Hypogene Speleogenesis

Die 1372 m lange und 90 m tiefe Schauhöhle Laichinger Tiefenhöhle ist ein 3-dimensionales Labyrinth. In der Höhle überwiegen phreatische Formen bei weitem, auch die vertikal ausgebildeten Teile sind phreatisch geprägt. Im Artikel wird die Morphologie vorgestellt, anhand verschiedener Speleogene wird die Entstehung der Raumformen diskutiert. Das Horizontalsystem in 35 m bis 55 m Tiefe ist durch Paragenese überprägt, was vor allem durch ausgeprägte Deckenhalbröhren ersichtlich wird. Die anderen Höhlenteile, die meistens senkrecht verlaufen, weisen eine Abfolge von Decken-und Wandkanälen, Kolken und Schloten auf, was auf eine Entstehung von unten nach oben hinweisen könnte. Sedimentreste und-spiegel zeigen, dass es mehrere Sedimentations-und Ausräumphasen in der Höhle gab. Dunkle Krusten, bestehend aus Eisen-und Manganverbindungen sind in vielen Teilen der Höhle, bis hin zum höchsten Punkt zu sehen.
Abstract
The 1372 m long and 90 m deep touristic cave Laichinger Tiefenhöhle is a 3-dimensional labyrinth. In the cave, phreatic forms far predominate, the vertically formed parts are also phreatic. The morphology is presented in the treatise, the origin of the spatial forms is discussed according to various speleogens. The horizontal system at a depth of 35 m to 55 m is over-printed by paragenesis, which is mainly shown by ceiling half tubes. The other cave parts, which usually run vertically, have a sequence of ceiling and wall channels, cupolas and vents, which could indicate a formation upwards. Sediment residues and mirrors show that there were several phases of filling and removing of sediments in the cave. Dark crusts, consisting compounds of iron and manganese, can be seen in many parts of the cave, up to the highest point.

This book illustrates the diversity of hypogene speleogenetic processes and void-conduit patterns depending on variations of the geological environments by presenting regional and cave-specific case studies. The cases include both well-known and newly recognized hypogene karst regions and caves of the world. They all focus on geological, hydrogeological, geodynamical and evolutionary contexts of hypogene speleogenesis.
The last decade has witnessed the boost in recognition of the possibility, global occurrence, and practical importance of hypogene karstification (speleogenesis), i.e. the development of solutional porosity and permeability by upwelling flow, independent of recharge from the overlying or immediately adjacent surface. Hypogene karst has been identified and documented in many regions where it was previously overlooked or misinterpreted. The book enriches the basis for generalization and categorization of hypogene karst and thus improves our ability to adequately model hypogene karstification and predict related porosity and permeability. It is a book which benefits every researcher, student, and practitioner dealing with karst.

