1 Debating Lapita: Distribution, chronology, society and subsistence Stuart Bedford, Matthew Spriggs, David V. Burley, Christophe Sand, Peter Sheppard and Glenn R. Summerhayes Lapita has been a focus for archaeologists for generations. Initially inspired by the scattered reporting in the early twentieth century of highly decorated sherds (Meyer 1909; McKern 1929; Piroutet 1917), its increasing significance in terms of the human settlement of the Pacific began to build in the 1960s. The Lapita culture has been most clearly defined by its distinctive dentatestamped decorated pottery and the design system represented on it and on further incised pots. It is defined earliest in the Bismarck Archipelago to the east of the large island of New Guinea, at some time in the centuries preceding 3000 cal. BP. At around that date the Lapita culture spread out from its Bismarck Archipelago ‘homeland’ to beyond previously inhabited regions of Near Oceania to establish the first human colonies in the western part of Remote Oceania, the present-day south-east Solomons, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and Wallis and Futuna. At about the same time there was a push to the south-west out from the Bismarcks along the south coast of New Guinea, perhaps even as far as the Torres Straits (McNiven et al. 2006). The broad overlapping themes of this volume, Lapita distribution and chronology, society and subsistence, relate to research questions that have long been debated in relation to Lapita. It is a substantial volume with 23 chapters, reflecting the increasing breadth and focus on different aspects of Lapita that have developed over several decades. The distribution and chronology theme, as addressed in Chapters 2 to 9, connects to questions of its geographical spread, site location within that extent and its origins. The eastern and southern boundaries appear to be well established, having remained unchanged since the 1970s: Samoa the furthest east and New Caledonia the most southerly. However, it seems very unlikely the north-western boundaries of Lapita are yet fixed, with earlier and simpler dentate-stamping having been found in Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) (e.g. Hung et al. 2011 for Luzon). How these ISEA pottery traditions relate to dentate-stamped pottery in Micronesia and Lapita in the Bismarcks remains unresolved. Some have argued that the pottery follows a trail from ISEA to Micronesia and then on to the Bismarcks (Carson 2018; Carson et al. 2013). Clark and Winter (Chapter 2) address this question head-on with a detailed comparison of motif forms and designs from the two regions. In an expansion of the boundary, recent serendipitous discoveries and predictive modelling of the 3000 cal. BP south Papuan coastline have now extended the Lapita range westwards right up to the Fly River (Skelly et al. 2014). David et al. (Chapter 3) discuss one of these sites, Moiapu at Caution Bay near Port Moresby, and how it fits into the regional context and sequence, focusing particularly on its place at the end of Lapita. These discoveries on the south Papuan coast, along with later pottery from the Torres Strait (McNiven et al. 2006) 6 Debating Lapita and on Lizard Island on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef (Tochilin et al. 2012), suggest that the western and south-western boundaries of Lapita are not yet fixed. The implications of this are discussed by Lilley (Chapter 5), who suggests that coastal Aboriginal Australians were most likely much more connected to Lapita expansion than previously imagined, both linking to it and also involved in facilitating its extension. The theme of distribution also connects with questions of site location and spread within the Lapita boundary. Sites are overwhelmingly found in coastal locales but can be found on large islands through to small islets, on back beaches or in intertidal situations. The evidence for the latter appears to be largely restricted to Near Oceania where Lapita populations were entering already populated islands (but see Burley 2016, Nunn and Heorake 2009 for suggested Tongan and Fijian examples). Two chapters address these different locales. Summerhayes et al. (Chapter 4) focus on the Near Oceanian site of Kamgot, an Early Lapita site in the Anir Group off southern New Ireland, once located in an intertidal zone. They outline the archaeological evidence and discuss the economic advantages of establishing a settlement in an intertidal