Community Development & Conflict Resolution

This chapter offers a foundation for community engagement in the field of peace and conflict studies including community based research, service learning, and provides a community engagement framework. The chapter also provides an example of a how this framework has been used in a graduate level course in dispute systems design.

Includes sections on:
Types of Intentional Community , including Kibbutzim, Cohousing schemes and Eco- Villages, and who lives in them
Varieties of experience - the advantages and disadvantages of living in ICs
What is a 'successful' community - how can we evaluate them?
Leadership and authority - Gurus and anarchists Intimate relationships - Variations on the 'nuclear family' Is there a communal personality type?
How to build communities and is it worth the effort?
There is also an Appendix on the subject of Virtual Communities, which consists of an interview with Howard Rheingold.

"Kentlerimizin içinde bulunduğu durum, gün ve gün artarak devam eden kentsel sorunlar, sorunlara çözüm olarak sunulan kentsel dönüşüm uygulamalarının yarattığı yeni sorunlar ve tüm bu haller gerçekleşirken siyasi süreçler altında ilerleyen planlama kurumumuzun bilimsel işlevini yerine getiremeyişi, şehircilikte yeniden yapılanmanın gerekliliğini çok uzun zaman önce Türkiye’deki şehir planlama camiasının gündemine taşımış, fakat çözüm halen ortaya konamamıştır.

Planlama literatüründeki planlamaya dair tartışmaların, planlamanın bir bilimsel disiplin olarak görülmesi kadar eski olduğunu iddia etmek hiç de yanlış sayılmaz. Geleneksel planlamadan kapsamlı planlamaya, yenilikçi planlamadan mekansal planlamaya, müzakereci planlamadan katılımcı planlamaya, stratejik planlamadan savunucu planlamaya, etkileşimsel planlamadan işbirlikçi planlamaya, eşitlikçi planlamadan sayamayacağımız bir çok diğer farklı planlama yaklaşımının literatürde yer almasının nedeni de tam olarak bu çözümsüzlük halidir.

Her planlama kuramı aslında içinden doğduğu toplumsal yapı ve bu yapıyı şekillendiren sosyo-ekonomik ve siyasal süreçler üzerinden okunmalı ve bu bağlamda anlamlandırılmalıdır. “Bu bağlamdan bağımsız teknik ölçütlerle şekillendirilebilecek bir planlama kurumundan söz edilemez” (Şengül, 2004: 20). Bunun yanı sıra, her planlama paradigması ve öngördüğü kurumsal yapılanma, mevcut sorunların çözümünden öte geleceğe dönük bir kent tahayyülünü ortaya koymaktadır (Şengül, 2004: 20). Her planlama yaklaşımı, temeline kentteki belli bir toplumsal yapıyı oturtur ve kuramı bunun üzerine kurar. Bu değişkenler çerçevesinde ortaya atılan her yeni kuramın aslında bir planlama sürecinden öte, toplumsal yapıyı şekillendirici hedefleri vardır; sadece planlama sürecine dair değil, kent yönetiminden, yönetilecek toplumsal yapının karakterine, kente nasıl müdahale edileceğinden, bu müdahale biçimlerinin neye göre şekilleneceğine kadar bir çok kritik noktaya dair çeşitli saptamalarda bulunur.

İşte tam da bu noktada aslında “kent” dediğimiz alanı nasıl tanımladığımız önem kazanmaktadır. De Landa’nın (2006: 6) tanımıyla kent heterojen bir bileşkedir. Bu heterojenlik, sadece toplum içindeki farklı etnik gruplar ya da mekansal bakıldığında farklı fiziksel özelliklere sahip mahalleler olarak okunmamalıdır. Kent; farklı etnik kökenler, kültürel değerler ve ekonomik sınıflardan gelen insanlar bir yana; bu insanların kente geliş süreçlerinden, bu süreçleri doğuran siyasi, toplumsal ya da ekonomik kırılma noktalarına; yaşadıkları mahallelerin soyo-kültürel yapılarından, bu mahallerin oluşum süreçleri ve hatta sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel olarak kente katkılarına; yine aynı yerleşim alanlarının kente dair belirlenen sorunları içerip içermemesinden, sorunun kaynağı ya da kendisinin bu yaşam alanı ile özdeşleşmesine kadar bir çok farklı yatay ve dikey bileşkelerden oluşur. Bu her bir bileşke arasındaki farklı ilişkisel ağların, düzensiz bir şekilde çakışmalar ve paralellikler içererek oluşturduğu çözülmesi çok zor bir düğüm yaratmasıdır, kent. Bu düğümü çözmek ve ipi bir ağ gibi düzenli bir hale getirmek; düğümün dışında kalan iplikleri de katarak, çözülmesi çok daha zor, güçlü bir düğüme çevirmek; küçük düğümleri çözmek ve ağın ortasında güçlü bir düğüm bırakmak, vb. gibi pek çok farklı senaryo, önümüzde duran ve adına planlama kuramları denen külliyatı oluşturmuştur.

