Cremation Graves

This publication comprises a comprehensive account of the features and artefacts relating to a Roman Iron Age cemetery, excavated between 1988 and 1994 at the village of Brudager, 3.5 km southwest of Gudme in Southeast Funen. With its content of 168 graves, the burial site is one of Funen's largest. Chronologically, it covers the period between early B2 and the transition between C3 and D; in all about 330 years.
The publication is in two volumes: Volume 1 contains sections on the research history, excavation methods, definitions, analyses and perspectives of the cemetery's features and artefacts. Further to these are appendices providing reference material and a bibliography. Volume 2 comprises a catalogue providing descriptions and illustrations of features, structures and artefacts from the Brudager cemetery.
Volume 1 of the publication is divided up into seven main chapters, each of which deals with an overall theme:

Chapter 1 Introduction
sketches the long tradition of research into Iron Age remains from the Gudme area, with particular focus on the importance of N.F.B. Sehested and E. Albrectsen for the investigation, documentation and publication of the burial finds. This chapter defines and delimits the aims and objectives of the publication. It also explains its structure and the analytical methods and the chronology employed.

Chapter 2 Investigation of the cemetery and formation processes
begins with a description of the technical approach adopted in the investigation and documentation of the Brudager cemetery in particular, but also includes critical considerations concerning Iron Age graves in general. There is a special focus on the diversity of the formation processes associated with, respectively, inhumation and cremation graves, and the significance of this for the interpretation of the archaeological record.

Chapter 3 The cemetery and its features
contains a description of the burial site's relationship to the local topography and soils as well as to the contemporary settlement, and these observations are discussed in a regional context. An account is given of the grave forms found at the Brudager cemetery, and these are defined on the basis of an evaluation of the treatment of the corpse remains, pyre material and grave goods – and not the immediate appearance of the graves as has been the usual practice to date. It is demonstrated that, whereas cremation pits and urn cremation pits were the preferred grave form during the first half of the cemetery's period of use, urn graves and inhumation graves dominate during the later part. An account is then given of the presumed grave-related feature- and structure types found at the burial site, for example pottery deposits and cooking pits. Based on the demonstration of presumed post-built cremation-pyre frames there is a discussion of Danish cremation sites (cremation pyres) from the Iron Age and Viking times.

Chapter 4 Burial rituals
contains discussions of the treatment of grave goods in relation to the various grave forms, including the use of primary and secondary grave goods, destructive treatment of artefacts and the very widespread use of pars pro toto deposition. Similarly, the handling of the corpse remains from cremation graves, and their partial deposition, are discussed. There then follows an account of the organisation of, respectively, inhumation and cremation graves, with the demonstration of patterns in the location of grave goods and (corpse) remains. Finally, the practice of depositing grave goods outside grave features at Roman Iron Age burial sites is touched upon.

Chapter 5 The contents of the graves
is the publication's longest chapter, and it comprises a detailed account of – and perspectives on – the artefacts from the graves, including the results of scientific analyses carried out on burnt bone, sheet bronze from Roman cauldrons and pottery and plant macro remains, including wood from the funeral pyres. Selected artefact types, thought to contribute in particular to an illumination of social, ritual and chronological circumstances during the Roman Iron Age, are subjected to specially detailed analysis. These are, specifically, imported artefacts, weapons and various prestige implement types (e.g. scissors, iron combs, so-called razor knives). The reference material employed in the analyses is presented in the appendices at the end of volume 1.

Chapter 6 The structure of the cemetery
and the development from the transition B1/B2 to the end of the Late Roman Iron Age are accounted for cluster by cluster and within an overall perspective. Then the burial intensity (number of burials per year) is examined in a regional context. On the basis of this it is concluded that the Brudager cemetery belongs to a small group of burial sites with cluster structures and containing more than 150 graves from the Roman Iron Age. It is noted, furthermore, that this type of burial site is associated, in particular, with the parts of the Funen Archipelago having concentrations of various status symbols, including Roman imports. Similarly, in a regional perspective, there is a discussion of the dates for the cemetery's establishment and its cessation of use. The establishment date for the Brudager cemetery, and many other Roman Iron Age burial sites on Funen, at the transition between B1 and B2 is explained by a contemporaneous change in settlement structure. The cessation of burials at many of the cemeteries at the end of C3, or at the beginning of the Germanic Iron Age (Migration Period), is explained through changes in the form of graves in the time around AD 400.