situation. Burley et al. (Chapter 8) discuss an Early Lapita site in Fiji, on the small island of Kavewa in Vanua Levu. It is strategically positioned on a passage through the reef, a location that may have been chosen by founder colonies to facilitate exploration and settlement of the Vanua Levu mainland. While the geographic distribution of Lapita dentate-stamped sites has been extended, there remain some persistent gaps within its current extension, namely the central Solomons, Samoa and American Samoa. There remains an ongoing debate whether these are real or perceived. In some cases, the geomorphological and post-depositional complexities make the search and discovery of Lapita sites extremely difficult. A lack of focused research is also a factor in some areas. This might be partly the case in the Vitiaz Strait where Lapita has been found only on the Siassi Islands to date, but it seems most likely that it may have been more widespread due to the strategic location between the Bismarcks and the New Guinea mainland. Gaffney et al. (Chapter 6) address this question in relation to Arop Island where recent fieldwork has been carried out. They present a range of evidence that points to a Lapita presence on that island. Sheppard (Chapter 7) revisits the Lapita gap in the main Solomons, arguing that earlier contentions for a leap-frog scenario of Early Lapita settlement remain robust. He adds new data that further support this scenario. Lapita chronology is continually being addressed, and many of the chapters here touch on this aspect. Long gone are the days when Lapita was seen to continue in some areas for more than a thousand years, or that there was a pause in the Bismarcks for 400 years before people moved further east. Much more refined use of radiometric methods, the incorporation of ΔR offsets for marine shell samples, the identification of charcoal to species, or the specific targeting of short-lived samples such as nutshell have led to much more robust chronological delineation. The use of uranium–thorium dating (U/Th) on coral artefacts has also provided unprecedented chronological definition in the case of Tonga. What the dating of Lapita sites in Remote Oceania currently supports is a scenario where populations ‘exploded out of the Bismarcks, and in a radiocarbon instant, occupied most of its ultimate range’ (Sheppard 2010:107). The time period for the production of dentate-stamped pottery has also been generally reduced across the same region, with its demise now appearing to be no later than 2700–2500 cal. BP. The further delineation of the chronology for Lapita in Near Oceania remains to be completed. A major review of dates for that region is the focus of Chapter 9 (Specht and Gosden). The authors radically trim down the numbers of acceptable dates for the region under a chronometric hygiene exercise and also suggest a likely starting date for Lapita in the Bismarcks could be around 3250–3150 cal. BP. Kirch, in his closing commentary (Chapter 23), states that his own soon-to-be-published re-dating of Lapita in the Mussau group will present a similar time range for that part of the Lapita ‘homeland’ area as well. terra australis 52 1. Debating Lapita 7 Chapters 10 to 17 are situated under the broad category of Lapita society with a particular focus on aspects of the design system and its symbolism (Chapters 12 to 16). A range of comparative techniques and statistical analyses are employed, all of which tease out various aspects of the design system and its application. Results of these analyses also contribute to discussions relating to connectivity, colonisation strategies and chronology. Sand et al. (Chapter 10) revisit the eponymous Site 13, Lapita, following extensive rescue archaeology excavations carried out there in 2015. New dates and new data provide a much fuller picture of the history of the site’s occupation over several hundred years. The results highlight the spatial complexity of the site, which is a cautionary tale for Lapita research in general, as summaries of sites and whole islands can be based on only a few test pits that may represent 5 per cent or less of a site overall. Moving east to Vanuatu, Bedford illustrates and discusses Lapita pottery, both vessel form and designs, recovered from the small islands of north-east Malakula (Chapter 11). While the sites clearly date to the colonising phase in this part of Vanuatu, the pottery displays very distinctive regional variation. This leads