Dünya üzerinde daha önce deneyimlenmiş olan, savunucu, katılımcı, eşitlikçi, dayanışmacı gibi alternatif planlama örneklerinin Türkiye’de az rastlanır olduğu kabulü üzerinden inşa edilen bu çalışma; son yıllarda güncelliğini her daim korumuş olan kentsel dönüşüm süreci ve bu sürece karşı yıllardır verilen mücadelelerdeki kısır döngüyü kırmak adına, daha önce deneyimlenmiş bu alternatif planlama modellerini doğuran sürecin, Türkiye’de yaşanan planlama süreçleri ile benzerlikler içerdiğini savunur. Bu nedenle, yeni alternatif modeller üretmenin ya da mevcut üretilmiş olan alternatif yaklaşımların deneyimlenmesinin ne denli önemli olduğuna işaret eder. Çalışma, daha önce de belirtildiği üzere, her bir kuramın, ortaya çıkmış olduğu toplumsal yapı içindeki ihtiyaçtan doğduğunu kabul eder ve bunu değerli bulur; diğer kuramları eleştirmek ya da en ideal planlama kuramı şudur gibi bir tez ortaya atak niyetine sahip değildir.

Çalışma, günümüz uygulamalarındaki yanlışlıklar, planlamanın etik sorunsalı, son dönem projelerdeki katılım eksikliği ve katılım talebinin reddi, bilimden uzak uygulanan başarısız projeler ve kentsel dönüşüm projeleri karşısında birlik halinde hareket edemeyen ya da etse bile çoğunlukla başarısız olan mücadele alanlarını düşünerek; planlama etiğine sahip, planlamanın bilimsel doğrularını savunan bir camia ile bu kuramsal külliyat içinden “savunucu planlama” (advocacy planning) yaklaşımını masaya yatırmayı talep eder. Günümüz siyasi ve toplumsal yapısı içinde; yaşam alanlarımız bir bir dönüştürülüyor ve hatta yok ediliyorken, karar süreçlerinde söz alamayan bir kentli olarak; planlamada katılım, eşitlik, adalet, kent hakkı gibi kavramları her daim savunan bir plancı olarak; ve yaşanan süreçlerdeki “kent toprağını, kentsel dönüşüm adı altında rantsal bölüşümün en önemli sermayesi olarak görme halini en masum tanımlamayla—yönetimin adil olmayan yaklaşımı” olarak okuyan bir vatandaş olarak; savunucu planlamayı bir çıkış noktası olarak görebilir miyiz sorusunun cevabını aramaktadır.

Paul Davidoff, savunucu planlama modelini geliştirirken, yalnızca planlama sürecinin kendisine dair değil, aynı zamanda da plancılara ve planlama öğreticilerine dair de düşünmüş ve çeşitli eleştiriler getirmiştir. Bundan elli yıl önce gerçekleştirilmiş olan bu eleştirilere bugün halen Türkiye’den bir cevap verilemiyor olması ve elli yıl gecikmeli olarak aynı yanlışların Türkiye sınırları içinde tekrarlanıyor olması; savunucu planlama ve diğer alternatif planlama modellerini yeniden tartışılmaya açmanın ne kadar önemli olduğuna işaret etmektedir.

Üç bölümden oluşan bu çalışmada; birinci bölümde, savunucu planlama yaklaşımının temelleri; ikinci bölümde, bu yaklaşımın doğuşunda kentsel dönüşümün yeri; üçüncü bölümde ise, Türkiye’de yaşanan kentsel dönüşüm süreçleri içinde savunucu planlamanın gerekliliği üzerinden bir tartışma yürütülecektir."

Mass urbanization is the present and the future of many developing
countries in the global south, and Bangladesh is not
an exception. Rapid urbanization has put significant strain on
cities and towns of Bangladesh. Housing is predominantly developed
by the private market in Bangladeshi cities and the
market is usually very much driven by profit. A large portion
of the population cannot avail even the worst quality housing
available in the market; that is when the illegal settlements or
slums come in the picture. There are around 50,000 illegal and
low income settlements in Bangladesh’s 29 largest municipalities.
Poor housing materials, limited access to public services,
densely crowded and unsanitary living conditions, lack of tenure
security etc. are some characteristic problems of these
settlements. The government has attempted several slum integration
projects since the past few years. Spatial professionals
are also trying to address this problem through communitydriven
housing and infrastructure development initiatives. The
research attempts to define how these development initiatives
are driven by a multitude of socio-relational dynamics and what
role are architects playing to shape these dynamics.

In the context of significant numbers of Muslim newcomers immigrating to Europe and perceptions of failed integration in Sweden, and in light of the urban conflict and increasing debates about integration as a one-way or two-way street, this paper sets out a “communication for development”-informed theoretical framework that focuses on the struggle for social cohesion and immigrant integration in Malmö, Sweden. Unemployment and lack of power have taken their toll on agency among migrants—particularly Iraqi men— and the strongest stories showing immigration as an asset—particularly those of Iraqi women—are not being told in the media. Participatory communication in Malmö is currently less than participatory, and integration in Sweden, in its expectations, leans uncomfortably close to assimilation. Several examples are given of development communication initiatives for integration that have had positive results, with strong evidence that community media has proven effective at improving immigrant integration. Development communication initiatives show promise for improving social cohesion in Malmö, and these can be effective only if the choice to participate, and the choices of initiative, medium and content are made by migrants themselves.

This research, conducted by the author when a Senior Researcher at Newcastle University, UK, was funded by a UK governance organisation to help them assess, integrate and improve their understanding of the governed population.