Chapter 7 The Brudager burial site put into perspective
begins with an account of the sex and age determinations for a selection of the graves on the basis of osteological investigations and the artefacts, respectively. Subsequently, there is a discussion of the symbolism of the various artefact types in grave contexts throughout the Early Iron Age. It is pointed out that, whereas the graves from the Late Pre-Roman, Early and the first part of the Late Roman Iron Age reflect, in particular, the masculine universe, the graves from the middle and the end of the Late Roman Iron Age are dominated by artefacts from the feminine world. There then follows an analysis of the complexity of the grave goods (NAT analysis) and their quality relative both to the various grave forms and to the chronological development of the cemetery. It is concluded that both the quantity and quality of the grave goods are greatest in graves from the end of the Early Roman Iron Age and the beginning of the Late Roman Iron Age. Furthermore, inhumation graves and urn cremation pits generally contain more complex equipment than cremation pits and, especially, urn graves. On the basis of these observations there is a discussion of the changes in the patterns of social investment and religious manifestation during the Roman and Early Germanic Iron Age (Early Migration Period). This includes particular focus on the fact that the decline in investment in the grave sphere is replaced by the deposition of, especially, precious metals in association with settlements and in marginal areas of the Iron Age cultural landscape. On the basis of the distribution of various prestigious artefact types, in graves and on settlements and in offerings, it is pointed out that a centre-periphery-marginal structure arose in the Funen Archipelago during the second half of the Early Roman Iron Age. This had its basis in the Gudme area, and in the course of the Late Roman Iron Age sub-centres arose at Ringe and Odense. The distribution and composition of the gold deposits show that this centre structure with minor modifications continued in existence throughout the Germanic Iron Age (Migration Period).
Chapter 7 ends with an evaluation of the research potential inherent in the Brudager cemetery, in particular, and Iron Age burial sites on Funen, in general, and the challenges it presents to further study.

V zadnjih štirih stoletjih pred našim štetjem so se v Posočju spojile tri kulture: domača posoška kultura starejše železne dobe, ki jo najbolje poznamo na podlagi velikega grobišča in naselja na Mostu na Soči, italska kultura z Apeninskega polotoka in keltska iz srednje Evrope. Pestre najdbe iz tistega časa so odkrili zlasti na grobiščih, od katerih je najpomembnejše na Idriji pri Bači, in v svetiščih, na primer nad Kobaridom in na Šentviški planoti.
Izstopajo predmeti z venetskimi in italskimi napisi, srebrne pletene ovratnice, za Posočje značilne fibule z živalsko glavico, raznovrstne bronaste posode, konjska in konjeniška oprema in železno poljedelsko orodje (na primer kose, lemeži, črtala in koničaste kopače), najdeno v grobovih in zakladih.

Using data from prehistoric Danish cremation graves and pyre sites, I pose four main questions: Where did the prehistoric cremation processes take place, who did the burning, how was the cremation performed, and what remains did the cremation process leave?
        Pyre sites have been found only in connection with burial sites, and almost every pyre was placed directly on the ground. Apart from the occasional use of posts to prop up the fires, structural supports were rarely used. Often, pyre sites have survived only as thin strata of fire sediments, typically measuring no more than a couple of centimeters in depth and covering less than two square meters, which contain small quantities of incinerated bone material and various pyre goods, all deriving from individual cremations. I include a typology of pyre sites.
        Drawing on forensic, pyrotechnic, ethnological and ethnographic studies, I further discuss the requirements of the cremation process itself, including its stages and the products resulting from it. Mostly, however, cremation experiments performed by myself in the course of this study form the basis of my conclusions. The results show that a body can be successfully cremated within three to seven hours using less than two cubic meters of firewood, provided that the fire is well maintained. Furthermore, my results show that the process leaves a residual ash bed, which, upon inspection, corresponds exactly to similar strata found at prehistoric pyre sites. I posit a four-stage model for the combustion of the pyre and the incineration of the body, which I subsequently use to analyze archeological evidence. In addition, I show that sorting out the majority of the pyre products is easily achievable in one to two hours. Then, once I compare experimental and archeological pyre sites, it becomes evident that the crushing and cleaning of incinerated bones was generally unnecessary. Nevertheless, pyre goods were often intentionally shattered and destroyed. Furthermore, it can be concluded that, subject to chronological and regional variations, it was generally customary to bury only parts of the bone material and the pyre goods in actual graves.
        My experiments show that cremations on an open fire were not a smoky, foul-smelling and complicated process requiring the presence of skilled specialists. However, the involvement of ritual specialists may have helped stage cremations as complex, multisensory experiences, whose impact may have been intentionally muffled or reinforced to create a specific mood or atmosphere. In fact, it may well have been central to the process itself that mourners be able to observe the transformation of the body from a recognizable human being to a charred torso, and from that, into brittle, white bones.
        Finally, I conclude that the products of cremation derive from the interaction of the three conditions necessary for cremations to take place – i.e. time, temperature and oxygen on the one hand, vs. human intervention, the dynamics of the pyre as well as the products and process expected by spectators on the other. Thus, the pyre became an agent, charged both with creating a certain mood and atmosphere during cremation, as well as transforming bodies and pyre goods into products suitable for multi-stage funeral rites. It varies which of these two functions was the more important, depending on the chronological and geographic perspective