to questions both of ultimate origins and about the rates of change in any given ceramic sequence. The topics of the influence and origins of the Lapita design system are taken up by Ambrose in Chapter 12. Ambrose, who first illustrated Lapita sherds in a 1959 publication (Golson 1959), up-ends the argument that Lapita motifs influenced design systems on other media. He argues, rather, that plaiting and basketry were more likely to have been dominant and fundamental influences on Oceanic art, including the decoration of Lapita pottery (Chapter 12). Lapita ‘faces’ have long been argued as being an essential component of Lapita iconography. Spriggs, who first established this (Spriggs 1990), brings a totally new perspective to the debate (Chapter 13). Here he argues that what once were seen as faces are more likely to represent heads and masks, headdresses and skullcaps. The chapter of LeBlanc et al. (Chapter 14) is the first of three that look at Lapita motifs and design structure in fine detail. LeBlanc et al. shift away from the more traditional element-motif approach by taking a structural approach to analysing the Lapita design system, targeting design density, layout and organisation. Their focus, using this approach, is on assessing how cohesive the Eastern Lapita Province is in terms of ceramic design. Chiu (Chapter 15) provides an update of her ongoing research into Lapita motifs, presenting data on motif similarity among 50 Lapita sites, highlighting social connections that may be traced through the distribution of motifs. Along similar lines of inquiry to those of Chiu, Noury (Chapter 16), who argues that there are two primary distinct sets of Lapita designs or group designs, uses them to track movement across Remote Oceania. Rather than focusing on Lapita design, Leclerc (Chapter 17) discusses the results of the chemical characterisation of Lapita and Post-Lapita ceramics. He argues that the shift from the compositional variability found in Lapita ceramics to a restricted compositional range found in Post-Lapita ceramics is an indication of significant societal change. Chapters 18 to 21 focus on aspects of Lapita subsistence. The chapters highlight the radically different environments that were encountered by Lapita populations and the range of food sources that were available and exploited. Summerhayes et al. (Chapter 18) provide a detailed study of midden remains from the Early Lapita site of Kamgot and its distinctive intertidal location. Lebot and Sam (Chapter 19) review the availability of indigenous plants in Vanuatu that could have been consumed by Lapita colonists. They suggest that a whole range of plant food sources could potentially have been utilised on first arrival, weakening any argument that settlement in this part of Remote Oceania was hindered by a paucity of locally available flora. Ono et al. (Chapter 20) present a review of Lapita fishing, providing a case study from the small island of Uripiv adjacent to Malakula in Vanuatu and comparing it with all other published Lapita sites. Fish bone remains, fishhooks and capture methods are discussed. Hawkins and Worthy (Chapter 21) review avian extinctions across the Lapita distribution, highlighting the evidence for radical impact that humans had on a range of naïve and vulnerable species. The importance of taphonomic influence in assessing site preservation and thus impact is also highlighted. terra australis 52 8 Debating Lapita Chapter 22 (Shing and Willie) moves beyond the strictly academic focus on Lapita to show how it has been accepted or not in wider educational and community awareness programs. The authors discuss how the long-running archaeology awareness programs in Vanuatu, coordinated by the Vanuatu Cultural Centre, have developed in different and sometimes unexpected directions. Patrick Kirch first encountered Lapita sites in the field in 1971 on a visit to the Reef Islands in the south-east Solomons, and first excavated them on the island of Futuna in Western Polynesia in 1974. In the final chapter (Chapter 23), he reflects on four decades of Lapita research and what the priorities might be for the future. Inventory of Lapita sites The first tally of Lapita sites was compiled by Green in 1979. It included a map (1979: Figure 2.2), discussion of site stratigraphy and excavated areas, pottery recovered, a mere 24 radiocarbon dates (1979: Table 2.10) and relevant references (1979:49–57). There were 19 localities and around 60 sites. Kirch