for the G & C Hoskins Ltd Coke Ovens that were constructed between 1910 and 1915 to manufacture coke for the company's blast furnaces. The failure of these ovens to supply a viable source of coke from local coal was a major factor in the company's decision to relocate its operations to Port Kembla.

This paper re-assesses the conventional understanding of nineteenth century iron production. The pocket book of a worker at Noah Hingley and Sons’ ironworks at Netherton (near Dudley) records the ingredients for the different types of puddled iron produced by the firm The notebook makes it
clear that differentiation between ‘best’, ‘best best’ and other grades took place at the puddling stage rather than during subsequent forging; many of the mixtures described can be associated with different grades advertised by Hingleys at the time.

This paper discusses iron production in the Iron Age and Roman periods and the Middle Ages, the main expansion based on water power which brought the Weald to national significance in the 16th and 17th centuries, and the secondary working of iron by Surrey mills in the Thames basin into the early 19th century. Finally it suggests priorities for future research.

The Raby family were involved in the iron trade in the West Midlands by the late-17th century but it was in London, and latterly in the Weald of south-east England that the family become prominent. Edward Raby, ironmonger, became a gun-founder during the Seven Years' War providing the background for his son, Alexander, to pursue his career in iron working and coal mining.

The iron industry in south Staffordshire was concentrated in a few businesses from the early years of the 17th century, involving at various times Lord Dudley, and members of the Parkes, Foley, Chetwynd and Jennens familes.  The slitting mill was introduced to the area by Colman and Chedtwynd by 1611

The introduction of hot blast was the most important development in early 19th century iron smelting. The conventional story of James Beaumont Nielson’s 1828 patent has been widely accepted since the 1840s. This paper re-appraises the development of hot blast in the light of an earlier patent of Thomas Botfield, and suggests that many elements of Botfield’s development anticipated those of Nielson. The role of Gilbert Gilpin, and through him connections with John Wilkinson and the iron industry in South Wales, are also discussed. It is argued that the early development of hot blast iron smelting in fact remains poorly understood, and some suggestions are made for improving understanding.

Iron and iron works in Genoa's interland.
In the ophiolite mountain of Genoa, there are many different, but small, Fe-ores used in the past for iron production. Early in the 12th century they were construct iron works using local hydraulic power and charcoal, possibly introduced by French Cistercian monks.  Afterwards the iron works (ferriere) became numerous and, thanks to the ore (hematite) imported from Elba island, they survived for centuries, using bloomery methods and producing a very good malleable metal.  They improved the hydraulic works, for hammers and blowing apparatus.
The local method, so called "alla genovese" were exported in all the Mediterranean, especially in the Pyrenees, know as "ferrerias a la genovesa".  The so called "catalan method" is, really, a Genoese one.  Also the use of the hydraulic wind pump (trompe) was introduced in the Pyrenees from Genoa.
The use of the blast furnace, especially the "forno alla bresciana" were attempted, in Genoa, but had not successful because produced less esteemed iron.
The Genoese iron works (ferriere)closed to the half of the 19th century, due to the concurrence of low cost foreign iron and local constructions of modern foundries.

This text deals in Japanese with the iron production in Protohistoric and Antique Gaul, presenting the results of the most recent studies concerning the iron production from the mining to the forging techniques, reviewing also the smelting furnaces used in Celtic and Roman Gaul. The beginning of iron production in Gaul is then compared with the one in Ancient Japan, revealing the differences but also the similarities between the two cultures, aiming to clearly unveil the caracteristics of the Japanese iron production in its early stage.

The purpose of this study is to analyze the distribution, forms, and function(s) of iron amulets deposited in the late Iron Age gravefields of Lovö, with the goal of ascertaining how (and so far as possible why) these objects were utilized in rituals carried out during and after burials.  Particular emphasis is given to re-interpreting the largest group of iron amulets, the iron amulet rings, in a more relational and practice-focused way than has heretofore been attempted.  By framing burial analyses, questions of typology, and evidence of ritualized actions in comparison with what is known of other cult sites in Mälardalen specifically– and theorized about the cognitive landscape(s) of late Iron Age Scandinavia generally– a picture of iron amulets as inscribed objects made to act as catalytic, protective, and mediating agents is brought to light.