ABSTRACT: Governance organisations have been urged to develop more holistic evidence-based approaches with partners to better deal with issues affecting the governed population. This presupposes an understanding of the population, yet there has been little research work addressing how governance organisations come to understand their governed population, nor how this understanding can be improved upon within such organisations.

This case study examined in-depth how understanding of a governed population was developed within one UK local governance organisation and it explored how such understanding might be developed and improved through more holistic and evidence-based organisational learning within the organisation and its governance partnerships.

The research methodology involved placement within the governance organisation, participant observations on several projects and innovative initiatives, observations within, across, and outside the organisation, and also interviews with varied key stakeholders.

The study examined:

- stakeholder engagement and networks
- current and varied understandings of the population
- mechanisms actually used for developing understandings
- the influence of context on organisational learning

and analysed these to arrive at a recommendations to improve organisational understanding of the governed population.

In the case studied, significant strengths were found: including innovative past learning trials for development, extensive ongoing networking activities, and many varied and accumulating quantitative datasets available across partnerships.

However, entrenched organisational approaches and practices constrained the development of holistic evidence-based understanding, for instance: the absence of systematic maintained collective learning processes; weak recording and forgetting of understandings; methodological exclusion of stakeholders from the development of understanding; the relative neglect of qualitative data, explanations, investigations, interpretations, and reflexivity; and also implicit organisational acceptance of such limitations and low aspirations.

Nonetheless, untapped opportunities existed to enable change including: latent practitioner knowledge and innovative management champions, the desire for improvement and raised aspirations within learning networks, and the development potential of alterative learning approaches.

It was concluded that more holistic evidence-based understanding was possible, but required new learning approaches beyond those then in use in both local government or academia.   

Recommendations are made to utilise and develop improved organisational learning approaches trialed and reported in the case study.

It is argued that the case study findings, conclusions, and recommendations may be applicable to other similar local governance organisations and partnerships that seek to better understand local populations, services and interventions.

The work was also submitted for, and awarded, an MPhil (at Newcastle University, supervised by Prof. Patsy Healy)

BOXES.......................................................................................................................................................... ..iii PHOTOS ......................................... ... ... The Role of Traditional Rulers in Conflict Prevention and Mediation in Nigeria: Final Report ... 5. Evolution of the chieftaincy system in the ...

In order to achieve a sustainable development people are required to behave in a certain way manner psychologists have described various ways in which behaviours can elicited and maintained .this principles have domineered in social issues and in achieving sustainable development.
Wellbeing is said to be experienced when a person’s individual, relational, and collective needs are fulfilled (Prilleltensky 2005)
        A person’s psychological state is not only influenced, but is also largely determined by her social environment. The achievement of wellbeing, therefore, depends on the external environment or the social context in which the person is placed. This interconnectedness between experience and achievement, the psychological and social dimensions of wellbeing, points to the psychosocial nature of wellbeing.
The United Nations defines Community development broadly as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems."[1]
Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals.

A word from the editors
The papers collected here were presented at the 7th conference of the International Communal Studies Association (ICSA) at ZEGG, Belzig, Germany from the 25th to 27th June 2001. They have not been through a selection or review process. Presenters who asked for their papers to be included here have been included, as long as they were on the theme of the conference. The content of papers represent the views of the authors themselves and not of ICSA, ZEGG, nor the conference sponsors.
We have attempted to retain the original formatting of the authors, wherever possible, although translations between word processing applications, platforms and media have resulted in occasional lapses from this intent.
The decision to produce an eBook of the proceedings was motivated by a desire to make them available to the widest possible audience at the lowest possible price and also to minimise the cost to ICSA. This means that they have been produced by academics rather than book publishers. Whether this is repeated for future conferences depends on how satisfying readers and authors find the outcome.
This conference was the first held by ICSA within an intentional community. Comments by both participants and presenters at the end of the conference were almost all positive. We hope that some of this feeling comes through the collection of papers that follow.
Peter Forster and Graham Meltzer

The past two and a half decades in the South Caucasus leave little hope to entertain for the eventual integration of the region. So far the fragmentation of the South Caucasus into different blocks is the only reality. The different integrational processes and transnational alliances that the South Caucasus countries have engaged in surely contribute to the creation of new spaces for cooperation, but also to the perpetuation of the conflicts in the region. In fact, often conflicts have been defining the design and implementation of these transnational alliances and integrational processes. With this reality, regional transnational integration as an avenue for conflict resolution seems to be part of a vicious circle since conflict resolution is often seen as a precondition for regional integration. This is not only due to the conflicts within and among the countries, but also to the complex and sometimes strained relations with the big neighbors – Turkey, Iran, and Russia.

This paper aims to explore economic options for inserting a wedge in this vicious circle. Convinced that regional economic cooperation could be an important step towards conflict transformation in the South Caucasus, this paper suggests that the prospects of such integration be considered. Be it in the form of exploring opportunities in the different integrational paths that the countries of the South Caucasus have taken or challenging the isolationist economic policies that have outlived their goals and utility, this paper offers all stakeholders to look at economic cooperation with rather than against each other as the option that could lead to the resolution of conflicts in the region.

