Execration figures

The two groups that now form the core of the Execration Texts (ET) are accepted as dating to the mid-12th and early 13th Egyptian dynasties, which have been synchronized to the Middle Bronze I in the southern Levant according to the Low Chronology. However, recent radiocarbon determinations suggest that those dynasties should instead be synchronized to the later Middle Bronze II. This has implications for ongoing arguments about whether the ET can be used to gauge the historical reality of the southern Levant: maximalist interpretations (Albright, Rainey, Redford) suggest that they can; minimalist ones (Weinstein, Cohen, Ben-Tor) suggest that they cannot and were instead generic lists of toponyms, possibly preserving a memory of the Early Bronze Age occupation (Ben-Tor). In this paper the author highlights the importance of a thorough reconsideration of historical sources such as the ET in light of the new, radiocarbon based chronology. The analysis presented here indicates that most of the sites mentioned in the ET show limited building phases in the Middle Bronze I but had been developed and fortified by the Middle Bronze II. Accordingly, they would have been powerful entities when the ET were created, and therefore a maximalist interpretation is more viable.

The Egyptian collection of the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH, Brussels) comprises about one hundred execration figurines made of unfired clay, bearing curses written in hieratic and dating to the late Middle Kingdom. These figurines represent captured (foreign) enemies and were buried ritually in order to symbolically neutralise foreign and domestic enemies and general threats. Almost every paper discussing these objects focuses on the major importance of the texts for our knowledge on the geopolitical situation of Egypt around 1850 BC. However, the group is not as homogeneous as it appears in the literature. First of all, the majority of the figurines only refers to Egyptians and their families, while only a small part curses the enemies of neighbouring countries. Not only does the content of the inscriptions vary, the figurines themselves also bear distinct features, suggesting the influence of different craftsmen. This paper proposes a comprehensive typology of the important Brussels group, based on the physical characteristics of the figurines.

Obwohl die Ächtungstexte bereits vielfach Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher Diskussion waren, sind die Textträger, die sogenannten Ächtungsfiguren, bislang kaum beachtet worden. Dabei offenbart sich sowohl in ihrer Verwendung als auch in ihrer Gestaltung ein beachtliches kommunikatives und mediales Potenzial. Im Folgenden soll daher der Frage nachgegangen werden, welche Funktionen die Figurinen als bildhafte Zeichen im Ritual erfüllten und wie diese Funktionen wiederum deren Form bestimmten.

Although the execration texts have frequently been the subject of scientific debate, the actual text-bearing objects, the so-called execration figures, have received little attention so far. But that they hold considerable communicative and medial potential is revealed in terms of both their use as well as their shape. Therefore, the aim of the following is to investigate the question of which function the figurines fulfilled as a visual symbol in a ritual frame and how these functions in turn defined their form.

For the ancient Egyptians magic was a means of controlling an otherwise uncontrollable world. The execration ritual was one such means of control. It served as a magical means of protection and defense against traditional enemies of the pharaoh and personal enemies.
The ritual, which has been compared to modern voodoo, often involved writing the name of an enemy on a figurine and stabbing, breaking or spitting on it before burying it. Evidence of over 1,000 of these rituals have been uncovered in locations throughout Egypt and took place from the Old Kingdom through the Greco-Roman period. This talk will examine the practice of execration in ancient Egypt and will briefly discuss some unique pieces in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

Ancient Egyptian execration rituals are without a doubt multilayered and complex systems of practices that are tied to specific locations and involve specific persons as well as (written and spoken) texts and objects. Among these objects, the so-called execration figures form a prominent feature. Still, despite their frequency of occurrence, the historical value and cultural significance of the figures has often been underestimated compared to the attention the textual evidence of the ritual has received. However, over the recent years, the emerging disciplines of ritual studies and media studies have offered new approaches and methods for examining execration figures as visual symbols and for reevaluating their functional aspects. Within this talk, it will be demonstrated that both the figurines’ use as well as their shape reveal a great medial potential and indicate that they were deployed strategically for communicative and performative purposes. Furthermore, it will be discussed how the functional scope of the execration figures in turn influenced or defined their form.

