Asteroid Impactor, Comet Impactor, NEO Threat

The last three decades have seen a growing awareness that the planet Earth and human civilizations might be much more threatened by extraterrestrial objects than previously thought. It has been suggested on many occasions that the course of human prehistory has been remarkably shaped by big meteorite impacts, airbursts of meteoroids, or the load of the atmosphere with cosmic dust. Myths and motifs are interpreted to encode information of such events. This article brings to the fore a series of essential methodological steps which may strengthen such interpretations.

This paper was written for the course of Space Sciences and Exploration, during the Master of Space Studies. The paper provides an overview of the threats and opportunities with regard to near-Earth asteroids. From asteroid impacts and planetary defence techniques, to exploration missions and commercial opportunities of asteroid mining.

The Asteroid Impact Mission is an ESA mission, part of a joint collaboration with NASA in the AIDA (Asteroid Impact & Deflection Assessment) mission. The primary goal of AIDA is to assess the feasibility of deflecting the heliocentric path of a Near Earth Asteroid binary system, by impacting on the surface of the smaller asteroid of the couple. To this purpose, AIDA includes a kinetic impactor, DART by NASA and an observer, AIM by ESA. The consolidated mission analysis of AIM spacecraft is presented with a breakdown into the main mission phases. AIM is planned to be launched in late 2020 and to arrive at Didymos system in middle 2022. Suitable transfer solutions and launch window are presented; the approaching strategy to rendezvous with the binary system is discussed and close proximity operations at the asteroid are finally described. The results and analyses presented in the paper are currently performed by OHB System AG, Politecnico di Milano and Spin.Works under the European Space Agency study for phase A/B1 design of the AIM spacecraft. The project is currently ongoing and the mission analysis will be further iterated and refined through the design phase.

Centaurs are the solar system objects whose orbits are found between those of the giant planets. They originate mainly from the Trans-Neptunian objects, and are among the sources of Near-Earth Objects. Thus, it is crucial to understand their orbital evolution which in some cases might end in collision with terrestrial planets and produce catastrophic events. We study the orbital evolution of the Centaurs toward the inner solar system, and estimate the number of close encounters and impacts with the terrestrial planets after the Late Heavy Bombardment assuming a steady state population of Centaurs. We also estimate the possible crater sizes. We compute the approximate amount of water released: on the Earth, which is about 10 −5 the total water present now. We also found subregions of the Centaurs where the possible impactors originate from. While crater sizes could extend up to hundreds of kilometers in diameter given the presently known population of Centaurs the majority of the craters would be less than ∼ 10 km. For all the planets and an average impactor size of ∼12 km in diameter, the average impact frequency since the Late Heavy Bombardment is one every ∼ 1.9 Gyr for the Earth and 2.1 Gyr for Venus. For smaller bodies (e.g. > 1 km), the impact frequency is one every 14.4 Myr for the Earth, 13.1 Myr for Venus and, 46.3 for Mars, in the recent solar system. Only 53% of the Centaurs can enter into the terrestrial planet region and ∼ 7% can interact with terrestrial planets.

We report on the discovery that minor planet 5674 Wolff is a fully-synchronous binary system with an orbital period of 93.7 ± 0.2 h. The combined primary+secondary rotation amplitude is 0.52 ± 0.02 mag. A lower limit on the secondary-to-primary mean diameter ratio is D 2 /D 1 = 0.80. 5674 Wolff is a main-belt asteroid that was discovered in 1986 by E. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station, Lowell Observatory. We found no previous reported lightcurve data for Wolff. Aznar used a Meade LX200 GPS 0.35-m f/10 Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope (SCT) and SBIG STL-1001E CCD camera with adaptive optics accessory. The system produced an image scale of 1.44 arcsec/pixel. Oey made his observations with a 0.35-m SCT operating at f/5.9 and SBIG ST8XME CCD camera. The image scale was 0.88 arcsec/pixel. Groom's observations were made with 0.30-m SCT operating at f/7.4 and SBIG ST8XME CCD camera. The image scale was 0.84 arcsec/pixel. All images were unfiltered with exposures of 300 seconds each.