Within this report you will find a brief history of low-income housing development in the U.S. and the federal funding structure, an analysis of the challenges of redevelopment, and background on local and national youth violence and youth violence prevention initiatives. This report also includes a chapter for each SHA site, including site specific methods, findings, recommendations, and limitations. Lastly, this report acknowledges that youth violence and youth violence prevention fit into a larger discussion of the structures and systems of inequity, which are at the root cause of violence. It is our hope that our recommendations will be considered and adapted at SHA, Rainier Vista, NewHolly, and Yesler Terrace to improve gaps in youth services, social cohesion within each community, and ultimately, safer and healthier communities where youth can thrive.

Written with Julianna Alson, MPHc; Naveed Badri MPHc; Omid Bagheri, MPHc; Maya Berkowitz, MPHc; Michelle Chapdelaine, MPHc; Rachel Haas, MPHc; Lee Hicks, MPHc; Cait Lang, MPHc; Joy Lee, MPHc; Kelsey Liu, MPHc; Bouapanh Lor, MPHc; Kelsey Mesher, MPHc; Mollie Overby, MPHc; Rachel Schaeffer, MPHc; Elliott Smith, MPHc; Amy Tseng, MPHc; Emily Turk, MPHc; Miranda Vargas, MPHc; Chloe Winther, MPHc; Christina Yantsides, MPHc; Nalani Yoko, MPHc

Written by people actively – and passionately – involved in the medium, this book presents twenty-one alternative radio  experiences from countries on every continent of the globe.

From the El Salvador guerrilla-operated Radio Venceremos to the native-owned Wawatay Radio Network in Northern Canada, alternative and community radio stations play an essential role for those at the margins of society – a medium that lets them speak as well as hear.

Among the stories told in the book are: Radio Echo of Moscow and the August 1991 coup d'état; two women's radio projects – in Peru and the Philippines: how indigenous people's radio in Canada and Mexico strengthen their communities: the Marconi Radio Taster's Café that is the doorway to the world of Radio 100, an Amsterdam squatters' station: the positive and negative side of international aid for a Sri Lankan local radio project: the history and prospects for community radio in South Africa: a tiny Black "pirate" station that has challenged the police and the Federal Communications Commission in the USA; the role of the El Salvadoran guerrilla station Radio Venceremos in a major rebel offensive. The electronic edition also includes a new chapter about Radio Chaguarurco, a station serving rural communities in Ecuador.

First published in 1992, this book provides a fascinating glimpse of community radio 10 years ago, and a reminder of how much has changed, and how much has not…

Ka ʻOhana o Kahikinui: Community Based Economic Development & Makai Management Plan, Moku of Kahikinui South-East Maui. January 2000
Allan Resture, Celia Shen, Dawn Hegger, Hilarie Keehne, Kawika McKeague, Korinne Kinjo, Leanora Dizol, Mary Anne LeMaitre, Sagar Prasai, Xifang Xing, and Ellyn Tong resource person, Luciano Minerbi, faculty participant, co-editor and PI. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Hawai 'i at Mānoa, Honolulu, Hawai 'i

This plan supported a Native Hawaiian homesteader group, the ka ʻOhana o Kahikinui, and the Department of Hawaiian Home Lands (DHHL) of the State of Hawaiʻi in documenting their pioneering resettlement to live and perpetuate Hawaiian cultural and subsistence practices in this remote and historically very important district, encompassing several ahupuaʻa and owned by DHHL.
This plan indicated a way for the ʻohana to obtain more long-term leases by DHHL for Hawaiian homesteading.  Challenges included peopleʻs access to ocean and near shore resources to live off the land in a sustainable way and to harmonizing diverse needs of the old and new homesteaders by proposing a new survey.
The Community Based Economic Development (CBED) section of the report used a culturally based community governance model.  It also identified, described comparatively, and prioritized desirable CBED projects.
The Kahikinui Cultural Resource Management Plan section articulated the problems, opportunities, and guiding principles for land use, land access, and facility improvements. It explored settlement patterns consistent with the natural resources and the landscape of the area.

Corporate-community conflict is a constant theme in Peru’s extractive sector and seems to have escalated over the past few years during which violent confrontations between anti-mining/anti-oil protestors and the state’s security forces have resulted in many tragic deaths in Bagua, Espinar and Islay, among others. The most frequent causes of these conflicts are allegations of serious environmental pollution, competition for scarce water resources and distribution of the wealth generated by extractive operations.
Faced with the complex challenge of addressing these underlying issues while maintaining Peru’s attractiveness to foreign investments, the Peruvian government has been fostering a strategy of multi-actor dialogue processes. Numerous so called ‘mesa de diálogo’ or ‘mesa de desarollo’ are now under way across the country’s extractive sector. In the area of mining, one can hardly find a mining company that has operations in Peru and is not currently sitting at any dialogue table, more often one finds a single mine involved in many local level dialogue processes at the same time.
This paper will attempt a (first) analysis about these relatively young processes’ effectiveness and, in particular, their potential for reducing local level conflict and violence. For this purpose, the paper draws on field research conducted in Peru between April and August 2013. It compares the dialogue tables between the Peruvian state, Antamina and the alcaldes of the province of Huari, Ancash with two regional dialogue tables involving Anglo American’s Quellaveco project as well as the Southern Peru Copper Corporation in Moquegua. Drawing on a comparison of these cases and focusing, in particular, on the characteristics of the underlying conflicts, the paper attempts a few tentative propositions about variables that do and variables that do not impact mesa effectiveness.

