Multilocus enzyme
electrophoresis typing of Candida
albicans populations isolated from
healthy children according to
socioeconomic background
Tipagem de populacões de Candida
albicans isoladas de crianças
saudáveis que apresentam um
fundo socioeconômico por
eletroforese de enzima multiloco
Abstract
The aim of this research was to evaluate
the genetic diversity within and between C.
albicans populations isolated from the oral
cavity of healthy Brazilian children classified
into five socioeconomic categories (A to E).
Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis (MLEE)
analysis was the method used to assess genetic diversity. High genetic diversity was
observed in all populations that showed predominance of some C. albicans subtypes
(Electrophoretic Types – ETs). However, no
correlation was observed between a specific
ET and a specific population of children. Clustering analysis showed one or more highly
related ET clusters, suggesting the existence
of indirect and direct propagation routes of
C. albicans among healthy children. Microevolutionary changes were observed in some
C. albicans populations isolated from children with the same or very similar socioeconomic condition. Furthermore, low transition of C. albicans subtypes can be occurring among certain populations of children
coming from high and medium/high, or high
and medium/low, or medium/high and
medium/low socioeconomic categories,
which can also be explained by their own
socioeconomic and cultural characteristics.
Key Words: Candida albicans. MLEE.
Genetic diversity. Healthy children. Socioeconomic category.
Marcelo Fabiano Gomes Boriollo*1
Edvaldo Antônio Ribeiro Rosa2
Wagner Luis de Carvalho Bernardo1
Denise Madalena Palomari Spolidorio3
Reginaldo Bruno Gonçalves1
José Francisco Höfling1
Microbiology and Immunology Laboratory, Dental School of Piracicaba, State
University of Campinas, Piracicaba, Brazil
1
Stomatology Laboratory, Center of Biological and Health Sciences, Pontifical
Catholic University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
2
Department of Physiology and Pathology, School of Dentistry, Paulista State
University, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
3
Research funding: This research was supported by FAPESP – Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa
do Estado de São Paulo (Processo n. 00/03045-5).
*Correspondência: Av. Limeira 901, CEP13414-90, Piracicaba, SP, Brasil.
E-mail: marcelofgb@yahoo.com.br
51
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
Resumo
Introduction
O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar o grau
de diversidade genética dentro e entre populações de C. albicans isoladas da cavidade
bucal de crianças saudáveis brasileiras classificadas em cinco categorias socioeconômicas (A até E), através da análise de
Eletroforese de Enzimas Multilocos (MLEE).
Alta diversidade genética foi observada em
todas as populações, as quais mostraram
predominância de alguns subtipos de C.
albicans (Tipos Eletroforéticos – ETs). Contudo, nenhuma correlação foi observada
entre ET-específico e população-específica
de crianças. A existência de um ou mais grupos de ET altamente relacionados foi mostrada pela análise de agrupamento, o que
sugere a existência de rotas de propagação
direta e indireta de C. albicans entre crianças saudáveis. Alterações microevolucionárias foram observadas em algumas populações de C. albicans isoladas de crianças que
tiveram a mesma, ou muito próxima, condição socioeconômica. Além disso, baixa transição de subtipos de C. albicans podem estar
ocorrendo entre certas populações de crianças provenientes de alta e média/alta, ou
alta e média/baixa, ou média/alta e média/
baixa, categorias socioeconômicas, o que
pode ser esclarecido pelas suas próprias características socioeconômica e cultural.
Candida albicans and related species are
found ubiquitously and commensally in the
microbiota of human cavities (rectal, oral,
vaginal, urethral, nasal, and aural) and skin1.
The reasons of their existence in the
microbiota of healthy people remain unknown. However, nutritional factors, interactions with bacterial microbiota, and the
presence of salivary antibodies were suggested to influence the incidence of those
yeasts2. In addition, these species are considered opportunistic pathogens capable of
causing infections, varying from harmless
mucocutaneous disorders to the individual
up to invasive diseases involving almost all
organs. The frequency of infections caused
by Candida has been increasing worldwide
due to a multiplicity of predisposing factors
(AIDS, diabetes, leukemia, cancer...)3,4, which
facilitates the conversion of the commensal
form to the parasitic existence5,6. The increase
of these infections has been associated with
immunological deficiencies according to the
observations of various cases of oropharyngeal candidiasis in patients with AIDS7. The
progression of the colonization for infection
in mucous membranes was referred as a
process that depends on the host defense
mechanism and on the ability of Candida
spp. to overcome such mechanism8.
There has been strong interest in acquiring better understanding of the pathogenesis, epidemiology, genetics and outcome of
infections caused by C. albicans. This has led
to the development of extensive research,
employing fingerprinting methods such as
Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis (MLEE)916
, Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
(RAPD) 15,17 , Restriction Endonucleases
Analysis (REA)18,19, Southern Blot hybridization with the Ca3 probe 15,20-23, and Electrophoretic Karyotyping (EK)24,25. Strain delineation by MLEE has permitted evaluating the
genetic structure and diversity of populations26,27, and has provided high discriminatory power and reproducibility12,15,26-29. Considered neutral markers (invariable when
they suffer environment selective pressures),
Palavras-chave: Candida albicans. MLEE.
Diversidade genética. Crianças saudáveis.
Categoria socioeconômica.
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
52
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
metabolic isoenzymes present great potentiality in the taxonomic, systematic, genetic,
evolution and epidemiologic characterization of C. albicans and other yeasts of medical importance9-16,30-40.
The aim of this research was to evaluate
by MLEE and clustering analysis, the genetic
diversity in C. albicans populations isolated
from the oral cavity of healthy Brazilian children classified into five socioeconomic categories (A, B, C, D, and E). Concisely, the
results permitted evaluating (i) the genetic
diversity degrees among isolates in each
population, (ii) the existence of subtypes and
highly related isolate clusters, (iii) the distribution and prevalence of these subtypes and
highly related isolates clusters in each population, (iv) non-existing correlation between
subtypes or isolate clusters and a population
of healthy children (different socioeconomic
categories), and (v) microevolution within
and between isolate populations.
Material and Methods
Population. The study involved 75 C.
albicans samples isolated from the oral cavity of 75 clinically healthy children (randomly
isolated), with ages varying between six and
nine years, of both genders, classified into 5
socioeconomic categories (A = 19, B = 17, C
= 15, D = 12, and E = 12) according to the
criteria adopted by the Brazilian Association
of Advertisers and by the Brazilian Institute
of Market Research (ABA/ABIPEME), from
the municipal district of Piracicaba, State of
São Paulo, Brazil41. Isolates were previously
identified41 in our laboratory (tube germ formation, chlamydospore test, growth in chromogenic medium CHROMagar Candida®,
and carbohydrate assimilation and fermentation test), and the prevalence of C. albicans
(approximately 47% of the total population
studied – approximately 2% of non- C.
albicans) did not differ substantially between
groups A (central area), B (central area and/
or outlying area), C (central area and/or outlying area), D (outlying area), and E (outlying
area)41.