Introduction: Vesicles of various size and shape are often observed in impactite melt glasses from both large and small scale impact structures. Particularly, both the so-called white and black silicate-dominated impact glasses found at the very young (app. 300 years), small scale impact site of an iron-meteorite in the desert sand dunes at Wabar, Saudi Arabia exhibit abundant vesicles [see e.g. 1, Fig. 1.]. It is commonly agreed that vesicles in impactites are the result of simple outgassing from a silicate melt controlled by decreasing solubility during the decompression phase [1]. The gasses dissolving from the silicate melts are assumed to include both water and carbon dioxide. The morphology of the gas vesicles will reflect the gas-melt interface, approximating a sphere and reflecting the overall dynamic of the melt as it cools to its melting temperature. This is in accordance with the observation of essential circular vesicle cross-sections in thin sections of impactites. Furthermore, as simple gasses will not form solids on further cooling to ambient conditions, we may assume that an essentially smooth glass-vesicle interface morphology will be formed and preserved, and this should be observed at all intermediate to high magnifications. Results and discussion: To test this assumption we have investigated glass-vesicle interfaces in black Wabar impactites at various resolutions using tomography and microscopy. As an example of the observed interface structures Figure 1 shows a vesicle exposed by cutting through the impactite.

This paper is meant to provide a comprehensible insight into the desirability, feasibility and sustainability of the planetary defense endeavor in its current form through the lens of critical security studies in political science in general and international relations in particular. Our objective is to discuss possible implications and desirable policy architecture of planetary defense within the framework of current theoretical research. Critical security studies are a useful approach to studying planetary defense as involved scientists and engineers tend to understand their efforts as normatively good because the outcome of these efforts is about our very survival. However, their and our, efforts have the potential to cause undesirable political effects on the international level when they can do good instead. A credible and reliable Planetary Defense strategy should propose solutions to a global threat similar to those being evolved to combat pandemics or climate change. In the unavoidable event of an asteroid impact, the strategy should also propose quick and effective recovery based on the best practices employed by natural disaster relief organizations around the world. If efforts are not coordinated at the global level, hasty and unprepared response can have potential to cause undesirable political effects on the international stage. A carefully constructed response strategy might even do good instead. The policy architecture discussing the involvement of various actors along with the selection of technologies will have implications on the international affairs; the purpose of this article is to show what might be the imaginable implications and how to steer them towards the general good. Planetary defense is a delicate topic; it is generally defensive and refers to the fate of humanity and the whole biosphere in enlightened cosmopolitan fashion but also seeks technology that could have latent aggressive, offensive potential despite the general tendency to talk about a deflection method what in fact can be an ultimate weapon of war.
The most intriguing concern is the use of nuclear weapons against asteroids which will not be in the interest of all nation states. We need to reflect the fact that we do not live in a cosmopolitan society but still in an international system consisting of sovereign nation states. Planetary defenders tend to forget this fact that defines how power is distributed worldwide – power that has the potential to poison any globalist efforts by denouncing discourse to preserve the principle of national sovereignty, the principle under which holding power in the hands of individuals is more easily achievable than being globally respected as an inspirational mind worthy of being followed. However, the agenda of planetary defense presents more importantly the path-defining potential to establish a cosmopolitan approach to various additional fundamental questions of humankind’s survival and, moreover, to humankind’s flourishing in general. Therefore, it has the chance to become a path-dependent policy agenda for other global questions influencing our well-being and the development of humanity as a whole.
Planetary defense is a very cosmopolitan agenda due to its global character. Nevertheless, we still live in an international system of nation states that requires a careful approach and strong argument. This conviction is the initial point of the following analysis. The vision of a cosmopolitan society is the very end of our efforts as well as a necessity for sustainable planetary defense.

DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.21463.14249


Em atenção aqueles que duvidam de aceleração de decaimento e exigem referências cientificas destas possibilidades, reunimos alguns estudos que demonstram [1][2][3][4][5][6][7] o que nos leva a calcular o que ocorreu em termos de emissão de nêutrons por efeito piezzoelétrico quando a crosta da terra se partiu violentamente formando milhares de topografias semelhantes ao rio de janeiro (RJ) , topografias presentes ao longo de toda na plataforma da América do Sul e África, as quais revelalam pelas gigantescas formação magmáticas se tratar de uma LPI (large provincius ignea) [8] [9][10][11][12] ; (agradecimento a dois professores de geologia neste ponto , o primeiro é o Dr Nahor Souza, ex- professor da USP, quem me mostrou que a fenda meso-oceânica na verdade é uma gigantesca LPI, e a outro, que provavelmente prefira agora que não seja identificado , devido a polêmica envolvida, que foi quem me explicou confirmando o Dr Nahor Souza , aspectos violentíssimos da separação inicial da África da América revelados pelas formações gigantescas ígneas, entre elas , o conhecidíssimos pão de açucar, pedra da gávea , corcovado e muitos outros; lembrando que o RJ é apenas uma elevação (não explicada ainda) da topografia da plataforma ; o decaimento acelerado e emissões de nêuntros e prótons também está observado em relação a queda de asteroides[13](falta mais referências que quando tiver tempo coloco) e que quando ajuntamos os efeitos aceleradores de elétrons na velocidade de atingir o núcleo , percebemos que reações nucleares em cadeia não somente foi possível, “envelhecendo” rochas, como de fato aconteceu também criando diversos novos elementos, inclusive e sobretudo os instáveis, conforme citações principalmente relacionadas a crosta acima. Lembrando novamente que o padrão gigantesco fóssil necessitaria de uma terra de atmosfera e radioatividade diferente e que o c14 é radioativo e tem naturalmente suas consequências na diminuição da longevidade , tamanho e aumento de doenças em todas as populações.


VOLKOVISH, A., GOVORUM, A., GULYAEV, A., ZHUKOV, S., KUZNETSOV, V., RUKHADZE, A., … & URUTSKOEV, L. (2005). Experimental observation of the distortion of the uranium isotopic relationship and violation of the thorium-234 secular equilibrium upon electric explosion. In Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie (Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 63-70). Fondation Louis de Broglie. https://fondationlouisdebroglie.org/AFLB-301/aflb301m182.htm https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.620.2867&rep=rep1&type=pdf