and Hunt (1988) followed 10 years later with similar detail and reached a figure of 79 sites. Another 10 years after that, Kirch estimated that there were around 100 sites, and described in some detail 32 of those where information was easily accessible (1997:263– 276). He noted that for the remaining two-thirds of the inventory ‘very little is known indeed’ (Kirch 1997:263). In 2001 the number of sites had increased to 184, and a full list and accompanying data and references were tabulated (Anderson et al. 2001). The last full tally, although not a full listing, was in 2007 where the number of sites had increased to 229 (Bedford and Sand 2007:8–9). As part of the overall preparation of this volume, we have compiled an updated inventory of all sites where dentate-stamped pottery has been found in the Western Pacific. We follow the historical pattern of such inventories in that we include sites where a dentate-stamped component of decoration is included in the ceramics recovered. There are two exceptions included where Lapita sites are indicated through other evidence. They are a site at Lamap, Malakula, Vanuatu, where a single piece of Talasea obsidian was collected on the surface and the site of Pouebo in New Caledonia where the very distinctive geology of this region has been identified in Lapita sherds found from other sites in New Caledonia (Chiu et al. 2016). Table 1.1 follows earlier formats and includes national site register codes if available, site name, a general description of locality, site extent, contents, the ceramic series in terms of the localised sequence, age in calendrical years BP (gleaned from relevant radiocarbon dates or comparison of design motifs) and key references. Since the last tally of sites in 2007, we have added 64 sites to the inventory, providing now an overall total of 293 Lapita sites across its distribution. While this appears to be a substantial increase it is not all newly discovered sites. The new total has come about both through the addition of new sites (49) that have been identified since 2007, but also the addition of a number of old sites (15) from the Bismarcks (Kombe and Fissoa) and the south-east Solomons (Taumako and Reefs-Santa Cruz) that managed to slip through previous tallies. One site that was previously incorrectly listed was also removed (Loloma, New Georgia). Totals for each region are now as follows: 19 for New Guinea, 88 for the Bismarcks, 28 for the Solomons, 30 for Vanuatu, 38 for New Caledonia, 51 for Fiji, 34 for Tonga, one for Samoa, three for Wallis (East Uvea) and one for Futuna. We do not include sites in ISEA or the Marianas where dentate-stamped pottery is known or designs in incised or other techniques display complex ‘Lapita-like’ motifs whose exact relation to Western Pacific Lapita have yet to be established (see Anggraeni et al. 2014; Aoyagi et al. 1993; Azis et al. 2018; Bellwood and Koon 1989; Carson 2014; Chia 2003; Hung 2008; Lape 2000). Similarly, the early pottery sites in the Torres Strait and the undated finds on Lizard Island on Queensland’s Great Barrier Reef are not included because of the non-specific terra australis 52 1. Debating Lapita 9 nature of pottery found so far at these sites (see Lilley, Chapter 5, for a discussion of these sites). The new sites that have been identified since 2007 include 17 in New Guinea, two in the Bismarcks, three in the Solomons, five in Vanuatu, three in New Caledonia, seven in Fiji and 11 in Tonga. In most regions, the increase of new sites has been slowly incremental, as per the focus of archaeological research in any particular area, which is to be expected. The most striking addition is the extension of the distribution of Lapita further west along the south coast of New Guinea (David et al. 2011; Skelly et al. 2014). However, in arriving at a total of 16 sites for Caution Bay we have followed the definition used by the excavators, where an archaeological ‘site’ was defined as a location of cultural materials 15 m or more from its closest neighbour. This recording criteria tends to inflate occupational settlement site numbers in relation to other areas of the Lapita distribution. Table 1.1. Currently known Lapita sites (293): Location, locale type, extent, content, ceramic series, age and references. Code Location name Locale type Extent (sq m) Content Ceramic series Age BP References North New Guinea Saudaun Province No code Aitape unknown – surface pottery ?Middle – Swadling et al. 1988 Sepik RNJ coastal