A word from the editor
The papers collected here were presented at the eighth conference of the International Communal Studies Association (ICSA) at Amana Colonies, Iowa, USA from the 28th to 30th June 2004. ICSA is an organization of scholars, community members and others with an interest in communities. The papers presented at the conference reflect this mix – they have a variety of styles and content, from academic articles to personal essays on community life. This is one of the strengths of ICSA.
The papers have been through a simple selection process: Those presenters who asked for their papers to be included here have been included, as long as they were on the theme of the conference. The content of papers represent the views of the authors themselves and not of ICSA, Amana Colonies, nor the conference sponsors.
The papers have also been through a simple editing process. Rather than impose an academic style on authors, the papers have been edited to use the same font and line spacing. Otherwise, the style used by the author has been retained, including the spelling conventions used in their country of origin.
The decision to produce an electronic book (eBook) of the proceedings was motivated by a desire to make them available to the widest possible audience at the lowest possible price. It is a format that worked well for the seventh conference proceedings. We welcome feedback on how this works for current readers.
Peter Forster

Introduction: a new approach to engaging intrastate conflict
Emerging culture mediation is a relatively recent approach to resolving intra-state cultural conflict in sociocentric societies in regions where governance is problematic, failing or non-existent. For the purposes of this publication, we define emerging cultures as communities bounded by blood, marriage, and/or ethnic ties that share a common language, group identity and who commonly express their identity through a shared culture. The ‘emerging’ part of the name refers to the community’s requirement to eventually adapt to a shrinking and changing world, often with insufficient guidance or support from the political state which is in the process of adapting itself to the demands of modernity. This mediation model adapts the narrative mediation approach of Winslade & Monk  to the types of conflict that these emerging cultures are now confronting due to the demands of modernity as well as political, social and environmental change. Such change creates barriers to the unobstructed or uncontested continuance of the cultures’ historical narrative, large group identity and possibly even their physical survival  (Geertz, 1975).  Often, the conflict disputes that emerging cultures find themselves embroiled in can appear intractable because the conflict pits a culture’s historical narrative and group identity against non-negotiable forces of external change.  These non-negotiable forces may place two or more cultural groups in opposition, but it is most often external change that ultimately drives the conflict. Examples of external changes that drive emerging cultures into conflict include environmental changes such as deforestation or desertification; diminishing common pool resources such as water, pasture or wildlife; national and regional political and social evolution; or finally, the loss of group membership due to the lure of modernity and associated ego-centric models of social being that entice younger generations into urban centers.  Such change is dreaded (Beisser, 2006) and resisted by cultures in conflict because it heralds the possibility of a break in their historical narrative; the same narrative that encapsulates their psychological identity, cultural expression, generational memory of their origin and existential purpose of the present.

The competition over opportunities to access, ownership, control and management of Natural Resources (NR) by multi-stakeholders at all levels has been the bane of Natural Resource Management (NRM) in Africa. This is exacerbated by the inherent conflicts generated from the complexities of management structures, especially in areas where livelihoods of local people depend on NR. Therefore, the study was aimed at assessing the dynamics of natural resource use conflicts and multi-stakeholder collaboration in Ghana. This study adopted the qualitative research design approach. Data was collected using Focus Group Discussions, indepth interviews and observation. Participants, including the Chief, hunters, farmers, herbalist, the Mole Park Manager, and A Rocha Ghana, were contacted and interviewed. The results show that: first, renewable natural resources such as land and water bodies, thatch and wildlife were essential to the livelihood, prestige and socio-cultural sustenance of farmers and hunters as well as the traditional authority in Larabanga; second, it was revealed that the natural resources in the Mole Park have many stakeholders whose interests in NR use and management conflict revolves around livelihood survival and ecological sustenance; third, underlying factors such as access, ownership and control of NR, centralized management of the Park, absence of compensation for crop raiding, trust among the local resource users and the Park Staff are the main causes of resource use conflicts in the study communities; and fourth, the weak collaboration among the major stakeholders of NRs in the Mole Park is associated with resource use conflict in the study area. The study recommends that the FC and the Park Management adopt a bottom-up approach to reviewing and negotiating the principles of the Collaborative Wildlife Management Policy. Mainstreaming policies of collaborative management of NRs in some parts of Africa and in actions of global like the SDGs (Goal 15) which focuses on Life on Earth is recommended.

I wrote this paper to explain the origin of conflict; how or why it could appear; what it has to do with personality differences, and how to deal with and anticipate them. Readers, very likely, will feel the impact of learning more deeply if they take the various personality tests mentioned in this paper. The content of this paper in its entirety is available upon request.

Within a framework of Communication for Development in Peacebuilding, this article sheds light on the use of art forms such as puppetry and photography as communication channels among youth affected by conflict and displacement. The study presented here evaluates UNICEF Art for Development programme, which was carried out with adolescents living in transitory sites in the city of Zamboanga in 2015. Rather than focusing on the therapeutic effect of the activities, this investigation looks at their ability to provide adolescents living in the context of community-based conflict—such as that of a displaced people’s camp—with a safe space to participate and collaborate in art and media production to express themselves and communicate with one another.