↑ Cardone, Fabio; Mignani, Roberto; Petrucci, Andrea (11 de maio de 2009). «Piezonuclear decay of thorium». Physics Letters A (em inglês) (22): 1956–1958. ISSN 0375-9601. doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2009.03.067. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ VOLKOVISH, A., GOVORUM, A., GULYAEV, A., ZHUKOV, S., KUZNETSOV, V., RUKHADZE, A., … & URUTSKOEV, L. (2005). «Experimental observation of the distortion of the uranium isotopic relationship and violation of the thorium-234 secular equilibrium upon electric explosion Ann. Fond. Louis de Broglie vol 30 no 1 (2005)». fondationlouisdebroglie.org. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022  Verifique data em: |arquivodata= (ajuda) !CS1 manut: Nomes múltiplos: lista de autores (link)
↑ Cardone, F.; Carpinteri, A.; Lacidogna, G. (2 de novembro de 2009). «Piezonuclear neutrons from fracturing of inert solids». Physics Letters A (em inglês) (45): 4158–4163. ISSN 0375-9601. doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2009.09.026. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, A.; Cardone, F.; Lacidogna, G. (1 de outubro de 2010). «Energy Emissions from Failure Phenomena: Mechanical, Electromagnetic, Nuclear». Experimental Mechanics (em inglês) (8): 1235–1243. ISSN 1741-2765. doi:10.1007/s11340-009-9325-7. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, A.; Cardone, F.; Lacidogna, G. (agosto de 2009). «Piezonuclear Neutrons From Brittle Fracture: Early Results of Mechanical Compression Tests». Strain (4): 332–339. ISSN 0039-2103. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.2008.00615.x. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ «ShieldSquare Captcha» (em inglês). doi:10.1088/0954-3899/40/1/015006/meta. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, A.; Cardone, F.; Lacidogna, G. (agosto de 2009). «Piezonuclear Neutrons From Brittle Fracture: Early Results of Mechanical Compression Tests». Strain (4): 332–339. ISSN 0039-2103. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.2008.00615.x. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, A.; Manuello, A. (18 de agosto de 2010). «Geomechanical and Geochemical Evidence of Piezonuclear Fission Reactions in the Earth’s Crust». Strain: 267–281. ISSN 0039-2103. doi:10.1111/j.1475-1305.2010.00766.x. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ CARPINTERI, A.; LACIDOGNA, G.; BORLA, O.; MANUELLO, A.; NICCOLINI, G. (1 de fevereiro de 2012). «Electromagnetic and neutron emissions from brittle rocks failure: Experimental evidence and geological implications». Sadhana (em inglês) (1): 59–78. ISSN 0973-7677. doi:10.1007/s12046-012-0066-4. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Widom, A.; Swain, J.; Srivastava, Y. N. (1 de maio de 2015). «Photo-disintegration of the iron nucleus in fractured magnetite rocks with magnetostriction». Meccanica (em inglês) (5): 1205–1216. ISSN 1572-9648. doi:10.1007/s11012-014-0007-x. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, Alberto; Manuello, A. (1 de janeiro de 2012). «An indirect evidence of piezonuclear fission reactions: Geomechanical and geochemical evolution in the Earth’s crust». Physical Mesomechanics (em inglês) (1): 37–46. ISSN 1990-5424. doi:10.1134/S1029959912010043. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Carpinteri, A.; Lacidogna, G.; Manuello, A.; Borla, O. (30 de julho de 2012). «Piezonuclear neutrons from earthquakes as a hypothesis for the image formation and the radiocarbon dating of the Turin Shroud». Scientific Research and Essays (29): 2603–2612. ISSN 1992-2248. doi:10.5897/SRE12.379. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022
↑ Uzonyi, I.; Szöőr, Gy.; Vekemans, B.; Vincze, L.; Rózsa, P.; Szabó, Gy.; Somogyi, A.; Adams, F.; Kiss, Á. Z. (8 de outubro de 2004). «Application of combined micro-proton-induced X-ray emission and micro-synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence techniques for the characterization of impact materials around Barringer Meteor Crater». Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy. 17th International Congress on X-Ray Optics and Microanalysis (em inglês) (10): 1717–1723. ISSN 0584-8547. doi:10.1016/j.sab.2004.05.030. Consultado em 5 de abril de 2022


RESUMO – Dando sequência a nossa publicação em 2017 na “Academia Journal Scientific Research” sob o título ” Morfologia Repetida nos Fósseis Registrados em Camadas Geológicas Globais Indica Sepultamento de Populações Globais, acrescentamos aqui a observação do fato de que quintilhões e inumeráveis pedras rachadas, pontiagudas, angulares, encontradas em todo planeta terra, com pouco desgaste de tempo, ou com pouco tempo de sedimentação acima das mesmas (você desenterra e já as encontra) , revelam um imenso acidente recente na terra. Isso sem contar as inumeráveis cachoeiras e encostas recebendo grandes impactos de águas com grande energia, que não se desgastaram tanto. Você pode ver pedras lisas ao lado da parte que recebe agua forte ; ora, você se lembra do ditado não é? “água mole em pedra dura tanto bate até que fura ” (esta expressão os índios chamam de itararé); e por quê não furou nem desgastou um pouquinho a mais? Logicamente que é devido ao acidente global ser recente .

Os aspectos catastrofistas desta quantidade imensa de rochas não desgastadas pelo tempo, implicam em efeitos piezoelétricos, plasma, som , que são aceleradores de elétrons capazes de perturbar o núcleo arrancando nêutrons e prótons (como ocorre em TOKAMAKS em menor escala) , e consequentemente no fato de ter criado proporção de elementos químicos que passaram a ser instáveis, e também, ter criado rochas com aparência de bilhões de anos, feitas em poucos milésimos de segundos.