Execration rituals in ancient Egypt have been mostly studied on the basis of rich textual and iconographic record (execration texts and figurines). The rare and occasional skeletal remains with traces of trauma, from Mirgissa, Tell el-Dabca and Karnak, associated by Egyptologists to execration rituals, were studied only in the light of text and iconography. The ethnic attribution of skeletal remains from the Middle Kingdom Mirgissa deposit, based on enemy names listed in the execration texts, went hand-in-hand with racial anthropological analyses of these remains. The skeletal remains coming from two pits from early 18th dynasty Tell el-Dabca were associated to execration rituals based on comparison with Mirgissa deposit and a highly problematic ethnic attribution of the skeletal remains. Like in the case of Mirgissa this was based on racial anthropological analyses of these remains, however, also in connection with Nubian pottery and silex arrowheads which were actually not found in these pits. This paper will question the methods of anthropological association of race to the skeletal remains from contexts interpreted by Egyptologists as execration pits (Mirgissa and Tell el-Dabca); deconstruct previous ethnic attributions of the skeletal remains based on “pottery equals people” premise; and consider other possible interpretations of some contexts. In line of other known sources which indicate the use of enemy prisoners as “living icons” and the fact that execration texts name locals as their targets too, the paper considers the possibility of “living icons” behind skeletal remains with traces of trauma.

SUMMARY: Lecture-9 provides a broad overview of Middle Bronze IIA (MB IIA) in the Levant, including a brief overview, its chronology, settlement patterns, urban layout (fortifications; gateways; etc.), extramural temples, burial customs, material culture (e.g., pottery; metallurgy), writing, trade/exchange with Egypt (e.g., Sinuhe; cross-cultural relations in general), and its chronology, This lecture is designed mainly as an educational resource/aid for college students (i.e., normally posted only on my institution's course website), the public (e.g., people auditing my course), and interested colleagues from other disciplines (to whom I periodically provide copies privately).  I am posting it here, both as a broader access, educational tool, and especially to promote the study of this region and its past societies.  For further knowledge about this region and period, I refer interested parties to the textbooks and other sources from which the initial materials were extracted for this ppt. (see syllabus; e.g., initially Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible), and/or the bibliographies in these works and my online resource guides (see other files in my academia folders).  Much of this and the other lectures summarize the pertinent materials in the course textbook(s), add in other data, including my own research materials, and furnish numerous images to clarify/illustrate the wealth of information encountered in the textbook(s).  Some generic imagery (usually indicated as such) is posted to aid in transmitting various concepts visually, and/or when a specific image remains not located (temporarily).  I update and revise such lectures each time, with such elective courses normally being taught once every two years.  I try to cover the most current, mainstream views, and usually place summary notes at the end of each lecture (or in separate test study guides).  Over time, each lecture is improved, errors rectified, and additional data placed within the lecture.  These ppt. lectures take many hours to compile, but they have proved useful to many of my more serious students (who have since pursued graduate degrees), and a few colleagues, who, like me, often teach outside our main fields of specialty, and I hope they can be of benefit to others as well.  My apologies for any errors I may have made (over time, as I teach this course every two years, I try to rectify any errors that might slip in inadvertently), and for my liberal usage of educational imagery from professional sources and vetted internet sources.  UPDATES: Revised formatting, adding in some new slides, correcting some text, etc. (Sept. 2023).

The EES project aims to create multi-spectral 3D images of a series of fragile Egyptian objects of the RMAH collection in order to avoid future handling and facilitate their detailed study. The texture/colour values on these 2D+ and 3D models are interactive data based on a recording process with visible light, infrared and ultraviolet. This leads to an easy and cost-effective methodology, applicable to a wide variety of Egyptian heritage objects with pigments on clay, wood and stone. As a case-study, the well-known Brussels “Execration Statuettes” (Middle Kingdom, ca. 1900 BC) have been chosen. Their surface is covered with hieratic texts, written in two types of ink (black carbon and red ochre), listing names of foreign countries and places. The study of this type of collections is mostly hampered by the poor state of conservation of the objects (in this case unbaked crude clay) - any operation carried on them can result in considerable material losses - and secondly, by the only partial preservation of the ink traces in visible light. Thus, creating an approach which requires minimal handling but delivers maximal output for research and conservation purposes must be seen as most welcoming. In addition, the system presents itself as an easy by scholars to use tool and transportable to any collection or excavation in the field. This project is financed by the Belgian Science Policy (Belspo): BRAIN.be. This lecture will focus on the first preliminary results of the project.