Keywords: Iron Age, Viking Age, burial, amulets, Thor’s hammer ring, torshammarringar, practice theory, ritual studies, New Materialism, cognitive archaeology, archaeology of ritual

The manufacturing and trade of sword blades in Renaissance and Modern Age Europe was a well-established activity at an international scale. Period documentation includes references to the prices these goods reached in the Spanish market and how they were valued depending on their place of manufacture, with Toledo blades scoring on top. There is evidence pointing at the fact that quality, understood as its ability to perform more or less excellently as a tool for combat, was a very important factor to determine these prices. There’s also evidence that the perception of quality was related to the mechanical behaviour of the blades, so it is necessary to look into the materials and manufacturing techniques used to made them in order to understand what properties were sought and how technological differences were perceived. To this end, some samples of sword (rapier) blades from the 17th and 18th c. have been gathered, and a metallographic study is being performed on them. In this paper, the results and preliminary conclusions for the two first blades of a batch of nine are being presented.

KEYWORDS: metallography, metallurgy, steel, sword, rapier, forging, renaissance, historical technology.

A study of the iron industry in the Weald of south-east England during the period leading up to, during and just after the Seven Year's War. It examines the organisation of the industry, the ownership and tenancy of its production sites and the risk involved; it considers the products and their markets; it identifies the locations of the sites, the sources and consumption of raw materials, labour and transportation. Appendices detail the main producers, as well as presenting statistics of supply and production.

This chapter traces the growth of iron production from the pre-Roman period in the Weald of South-East England, describing the smelting technology of the time and quantifying production; it examines the role of the Classis Britannica and the possible existence of an imperial estate in the region.

« Nous ici ses toujours la même vie à part quelques coups de canons ses tres calme nous vivons toujours au milieu de la forets dans l'attente de cette fin qui et si longue a venir. Je croit que nous y passeront encore l'hivert ; Cette carte vous represente un tank qui et rester dans les fils de fer il na pas put aller plus loin faire sa destruction et depuis l'attaque du 16 avril il y en a des centaines qui attende quon aille les chercher et combien de millions qui ce ballade comme ça c'est honteux de voir ça 1. » Ce texte se trouve au dos de la carte photographique qui accompagne cette présentation. Il évoque le premier emploi, pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, d'un char d'assaut au sein des armées françaises. À Berry-au-Bac, au coeur de l'offensive Nivelle du Chemin des Dames, 128 chars Schneider doivent constituer un des instruments de la rupture des lignes allemandes… en vain. Cet article s'intéresse d'abord aux conditions de mises en production de ce char, ainsi que la collaboration apportée ensuite par les établissements Schneider et Cie, du Creusot, aux autres programmes de fabrications de chars, et notamment à ceux concernant le véhicule léger Renault.

Plus de cent ans après sa parution en 1917, l’ouvrage majeur d’Henri Fayol, Administration industrielle et générale, étonne toujours par son actualité et son originalité. Achevé peu avant le terme de la carrière d’un des principaux managers français de la fin du XIXe siècle et du début du XXe siècle, il ne correspond pas seulement à un acte fondateur de la science moderne de gestion mais constitue aussi une référence sur le métier d’ingénieur, ses qualités et ses responsabilités.
Cette œuvre de Fayol possède une dimension sociale indéniable. Elle peut être abordée comme un testament intellectuel et pratique longuement mûri qu’il a voulu transmettre aux futurs ingénieurs. Car Fayol inscrit son action et sa réflexion dans le temps long. À partir de 1900, ses prises de paroles, pleines d’autorité, constituent, dans un monde d’ingénieurs exclusivement épris de techniques, autant d’actes militants qui devaient déboucher sur la rédaction de l’Administration industrielle et générale.
Ce livre, issu d’un colloque organisé par l’École des mines de Saint-Étienne (Institut Fayol) et l’Université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne (Institut d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine), rassemble des communications qui renouvellent la connaissance de Fayol ingénieur, géologue, manager et fondateur des sciences administratives. L’ouvrage entend aborder Henri Fayol à partir d’une approche pluridisciplinaire et comparative, afin de saisir la complexité de sa pensée et de son parcours, ainsi que ses apports à la science, à l’économie, à la société et à la technique.