This book provides an overview of the principal  environments, main processes and manifestations of  hypogenic speleogenesis, and refines the relevant  conceptual framework. It  consolidates the notion of  hypogenic karst as one of the two major types of karst  systems (the other being epigenetic karst). Karst is viewed  in the context of regional groundwater flow systems,  which provide the systematic transport and distribution  mechanisms needed to  produce and maintain the  disequilibrium conditions necessary for speleogenesis.  Hypogenic and epigenic karst systems are regularly  associated with different types, patterns and segments of  flow systems, characterized  by distinct hydrokinetic,  chemical and thermal conditions. Epigenic karst systems  are predominantly local systems, and/or parts of recharge segments of intermediate and regional systems. Hypogenic karst is associated with discharge regimes of regional or intermediate flow systems.
Various styles of hypogenic caves that were  previously considered unrelated, specific either to certain  lithologies or chemical mechanisms are shown to share  common hydrogeologic genetic backgrounds. In contrast  to the currently predominant view of hypogenic  speleogenesis as a specific geochemical phenomenon, the  broad hydrogeological approach is adopted in this book.  Hypogenic speleogenesis is defined with reference to the  source of fluid recharge to the cave-forming zone, and  type of flow system. It is shown that confined settings are  the principal hydrogeologic environment for hypogenic  speleogenesis. However, there is a general evolutionary  trend for hypogenic karst systems to lose their  confinement due to uplift and denudation and due to their  own expansion. Confined hypogenic caves may  experience substantial modification or be partially or  largely overprinted under subsequent unconfined (vadose)  stages, either by epigenic processes or continuing  unconfined hypogenic processes, especially when H2S  dissolution mechanisms are involved. 
Hypogenic confined systems evolve to facilitate  cross-formational hydraulic communication between  common aquifers, or between laterally transmissive beds  in heterogeneous soluble formations, across cave-forming  zones. The latter originally represented low-permeability,  separating units supporting vertical rather than lateral  flow. Layered heterogeneity in permeability and breaches  in connectivity between different fracture porosity  structures across soluble  formations are important  controls over the spatial organization of evolving  ascending hypogenic cave systems. Transverse hydraulic  communication across lithological and porosity system  boundaries, which commonly coincide with major  contrasts in water chemistry, gas composition and  temperature, is potent enough to drive various  disequilibrium and reaction  dissolution mechanisms.  Hypogenic speleogenesis may operate in both carbonates  and evaporites, but also in some clastic rocks with soluble  cement. Its main characteristic is the lack of genetic  relationship with groundwater recharge from the  overlying or immediately adjacent surface. It may not be  manifest at the surface at all, receiving some expression  only during later stages of uplift and denudation. In many  instances, hypogenic speleogenesis is largely climate- independent. 
There is a specific hydrogeologic mechanism inherent  in hypogenic transverse  speleogenesis (restricted  input/output) that suppresses the positive flow-dissolution  feedback and speleogenetic competition in an initial  flowpath network. This accounts for the development of  more pervasive channeling and maze patterns in confined  settings where appropriate structural prerequisites exist.  As forced-flow regimes in confined settings are  commonly sluggish, buoyancy dissolution driven by          either solute or thermal density differences is important in  hypogenic speleogenesis. 
In identifying hypogenic  caves, the primary criteria  are morphological (patterns and meso-morphology) and  hydrogeological (hydrostratigraphic position and  recharge/flow pattern viewed from the perspective of the  evolution of a regional groundwater flow system).  Elementary patterns typical for hypogenic caves are  network mazes, spongework  mazes, irregular chambers  and isolated passages or crude passage clusters. They  often combine to form composite patterns and complex 3- D structures. Hypogenic caves are identified in various  geological and tectonic settings, and in various  lithologies. Despite these variations, resultant caves  demonstrate a remarkable similarity in cave patterns and  meso-morphology, which strongly suggests that the  hydrogeologic settings were broadly identical in their  formation. Presence of the characteristic morphologic  suites of rising flow with buoyancy components is one of  the most decisive criteria for identifying hypogenic  speleogenesis, which is much more widespread than was  previously presumed. Hypogenic caves include many of  the largest, by integrated length and by volume,  documented caves in the world.
The refined conceptual framework of hypogenic  speleogenesis has broad implications in applied fields and  promises to create a greater demand for karst and cave  expertise by practicing hydrogeology, geological  engineering, economic geology, and mineral resource  industries. Any generalization of the hydrogeology of  karst aquifers, as well as approaches to practical issues  and resource prospecting in karst regions, should take into  account  the    different  nature  and  characteristics  of  hypogenic and epigenic karst systems. Hydraulic  properties of karst aquifers, evolved in response to  hypogenic speleogenesis, are characteristically different  from epigenic karst aquifers. In hypogenic systems, cave  porosity is roughly an order of magnitude greater, and  areal coverage of caves is five times greater than in  epigenic karst systems. Hypogenic speleogenesis  commonly results in more isotropic conduit permeability  pervasively distributed within highly karstified areas  measuring up to several square kilometers. Although  being vertically and laterally integrated throughout  conduit clusters, hypogenic systems, however, do not  transmit flow laterally for considerable distances.  Hypogenic speleogenesis can affect regional subsurface  fluid flow by greatly enhancing initially available cross- formational permeability structures, providing higher  local vertical hydraulic connections between lateral  stratiform pathways for groundwater flow, and creating  discharge segments of flow  systems, the areas of low- fluid potential recognizable at the regional scale.  Discharge of artesian karst springs, which are modern  outlets of hypogenic karst systems, is often very large and  steady, being moderated by the high karstic storage  developed in the karstified zones and by the hydraulic  capacity of an entire artesian system. Hypogenic  speleogenesis plays an important role in conditioning  related processes such as hydrothermal mineralization,  diagenesis, and hydrocarbon transport and entrapment. 
An appreciation of the wide occurrence of hypogenic  karst systems, marked specifics in their origin,  development and characteristics, and their scientific and  practical importance, calls for revisiting and expanding  the current predominantly epigenic paradigm of karst and  cave science.