In the previous years, 3D imaging has found his way into the world of Egyptology. This lecture will present two case studies where 3D technology is used for the documentation of hieratic inscriptions. The inscriptions, painted in (red) ochre or black paint, were applied on different carriers, and required a different methodology. The Egyptian collection of the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH Brussels) contains a large number of small decorated and/or inscribed objects. Some of these objects are currently in a bad condition - any operation carried on them can result in considerable material losses -, making it necessary to document them in such a way that it allows future scholars to study them in detail without handling them. The EES Project therefore aims to create multispectral 3D images of these fragile objects with a multispectral ‘minidome’ acquisition system, based on the already existing system of the multi-light Portable Light Dome (PLD). The texture/colour values on the created 2D+ and 3D models are interactive data based on a recording process with infrared, red, green, blue, and ultraviolet light spectra. Software tools and enhancement filters have been developed which can deal with the different wavelengths in real-time. This leads to an easy and cost-effective methodology which combines multispectral imaging with the actual relief characteristics and properties of the physical object. The system is transportable to any collection or excavation in the field. As a case study, the well-known Brussels “Execration Figurines” (Middle Kingdom, c. 1900 BC) were chosen. These figurines are made of unbaked clay and covered with hieratic texts, listing names of foreign countries and rulers. The study of this type of collections is mostly hampered by the poor state of conservation of the objects, but also by the only partial preservation of the ink traces in visible light. The method has also been applied to other decorated objects of the RMAH collection, such as a Fayoum portrait, ostraca and decorated objects made of stone, wood and ceramics. The final goal will be to publish the newly created multispectral 3D images on Carmentis (www.carmentis.be), the online catalogue of the RMAH collection, making them accessible to scholars all over the world. The second case study presents the quarry inscriptions of the New Kingdom limestone quarries at Dayr Abu Hinnis (Middle Egypt). These gallery quarries contain hundreds of hieratic inscriptions, written on the ceiling. The texts are mainly related to the general administration of the quarry area. In documenting the abundance of ceiling inscriptions and other graffiti, we had to decide upon a practice that would allow not only to capture the "content", but also to document the location and orientation of each record. Every inscription can be photographed in detail, but this is insufficient to provide the reader access to vital information concerning the spatial distribution of the inscriptions, which may, for instance, relate to the progress of work. After experimenting with a variety of other methods, we adopted a photogrammetric software for 3D modelling photographs of the quarry ceilings, AGISOFT PHOTOSCAN, which uses structure from motion (SFM) algorithms to create three-dimensional images based on a series of overlapping two-dimensional images. The ultimate goal of this whole labour-intensive process in the quarries is not the creation of pure three-dimensional models, but rather to generate an orthophoto of the entire ceiling of a quarry. Based on these images, each graffito could be analysed in context. Athena Van der Perre The Egyptian Execration Statuettes (EES) Project (RMAH Brussels) Dayr al-Barsha Project (KU Leuven) athena.vanderperre@gmail.com, a.vanderperre@kmkg-mrah.be For more information and (first) preliminary results, see: http://www.kmkg-mrah.be/conservation-ir-uv-and-3d-imaging-egyptian-execration-statuettes https://portablelightdome.wordpress.com/2015/05/06/first-preliminary-results-of-the-egyptian-execration-statuettes-ees-project/ The EES project is financed by Belspo Brain-be Pioneer: BR/121/PI/EES

In the previous years, 3D imaging has found his way into the world of Egyptology. This lecture will present  two case studies where 3D technology is used for the documentation of hieratic inscriptions. The inscriptions, painted in (red) ochre or black paint, were applied on different carriers,  and required a different methodology.

The Egyptian collection of the Royal Museums of Art and History (RMAH Brussels) contains a large number of small decorated and/or inscribed objects. Some of these objects are currently in a bad condition - any operation carried on them can result in considerable material losses -, making it necessary to document them in such a way that it allows future scholars to study them in detail without handling them. The EES Project therefore aims to create multispectral 3D images of these fragile objects with a multispectral ‘minidome’ acquisition system, based on the already existing system of the multi-light Portable Light Dome (PLD). The texture/colour values on the created 2D+ and 3D models are interactive data based on a recording process with infrared, red, green, blue, and ultraviolet light spectra. Software tools and enhancement filters have been developed which can deal with the different wavelengths in real-time. This leads to an easy and cost-effective methodology which combines multispectral imaging with the actual relief characteristics and properties of the physical object. The system is transportable to any collection or excavation in the field.

