Attentional Focus

Externally focused instructions specific to performance have shown to improve body mechanics (Gokeler et al., 2015; Welling, Benjaminse, Gokeler, & Otten, 2016). However, the effect of using an external focus instruction may have been more profound if the content of the instruction had been relevant to mechanics. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of externally fo-cused instructions specific to performance and externally focused instructions specific to body mechanics on mechanics and performance. Twenty-four adults (n = 12 males; n = 12 females) performed a series of drop jumps following external focus cues that were specific to performance and landing mechanics. Participants completed a drop jump followed by a maximal effort vertical jump. The initial contact, maximal angle, and range of motion at the knee in the sagittal and frontal plane motion were measured for mechanics and the height of the second vertical jump was measured for performance. The results suggest external focus instructions specific to performance are beneficial for performance, but not for improving landing mechanics. This suggests that external focus instructions must be specific to the contents of the instruction.

An external focus of attention is considered superior to an internal focus for learning and performance. However, findings specific to changing the task difficulty are inconsistent. The present study used a reciprocal aiming task to determine the effects of attentional focus on motor performance using speed-accuracy paradigm. We constrained timing to examine how internal and external focus of attention influenced accuracy when task difficulty changes. The results indicated greater accuracy on the right target and greater consistency on both targets for the external focus condition, regardless of task difficulty. Our results uniquely demonstrated how instruction modified a speed-accuracy task.

Society has evolved to become inundated with multiple stimuli every few seconds. Studentathletes struggle with maintaining concentration for any short duration. This project serves as a psychological skills tool to utilize with sport teams to enhance performance by way of enhanced focus. Concentration is a powerful mental tool athletes can employ in improving their performance in addition to enhancing sport skills.

The superiority of using an external focus of attention for learning and performance benefits has been documented in distance running. However, there is limited research examining the actual attentional focus strategies adopted by distance runners. The purpose of this study was to describe the focus of attention used by distance runners in practice and competition and to better understand where these athletes seek information about improving performance. Sixteen distance runners (32.1 AE 10.0 yr) who run at least 20 mile/week (37.7 AE 10.8 mile/week) completed a questionnaire examining information related to attentional focus during training and competition and where athletes go for educational resources. Results indicate that distance runners do not solely adhere to external focus of attention, rather utilize multiple forms of attentional focus strategies that are not examined in laboratory research. Further, it seems that most training advice is received from coaches or training partners and not scientific literature. Within the realms of motor behavior an external focus of attention has been shown to be superior for performance and learning benefits compared to an internal focus of attention. 1,2 Attentional focus literature differentiates internal and external focus suggesting that an internal focus of attention focuses on movements specific to the body (e.g. focusing on your foot when running forward), whereas an external focus describes attention directed toward the effects of a movement (e.g. focusing on the ground when moving forward). 3 It has also been observed that the majority of the research on attentional focus is heavily focused on activities that require manipulation of an object such as golf 4,5 and basketball; 6 however, less research exists for those sports where individuals are not manipulating an object, such as swimming, cycling, and running. Nevertheless, the beneficial effects of using an external focus of attention have been replicated across numerous motor tasks, primarily in laboratory-based environments. 5,7-9 The results robustly indicate that an external focus of attention is superior during both practice and retention sessions. Wulf et al.'s 10-12 constrained action hypothesis remains at the forefront of why performance and learning differ depending on the type of attentional focus direction. The constrained action hypothesis theorizes that movement automaticity accounts for the benefits of using an external focus. Results from electromyography studies have shown reduced muscular activity and increased force production. 13,14 For instance, an internal focus resulted in less accurate force production and less effective inter-muscular coordination during isometric plantar-flexion tasks compared to an external focus. 15 However, the beneficial effects of using an external focus have been questioned, 16 which may stem from our limited information pertaining to the focus of attention adopted during skilled behavior that does not involve object manipulation and focus on the individual alone. Attention is dynamic 17 and the dichotomous manipulations (external and internal focus) used in laboratory studies may not fully capture the complex nature of attentional focus used in natural settings. Therefore, if we can quantify the focus of attention utilized during various sports, it will help refine the manipulations used

Emergence of proprioceptive training in industrial training facilities seems to reflect current effort of applying therapeutic concept of proprioceptive recovery to general training program. While it is encouraged to continue such efforts, correction of mythical beliefs is necessary ...