Cellular extract preparation. Yeast cul-
tures were grown in flasks containing 50mL
of YEPD medium (yeast extract 1% wt/vol,
peptone 2% wt/vol, and D-glucose 2% wt/
vol) at 37oC for 18h, under constant agitation
at 150rpm (Shaker Incubator mod. NT 712,
Nova Técnica Instrumentos e Equipamentos
de Laboratório Ltda.)42,43. After growth, cells
were centrifuged at 3,000 × g for 5 minutes
and washed twice in a 0.9% wt/vol NaCl solution, submitting each wash to the same
centrifuge force44,45. Pellets (~500mL) were
transferred to 2mL microtubes (Biospec
Products, Inc.) containing cold distilled water (approximately 8 oC) and glass beads
(1:1:1). These mixtures remained in ice (4oC)
for 5 minutes and, afterwards they were agitated 4 times in a BeadBeater® machine
(Biospec Products, Inc.) at 4,200rpm for 30
seconds, with one-minute intervals. Cell fragments were centrifuged at 5,000 × g, 4oC for
5 minutes. The upper aqueous phases resultants were applied in Whatman n3 (wicks)
filter papers, 12x5mm in size, and maintained
at -70 °C until the moment of the application16,46.
Electrophoresis and specific enzyme
staining. Enzymes were separated in starch
gel (Penetrose 30® –Refinações de Milho
Brasil Ltda) at 13% wt/vol, with the dimension of 200x120x10mm. Wicks were then immediately soaked in 5 µL (0.02% wt/vol) of
bromophenol-blue solution and, afterwards,
they were perpendicularly applied on a gel
longitudinal cut (20mm). Electrophoresis was
performed in a horizontal and continuous
system, under a 130-volt tension at 4oC overnight (bromophenol-blue migration equivalent to 80mm). To assure result reproducibility, the C. albicans CBS-562 type-strain
(Centralbureau voor Schimmelcultures,
Delft, The Netherlands) was systematically
placed in the ends of each gel. After the electrophoretic run, the gel was put on an acrylic
base, and it was sliced (1.5mm layers) with
the aid of rulers and a n15 nylon thread. The
layers were carefully put inside white porcelain containers and submitted to a staining
process by methods previously described for
11 systems (15 enzyme loci)15,47,48. The enzymatic activities analyzed were: alcohol de-
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
53
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
hydrogenase, sorbitol dehydrogenase,
manitol-1-phosphate dehydrogenase,
malate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, glucose dehydrogenase, glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase, aspartate dehydrogenase, catalase, peroxidase, and leucine
aminopeptidase (Table 1). Enzymatic expressions of malate dehydrogenase, isocitrate
dehydrogenase, and sorbitol dehydrogenase
showed two and three genetically interpretative loci (Mdh-1, Mdh-2, and Mdh-3; Idh-1
and Idh-2; Sdh-1 and Sdh-2).
Genetic interpretation of MLEE patterns. MLEE patterns were interpreted following a commonly accepted rule, which allows the deduction of the allelic composition of a diploid organism. The electromorphs (bands) of each enzyme were numbered and/or alphabetically sorted in descending disposition regarding the anodal
enzymatic mobility, and were compared
with the alleles of the corresponding structural genic locus. C. albicans populations
were characterized by the allelic combinations of 15 enzyme loci, so that different allelic combinations of polymorphic loci designated electrophoretic types (ETs). Thus,
the percentile index of polymorphic loci (frequency of the most common allele < 0.99),
the average number of alleles per locus, the
average number of alleles in each polymorphic locus, and the number of alleles between
heterozygotes and homozygotes, were also
established27,49. The lack of enzymatic activity was interpreted as two null alleles of the
corresponding genic locus12,14,32,47,48,50,51.
Clustering analysis. The genetic diversity of ea ch C. albicans population was determined by the Nei’ coefficient of genetic
distance,
, which
accepts the use of data from allelic and genic
frequencies52. Thus, genetic distance matrices (trellis diagrams) were prepared and
treated by the SAHN grouping method (Sequential, Agglomerative, Hierarchic, Nonoverlapping Clustering Methods) UPGMA algorithm (Unweighted Pair-Group Method
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
54
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
Using an Arithmetic Average), in order to
generate trees with two-dimensional classifications, denominated dendrograms53. The
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
was used as a measure of the agreement between the genetic distance values implied by
the UPGMA dendrograms and those of the
original genetic distance matrices (dij)53. Such
agreements were interpreted as follows: 0.9
≤ r – very good fit; 0.8 ≤ r < 0.9 – good fit; 0.7
≤ r <0.8 – poor fit; r < 0.7 very poor fit. These
analyses were done with the aid of the
NTSYS pc version 1.70 software. The C.
albicansCBS-562 type-strain (Centralbureau
voor Schimmelcultures, Delft, The Netherlands) was included in this experiment in
order to establish the cophenetic correlation among isolates, and to determine method
reproducibility54.
Results
Genetic interpretation of MLEE patterns. The enzyme profiles of the C. albicans
samples on different gels were reproducible
after three repetitions of each electrophoretic run. The genetic interpretation of
MLEE patterns showed intrinsic genetic characteristics for each C. albicans population:
Population of socioeconomic class A (19
isolates): 14 (93.3%) out of 15 enzymatic loci
were polymorphic to two, three or four alleles (2 alleles: Adh, Cat, Lap, Mdh-1, Mdh-2
and Po; 3 alleles: Asd, G6pdh, Idh-1, Idh-2,
M1p, Mdh-3 and Sdh-2; 4 alleles: Gdh). Only
1 (6.7%) enzymatic locus was monomorphic
(Sdh-1). The average number of alleles per
locus was equal to 2.53, while the average
number of alleles per polymorphic locus was
equal to 2.69. The combination of the existing alleles in 15 enzymatic loci showed 17
(89.4%) ETs. Heterozygotes revealed two and
three enzymatic bands (2 bands: Adh, Asd,
G6pdh, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2, Lap, M1p, Mdh-2,
Tabela 1 – Sistemas e soluções utilizados para análise de MLEE a partir de enzimas metabólicas de C. albicans.
Table 1 – Systems and solutions utilized for MLEE analysis from metabolic enzymes of C. albicans.
Enzyme
Compound for Staining
EC number
Name
Symbol
Substrate
Buffer
1.1.1.1.
Alcohol
dehydrogenase
Sorbitol
dehydrogenase
Mannitol-1-phosphate
dehydrogenase
Malate
dehydrogenase
Isocitrate
dehydrogenase
Glucose
dehydrogenase
Glucose-6phosphate
dehydrogenase
Aspartate
dehydrogenase
Catalase 8
Peroxidase
ADH
Ethanol (3 mL)
Isopropanol (2 mL)
Sorbitol (250 mg)
200 mM Tris-HCl
pH 8.0 (50 mL) 1
Tris-HCl 50 mM
pH 8.0 (50 mL) 2
Tris-HCl 100 mM
pH 8.5 (50 mL) 3
Tris-HCl 200 mM
pH 8.0 (40 mL) 1
Tris-HCl 200 mM
pH 8.0 (40 mL) 1
Tris-HCl 200 mM
pH 8.0 (50 mL) 1
Tris-HCl 200 mM
pH 8.0 (50 mL) 1
1.1.1.14.
1.1.1.17.
1.1.1.37.
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
1.1.1.42.
1.1.1.47.
1.1.1.49.
1.4.3.x.
1.11.1.6.
1.11.1.7.
3.4.11.1.