This study assessed the psychological empowerment of donor aided projects on rural communities of Insiza District of Zimbabwe. The study was grounded on the fact that in spite of plethora of NGOs implementing donor aided projects for more than two decades in the District of Insiza, there is no significant improvement of the socio-economic livelihoods of the rural communities. With so much investment without plausible returns it was imperative to initiate the study that sought to discover the missing link that can make NGOs’ performance effective in the fight against poverty.

This study was guided by three main research questions: 1) To what extent are community members of Insiza District having control of donor aided projects through NGOs? 2) To what extent are donor  aided projects through NGOs are enhancing capacity of community members?    3) What are the levels of Insiza District community participation in donor aided projects through NGOs? The findings from this descriptive study were collated through interviews of beneficiary households, focus group discussions with community members and questionnaire which was answered by NGOs’ staff who are implementing donor aided projects in Insiza District as well as through the use of documentary reviews. Random and snowball sampling methods were used to chose the respondents as well as groups that participated in the study

This research found an interesting array of evidence indicating that the donor aided projects are falling short of psychological empowering communities of Insiza District. The findings of this study revealed that the majority of community members had neither influence nor control over donor aided projects. This study also found that donor aided projects are falling short in capacitating rural communities of Insiza District as evidenced by donor dependency syndrome and a consumption mentality among beneficiaries.  This research among others recommends that the donors and the NGOs should move away from imposing projects on communities to full participatory approaches that will ensure community involvement in decision making and project ownership. This would enable the locals to capitalise on what they want rather than championing NGOs and donors’ agenda.

Small house' has become an oft talked about phenomenon in Zimbabwe's urban space. The study explores the nature of 'small house' phenomenon in Harare, how individuals involved in this arrangement perceive their social categorisation and how they cope with other competing duties and societal expectations. The study adopts qualitative methodology involving the use of semi-structured interviews amongst participants recruited using purposive and snowballing sampling techniques. The 'small house' is a practice permitting a man to have lifelong secret erotic affairs with a woman, with the chances of having children accepted by the man. Rational Choice and Cruel Optimism models were utilized. The findings made herein show that inasmuch as the small house is a conscious art/ purposive behaviour, it is a co-dependent relationship rife with 'false' hope. Small house partners are effectively 'married' as the bond amid them carries the marriage meaning, committed themselves to their 'small housing' life. The never-ending search for fulfilment of 'unattainable' dreams, 'good life' appetite or social mobility prospects keeps the 'small house' adherents clinging to this phenomenon. The mystification of life precarity, emotive attachment and the optimistic habitus inherent in small housing is 'cruel' in keeping the members in 'problematic relationships' hoping for eventual miraculous pay offs, while it obscures one's alternative effort to prosperity. Because of the 'problematic' experiences in 'small house' relations, sometimes it is 'marriages' without love, love without sex, and sex without loveall messed up, for it has mixed aftermaths to the participants in terms of achievements, experiences and harms.

La actualidad geopolítica global nos urge a pensar en una modernidad crítica desde la cual podamos realizar un análisis sobre el papel que puede jugar la comunicación para contribuir a la construcción de aquel ideal utópico que es “la paz en la tierra”. Este trabajo propone una mirada alternativa a la comunicación, entendida como instrumento de paz, herramienta de intervención en la resolución de conflictos y en la búsqueda de la justicia, a través de la concertación y del fortalecimiento de la participación ciudadana. La primera parte del texto se propone aclarar conceptos tales como paz, comunicación, formación de tejido comunitario, diálogo participativo, redes sociales y gestión de conflictos, a través de un recorrido por diversos ejes y perspectivas de trabajo paradigmáticas así como por metodologías, herramientas, competencias, capacidades y conocimientos que son constitutivos de esta mirada. La segunda parte del texto se enfoca hacia un análisis de algunos medios y herramientas comunicativas de carácter comunitario, con el objetivo de describir cómo funciona, de manera concreta, la comunicación para la paz.

http://books.google.com.br/books/about/Comunicar_la_paz.html?hl=es&id=unGpuAAACAAJ

Governance is the ability of the government to make and enforce rules and to deliver services in an impartial, transparent and equal manner that will meet both the needs of the minority and the majority in the society. Decentralization in sub-Saharan Africa states is on the increase, this trend began in the nineties, the purpose was to create reforms that will strengthen the subnational governments. Unfortunately, it did not transcend to effective citizens’ participation in governance, because decentralization process in this region as in other regions of Africa so far has been designed top-down from the centre. The constitutional reforms were created to favour the top-down centralised system of governance in place during the colonial rule in Africa (Erk, 2014). Decentralization in Africa met with great support from the international community for it signified the end of military regimes, policy efficiency, development and growth. However, decades after the adoption of decentralization in sub-Saharan Africa, the system is yet to meet its benchmark.
A review of the system of government in Nigeria highlighted in this paper will help shade the light on challenges of decentralization in the sub-Saharan Africa. The three tiers of government in Nigeria operate an autonomous system, with each having its own executive branch. Unfortunately, due to years of centralization of power by the military governments, the federal government still undertakes functions that are the responsibilities of the state and local governments. True decentralization in governance has been impossible, thus the pyramidal structure of federalism has been disrupted which in turn has affected the equal development of all regions. The rural communities in Nigeria are characterized by poor living conditions, equitable socioeconomic and political neglect of the people by the government. These communities lack essential social amenities and services necessary for an improved living standard, this is cartilage for rural-urban migration. When designing interventions and developmental projects, it is essential to consider the governance system as a major factor for sustainable development. Quite often, conflicts stem from unequal power sharing and unequal development of all regions.
This paper will focus on the effects of governance policies and laws regarding managerial competence and financial management among the three tiers of government in Nigeria, the benefits
of decentralization on rural development, and lastly, reflects on ways to achieve true decentralization in sub-Saharan Africa using Nigeria as a case study. The Switzerland federalism model will be used for a comparative analysis on Nigerian federalism structure.
From the findings, a workable proposition on how to realign responsibilities between the three tiers of government in Nigeria focusing on specific spectrum of governance such as managerial competence and financial management tailored to improve accountability and performance in local governance shall be proposed.