flat – surface pottery ?Late – Terrell and Welsch 1997 inland ancient dune – pottery Late 2668–2615 Skelly et al. 2014 coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden inland low hill Inland low hill inland low hill inland low hill 1500 full range Tubungbale, Ali Island South New Guinea Gulf Province OJS Hopo, Vailala River Caution Bay ABEN Bogi 1 ABHA Tanamu 1 ABHD Tanamu 3 AAYN Moiapu 1 AAYL Moiapu 2 AAZD Moiapu 3 AAWA Nese 1 ABAO Edubu 1 ABAN Edubu 2 ABKL ML 18 AAUJ JA21 inland low hill inland low hill coastal midden inland 260 – – – – Middle to Late pottery and Middle obsidian to Late pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Late obsidian 2900–2250 McNiven et al. 2011; David et al. 2011 2900–2860 David et al. 2011; Mialanes et al. 2016 2750–2350 2551–2470 David et al. 2011; Mialanes et al. 2016 2700–2250 Mialanes et al. 2016 300 full range Late 2630–2410 David et al. this volume 2750–2550 McNiven et al. 2012a: Figure 2; Mialanes et al. 2016 2650–2350 McNiven et al. 2012b – pottery Late 2850–2150 Mialanes et al. 2016 – pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Late obsidian 2850–2650 Mialanes et al. 2016 – – 2800–2550 Mialanes et al. 2016 terra australis 52 10 Debating Lapita Code Location name AAIT MLA14 AAVM Ataga 1 – JD17 – JD10 ABIV JD14 Morobe Province KLK Tuam Island, Siassi West New Britain Arawes FNY Paligmete FNZ Winguru FOH Magekur FOJ Apalo FOL Amalut No code Maklo FOR Maklo FOF Lolmo Agussak Kandrian Kandrian area FLF Alanglongromo Extent (sq m) – Content – – pottery and Late obsidian pottery Late – pottery Late 2650–2450 McNiven et al. 2011; Mialanes et al. 2016 – McNiven et al. 2011: Figure 5n – McNiven et al. 2011 – pottery Late – coastal flat 2000 pottery Middle to Late 3150–2750 Lilley 2002 coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden offshore island cave offshore island 18 000 full range Early – Summerhayes 2000a 18 000 full range Late – Summerhayes 2000a 10 000 full range 12 000 3000 – – 55 500 pottery and – obsidian – Swadling 1992 Middle 3060–2750 Summerhayes 2000a – – – – – – – – Specht 1991a Specht 1991a Specht et al. 1992 Specht et al. 1981 Middle to Late Middle to Late – Summerhayes 2000a – Specht 1991b – Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht et al. 1988 Point Mondu beach – Lagenda plantation beach – pottery and – obsidian pottery Early obsidian terra australis 52 2770–2360 Specht and Gosden 1997 – Swadling 1992 Gosden et al. 1994 pottery Talasea area FCN/FCO 3200–2520 Summerhayes 2000a – 2500 Kreslo McNiven et al. 2011; McNiven et al. 2012a: Figure 2 Swadling 1992 pottery FNT 2750–2500 Mialanes et al. 2016 – – Auraruo References 3240–2750 Summerhayes 2000a – – – – FFS Age BP Early to Middle full range Early to Late full range Middle to Late pottery and – obsidian pottery and – obsidian full range Late open site open site open site coastal midden coastal midden reef platform Aringilo Ngaikwo Narangpun Langpun rock shelter 30 pottery Ceramic series Late pottery and obsidian pottery pottery pottery pottery FLK FLX FYA FFT FCR/FCS Locale type inland low hill inland low hill coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden – 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name Extent (sq m) – Content Lagenda Island Locale type beach FCT FDK Nariri Beach beach – – FCH Nabodu beach beach – pottery and – obsidian pot sherd – FRJ Valahia beach – – FRI Walindi inland spur – pottery and – obsidian pottery and – obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian Early to Middle – 2950–2720 Specht and Summerhayes 2007 – Specht and Torrence 2007a – Specht and Torrence 2007a Middle to Late Middle to Late – 2800–2000 Summerhayes 2000a – – Garua Harbour FEA Boduna islet 6000 – pottery Ceramic series – Age BP References – Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a – – FEM Garala Island FQD Langu, Binnen Island offshore island offshore island Garua Island FSZ Scoria pit coastal hill 1600 FAO unknown coastal hill 1600 FQY Golas Gully coastal hill – FAS unknown – FEK Mt America coastal stream mudflats pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian sherd – sherd Early – FEL unknown coastal hill – unknown coastal hill – Early to Late Late – FXO FYS unknown beach – pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery – – FCY unknown beach – Late – FAAN/D5–7 unknown – unknown Early to Late – 2700 FAAJ FAAQ unknown coastal plain coastal plain inland hill pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian – – coastal hill – – 3200–2960 Torrence et al. 1999 inland hill – Late – Torrence et al. 1999 inland hill – – – Torrence et al. 1999 hill on divide – pottery and obsidian pottery and obsidian surface pottery surface pottery – – Specht and Torrence 2007b Willaumez Peninsula FAAH Numundo plantation FABH Numundo plantation FABN Garu plantation FACU unknown – – – – – – – – 11 Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Torrence and Stevenson 2000 Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a Specht and Torrence 2007a terra australis 52 12 Debating Lapita Code FACZ FACR Location name Locale type Foothill of inland Mt Krummel foothill Whiteman range low spurs foothills Kombe Coast FCL Poi Mission – Content surface pottery surface pottery Ceramic series – Age BP References – Late 2800 Specht and Torrence 2007b Specht and Torrence 2007b – full range – 3000–2700 Lilley 1991 – full range – 3000–2700 Lilley 1991 — – — pottery pottery pottery — — — — — — Lilley 1991 Lilley 1991 Lilley 1991 — — pottery pottery — — — — Lilley 1991 Lilley 1991 coastal midden Urkuk coastal midden Kabilomo coastal midden Nakukur 1 and 2 coastal midden – pottery and – obsidian pottery – – White and Harris 1997 – White 2007 pottery and – obsidian pottery and – obsidian – White 2007 – White 2007 Mioko SDQ Mioko Island – pottery – – White 2007 SFB/SFA Palpal village coastal midden coastal midden 30 000 pottery – – White 2007 Kabakon SEE Kabakon Island coastal midden 8100 full range Early 3090 White 2007 Utuan SFF unknown coastal midden – pottery and – obsidian – White 2007 Kerawara SEF unknown coastal midden – pottery and – obsidian – White 2007 Makada SEO unknown – White 2007 Uraputput Point pottery and – obsidian pottery and – obsidian – SEP coastal midden coastal midden >2780 White 2007 coastal midden – FPA Kautaga Island FPB FPN FPR Kou Island Rudiger Point Poi Island FPE Kalapia Island FPF Kalapia Island East New Britain Duke of Yorks Duke of York Island SDN Piuka SDK SDP SES/SET Watom Reber Mission and Rakival SAC Kainapirina coastal midden coastal midden midden midden coastal midden midden midden Extent (sq m) – – – 75 000? – terra australis 52 full range Middle to 2200–2000 Anson et al. 2005 Late 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name SDI Vunavaung SAD Maravot SAU Vunailau Ceramic series Middle to Late Middle to Late – – Specht 1968; Anson pers. comm. 2017 pottery Late? — Leavesley and Sarar 2013 – – White 1992 – pottery, obsidian, stone pottery – – – pottery Late White and Downie 1980 2980–2690 Golson 1992 — Late? — — pottery, obsidian pottery Late? — unknown – pottery – — coastal midden 10 000 Middle 2900–2300 Summerhayes 2000b coastal midden coastal midden 24 000 pottery, obsidian, vol. stone full range Early 3200–2900 Summerhayes 2000b Middle 2900–2300 Summerhayes 2000b coastal midden coastal midden – Middle/ Late Middle 2900–2300 Summerhayes 2000b 15 000 pottery, obsidian, vol. stone pottery and obsidian full range 2900–2300 Summerhayes 2000b coastal midden Etakosarai coastal midden Etapakengaroasa coastal midden Epakapaka rock shelter 72 500 full range Early 3300–2770 Kirch 1997; Kirch 2001 2700 full range Early? 3500–3300 Kirch et al. 1991 1150 full range – 3500–2400 Kirch et al. 1991 90 full range Middle? 3100–2800 Kirch et al. 1991 Tamuarawai 22 500 full range Early 3300–3000 Summerhayes et al. 2010 Pomio– Jacquinot Bay No code Liton River New Ireland New Ireland mainland EFY Lemau EAA Lossu ELS/ELT Lasigi No code Bagail Kavieng ENX Fissoa Lambon Island EPE Lambon Island Anir Islands EAQ Malekolon ERA Kamgot ERB Mission No code Naliu ERC Balbalankin Mussau ECA Talepakemalai ECB EHB EKQ Emira Island EQS Locale type coastal midden coastal midden coastal hill/cliff Extent (sq m) – full range – full range – surface pottery, obsidian river — coastal midden – coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal midden coastal flat – Content Age BP 13 References 2800–1800 Anson et al. 2005 2300–1900 Anson et al. 2005 Summerhayes and Leavesley pers. comm. White and MurrayWallace 1996 White 1996 terra australis 52 14 Debating Lapita Code Location name Locale type Extent (sq m) Content Tanga Island ETM Angkitkita coastal flat – Admiralties Manus GDN GLT Kohin Cave Mouk cave coastal flat Paemasa (Baluan) coastal flat GFR Ceramic series Age BP References pottery and Late lithics 2750 Garling 2003; Cath-Garling 2017 – – pottery pottery – – – pottery – 3900–2450 Kennedy 1981 – McEldowney and Ballard 1991 – McEldowney