Leucine
aminopeptidase
SDH
M1P
MDH
IDH
GDH
G6PDH
Mannitol-1phosphate (5 mg)
2M Malic acid
(6 mL) 4
1M Isocitric acid
(2 mL) 5
D-glucose (500 mg)
ASD
Glicose-6phosphate
disodium salt (100 mg)
Aspartic acid (50 mg)
CAT
PO
H2O2 3% (1 mL)
LAP
L-leucine bnaphthylamide
HCl (30 mg)
Salt
Coenzyme
Dye
Catalyser
NAD 1% (2mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
NAD 1% (2mL)
NAD 1% (2mL)
NAD 1% (2mL)
100 mM MgCl2
(1 mL) 6
NADP 1% (1mL)
NAD 1% (2mL)
100 mM MgCl2
(1 mL) 6
Sodium phosphate
pH 7.0 (50 mL) 7
100mM Sodium acetate
pH 4.5 (50 mL) 9
100mM Potassium
100 mM MgCl2
phosphate
(1 mL) 6
pH 5.5 (50 mL) 10
NADP 1% (1mL)
NAD 1% (2mL)
PMS 1% (500 µL)
MTT 1.25% (1 mL)
o-dianisidine
2HCl (16mg)
Black K (30 mg)
55
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
Tampão do eletrodo: Tris-citrato pH 8,0 [83,2g de C4H11NO3 (Tris), 33,09g de C6H8O7 . H2O (Ácido cítrico), 1L de H2O]; Tampão do gel: Tampão do eletrodo diluído 1:29; 1 24,2g de C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L de H2O (pH ajustado com HCl); 2
6,05g de C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L de H2O (pH ajustado com HCl); 3 12,1g de C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L de H2O (pH ajustado com HCl); 4 26,8g de C4H6O5 (DL-ácido málico) e 16g de NaOH em 0,1L de H2O (precaução: reação potencialmente
explosiva); 5 29,41g de C6H5O7Na3 . 2H2O (DL-ácido isocítrico) em 0,1L de H2O; 6 2,03g de MgCl2 . 6HCl (Cloreto de magnésio) em 0,1L de H2O; 7 Misturar partes iguais de 27,6g de NaH2PO4 . H2O (Fosfato de sódio monobásico) em
1L de H2O e 53,6g de Na2HPO4 . 7H2O (Fosfato de sódio dibásico heptahidratado) em 1L de H2O, então diluir a mistura 1:25 com H2O; 8 Incubar a fatia do gel por 30 minutos a 0oC em 50mL de tampão de 0,1M fosfato de sódio pH
7, então decantar a solução, e imergir o gel em 50mL de solução de iodeto de potássio 1,5% (KI) por 2 minutos. Por conseguinte, enxaguar a fatia do gel com água, e imergir o gel em 50mL de solução de peróxido de hidrogênio
(H2O2) 0,03%. Misturar cuidadosamente e remover a solução corante quando zonas brancas surgirem sobre o fundo azul-escuro; 9 13,61g de C2H3O2Na . 3H2O (Acetato de sódio), 1L de H2O; 10 13,61g de KH2PO4 (Fosfato de
potássio), 1L de H2O.Electrode buffer: Tris-citrate pH 8.0 [83.2g of C4H11NO3 (Tris), 33.09g of C6H8O7 . H2O (Citric acid), 1L of H2O]; Gel buffer: Electrode buffer diluted 1:29; 1 24.2g of C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L of H2O (pH adjusted with HCl); 2 6.05g of
C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L of H2O (pH adjusted with HCl); 3 12.1g of C4H11NO3 (Tris), 1L of H2O (pH adjusted with HCl); 4 26.8g of C4H6O5 (DL-malic acid) and 16g of NaOH in 0.1L of H2O (caution: potentially explosive reaction); 5 29.41g of C6H5O7Na3
. 2H2O (DL-isocitric acid) in 0.1L of H2O; 6 2.03g of MgCl2 . 6HCl (Magnesium chloride) in 0.1L of H2O; 7 Mix equal parts of 27.6g of NaH2PO4 . H2O (Sodium phosphate monobasic monohydrate) in 1L of H2O and 53.6g of Na2HPO4 . 7H2O
(Sodium phosphate dibasic heptahydrate) in 1L of H2O, then dilute the mixture 1:25 with H2O; 8 Incubate gel slice for 30 minutes at 0oC in 50mL of 0.1M sodium phosphate pH 7.0 buffer, then pour off solution, and immerse it in 50mL of
1.5% potassium iodide solution (KI) for 2 minutes. Then rinse gel slice with water, and immerse it in 50mL of 0.03% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution. Mix gently and remove stain solution when white zones appear on dark-blue
background; 9 13.61g of C2H3O2Na . 3H2O (Sodium acetate), 1L of H2O; 10 13.61g of KH2PO4 (Potassium phosphate), 1L of H2O.
Mdh-3, Po and Sdh-2; 3 bands: Mdh-2).
Among homozygotes, one allele was observed in the Adh, Gdh, Idh-2, Lap, Po, Sdh1 and Sdh-2 loci, two alleles in the Asd, Cat,
Idh-1, M1p, Mdh-1 and Mdh-3 loci, and three
alleles in the G6pdh locus (Table 2).
Population of socioeconomic class B (17
isolates): 6 (40%) out of 15 enzymatic loci
were polymorphic to two alleles (Adh,
G6pdh, Lap, Mdh-1, Mdh-2 and Po). Nine
(60%) enzymatic loci were monomorphic
(Asd, Cat, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2, M1p, Mdh-3,
Sdh-1 and Sdh-2). The average number of
alleles per locus was equal to 1.40, while the
average number of alleles per polymorphic
locus was equal to 2. The combination of the
existing alleles in 15 enzymatic loci showed
11 (64.7%) ETs. Heterozygotes revealed two
and three enzymatic bands (2 bands: Adh,
G6pdh, Lap, Mdh-1, Mdh-2 and Po; 3 bands:
Mdh-2). Among homozygotes, one allele was
observed in the Adh, Asd, Cat, Gdh, Idh-1,
Idh-2, Lap, M1p, Mdh-1, Mdh-3, Po, Sdh-1 e
Sdh-2 loci, and two alleles in the G6pdh locus (Table 2).
Population of socioeconomic class C (15
isolates): 5 (33.3%) out of 15 enzymatic loci
were polymorphic to two or three alleles (2
alleles: Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2; 3 alleles:
Adh). Ten (66.7%) enzymatic loci were monomorphic (Asd, Cat, G6pdh, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2,
Lap, M1p, Mdh-3 and Sdh-1). The average
number of alleles per locus was equal to 1.40,
while the average number of alleles per polymorphic locus was equal to 2.20. The combination of the existing alleles in 15 enzymatic
loci showed 11 (73.3%) ETs. Heterozygotes
revealed two and three enzymatic bands (2
bands: Adh, Mdh-1, Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2; 3
bands: Mdh-2). Among homozygotes, one
allele was observed in the Adh, Asd, Cat,
G6pdh, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2, Lap, M1p, Mdh-1,
Mdh-2, Mdh-3, Po and Sdh-1 loci, and two
alleles in the Sdh- 2 locus (Table 2).