Petralona Cave is one of the most important caves in Greece, due to the abundant paleontological findings of Middle Pleistocene age. Is Petralona Cave a typical karst cave? For almost half a century it was considered to be so.. In the present study, a new view of the Petralona Cave speleogenesis is proposed. A brief description of the cave and an analysis of its
morphology are given, based on micro- and meso-scale morphology of the passages as well as the horizontal pattern
of the cave. Morphological parameters are also estimated. Discriminant analysis is used to separate caves formed in
unconfined setting by those formed by transverse speleogenesis. Discriminant functions extracted from the analysis (for
2-D and 3-D data) could be used to classify new cases.
The present study introduces a new approach to the Petralona Cave speleogenesis, which is interpreted to be the
result of transverse speleogenesis, based on cave morphology and the geological setting of the broader area.

Piedmont (N-Italy) is one of Italy's regions where Messinian gypsum outcrops most extensively. Some gypsum caves have been explored in the past, but no detailed speleogenetic studies have been carried out. The discovery of unexpected large underground voids in a gypsum quarry near Moncalvo has demonstrated the presence of intrastratal karst systems with an origin at least partly linked to rising groundwater flow. A detailed look at one of the gypsum caves near Alba (Monticello cave) has revealed this labyrinth to be another classical example of intrastratal gypsum karst, clearly formed by the rising of undersaturated groundwater through a confined Messinian gypsum bed. This chapter deals with the typical hypogene morphologies in these caves and also reports some new results on the geochemistry of the waters of the Moncalvo area.

Il complesso delle grotte del Cavallone, nella spettacolare Valle di Taranta, fra Lama dei Peligni e Taranta Peligna, in Majella, ha affascinato i curiosi e interessato gli studiosi per diverso tempo, sin dalla prima esplorazione della più grande ed evidente delle tre grotte-quella del Cavallone-divenuta poi la grotta turistica con l'ingresso posto alla quota più alta rispetto tutte le altre grotte turistiche d'Europa (oltre i 1470 metri). I primi a notare l'esistenza della Grotta del Cavallone, oltre allo scavernamento sulla parete Est della Valle di Taranta, sono stati i numerosi pastori che popolavano e percorrevano la Majella durante tutto l'anno con le proprie greggi. Tuttavia non esiste una data certa della prima scoperta se non qualche riferimento ipotizzato grazie al ritrovamento, nelle grotte del complesso, di incisioni, scritte o segni, o per mezzo di qualche documento scritto lasciato ai posteri. Fig.1 : Uno degli imponenti saloni di crollo della Grotta del Cavallone (ramo speleologico). Morfologia tipica che si ritrova in tutte e tre le grotte del complesso. Photocredit: Mariangela Martellotta, Gloria Marinelli, Pieluigi Sichetti Tra storie ed esplorazioni La Grotta del Cavallone è detta anche "Grotta della Figlia di Iorio" dal titolo dell'omonima tragedia pastorale dannunziana ambientata in Abruzzo, del 1903. D'Annunzio chiese al pittore Paolo Michetti-pittore e scenografo di Tocco Casauria-di occuparsi della scenografia della tragedia, ed è noto che il poeta non visitò mai di persona le Grotte del Cavallone. La prima traccia di un'esplorazione della Grotta del Cavallone risale al 1666 e lo si sa poiché la data è incisa nel "Sasso dei nomi antichi" insieme ad altre iscrizioni, all'ingresso della grotta stessa; questo però è quello che ufficialmente, solo per essa è documentato. Riguardo le altre due cavità-Bove e Asino-le frequentazioni "documentate" risultano posteriori al 1666, ma almeno per il Bove non è da escludere che la grotta fosse conosciuta e frequentata anche prima del Cavallone vista la sua accessibilità, la posizione strategica nella valle e la possibilità di essere utilizzata come riparo o per motivi di altra natura. Nel '700 diversi esploratori effettuano sopralluoghi presso le Grotte del Cavallone e del Bove e se ne è conoscenza grazie ai vari riferimenti degli esploratori successivi. Ma non fu la stampa il mezzo con il quale si diffuse la notizia