This article explores the role of conflict in fostering equality within the decision-making processes of the alterglobalization movement. I argue that movement actors treat conflict as constructive because it helps create “diversity.” Movement actors transform conflict from adversarial to constructive through a continuous process of decentralizing power referred to as “horizontality.” This decentralization of power is achieved through network-based decision-making structures that reject unity through agreement in
favor of connections between differences. Drawing on over 8 years of ethnographic research into movement decision-making practices, I argue that these movement practices show that although diversity leads to conflict, adversarial conflict is not caused by this flow of diversity; adversarial conflict arises only when these flows are blocked. Movement practices demonstrate that conflict can be productive if it is given space for expression. [alterglobalization movement, conflict, democracy, decision making, diversity, networks]

This paper is an evaluation of a landlord-tenant dispute resolution program in Greensboro, North Carolina. The program is a partnership between the University of North Carolina at Greensboro and the City of Greensboro Human Relations Department.

In Northern Ireland, as elsewhere, there are tensions between the aesthetics of professional and applied theatre. Specifically, it is harsh but not inaccurate to say that many Irish practitioners and policy makers believe that a lot of the participatory theatre of the last ten years has been a waste of large amounts of money on overambitious and incompetently executed productions. Alternatively, some practitioners and organisations that continue to promote the social and political value of applied theatre are retreating from the traditional defence of 'process over product' and placing inappropriate pressures on inexperienced, untrained and unpaid community performers to delliver performances on a par with professional theatre, without anywhere near the time and resources available to a professional production. Meanwhile, the sectarian social and political structures of Northern Ireland (such as regional and educational segregation) remain largely unchanged since the end of the Troubles. Nonetheless, outside Belfast at least, community-based performances seem to attract audiences as large and enthusiastic, if not more so, than professional theatre productions. In this context, questions of aesthetics are crucial to the continued relevance or survival of applied theatre: how can we assess the function of applied theatre in a post-conflict society in the absence of structural social change? How can we justify funding support for applied theatre when the primary evaluation models revolve around loosely defined concepts of 'artistic excellence' and 'empowerment'? Is a new aesthetic framework possible, whereby applied theatre practice and research can draw validity from the responses of specific community audiences within specific cultural contexts, and continue to further knowledge internationally?

This paper examines the role of land in inter-communal conflicts (IC) in southwestern Nigeria. It purposefully selected eight communities with recurrent IC in the region for questionnaire administration, targeting 10% of their household heads. Study reveals that most of the residents identified land as the main cause of IC. It notes that government's grip over land in the area was weak, as most of the residents acknowledged that individual families and community leaders monitored the affairs of land in the region and that strangers have no full right to indigenous land. This could be why most past recorded conflicts erupted when people rose to fight for their rights on land. In this regards, the policy makers of Nigeria need to review the effectiveness of the country's land laws and their applications at the regional and local levels. To avoid complications, selected community leaders must be involved in the process. Keywords: Land, conflict, community development, administr...

The now familiar critique of mainstream development goes like this: community development by multinational organizations after World War II was driven by the knowledge and decisions of experts. The experts were, almost without exception, western white men with common conceptions about the recently post-colonial populations that they sought to develop. "Development" for these experts meant becoming more modern, rational, and industrial and westernized—even if at high cultural or environmental costs. The ideas behind development plans changed from time to time, but the power, money and expertise remained in the hands of the rich countries. The backlash against this model of developmental decision-making advocated for the alternative of participatory approaches to development. The most visible early promoters of participatory techniques in development and research were CHAMBERS (1983, 1997) and FALS-BORDA and RAHMAN (1991). Drawing on popular models like those of FREIRE (1970), the promoters of these methods were vociferously opposed to the existing "top-down" approaches of institutions. They claimed that utilizing their participatory methods made the development process more empowering, democratic, just and effective. Their methods promoted power-sharing in the research and planning phases of development through the incorporation of the perspectives of local residents. The intended result was a levelling of power imbalances between development professionals and local residents. The "empowering" results of this process were touted as having far-reaching effects in the lives of the participants. [2] The participatory approach has gained acceptance in international development. The incorporation of "local knowledge" in development projects is now commonplace. What was initially a radical critique of development has relatively quickly become a staple of international development practice. With its widespread adoption, concerns have periodically been raised about the degree to which these participatory methods are living up to the claims of their promoters. One concern is that the development agencies are implementing participatory practices in ways that serve their own agendas. A more sweeping critique sees the idea of participatory development as flawed, idealistic or naïve. This strain of criticism is most thoroughly developed in COOKE and KOTHARI (2001) Participation: The New Tyranny. 2. Critiques of Participation Participation: The New Tyranny challenges the pervasive belief that participation is unequivocally good. In eleven chapters written by academics and practitioners who have extensive experience in international development, the authors provide analyses, supported by detailed descriptions of development fieldwork, to support their assertions. These contributions, drawing from psychology, sociology and critical theory, assert that participation in practice is nowhere near the participatory, bottom-up, open process that it is commonly held to be. [4] The New Tyranny demonstrates that the theoretical ideal of participation is often not functioning as the tool for liberation and distribution of power that its rhetoric suggests. Instead, efforts embracing participation are described as largely maintaining existing power relationships, though masking this power behind the rhetoric and techniques of participation. This masking, therefore, represents the tyranny of participation. [5] The tyranny of decision making and control COOKE and KOTHARI, in the opening chapter, identify three types of tyranny. First, the dominance of multinational agencies and funders exists just beneath the rhetoric and practices of participation. This tyranny addresses the enduring decision-making control held by agencies and funders.