Population of socioeconomic class D (12
isolates): 9 (60%) out of 15 enzymatic loci were
polymorphic to two alleles (Adh, Asd, G6pdh,
Gdh, Idh-1, M1p, Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2). Six
(40%) enzymatic loci were monomorphic
(Cat, Idh-2, Lap, Mdh-1, Mdh-3 and Sdh-1).
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
56
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
The average number of alleles per locus was
equal to 1.60, while the average number of
alleles per polymorphic locus was equal to 2.
The combination of the existing alleles in 15
enzymatic loci showed 6 (50%) ETs. Heterozygotes revealed two and three enzymatic
bands (2 bands: Adh, Asd, Gdh, Idh-1, M1p,
Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2; 3 bands: Mdh-2).
Among homozygotes, one allele was observed
in the Adh, Cat, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2, Lap, Mdh1, Mdh-3, Po and Sdh-1 loci, and two alleles in
the G6pdh, M1p and Sdh-2 loci (Table 2).
Population of socioeconomic class E (12
isolates): 10 (66.7%) out of 15 enzymatic loci
were polymorphic to two or three alleles (2
alleles: Asd, G6pdh, Gdh, Idh-1, Lap, M1p,
Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2; 3 alleles: Adh). Five
(33.3%) enzymatic loci were monomorphic
(Cat, Idh-2, Mdh-1, Mdh-3 and Sdh-1). The
average number of alleles per locus was equal
to 1.73, while the average number of alleles
per polymorphic locus was equal to 2.11. The
combination of the existing alleles in 15 enzymatic loci showed 12 (100%) ETs. Heterozygotes revealed two and three enzymatic
bands (2 bands: Adh, Asd, Gdh, Idh-1, M1p,
Mdh-2, Po and Sdh-2; 3 bands: Mdh-2).
Among homozygotes, one allele was observed in the Asd, Cat, Gdh, Idh-1, Idh-2,
M1p, Mdh-1, Mdh-3, Sdh-1 and Sdh-2 loci,
and two alleles in the Adh, G6pdh, Lap and
Po loci (Table 2).
Such results indicated that 31 healthy
children (A = 12; B = 4; C = 7; D = 2; E = 6)
were carriers of different C. albicans ETs in
the oral cavity. However, identical ETs were
found in children coming from socioeconomic categories as follows: a) only A (ET1);
b) only B (ET10); c) A and B (ET31); d) A, B
and C (ET33); e) A, D and E (ET23 and ET24);
f) B and C (ET9 and ET37); g) B, C and E
(ET32); h) B and E (ET34); and, i) D and E
(ET4 and ET28). Identical ETs were not identified in children of socioeconomic classes B
and D, C and D, or only E (Table 3, Fig. 1).
Clustering analysis. The genetic diversity among isolates in their respective populations of healthy children was evaluated by
UPGMA dendrograms (Fig. 2). Such results
showed coexistence of highly related or in-
Tabela 2 – Perfis alélicos em 43 ETs enzimáticos de C. albicans isolada de 75 crianças saudáveis provenientes de cinco
categorias socioeconômicas.
Table 2 - Allelic profiles in 43 enzymatic ETs of C. albicans isolated from 75 healthy children coming from five socioeconomic
categories.
ET
No. of
Isolates Adh
Cat
bb
bb
aa
cc
bb
aa
aa
aa
bb
ab
ab
cc
ab
aa
bb
A socioeconomic class
1
2
ab
6
1
ab
16
1
bb
17
1
bb
18
1
bb
20
1
bb
21
1
bb
22
1
bb
23
1
bb
24
2
bb
26
1
bb
27
1
bb
29
1
bb
30
1
bb
31
1
bb
33
1
bb
41
1
bb
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
cc
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
ab
cc
aa
aa
bb
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
bb
cc
cc
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
cd
bb
bb
bb
ab
aa
aa
ac
aa
ac
ac
ac
aa
aa
aa
ac
bb
aa
aa
aa
ac
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bc
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bc
bb
cc
bc
bb
bb
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
cc
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
bb
cc
ab
bb
cc
cc
ab
aa
aa
ab
ab
aa
ab
ab
aa
ab
aa
aa
ab
ab
aa
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
-
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
cd
B socioeconomic class
7
1
ab
9
1
ab
10
4
ab
11
1
ab
14
1
ab
31
1
bb
32
4
bb
33
1
bb
34
1
bb
35
1
bb
37
1
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
-
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
-
ab
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
ab
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
C socioeconomic class
9
1
ab
13
1
ab
15
1
ab
32
5
bb
33
1
bb
36
1
bb
37
1
bb
38
1
bb
39
1
bb
40
1
bb
42
1
bc
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
-
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
ab
bb
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
ab
cc
cc
cc
cc
aa
ab
ab
ab
aa
ab
aa
ab
ab
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
bb
bb
bb
TS
G6pdh Gdh
Alleles of 15 enzymatic loci*
Idh-1 Idh-2 Lap M1p Mdh-1 Mdh-2 Mdh-3
Asd
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
57
Po
Sdh-1 Sdh-2
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
Tabela 2 – Perfis alélicos em 43 ETs enzimáticos de C. albicans isolada de 75 crianças saudáveis provenientes de cinco
categorias socioeconômicas.
Table 2 - Allelic profiles in 43 enzymatic ETs of C. albicans isolated from 75 healthy children coming from five socioeconomic
categories.
ET
No. of
Isolates Adh
Cat
bb
bb
aa
cc
bb
aa
aa
aa
bb
ab
ab
cc
ab
aa
bb
D socioeconomic class
3
1
ab
4
1
ab
19
1
bb
23
4
bb
24
3
bb
28
2
bb
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
cc
cc
bb
cc
cc
cc
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
ac
ac
ac
aa
aa
ac
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
aa
aa
ab
aa
ab
ab
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
E socioeconomic class
2
1
4
1
5
1
8
1
12
1
23
1
24
1
25
1
28
1
32
1
34
1
43
1
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
ac
ac
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ac
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
cc
bb
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
cc
ab
aa
aa
aa
ab
aa
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
aa
bb
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
TS
ab
ab
ab
ab
ab
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
bb
cc
G6pdh Gdh
Alleles of 15 enzymatic loci*
Idh-1 Idh-2 Lap M1p Mdh-1 Mdh-2 Mdh-3
Asd
Po
Sdh-1 Sdh-2
* Heterozigotos estão presentes como ab, ac, bc e cd. (-) alelo nulo. TS corresponde a linhagem-tipo de C. albicansCBS-562. * Heterozygotes are present as ab, ac, bc
and cd. (-) null allele. TS corresponds to C. albicansCBS-562 type-strain.
Figura 1 – Subtipos de C. albicans (ETs) coexistentes na maioria das populações de crianças saudáveis.
Figure 1 – C. albicans subtypes (ETs) coexisting in most populations of healthy children.
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
58
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
Tabela 3 - Distribuição de 43 ETs enzimáticos
de C. albicans em 75 crianças saudáveis
provenientes de cinco categorias
socioeconômicas.
Table 3 - Distribution of 43 enzymatic ETs of C.
albicans in 75 healthy children coming from five
socioeconomic categories.
ET
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
∑ 19
Socioeconomic classes
B
C
D
1
1
4
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
∑ 17
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
∑ 15
1
1
1
4
3
2
∑ 12
E
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
∑ 12
n corresponde ao número de ETs de C. albicans entre n
crianças saudáveis provenientes de várias classes
socioeconômicas e – corresponde a ausência de ET.
n correspond to the number of C. albicans ETs among n
healthy children coming from several socioeconomic
classes and – corresponds to ET absence.
distinguishable C. albicans subtypes (0.012 >
dij ≥ 0) among some healthy children coming from the same socioeconomic category.