Também alertamos que o conjunto de evidências evolutivas, genéticas, paleontológicas, geológicas, astronômicas, dos estudos em física de plasma e colisão de íons pesados, demonstram claramente que temos uma outra cronologia e historia do universo, da terra e das espécies . Neste trabalho apresentamos evidências de que impactos de asteroides possam ter participado deste evento recente , na forma de chuva de asteroides, pois possuem poder de gerar  aceleração de partículas perturbadoras do núcleo atômico para não somente acelerar decaimento radioativo “envelhecendo rochas” como também criar elementos instáveis a partir de estáveis, explicando pequenas proporções deles na terra e milhares de meteoros que nos rodeiam. Esta quebra de paradigma datacional , tão esperada na academia que passa tanta vergonha e descrédito ao ver fósseis contendo tecidos orgânicos serem datados em milhões de anos, nos abre espaço para conjugar acontecimentos consequentes ocorridos imediatamente um depois do outro (temporalidade), que estavam separados por uma espécie de absolutismo datacional na geologia e paleontologia convencional  atual, que restringiam o saber científico livre, e impediam sobretudo de harmonizar arqueologias (274 fontes incluindo bíblica) , aspectos genéticos (entropia e meia vida curta do DNA), evolutivos-paleontológicos (falta de mudança morfológica fóssil e repetição de formas de vida em 71% nas amostragens fósseis o que expressa sepultamento em larga escala de todas as espécies da terra em um tempo único e não separado  ) .

Time-variations in velocities and relative amount of observed particles (mainly icy particles with diameter d < 3 μm) ejected from Comet 9P/Tempel 1 are studied based on analysis of the images made by Deep Impact (DI) cameras during the first 13 min after the collision of the DI impactor with the comet. Analysis of maxima or minima of plots of the time-variations in distances of contours of constant brightness from the place of ejection allowed us to estimate the characteristic velocities of particles at several moments in time, t e , of ejection after impact for t e ≤ 115 s. Other approaches for estimates of the velocities were also used. All these estimates are in accordance with the same exponential decrease in velocity. The estimates of time-variations in the relative amount of ejected particles were also based on results of the analysis of time-variations in the size of the bright region of ejected material. At t e ∼ 10 s, the morphology of the ejecta (e.g. the location and brightness of the brightest pixel) changed and the rate, r te , of ejection of observed material increased. Between 1 and 3 s after the impact and between 8 and 60 s after the impact, more small bright particles were ejected than expected from crater excavation alone. An outburst triggered by the impact could cause such a difference. The sharp (by a factor of 1.6) decrease in the rate of ejection at 55 < t e < 72 s could be caused by a decrease in the outburst that began at 10 s. Analysis of observations of the DI cloud and of the outbursts from some comets testifies in favour of the proposition that there can be large cavities, with material under gas pressure, below a considerable fraction of a comet's surface. Internal gas pressure and material in the cavities can produce natural and triggered outbursts and can cause splitting of comets.

The Wabar meteorite impact site in central Saudi Arabia, first reported by Henry St. John (Abdullah) Philby in 1933, is unique in several ways. Despite a > 6,000 year fission-track date, the impact must be very recent according to certain field relationships, a conclusion supported by thermoluminescence dates of less than 250 years. Along with several other small meteoroid impact events that have come to light in the past few decades, the new age-date suggests a reconsideration of the frequency of these types of "city-buster" impacts. The Wabar impact event also took place entirely in sand, permitting a much clearer and simpler reconstruction of the physical processes of a hypervelocity impact. The event sequence, which took place in just a few seconds, generated a unique array of impactite that includes a black glass (90 percent local sand and 10 percent meteorite) and a shock-generated, coarsely laminar bleached-white sandstone. The event took place in one of the most inhospitable areas on Earth, the middle of the Rub' Al-Khali, the largest contiguous sand desert in the world. Here temperatures during one magnetic profile reached 61 o C (142 o F).