Овој труд има за цел да и го претстави на македонската карстологија концептот на хипогена спелеогенеза, а воедно и да даде некои прелиминарни податоци за појавата на хипоген карст во Република Македонија. Во првиот дел на трудот е прикажан ажуриран краток преглед на дефиниции, концепти, процеси и механизми поврзани со хипогената карстификација, додека во вториот дел се презентирани некои резултати за распространетоста и карактеристиките на хипогениот карст во Република Македонија. Главен фокус е даден на хипогениот карст во Мариово, каде во последно време се вршени подетални проучувања на хипогената спелеогенеза, презентирајќи ги хипогените појави кои тука се резултат на хидротермална спелеогенеза поради зголемен геотермален градиент поврзан со вулканизмот на Кожуф/Козјак, како и одредени комбинации со други процеси (сулфурична спелеогенеза, фантомска спелеогенеза) како резултат на локални литолошки и геолошки прилики. Појава на хипоген карст е дискутирана и на примерот на Катлановска Бања и бања Бањиште, каде хипогената спелеогенеза е исто така поврзана со хидротермална корозија.

Karst in Sicily develops in both Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic or Tertiary limestone rocks. Caves are also found in the basalts of Mount Etna. Except for some rare cases, until recently most caves developed in limestone were considered to be of epigenetic origin. The discovery of gypsum in some of these caves, and especially detailed morphological studies, have allowed defining a hypogenic origin for a dozen of caves up to now. In some of these, the hypogenic evidences are very clear, while others remain in doubt because of the widespread presence of well-developed condensation-corrosion morphologies not necessarily related to hydrothermal fluids. This paper reports the present knowledge of hypogenic caves in the Island of Sicily.

In the present study the morphology of Almopia Speleopark caves is described in order to discuss preliminarily their speleogenesis in relation to the hydrogeological zones. At least two phreatic phases seem to exist with respect to the observed speleogens. The presence of solution ceilings, cupolas, ridges, pendants, abruptly ending passages and the horizontal morphology of the caves suggest that speleogenesis was due to slowly convecting water bodies. As an exception, some caves contain scallops or other phreatic features that developed by forced flow along a pressure head. The former pattern of speleogenesis was related to the presence of thermal ascending water in the area, while the latter is related to the downcutting of the Thermopotamos
stream.

Cave Sheki-Hiech in the Shatoi district of the Chechen Republic was studied for the first time. Full-scale observations, as well as hydrological, geomorphological, mineralogical and geochemical investigations, allow the Sheki-Hiech cave to be attributed to the object of the modern classical manifestation of sulfuric acid speleogenesis with active mineral formation. A comprehensive study of such an object, formed in extreme conditions of low acidity, is of fundamental scientific importance.

Caves in the Devils Hole Ridge near Ash Meadows (Nevada) are thought to have been formed by extensional tectonics. Here, we summarize observations of the morphologies of caves formed by condensation corrosion above a moderately thermal aquifer in the Devils Hole Ridge as well as at a site near Shoshone (California). At Devils Hole, water of the regional aquifer has been saturated with respect to calcite (i.e., non-aggressive) for the last two to three million years, hence speleogenesis in phreatic zone has been impossible. Meanwhile, potential local catchments are very small and the climate is arid, which precludes epigene speleogenesis. Any solutional forms can therefore be uniquely attributed to condensation corrosion.