However, variations of highly related or indistinguishable (0.012 > dij ≥ 0), and moderately related or non-related (dij ≥ 0.012) isolate numbers were observed in each population of children (Table 4). Thus, the larger
percentile index of polymorphism ( dij ≥
0.012) occurred among isolates from healthy
children coming from socioeconomic categories A (47.3% of isolates), followed by E
(33.3% of isolates), B (17.6% of isolates), C
(13.3% of isolates), and D (8.3% of isolates),
whose indexes of genetic distance were of
0.151 ≥ dij ≥ 0, 0.148 ≥ dij > 0, 0.123 ≥ dij > 0,
0.127 ≥ dij > 0, and 0.039 ≥ dij > 0, respectively.
The genetic diversity analysis among
populations of isolates showed an ancestral
convergence in populations B and C, or D
and E. However, a low genetic divergence
was detected in populations A and BC, A and
DE, or BC and DE which, on average, corresponded to >1 and <2.3 allelic substitutions
for each 100 loci, from a common ancestral
population (Fig. 3).
Discussão
In our research, quantitative and qualitative variations of polymorphic loci, of the
average number of alleles per locus, and of
the average number of alleles per polymorphic locus were observed in all C. albicans
populations coming from healthy children.
These variations have been observed in several genetic diversity studies of C. albicans
populations isolated from immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients11,12,14,15,32,38,39,50. Like previous results of
MLEE studies11,12,38,39, the heterozygote patterns obtained in the present analysis were
also consistent with the diploid nature of C.
albicans55. Pujol et al. (1993) reported that
different allelic frequencies in different populations could be associated with geographical isolation, the same when each separate
population remains in panmixia38.
The combination of the existing alleles in
15 enzymatic loci showed a quantitative varia-
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
59
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
Figure 2 – Diversidade genética dentro e entre populações de C. albicans isoladas da cavidade
bucal de crianças saudáveis provenientes de cinco categorias socioeconômicas.
Dendrogramas UPGMA (0,92980 ≤ rjk ≤ 0,94560 – muito bom ajuste) gerados a partir das
matrizes de distância genética dij (Nei, 1972).
Figure 2 – Genetic diversity within and between C. albicans populations isolated from the oral cavity of
healthy children coming from five socioeconomic categories. UPGMA dendrograms (0.92980 ≤ rjk ≤
0.94560 – very good fit) generated from matrices of genetic distance dij (Nei, 1972).
Tabela 4 – Relação do número de isolados altamente relacionados ou indistingüíveis (0.012 >
dij ≥ 0) e moderadamente relacionados ou não relacionados (dij ≥ 0.012), obtidos pela análise
de agrupamento de populações de C. albicans.
Table 4 – List of the number of highly related or indistinguishable (0.012 > dij ≥ 0) and moderately
related or non related (dij ≥ 0.012) isolates, obtained by clustering analysis of C. albicans populations.
Socioconomic
clategories
A
B
C
D
E
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
60
Isolates
0.012 > dij ≥ 0
n
%
10
14
13
11
8
52.6
82.4
86.7
91.7
66.7
number of
clusters
(0.012 > dij ≥ 0)
3
2
4
2
3
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
Isolates
dij ≥ 0.012
n
%
9
3
2
1
4
47.4
17.6
13.3
8.3
33.3
Total
19
17
15
12
12
Figure 3 – Convergência ou divergência ancestral (>1 e <2,3 substituição alélica para cada 100 locos) entre isolados
de C. albicans provenientes de populações de crianças saudáveis que apresentam uma base socioeconômica.
Figure 3 – Ancestral convergence or divergence (>1 and <2.3 allelic substitutions for each 100 loci) among C. albicans isolates
coming from healthy children populations with a common socioeconomic background (Fig. 3).
tion of subtypes (ETs) in the healthy children
populations suggesting the existence of high
genetic diversity of C. albicans (A = 17 ETs89,5%,
B = 11 ETs64,7%, C = 11 ETs73,3%, D = 6 ETs50%,
and E = 12 ETs100%). The predominance and
coexistence of some ETs (ET1, ET4, ET9,
ET10, ET23, ET24, ET28, ET31, ET32, ET33,
ET34 and ET37) was observed within and
between some children populations. These
results also suggest the existence of strain
groups selected and better adapted than others in the oral cavities of those healthy children. Soll et al. (1991) also demonstrated the
existence of Candida spp. strains selected and
better adapted in certain human niches56.
Although certain ETs were identified exclusively in certain children populations, no
correlation was observed between a specific
ET and a specific population of children.
Some researchers have demonstrated the
prevalence of C. albicans (60% to 95%) and
Candida spp. in approximately 50% of the
populations of healthy individuals2,41,57 regardless of socioeconomic factors41.
The isoenzymatic typing of C. albicans
oral isolates from clinically healthy children
(Piracicaba, Brazil) has revealed a way of
multiclonal colonization for those yeasts14.
Mehta et al. (1999) have analyzed the distribution of C. albicans genotypes among
healthy family members of a same city
(United States) by electrophoretic karyotyping, RAPD and REA with HinfI and EcoRI.
Their results demonstrated the existence of
a genotypic intrafamiliar identity (each member of a family as a carrier of the same genotype). However, different genotypes were
also observed inter and intrafamiliarly24.
Pujol et al. (1993) identified 41 C. albicans
subtypes (74.5% of isolates) in HIV-seropositive patients from a limited geographical
area (Montpellier, France) by MLEE and
population genetics9. Those researchers suggested that the high genetic diversity (11 of
21 enzymatic loci being polymorphics) could
be correlated with the existence of some
clonal strains that present widespread geographical distribution, as it is the case of
some bacteria58,59 and protozoa60,61,62. Important biological and medical consequences
were pointed out with clonal reproduction,
once the correlation between the genetic
composition and medical characteristics
could facilitate effective method selection for
the control of the pathological expression of
C. albicans in immunocompromised individuals39.
In contrast with the high genetic diversity of C. albicans observed in healthy children populations, a low genetic diversity has
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
61
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
been detected in immunocompromised patients. The epidemiologic analysis of C.
albicans isolated from seven patients (Oslo,
Norway) submitted to bone marrow transplant showed the existence of 8 ETs (13.1%
of isolates) and a low genetic diversity among
those yeasts (4 of 10 enzymatic loci being
polymorphics)12. In some patients, the colonization with one or more ETs in different
anatomical sites remained during medical
follow-up. However, no correlation was observed between those ETs and the sensitivity
to some antifungal (amphotericin B – AMB –
and flucytosine) or anatomical sites (oral
cavity, groin, and feces)12. Boerlin et al. (1995)
identified 3 atypical C. albicans ETs (23% of
isolates) colonizing the oral cavity of HIVseropositive asymptomatic patients
(Lausanne, Switzerland). This lower genetic
diversity (1 of 16 enzymatic loci being polymorphic) among the isolates was also observed without correlation with clinical parameters, and confirmed by Southern blot
hybridization with probe Ca3 analysis. Such
results were suggestive of probable colonization by atypical C. albicans subtypes from
different origins and without a single limited
source of contamination32. C. albicans populations isolated from HIV-seropositive patients (Lausanne, Switzerland) with and without oropharingeal candidiasis symptoms,
from patients with invasive candidiasis, and
from healthy individuals could not be distinguished by MLEE analysis, given that low
genetic diversity was found (10 of 18 enzymatic loci being polymorphic) among isolates. In addition, 52 ETs (27.5% of isolates)
were identified without correlation with clinical aspects and reduced in vitro sensitivity to
fluconazole (FCZ)11.