Body movements and gestures that accompany singing have become potent tools in the teaching and learning of singing. However, the underlying psychomotor mechanisms responsible for the enhancement of vocal technique through the use of movements and gestures have not yet been examined in detail. This article therefore proposes an explanatory model, namely, the attentional focus effect, and links key assumptions and insights from motor learning and performance research about the effects of different attentional foci on motor skill performance with the practice of using movement while singing. Music-related studies on attentional focus effects have shown that an internal focus of attention on the vocal mechanism (or movement components of singing such as lip movements) does not actually enhance precision or overall performance. An external focus of attention, for example, on the sound produced, was found to have an optimizing influence on vocal performance. Thus, aiming at conceptual development, it will be argued that body movements and gestures promote an external focus of attention because vocalists coordinate, watch, and kinesthetically perceive their movements, which directs attention away from the movement components of singing. This external focus may result in the recruitment of automated control processes of voice production, less self-evaluation, and more effective performance in general.

Emergence of proprioceptive training in industrial training facilities seems to reflect current efforts of emphasizing neuromuscular function and postural control in general training programs. While it is encouraged to continue such efforts, correction of mythical beliefs is necessary for more suitable application. Clinicians for the recovery of the sensorimotor function originally suggested the idea of proprioceptive training. Adopting this clinically originated concept to general training created two main misconceptions. One is the premature assumption that proprioception can be improved with physical training. The other is the belief that proprioception is a key factor for the improvement of balance in every occasions. However, there is not sufficient neurophysiological evidence supporting the feasibility of the improvement of the proprioception through physical training. Moreover, proprioception can be effectively used only during the slow or moderately fast closed-loop control of movement. Therefore, overemphasis on proprioception may ignore the role of the central nervous system (CNS) in carrying out motor abilities and skills. A training program should be able to facilitate the CNS adaptation that is a key factor for the development of motor abilities and improvement of skill performance. In order to create an ideal learning environment for the CNS, an exercise program should distinctively train different motor skills with adequately changing task goals and sensory environment. Also, training should help the CNS to overcome its limited attentional capacity by adequately imposing multiple task demands.

Key words: Balance, motor control, proprioception, central nervous system, exercise program, application of therapeutic exercise.

Read more: http://www.readperiodicals.com/201104/2306736741.html#ixzz1ypYBxIA0

Although multiple review studies have supported the superior effects of an
external compared with internal focus, these reviews are based on performance
outcomes. Currently, the literature lacks knowledge regarding the effects of
external/internal foci on individuals’ perceptions, which may provide further
explanations for how attentional focus affects performance. Therefore, the
present study conducted a systematic review of survey/questionnaire data
of participants’ thoughts and emotions from laboratory studies. The authors
used ERIC, SPORTDiscus, PsycArticle, CINAHL Plus, Health Source Nursing
Academic edition, and PubMed search engines. Literature specific to external/
internal focus effects on motor learning or performance were reviewed (N = 37).
The results showed that participants generally adhered to the assigned attentional
focus instruction and there was a trend that preference may affect the
attentional focus effects, but the results were inconsistent regarding if attentional
focus cues affected the magnitude of adherence and mental demands. There
were substantial differences in methodologies and theoretical issues of measuring
these data. Future studies should adopt inferential statistics, choose theoretically
relevant questions in a priori manner, or, at minimum, propose a
hypothesis for the selected question.

The external focus and internal focus effects on motor performance and skill acquisition have been extensively examined and reviewed in laboratory research. However, the use of attentional focus in the field has not been summarized. Therefore, the present study conducted a systematic review of literature regarding the use of external/internal focus by practitioners (therapists and coaches) and recipients (patients and athletes). From 1999 to 2020, twelve studies examined how external/internal focus were used in the field. Results showed both therapists and coaches predominantly used internal focus; athletes tended to use more internal focus but varied by sports; and attentional focus varied between practice and competition. Additionally, the present review also consistently found that external/internal focus accounted for a small proportion relative to other foci outside the external/internal focus paradigm. Importantly, the differences in results were largely dependent upon the type of assessment (e.g. closed-ended and open-ended questionnaires). Future research needs to investigate the relative importance of external/internal focus as opposed to other foci, as well as that affect a shift of attentional focus from one type to another.