Resumen: Más allá de la simple existencia, se sabía muy poco de la explotación medieval de los yacimientos férricos del Moncayo. El presente estudio demuestra que se remonta, de forma probada, al siglo XIII, aunque es muy posible que sus raíces se retrotraigan, como mínimo, al siglo anterior. Reproduciendo con notable fidelidad los grandes flujos de avance y retroceso de la minería europea e integrando las novedades tecnológicas en el ámbito de la forja que iban sucediéndose, la producción de hierro del Moncayo alcanza cotas interesantes a fines de la Edad Media. Estos resultados, aunque modestos en comparación con los de las grandes áreas férricas del Cantábrico, debieron tener un efecto visible en la economía regional.

Palabras clave: hierro, siderurgia, minería, Moncayo, Aragón.

Abstract: We have few information about working on iron beds in the area of mount Moncayo in the Middle Ages, except for its only existence. This  study shows that those works can be proved for XIIIth century and,  perhaps they have some roots, at least, in the previous century. The iron production in mount Moncayo reaches interesting levels at the end of Middle Ages. It reproduces accurately the movements of European mining, going ahead or going back, and it integrates technological advances that were made in industrial sector. These results, even though they seem not very big, -if we compare them with the rest of great mining areas in the Cantabric coast-, must have been quite profitable for the local economy.

Keywords: Iron, iron industry, mining, Moncayo, Aragon.

Özet
Türkiye ile AB arasında 1996 yılında yürürlüğe giren Serbest Ticaret Anlaşması ile demir çelik sektörüne dair AB düzeyinde uygulanması gereken kurallar geçerlilik kazanmıştır. Ulusal Yapılanma Programı kapsamında, Türkiye’de demir çelik sektöründe yaşanan gelişmelerle birlikte sektörün yapısı ve rekabet koşullarında değişimler meydana gelmiştir. Bu nedenle, Türk demir çelik üreticilerinin yeni rekabet koşullarına uyum sağlamak adına uzun vadeli stratejiler geliştirmesi önemli hale gelmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Türk demir çelik sektörünün gelişimi değerlendirilerek, Michael Porter tarafından geliştirilen “Sektörlerin Yapısal Analizi” yaklaşımı kullanılarak, sektörün uzun vadede rekabet edilebilirliğini sürdürmeye yönelik strateji önerileri geliştirilmiştir.

Abstract
As a result of the Free Trade Agreement which executed in 1996 between Turkey and EC, the rules to be applied on iron and steel sector across EU have been valid. In the Scope of National Construction Programme, changes have occurred in competition conditions together with the developments in iron and steel sector in Turkey. Hence, it is getting important for the Turkish iron and steel producers to develop long term strategies in the scope of according with the new competition conditions. In this study, Turkish iron and steel sector have been evaluated and strategy recommendations have been developed for the sectors long term competitiveness by using “Structural Analysis of Sectors” approach developed by Michael Porter.

This lecture explored the freight of iron on the river Severn.  Pig iron was sent up the river from the 1610s for forges to fine.  Bar iron came down the river from Shropshire by the 1630s.  Much of this iron was processed in the Stour valley in north Worcestershire and then  manufactured into ironware in the Black Country.  The paper describes briefly iron production in all these areas and how Midlands ironware reached London from the 1610s.

John Furphy and Furphy’s Foundry in Shepparton, Victoria was the designer of the 19th century Furphy Water Cart. Furphy Foundry ("Still Going Strong") also has great importance as a case study in the history of 19th century Australian design. Furphy’s Shepparton, Victoria Foundry carried out market place research through the commercial travellers, they diversified their product lines, created a unique brand identity and like so many designers and experienced significant losses over design copyright infringement. In the manufacturing and production of their water carts, they pioneered Australian manufacturing processes that paid close attention to the century's industrial production methods of small arms, sewing machines and clocks.