As a case study, the well-known Brussels “Execration Figurines” (Middle Kingdom, c. 1900 BC) were chosen. These figurines are made of unbaked clay and covered with hieratic texts, listing names of foreign countries and rulers. The study of this type of collections is mostly hampered by the poor state of conservation of the objects, but also by the only partial preservation of the ink traces in visible light. The method has also been applied to other decorated objects of the RMAH collection, such as a Fayoum portrait, ostraca and decorated objects made of stone, wood and ceramics. The final goal will be to publish the newly created multispectral 3D images on Carmentis (www.carmentis.be), the online catalogue of the RMAH collection, making them accessible to scholars all over the world.

The second case study presents the quarry inscriptions of the New Kingdom limestone quarries at Dayr Abu Hinnis (Middle Egypt). These gallery quarries contain hundreds of hieratic inscriptions, written on the ceiling. The texts are mainly related to the general administration of the quarry area. In documenting the abundance of ceiling inscriptions and other graffiti, we had to decide upon a practice that would allow not only to capture the "content", but also to document the location and orientation of each record. Every inscription can be photographed in detail, but this is insufficient to provide the reader access to vital information concerning the spatial distribution of the inscriptions, which may, for instance, relate to the progress of work.

After experimenting with a variety of other methods, we adopted a photogrammetric software for 3D modelling photographs of the quarry ceilings, AGISOFT PHOTOSCAN, which uses structure from motion (SFM) algorithms to create three-dimensional images based on a series of overlapping two-dimensional images.

The ultimate goal of this whole labour-intensive process in the quarries is not the creation of pure three-dimensional models, but rather to generate an orthophoto of the entire ceiling of a quarry. Based on these images, each graffito could be analysed in context.

Athena Van der Perre
The Egyptian Execration Statuettes (EES) Project (RMAH Brussels)
Dayr al-Barsha Project (KU Leuven)
athena.vanderperre@gmail.com, a.vanderperre@kmkg-mrah.be

For more information and (first) preliminary results, see:
http://www.kmkg-mrah.be/conservation-ir-uv-and-3d-imaging-egyptian-execration-statuettes
https://portablelightdome.wordpress.com/2015/05/06/first-preliminary-results-of-the-egyptian-execration-statuettes-ees-project/
The EES project is financed by Belspo Brain-be Pioneer: BR/121/PI/EES

Orde, en dan vooral het bewaren van de orde, was een belangrijk aspect van de Egyptische maatschappij. Om orde te creëren in de dagelijkse wanorde ging men gebruik maken van magische rituelen en bezweringen, waartoe ook het execratie- of verwensingsritueel behoort. Dit ritueel zou rebelse activiteiten van vijandig gezinde personen, zowel buitenlanders als Egyptenaren zelf, en van bovennatuurlijke krachten voorkomen en/of tegenhouden. Men ging de vijand bezweren door het reciteren van magische teksten en het vernietigen van beeldjes, gemaakt uit was, hout, of klei.

Archeologische en tekstuele bronnen tonen aan dat zogenaamde execratie- of verwensingsrituelen uitgevoerd werden doorheen de Egyptische geschiedenis. De vroegste varianten van het ritueel dateren uit het Oude Rijk, de meest recente uit de 14e eeuw na Chr. Wat echter niet algemeen bekend is, is dat een van de belangrijkste assemblages van verwensingsbeeldjes, daterend uit het Middenrijk (ca. 1850 v. Chr.), zich bevindt in de Egyptische collectie van het Jubelparkmuseum (KMKG Brussel).

De figurines, gemaakt uit ongebakken klei, zijn beschreven met hiëratische teksten die de vijanden van Egypte opsommen. Aangezien hier verwezen wordt naar volkeren en steden uit Azië, Nubië en Libië, vormen deze objecten een zeer belangrijke bron voor de reconstructie van de politieke antieke geografie van het Nabije Oosten in de 12e dynastie.

De voorbije twee jaar waren deze beeldjes de protagonisten van het Egyptian Execration Statuettes (EES) Project. Hoewel het hoofddoel van het project de ontwikkeling van een multispectraal 3D-beeldvormingssysteem was, werd een aanzienlijk deel van de tijd besteed aan diepgaand onderzoek naar de figurines. De laatste resultaten van het project komen dan ook uitgebreid aan bod in deze lezing.

Dit onderzoek kadert binnen het EES Project van de KMKG, gefinancierd door Belspo Brain-be Pionier BR/121/PI/EES (Coördinator Luc Delvaux, co-coördinator Hendrik Hameeuw).