Consumed by Fire
- A research project on prehistoric cremation practices

Since the 1980s, the author has been investigating ancient cremation practices. The project is based on the contents of several thousand cremations and a few pyres from Odense City Museum’s work field. Compared to the vast numbers of cremations, pyres are few in number and they have only been found near burial sites. Almost all pyres were constructed directly on the ground; except for supporting beams, there were rarely any construction elements as such. Pyres are usually preserved as ash beds a few centimetres thick and extending for less than 2 sq. m and they contain small amounts of burnt bones and pyre goods from a single cremation. Typically, the pyres are preserved, because they were sealed by a burial mound or drifting sand shortly after the fire had died down.
In this project, the assumptions, procedures, and products of the cremation process were analysed by involving data from osteological, forensic, pyrotechnical, ethnological, and ethnographical studies. Central to the project was the use of data from cremation experiments, of which four were conducted in connection with the project, using pigs as test animals. The experiments show that a body can be cremated in the course of 5-8 hours using less than 2 cubic metres of wood if the fire is managed. The process leaves an ash bed which, when sorted, corresponds to prehistoric pyres. It has been documented that it is fairly simple to sort out the major part of the pyre products in the course of 1-2 hours. Comparing the experimental and archaeological pyre components to the contents of the cremations shows that crushing and cleaning of cremated bones were generally unnecessary. Conversely, the pyre goods were often exposed to intentional fragmentation and destruction. Generally, but with variations contingent on chronological and regional factors, only some of the bone material and pyre goods were transferred to a grave. In addition to this, components from the pyre in the form of ash and charcoal may be present.
The experiments document that a cremation conducted on an open fire is not a smoking, smelly, and complicated process, requiring the assistance of technical experts. Involving ritual specialists, on the other hand, a cremation can be orchestrated as a complex and multisensual act, the various expressions of which can be intentionally subdued or intensified to create a certain atmosphere. During the process, it may have been important to be able to follow the transformation of the body from a recognisable person to a charred torso to calcinated bones. Also, this process represents the transformation of a living individual to a mythological ancestor.
In conclusion, the products of the cremation are produced through an interaction between the three prerequisites of the incineration process time, temperature, and oxygen on the one hand, and, on the other, the dynamics of the fire, human handling and the demands the surviving may have regarding the process and the residual products. As such, the pyre has had a twofold significance as an agent, both expected to instil a certain atmosphere in the context of the cremation process, and to transform bodies and pyre goods into products to be used in multi-phase funerary practices. Which of the two functions had the greater significance has varied in a chronological as well as a geographical perspective.

Presentation of the catalogue of the permanent exhibition The Soklič collection. “Here’s the Illyrian chief”. Archaeology and numismatics, published in February 2016 by the Carinthian Regional Museum in Slovenj Gradec. The most important contribution by the author is in this publication the chapter on the Podzemelj 2 phase, which includes the reconstruction of two important warrior cremation graves, discovered near Šmarjeta in the Dolenjska region around 1883 and in 1901. The cremation grave, excavated around 1883 by the local Anton Kunstek, contained a footed bowl with triangular holes in the foot, a cup, decorated with bronze studs, and a large intentionally damaged bronze winged axe. Ferdinand Schulz found in 1901 in barrow 7/1901 at Gradenjska hosta above Gradenje near Šmarjeta a cremation grave with four ceramic vessels, one animal bone, remains of a bowl helmet, a decorated iron hilt of a curved sword, an iron trunnion axe, as well as one bronze and one iron spearhead. Both graves can be dated to the Podzemelj 2 phase, defined by professor Stane Gabrovec as early as in 1963, so as several graves from Kranj, Brezje pri Trebelnem, Mengeš, Molnik, Novo mesto, Budinjak, Velike Malence, Metlika, Sajevce and Legen near Slovenj Gradec. Textile remains were preserved on some iron finds from Legen, Brezje pri Trebelnem and Vače.

Since 1936 an inventory of a cremation grave of Pomeranian culture discovered by chance at Ławy, in the Kazimierza Wielka distr., Świętokrzyskie voiv. is kept in collection of the Archaeological Museum in Kraków. Artefacts were discovered one year earlier probably during modernisation of a main road in the area of the village. The inventory includes ten clay vessels (some of them were urns), three iron artefacts: a unique, repaired brooch of Kowalowice-type, a lance head and a long knife of cord type; two fragments of bronze artefacts; two other elements: a small clay vessel and an iron artefact described as a toiletry, are now considered as lost. Two of mentioned metal artefacts-the fi bula and the long knife, represent forms of celtic provenience typical for western province of Pomeranian culture in Silesia and the southern Great Poland. The chronology of these forms link grave from Ławy with a period corresponding to the La Tène A phase (ca. 500-400/380 BC), i.e. the end of the Hallstatt period and beginning of the pre-Roman period in polish Lowlands. The fi nd from Ławy is one of the oldest, reliable-dated Pomeranian assemblage from Kraków Loess Upland and point to a diversifi ed origin of that cultural unit in the upper Vistula. Clear connections of some metal grave goods to the distant western peripheries of the Pomeranian culture and some references of vessels form grave to the Milieu of late Lusatian culture as well are noteworthy.