Abstract
The purpose of this research was to Study effect of task intensity on attention focus in during physical activity in male physical education students of  Shahid Chamran university. The method of this research was semi experimental and the statistical group include 120 male students that 30 subjects selected simple randomly and put into in two groups (15 subjects for handgrip task and 15 subjects for cycling task). Study instrument was dynamometer handgrip and ergo meter cycling. Furthermore attention focus questionnaire (AFQ) used in study for investigation subject’s preferred attentional style. The reliability of questionnaire by cronbach’s alpha method was obtained 0/89 and its validity supported by experts of physical education faculty.
Analyzing the research hypotheses at the p<0/05 indicated that attention focus shift in both tasks according to increase in exercise intensity and change into associative attention. Also findings indicated the relationship between preferred  attentional style and actual attention focus in both tasks however wasn’t significant statisticaly. The relationship in end stage was more than beginning stage in handgrip task. Whereas this relatinship in beginning stage was more than end stage in ergo meter cycle task.

Kay words: task intensity, attention focus, handgrip, ergo meter cycle.

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to investigate the intrapersonal effects of anger suppression in negotiations. Specifically, we examined when and how anger suppression influences negotiation effectiveness, proposing that suppressing anger may reduce negotiators’ ability to focus on the negotiation and increase their cognitive exhaustion, both of which would in turn lower negotiators’ performance. In addition, we proposed that suppressing anger integral to the negotiation is more costly than suppressing anger incidental to the negotiation.Design/Methodology/ApproachData were obtained from a controlled laboratory experiment in which a total of 204 undergraduate students participated in a computer-mediated negotiation.FindingsNegotiators who suppressed their anger, compared to those who did not, were less able to focus on the negotiation, which in turn decreased their negotiation performance. The indirect negative effect was only significant when negotiators suppressed anger integral rather than incidental to the negotiation.ImplicationsThe findings suggest that negotiators should be aware when it is (not) detrimental to suppress anger in negotiations. Particularly, negotiators need to be careful and may adopt strategies to maintain their attentional focus when they attempt to suppress anger that is induced by the negotiation process.Originality/ValueIntegrating research on emotion regulation with negotiation research, this study is one of the first to investigate the intrapersonal effects of anger suppression in negotiations. More significantly, this study identified both an important psychological mechanism and a moderator of the effects of anger suppression on negotiations.

Externally focused instructions specific to performance have shown to improve body mechanics (Gokeler et al., 2015; Welling, Benjaminse, Gokeler, & Otten, 2016). However, the effect of using an external focus instruction may have been more profound if the content of the instruction had been relevant to mechanics. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of externally focused instructions specific to performance and externally focused instructions specific to body mechanics on mechanics and performance. Twenty-four adults (n = 12 males; n = 12 females) performed a series of drop jumps following external focus cues that were specific to performance and landing mechanics. Participants completed a drop jump followed by a maximal effort vertical jump. The initial contact, maximal angle, and range of motion at the knee in the sagittal and frontal plane motion were measured for mechanics and the height of the second vertical jump was measured for performance. The results suggest external focus instructions specific to performance are beneficial for performance, but not for improving landing mechanics. This suggests that external focus instructions must be specific to the contents of the instruction.

Background: An external focus of attention has been shown to be superior to adopting an internal focus of attention in a variety of motor skills. Purpose: To examine the efficacy of directing attention
externally toward an imagined object when performing the standing long jump. This form of practice was compared to a group of participants that practiced the same motor skill while directing their
attention toward an object that was physically present in the practice environment. Method: All
participants performed a series of standing long-jumps on a rubber mat. Participants were randomly assigned to either an external focus condition where they were instructed to jump as close as possible
to a cone that was directly in front of them. Or they were assigned to an imagery condition in which they were instructed to jump toward an imagined cone. Following acquisition trials, a 24-hr retention
and transfer test was completed by all participants. Results: Significant improvement was demonstrated by both groups during acquisition, retention and transfer phases compared to the baseline measure. However, no significant differences were observed between the two experimental conditions. Conclusion: The findings of this experiment demonstrate that attention directed externally toward a physical object and an imagined object has a similar effect.