The simultaneous occurrence of genetically different C. albicans strains in HIV-seropositive patients (Montpellier, France) suffering of oropharyngeal candidiasis was also
demonstrated by MLEE analysis. Low genetic
diversity (10 of 21 enzymatic loci being
polymorphics) among the isolates and 20 ETs
(12.5% of isolates) were identified in a population of patients. However, there was predominance of a single C. albicans genetic type
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
62
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
in the oral cavity of patients. This fact could
result from the interspecies competition,
which could be altered by the selective pressure of antifungal treatments63. Using MLEE,
Nébavi et al. (1998) also demonstrated that
most of HIV-seropositive patients (Abdjan,
Ivory Coast) suffering from oropharyngeal
candidiasis were colonized by identical or
variant ETs of C. albicans during antifungal
therapy (AMB, KTZ, NYS). These researchers identified 27 ETs (40.3% of isolates) and a
low genetic diversity (10 of 21 enzymatic loci
being polymorphics) among isolates51. MLEE
analyses were also performed in C. albicans
isolates from patients (Montpellier, France)
suffering of recurrent oropharyngeal candidiasis that successively developed clinical
resistance to the fluconazole (FCZ) and
itraconazole (ITZ). These analyses revealed
that the infection of the patients occurred
for one or more ETs during antifungal
therapy, which could be (i) selected from a
mixed population or (ii) acquired from an
exogenous source. Besides, 14 ETs (14.3% of
isolates) and low genetic diversity (12 polymorphic enzymatic loci) were identified in a
population of C. albicans isolates, without
correlation to antifungal sensitivity tests50.
The genetic diversity of isolates in their
respective populations was evaluated
through UPGMA dendrograms. The coexistence of highly related or indistinguishable
C. albicans (0.012 > dij ≥ 0) was observed in
some healthy children of the same socioeconomic category, probably emerging from
a common ancestral strain55,63. These results
suggest (i) the existence of one or more highly
related C. albicans oral isolate clusters and
usually predominant in healthy children
populations with a common socioeconomic
background, and (ii) the existence of direct
and indirect propagation routes of C. albicans
in populations of healthy children, which
could be determined by complementary
studies as, for instance, the isolation of C.
albicans from a shared environment (education and sport schools, and their respective professionals...). Schmid et al. (1999) have
showed high genetic similarity among not
geographically related C. albicans clusters by
Southern blot hybridization with a Ca3 probe.
Their results suggested that there was a
former small radial propagation of strains
among geographically adjacent regions64.
The frequent and common mechanisms involved in the genetic diversity of Candida
species could explain this genetic similarity.
These mechanisms comprise chromosomal
rearrangements, chromosomal alterations
and genic expression control50,65,66. Besides,
repetitive sequences in tandem and
subtelomeric and telomeric sequences can
be involved in organization and chromosomal rearrangements67,68. Using MLEE and
grouping analyses, other researchers have
also showed the existence of highly related
C. albicans clusters isolated from healthy and
immunocompromised patients without correlations with the clinical aspects, antifungal
sensitivity or geographical regions11,15,50,51.
Lupetti et al. (1995) used electrophoretic
karyotyping and identified two similar C.
albicans clusters displaying prevalence in
healthy individuals and HIV-seropositive
patients (Pisa, Italy)25. Their observations
were suggestive that commensal strains can
be probable agents of subsequent oral candidiasis in immunocompromised patients, as
also suggested by other researchers69,70, although strain substitution can also happen25.
The genetic diversity analysis among
populations showed ancestral convergence
in C. albicans populations isolated from
healthy children of the B and C (mean/high),
or D and E (mean/low) socioeconomic categories. Ancestral divergence was observed
among C. albicans populations isolated from
children of socioeconomic categories A
(high) and BC (medium/high), A (high) and
DE (medium/low), or BC (medium/high)
and DE (medium/low) that, on average, corresponded between >1 and <2.3 allelic substitutions for each 100 loci, from a common
ancestral population. These results suggest
that microevolutionary changes can occur
in some C. albicans populations isolated from
healthy children that present the same socioeconomic status. However, microevolution investigation in C. albicans population
commensals, comparing other host param-
eters (nutritional and hygienic habits, hormonal changes, age…) could be explored.
Other epidemiologic and microevolutionary
studies of C. albicans have been performed
using Southern blot hybridization with DNA
probe Ca320-23,64,71-73. Some of these studies
have also demonstrated the existence of regional specificity and genetically similar and
highly predominant subgroups of C. albicans
in various types of infections from various
patients living in different geographic areas.
Such results were indicative of the existence
of a ubiquitous group displaying the predominant etiological agent of candidiasis,
which could arise from its high prevalence
as a commensal. In addition, strong epidemiologic and microevolutionary agreements
were demonstrated by Ca3 fingerprinting,
MLEE, and RAPD analyses during the characterization of C. albicans isolated from several anatomical sites of immunocompetent
and immunocompromised patients15.
Using MLEE analysis, the results obtained
in the current research showed high genetic
diversity of C. albicans oral isolates and predominance and coexistence of some subtypes
(ETs) in Brazilian populations of clinically
healthy children classified into five socioeconomic categories (A, B, C, D, and E). However, no correlation was observed between a
specific ET and a specific population of children. The existence of one or more highly
related ET clusters was showed by clustering
analysis, suggesting the existence of indirect
and direct propagation routes of C. albicans,
which could demand certain complementary
studies as, for instance, the isolation of C.
albicans from shared environments. The genetic diversity analyses among populations
showed (i) ancestral convergence in the C.
albicans populations isolated from healthy
children of socioeconomic categories B and
C (medium/high), or D and E (medium/low),
and ( ii ) ancestral divergence among C.
albicans populations isolated from children
of socioeconomic categories A (high) and BC
(medium/high), A (high) and DE (medium/
low), or BC (medium/high) and DE (medium/
low). These results suggest that microevolutionary changes can occur in some C. albicans
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
63
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
populations isolated from healthy children
that present a common socioeconomic status. Furthermore, a low transition of C.
albicans subtypes can be occurring among
certain populations of children (low transition between A and BC, A and DE, or BC and
DE), which can also be explained by their own
socioeconomic and cultural characteristics.
However, microevolution investigations of C.
albicans commensal populations, comparing
other host parameters, could be explored.
Finally, MLEE analysis could be used for current and retrospective analyses of C. albicans
isolated from healthy and immunocom-
promised individuals, in order to detect the
existence of a predominant group in candidiasis. Such procedures could lead to the
development of strategies for prevention of
transmissibility of these yeasts groups in
healthy or immunocompromised children,
regardless of their socioeconomic and cultural conditions.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by FAPESP
– Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado
de São Paulo (Proc. 00/03045-5).