Pilot research on community conflict resolution, conducted in a local government area in southern Sydney in late 2006, revealed paradoxical findings: the simultaneous presence of both high levels of cross-cultural mixing and appreciation of the area’s culturally diverse population; and the prevalence of prejudice against Arab and Muslim residents and visitors to the area. Many respondents, who supported cultural diversity, saw Arab
and Muslim Australians as an exception and even a threat to harmonious community relations. Particularly striking was the anxiety and anger caused by their apparent large numbers, seen to be taking over certain public recreational spaces. This paper explores the contradictions in these findings in light of other contemporary Australian research and identifies complex and difficult issues to be addressed by research and by local
government. In particular, the paper discusses the need to address the interconnections between both everyday multiculturalisms and everyday racisms, to distinguish between
‘victim’ claims amongst diverse communities, and to ground research and policies on ‘place-sharing’ in Indigenous sovereignties.

The community mobilization for empowerment (CME) methodology was originally developed by Simon Forrester for UN Women in Moldova as a part of the UNDP-UN Women joint integrated local development programme, funded by the Government of Sweden.  Now the methodology has been adapted for the context of Ukraine. The purpose of this CME practitioner’s guide is to explain in more detail the CME process, its benefits, and implementation. The guide is mostly aimed at assisting those directly using the CME methodology. This includes mobilizers in communities, staff and volunteers of support organisations, such as civil society organizations and members of self help groups. Other important institutions and organisations of local governance and development, security officials, and local businesses, can also use this guide to identify practical ways in which they can support the CME process.

The content and pedagogy of a country's education system can clearly convey the shared values of its people. In regions where representation of, and reconciliation between, multiple ethnic groups is a priority, traditional knowledge can become a strong pillar of this content. Imported, non-local curricula, built on the latest global trends, can support student growth and provide a route to connect and contribute to 'the rest of the world', yet when provided exclusively, can dissolve the landscape of culturally diverse ways of knowing. By understanding and incorporating local stakeholder educational and cultural needs, it is possible to design curriculum that integrates culturally based knowledge systems with these global trends and standards, and which thus provides learning opportunities for students that bridge ancestral and new knowledge systems.

When it comes to the task of making democracy work as it should in everyday ways and places, professionals who are employed by institutions of many kinds can be a problem.  All too often, they use their technical knowledge and expertise in ways that dominate, disable, and sideline neighborhood and community members who aren’t employed as credentialed experts.  Or they stay out of public work in the messy, contentious realm of civic life altogether because they aren’t welcome, they see it as an inappropriate activity for professionals to engage in, they don’t know what to do, or they’re afraid of losing their jobs.

Through eight richly-detailed oral histories, this book helps to open our imagination to the possibilities for professionals to make constructive contributions to the task of making democracy work as it should.  The first-hand stories of public work in these oral histories are told by professionals from six different states who either chose or were invited to jump into civic life as active participants.  They help us see what it means and takes to be a “citizen professional” who respects and supports the capacities, intelligence, expertise, and agency of others.

Does international aid transform young Palestinian refugees’ attitudes in terms of the right of return? Young Palestinian refugees support the right of return and can be anticipated to continue doing so, largely because and so long as the Pal- estine/Israel con ict remains alive. In this brie ng, it is argued that foreign aid supporting peacebuilding activities does not transform young refugees’ attitudes in terms of the right of return, nor could it so long as the movement for Palestin- ian self-determination has not resulted in statehood.
Foreign aid does not transform the attitudes of young refugees in terms of the right of return due to high levels of hostility in the current political environment, the failure of the peace process between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and Israel, the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the absence of human security at all levels. In addition, the transformation of youths’ attitudes is also curtailed by a lack of cooperation between local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international NGOs (INGOs), which have failed to produce strong partnerships. Many INGOs still control foreign funds for their own expenses, including overheads, salaries, insurance and security, to the detriment of local NGOs.

Despite deadlock in the ‘peace pro- cess’ and the lack of solid partnerships between NGOs and INGOs, this brie ng concludes by recommending that donors should channel funds directly to local NGOs to keep young refugees engaged in peace-building and human rights activities until a final compromise is struck that addresses the right of return.