Background: An external focus of attention has been shown to be superior to adopting an internal focus of attention in a variety of motor skills. Purpose: To examine the efficacy of directing attention externally toward an imagined object when performing the standing long jump. This form of practice was compared to a group of participants that practiced the same motor skill while directing their attention toward an object that was physically present in the practice environment. Method: All participants performed a series of standing long-jumps on a rubber mat. Participants were randomly assigned to either an external focus condition where they were instructed to jump as close as possible to a cone that was directly in front of them. Or they were assigned to an imagery condition in which they were instructed to jump toward an imagined cone. Following acquisition trials, a 24-hr retention and transfer test was completed by all participants. Results: Significant improvement was demonstrated by both groups during acquisition, retention and transfer phases compared to the baseline measure. However, no significant differences were observed between the two experimental conditions. Conclusion: The findings of this experiment demonstrate that attention directed externally toward a physical object and an imagined object has a similar effect.

Contexts: Directing an individual's attention to the effect of the movements (external focus) has been shown to improve performance than directing attention to body movements (internal focus). However, the effect of attentional focus instructions specific to movement quality has not been investigated thoroughly. Objective: To compare the effects of internal and external focus instructions specific to body movements. Design: Mixed design, 2 (sex) × 2 (instructions). Settings: Laboratory setting. Participants: A total of 40 participants (males, n = 20; mean [SD]; age = 22.0 [2.19] y; height = 179.33 [5.90] cm; mass = 77.7 [13.04] kg; females, n = 20; age = 22.0 [3.87] y; height = 164.84 [5.80] cm; mass = 71.48 [20.66] kg) were recruited. Intervention: Participants completed 2 consecutive jumps (ie, a forward jump from a height and then a maximal vertical jump) with internal focus and external focus instructions. External focus was elicited by placing pieces of tape on the participants' legs. Main Outcome measures: Landing quality was measured by the Landing Error Scoring System to assess movement quality, and the vertical jump height was measured by Vertec. Results: The performance results showed that the external focus condition resulted in superior vertical jump height compared with the internal focus condition (P < .05). Although landing quality did not show significant differences between 2 conditions, the effect size (η 2 = .09) indicated that landing quality was better when participants adopted an external, rather than an internal focus of attention (P = .07). Conclusions: The body-oriented instructions can be provided externally by adding artificial external cues and directing attention to them. Importantly, the findings were evident in a qualitative assessment that can be adopted by practitioners. The results suggest that practitioners should adopt an external focus cue for performance and also consider using an external focus for movement quality.

The benefits of using an external focus relative to an internal focus for endurance activities are well documented. However, literature has revealed that internally focused instructions are predominantly adopted in the field, and existing data are limited to highlyskilled level populations. Moreover, athletes' focus of attention during fatigue invoking activities is unknown. The purpose of the current study was to examine what type of feedback and instructions experienced recreational individuals receive and their self-adopted focus of attention when fatigued. Distance runners answered a questionnaire related to instruction and feedback from coaches and thoughts that the athletes experienced while fatigued. The results showed that more than half of the instructions runners received from coaches were internally focused and consisted of both knowledge of performance and knowledge of results. Self-reported focus of runners when fatigued revealed that only 15% of task-related thoughts were externally focused. Despite a large body of motor behavior literature, attentional strategies shown to increase performance and learning were not predominantly present (from coaches or self-adopted) for this population of experienced recreational distance runners.