References
1. Segal E., Baum GL. Pathogenic yeasts and yeast
infections. Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo;
CRC Press Inc.; 1994
2. Stenderup A. Oral mycology. Acta Odont Scand 1990;
48: 3-10.
3. Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE. Medical mycology.
Philadelphia; Lea and Febiger; 1992.
4. Rippon JW. Medical mycology. Philadelphia; W.B.
Saunders; 1988.
5. Samaranayake LP. Oral candidosis: an old disease in
new guises. Dent Update 1990; 17: 36-8.
6. Samaranayake YH, Samaranayake LP, Pow EH, Beena
VT, Yeung KW. Antifungal effects of lysozyme and
lactoferrin against genetically similar, sequential
Candida albicans isolates from a human
immunodeficiency virus-infected southern Chinese
cohort. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39: 3296-302.
7. Greenspan D, Greenspan JS. HIV related oral disease.
Lancet 1996; 348: 729-33.
8. Cannon RD, Chaffin WL. Oral colonization by Candida
albicans. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 1999; 10: 359-83.
9. Arnavielhe S, Blancark A, Mallié M, Quilici M, Bastide
JM. Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis of
Candida albicans isolates from three intensive care
units. An epidemiological study. Mycoses 1997; 40:
159-67.
10. Barchiesi F et al. Fluconazole susceptibility and strain
variation of Candida albicans isolates from HIVinfected patients with oropharyngeal candidosis. J
Antimicrob Chemother 1998; 41: 541-8.
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
64
11. Boerlin P et al. Typing Candida albicans oral isolates
from human immunodeficiency virus-infected
patients by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis and
DNA fingerprinting. J Clin Microbiol 1996; 34: 1235-48.
12. Caugant DA, Sandven P. Epidemiological analysis of
Candida albicans strains by multilocus enzyme
electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 215-20.
13. Lehmann PF, Lin D, Lasker BA. Genotypic
identification and characterization of species and
strains within the genus Candida by using random
amplified polymorphic DNA. J Clin Microbiol 1992; 30:
3249-54.
14. Mata AL, Rosa RT, Rosa EAR, Gonçalves RB, Höfling JF.
Clonal variability among oral Candida albicans
assessed by allozyme electrophoresis analysis. Oral
Microbiol Immunol 2000; 15: 350-4.
15. Pujol C, Joly S, Lockhart SR, Noel S, Tibayrenc M, Soll
DR. Parity among the randomly amplified
polymorphic DNA method, multilocus enzyme
electrophoresis, and Southern blot hybridization with
the moderately repetitive DNA probe Ca3 for
fingerprinting Candida albicans. J Clin Microbiol 1997;
35: 2348-58.
16. Rosa EAR, Rosa RT, Pereira CV, Höfling JF. Inter and
Intra-specific genetic variability of oral Candida
species. Rev Iberoam Micol 2001; 18: 60-4.
17. Gyanchandani A, Khan ZK, Farooqui N, Goswami M,
Ranade SA. RAPD analysis of Candida albicans strains
recovered from immunocompromised patients (ICP)
reveals an apparently non-random infectivity of the
strains. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1998; 44: 19-27.
18. Pfaller MA, Cabezudo I, Hollis R, Huston B, Wenzel RP.
The use of biotyping and DNA fingerprinting in typing
Candida albicans from hospitalized patients. Diag
Microbiol Infect Dis 1990; 13: 481-9.
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
19. Panaka K. Strain-relatedness among different
populations of the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans
analyzed by DNA-based methods. Nagoya J Med Sci
1997; 60: 1-14.
33. Doebeling BN et al. Comparison of pulsed-field gel
electrophoresis with isoenzyme profiles as a typing
system for Candida tropicalis. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16:
377-83.
20. Kleinegger C, Lockhart SR, Vargas K, Soll DR.
Frequency, intensity, species and strains of oral yeast
vary as a function of host age. J Clin Microbiol 1996; 34:
2246-54.
34. Lehmann PF, Kemker BJ, Hsiao C-B, Dev S. Isoenzyme
biotypes of Candida species. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27:
2514-21.
21. Lockhart SR, Joly S, Vargas K, Swails-Wenger J, Enger L,
Soll DR. Natural defenses against Candida
colonization break down in the oral cavity of the
elderly. J Dent Res 1998; 78: 857-68.
22. Pfaller MA et al. Hospital specificity, region specificity,
and fluconazole resistance of Candida albicans
bloodstream isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 1518-29.
23. Schmid J, Hunter PR, White GC, Nand AK, Soll RD.
Physiological traits associated with success of Candida
albicans strains as commensal colonizers and
pathogens. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 2920-6.
24. Mehta SK, Stevens DA, Mishra SK, Feroze F, Pierson
DL. Distribuition of Candida albicans genotypes
among family members. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis
1999; 34: 19-25.
25. Lupetti A, Guzzi G, Paladini A, Swart K, Campa M,
Senesi S. Molecular typing of Candida albicans in oral
candidiasis: karyotype epidemiology with human
immunodeficiency virus-seropositive patients in
comparison with that with healthy carriers. J Clin
Microbiol 1995; 33: 1238-42.
26. Murphy RW, Sites JW, Buth DG, Haufler CH. In: Hillis
DM, Moritz C. Molecular systematics. Sunderland,
Mass.: Sinauer Associates Inc. Publishers; 1990. P. 45126.
27. Pasteur N, Pasteur G, Bonbomme F, Catalan J, BrittonDavidian J. Manuel technique de génétique par
électrophorèse dês proteins. Technique et
documentation. Paris; Lavoisier; 1987.
28. Boerlin P. Applications of multilocus enzyme
electrophoresis in medical microbiology. J Microbiol
Meth 1997; 28: 221-31.
29. Hunter PR. A critical review of typing methods for
Candida albicans and their applications. Crit Rev
Microbiol 1991; 17: 417-34.
30. Arnavielhe S et al. Suivi mycologique d´infections à
Candida albicans dans divers services hospitaliers.
Path Biol 1996; 44: 447-51.
31. Bertout S, Renaud F, Swinne D, Mallie M, Bastide J-M.
Genetic multilocus studies of different strains of
Cryptococcus neoformans: taxonomy and genetic
structure. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 715-20.
32. Boerlin P et al. Cluster of oral atypical Candida
albicans isolates in a group of human
immunodeficiency virus-positive drug users. J Clin
Microbiol 1995; 33: 1129-35.
35. Lehmann PF, Wu L-C, Mackenzie DWR. Isozyme
changes in Candida albicans domestication. J Clin
Microbiol 1991; 29: 2623-5.
36. Lehmann PF, Wu L-C, Pruitt WR, Meyer SA, Ahearn
DG. Unrelatedness of groups of yeasts within the
Candida haemulonii complex. J Clin Microbiol 1993;
31: 1683-7.
37. Lin D, Wu L-C, Rinaldi MG, Lehmann PF. Three distinct
genotypes within Candida parapsilosis from clinical
sources. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 1815-21.
38. Pujol C, Reynes J, Renaud F, Mallie M, Bastide J-M.
Genetic analysis of Candida albicans strains studies by
isoenzyme electrophoresis. J Mycol Med 1993; 3: 14-9.
39. Pujol C et al. The yeast Candida albicans has a clonal
mode of reproduction in a population of infected
human immunodeficiency viry-positive patients. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 9456-9.
40. San Millan RM, Wu LC, Salkin IF, Lehmann PF. Clinical
isolates of Candida guilliermondii include Candida
fermentati. Int J Syst Bacteriol 1997; 47: 385-93.
41. Moreira D et al. Candida spp. Biotypes in the oral
cavity of school children from different socioeconomic
categories in Piracicaba – SP, Brazil. Pesqui Odontol
Bras 2001; 15: 187-95.
42. Asakura K, Iwaguchi S, Homma M, Sukai T, Higashide
K, Tanaka K. Electrophoretic karyotypes of clinically
isolated yeasts of Candida albicans and C. glabrata. J
Gen Microbiol 1991; 137: 2531-8.
43. Casanova M, Chaffin DWL. Cell wall glycoproteins of
Candida albicans as released by different methods. J
Gen Microbiol 1991; 137: 1045-51.
44. Waters MG, Blobel G. Secretory protein translocation in
a yeast cell-free system can occur posttranslationally
and requires ATP hydrolysis. J Cell Biol 1986; 102:
1543-50.
45. Woontner M, Jaehning JA. Accurate initiation by RNA
polimerase II in a whole cell extract from
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 1990; 265: 897982.
46. Antonsson B, Montessuit S, Friedli L, Payton MA,
Paravicini G. Protein kinase C in yeast. Characteristics
of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae PKC1 gene product. J
Biol Chem 1994; 269: 16821-8.
47. Alfenas AC. Eletroforese de isoenzimas e proteínas
afins; fundamentos e aplicações em plantas e
microrganismos. Viçosa; Editora UFV; 1998.
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
65
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
48. Selander RK, Caugant DA, Ochman H, Musser JM,
Gilmour MN, Whittam TS. Methods of multilocus
enzyme electrophoresis for bacterial population
genetics and systematics. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986;
51: 873-84.
49. Hartl DL, Clark AG. Principles of population genetics.
Inc. Publishers Suderland, Mass.; Sinauer Associates;
1997.
50. Le Guennec R, Reynes J, Mallie M, Pujol C, Janbon F,
Bastide J-M. Fluconazole- and itraconazole-resistant
Candida albicans strain from AIDS patients:
multilocus enzyme electrophoresis analysis and
antifungal susceptibilities. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33:
2732-7.
51. Nébavi F et al. Oropharyngeal candidiasisj in AIDS
patients from Abidjan (Ivory Coast): antifungal
susceptibilities and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis
analysis of Candida albicans isolates. Path Biol 1998;
46: 307-14.
52. Nei M. Genetic distances between populations. Am
Naturalist 1972; 106, 283-92.
53. Sneath PHA, Sokal RR. Numerical taxonomy. San
Francisco; W.H. Freeman and Company; 1973.
54. Vancanneyt M, Pot B, Hennebert G, Kersters K.
Differentiation of yeast species based on
electrophoretic whole-cell protein patterns. Syst Appl
Microbiol 1991; 14: 23-32.
55. Scherer S, Magee PT. Genetics of Candida albicans.
Microbiol Rev 1990; 54: 226-41.
56. Soll DR, Galask R, Schmid J, Hanna C, Mac K, Morrow B.
Genetic dissimilarity of commensal strains of Candida
spp. carried in different anatomical localizations of the
same healthy women. J Clin Microbiol 1991; 29: 170210.
57. Jorge AOC, Almeida NQ, Unterkircher CS, Shimizu MT.
Influence of the use of orthodontic apparatus in
presence of Candida albicans in oral cavity. Rev Assoc
Paul Cir Dent 1987; 41: 308-10.
58. Selander RK, Levin BR. Genetic diversity and structure
in Escherichia coli populations. Science 1980; 210: 5457.
59. Selander RK, Musser JM, Caugant DA, Gilmour MN,
Whittam TS. Population genetics of pathogenic
bacteria. Microb Pathog 1987; 3: 1-7.
60. Tibayrenc M, Ward P, Moya A, Ayala FJ. Natural
populations of Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of
Chagas disease, have a complex multiclonal structure.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 115-9.
61. Tibayrenc M, Kjellberg F, Ayala FJ. A clonal theory of
parasitic protozoa: the population structures of
Entamoeba, Giardia, Leishmania, Naegleria,
Plasmodium, Trichomonas, and Trypanosoma and
their medical and taxonomical consequences. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 2414-8.
Rev Bras Epidemiol
2005; 8(1): 51-66
66
62. Tibayrenc M et al. Are eukaryotic microorganisms
clonal or sexual? A population genetics vantage. Proc
Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 5129-33.
63. Reynes J et al. Simultaneous carriage of Candida
albicans strains from HIV-infected patients with oral
candidiasis: multilocus enzyme electrophoresis
analysis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1996; 137: 269-73.
64. Schmid J et al. Evidence for a general-purpose
genotype in Candida albicans, highly prevalent in
multiple geographical regions, patient types and types
of infection. Microbiology 1999; 145: 2405-13.
65. Rustchenko EP, Howard DH, Sherman F.
Chromosomal alterations of Candida albicans are
associated with the gain and loss of assimilating
functions. J Bacteriol 1994; 176: 3231-41.
66. Rustchenko-Bulgac EP, Sherman F, Hicks JB.
Chromosomal rearrangements associated with
morphological mutants provide a means for genetic
variation of Candida albicans. J Bacteriol 1990; 172:
1276-83.
67. Chibana H, Iwaguchi S-I, Homma M, Chindamporn A,
Nakagawa Y, Tanaka K. Diversity of tandemly
repetitive sequences due to short periodic repetitions
in the chromosomes of Candida albicans. J Bacteriol
1994; 176: 3851-8.
68. Sadhu C, McEachern MJ, Rustchenko-Bulgac EP,
Schmid J, Soll DR, Hicks JB. Telomeric and dispersed
repeat sequences in Candida yeasts and their use in
strain identification. J Bacteriol 1991; 173: 842-50.
69. Powderly WG, Robinson K, Keath EJ. Molecular typing
of Candida albicans isolated from oral lesions of HIVinfected individuals. AIDS 1992; 6: 81-4.
70. Whelan WL, Kirsch DR, Know-Chung KJ, Wahl SM,
Smith PD. Candida albicans in patients with the
aquired immunodeficiency syndrome: absence of a
novel or hypervirulent strain. J Infect Dis 1990; 162:
513-8.
71. Lockhart S et al. Colonizing populations of Candida
albicans are clonal in origin but undergo
microevolution through C1 fragment reorganization as
demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting and C1
sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 1501-9.
72. Pujol C, Joly S, Notan B, Srikantha T, Soll DR.
Microevolutionary changes in Candida albicans
identified by the complex Ca3 fingerprinting probe
involve insertions and deletions of the full-length
repetitive RPS at specific genomic sites. Microbiology
1999; 145: 2635-46.
73. Schroeppel K, Rotman M, Galask R, Mac K, Soll DR. The
evolution and replacement of Candida albicans strains
during recurrent vaginitis demonstrated by DNA
fingerprinting. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32: 2646-54.
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis typing of Candida albicans
Boriollo, M.F.G. et al.
recebido em: 06/07/04
versão final reapresentada em: 24/02/05
aprovado em: 28/02/05