Contexts: Directing an individual's attention to the effect of the movements (external focus) has been shown to improve performance than directing attention to body movements (internal focus). However, the effect of attentional focus instructions specific to movement quality has not been investigated thoroughly. Objective: To compare the effects of internal and external focus instructions specific to body movements. Design: Mixed design, 2 (sex) × 2 (instructions). Settings: Laboratory setting. Participants: A total of 40 participants (males, n = 20; mean [SD]; age = 22.0 [2.19] y; height = 179.33 [5.90] cm; mass = 77.7 [13.04] kg; females, n = 20; age = 22.0 [3.87] y; height = 164.84 [5.80] cm; mass = 71.48 [20.66] kg) were recruited. Intervention: Participants completed 2 consecutive jumps (ie, a forward jump from a height and then a maximal vertical jump) with internal focus and external focus instructions. External focus was elicited by placing pieces of tape on the participants' legs. Main Outcome measures: Landing quality was measured by the Landing Error Scoring System to assess movement quality, and the vertical jump height was measured by Vertec. Results: The performance results showed that the external focus condition resulted in superior vertical jump height compared with the internal focus condition (P < .05). Although landing quality did not show significant differences between 2 conditions, the effect size (η 2 = .09) indicated that landing quality was better when participants adopted an external, rather than an internal focus of attention (P = .07). Conclusions: The body-oriented instructions can be provided externally by adding artificial external cues and directing attention to them. Importantly, the findings were evident in a qualitative assessment that can be adopted by practitioners. The results suggest that practitioners should adopt an external focus cue for performance and also consider using an external focus for movement quality. Verbal instructions affect performers' focus of attention. 1,2 An individual's focus of attention can be affected by simply changing a few words when providing verbal instructions. Research has shown when we direct an individual's attention to the movement outcome on the environment (external focus), the results are superior to when we direct his or her attention to their body parts or body movements (internal focus). 3 The benefits gained from using an external focus have been replicated in motor skills that require power, 4-7 accuracy , 8-12 balance, 3,13-16 and muscular strength and endurance. 17-19 The constrained action hypothesis has been used to explain this phenomenon, suggesting that instructions which are internally focused are inferior to instructions that are externally focused as it disrupts the motor system. 13,14,20 The hypothesis has been supported by studies investigating neuromuscular coordination with electromyography (EMG), showing that an internal focus results in inefficient EMG activity with poorer performance relative to an external focus. 9,12,21,22 Although research in attentional focus has investigated how we can guide individuals' focus of attention, the literature on the specificity of instruction cues is limited, especially specific to movement quality (ie, instructions to correct movement patterns and mechanics). Currently, we understand that using an internal focus may lead to poorer performance, which has been supported by the laboratory research (poorer neuromuscular coordination, 9,12,21,22 reaction time, 14 balance, or postural control 2,13,15,16,23). However, qualitative research has shown that practitioners predominantly use internal focus in the real-world setting. 24 This may be related to practitioners providing instructions that improve both performance and movement quality (eg, when teaching sprinting in athletes, 25 gait rehabilitation 26). Therefore, in situations that require correcting a movement pattern or improving movement quality, the content of the instructions would naturally become body oriented (ie, internal focus). For example, when the goal is to improve performance, an external cue can be elicited by directing performers' attention to the object that they manipulate (eg, "focus on the ball trajectory 8 ") or to the environment (eg, "focus on jumping as close to a cone as possible 6,7 ") if the skills do not require object manipulation. However , when the goal of the task is to correct a movement pattern and the task does not require object manipulation, the only relevant cue is the body parts. This warrants further investigation of the effects of attentional focus instructions when the goal is to improve movement quality. Currently, research related to instructions specific to movement quality has been conducted by researchers who investigate anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. Research in this domain has identified biomechanical risk factors of lower-extremity injuries in landing from a height such as shallow knee flexion angle, knee valgus, and excessive toe internal or external rotations. 27-30 Various factors that may alter the landing mechanics such as the effect of vision 31 and exercise or plyometric training 32-34 have been investigated. However, the effect of external/internal focus in safe landing mechanics had not been investigated until recently. The effect of attentional focus on movement quality (assessed as landing quality to reduce stress on the knee joints) has been demonstrated in drop landing mechanics 35 and drop jump mechanics. 36,37 These studies provided a new insight for practitioners into the importance of cognitive attention when correcting a movement