and Ballard 1991 SOLOMONS North Solomons Nissan DFF Lebang Halika DGD/2 Unknown DES Tarmon rock shelter – rock shelter 40 reef flat 5110 full range Early full range Early pottery and Late adzes – >2730 – Spriggs 1991 Spriggs 1991 Spriggs 1991 Buka and Sohano DJQ Kessa reef flat 10 000 Middle – Wickler 2001 DAF Sohano reef flat 39 000 Middle – Wickler 2001 DAA Sohano rock shelter – Middle – Wickler 2001 DKC Sohano Primary School rock shelter 100 pottery, obsidian, vol. stone, adzes pottery, obsidian, vol. stone, adzes pottery and obsidian pottery Middle – Wickler 2001 intertidal 1800 pottery Late – Felgate 2001, 2003 intertidal 1750 pottery Late – Felgate 2001, 2003 intertidal – surface sherds Late – Summerhayes and Scales 2005 rock shelter – full range Late 2950–2350 Leach and Davidson 2008 coastal midden full range Middle 3185–2639 Green 1976; Sheppard et al. 2015 New Georgia Roviana Lagoon Site 97 Honiavasa, Honiavasa Island Site 96 Nusa Roviana (Zoroka) Kolombangara No code Poitete, Kolombangara Island SE SOLOMONS Taumako SE–DF–19 Te Ana Tavatava, Lakao Island Reef-Santa Cruz SE–RF–2 Nenumbo, Te Motu Taibä, Ngaua, Reef Islands 1000 terra australis 52 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name Locale type coastal beach Extent (sq m) — SE–RF–4 Te Motu Taibä, Ngaua, Reef Islands Laki, Te Motu Taibä, Ngaua, Reef Islands Ngamanie, Lomlom, Reef Islands surface — coastal midden 2400 Te Motu Taibä, Ngaua, Reef Islands Fenualoa, Reef Islands Nanggu, Nendö [traditional name for Santa Cruz] Santa Cruz Tömotu Noi Island, Santa Cruz small surface scatter surface scatter coastal midden coastal midden — Malu, Tömotu Neo Island, Santa Cruz Mdailu, Santa Cruz Luenemba River, Santa Cruz Bianga Mepala, Wia Island, Santa Cruz Bonati, Tömotu Noi, Santa Cruz coastal midden 3000 surface Vanikoro No code Ngae No code SE–RF–5 SE–RF–6 Content surface scatter pottery surface pottery Ceramic series — Age BP References — Green 1979 — — Doherty 2007 2910–2470 Green 1976; Green and Jones 2007 — pottery and Middle midden, obsidian, chert pottery — — Green 1979 2400 pottery — — Green 1979 14 000 pottery and midden, obsidian, chert surface collected mainly plain, 1 piece of obsidian pottery, chert, obsidian pottery Middle 2920–2729 Green 1976; Green et al. 2008; Sheppard et al. 2015 — — Green 1976; Green et al. 2008 Middle – McCoy and Cleghorn 1988 — — pottery — — McCoy and Cleghorn 1988 Green et al. 2008 Middle – McCoy and Cleghorn 1988 — pottery, obsidian, adze pottery Middle? — Green et al. 2008 – – pottery – – Milu – – pottery – – No code Lavaka – – pottery – – Noury and Galipaud 2011 Noury and Galipaud 2011 Noury and Galipaud 2011 Tikopia TK 4 Kiki coastal midden 4500 full range Late 2900–2800 Kirch and Yen 1982; Kirch and Swift 2017 back beach 3000 full range Middle to Late – SE–RF–7 SE–RF–8 SE–SZ–8 SE–SZ–10 SE–SZ–23 SE–SZ–33 SE–SZ–42 SE–SZ–45 SE–SZ–50 VANUATU Mota Lava, Banks Islands No code Nerenugman coastal — midden ceramics in — stream cut coastal 10 000 midden 15 Bedford and Spriggs 2014 terra australis 52 16 Debating Lapita Code Location name Locale type back beach 3500 No code Big Bay Matantas Port Olry No code Shograon back beach — pottery Middle to Late Aore No code Makué back beach – full range Early to Late No code west coast back beach – – No code SDA Mission back beach – surface pottery surface pottery 3150–2950 Galipaud and Swete Kelly 2007; Galipaud et al. 2014 – Galipaud 2001 – – Galipaud 2001; Noury and Galipaud 2011 Tutuba No code east coast back beach – – – Galipaud 2001 No code south-east coast back beach – surface pottery surface pottery – – Galipaud 2001 Mavea No code north-east coast coastal flat – pottery – – No code east coast coastal flat – pottery – – Galipaud and Vienne 2005 Galipaud and Vienne 2005; Bedford and Galipaud 2010 Malo MA 8–20 MA 8–38 MA 8–39 MA 8–40 Batuni-urunga Avunatari Naone Atanoasao coastal flat coastal flat coastal flat coastal flat >3000 >3000 >3000 – full range full range full range full range Middle Middle Middle Middle 3000–2800 3000–2800 3000–2800 3000–2800 No code No code Malakula No code No code Avnambulu Alawara coastal flat coastal flat – – pottery – – Malua Bay Uripiv Island back beach 10–100 back beach 2000 full range full range Late Late No code No code No code Wala Island Atchin Island Vao Island back beach 1000 back beach 2000 back beach 3000 full range full range full range Late Late Middle to Late 2800–2600 Bedford 2006a 2850–2600 Bedford 2003; Horrocks and Bedford 2005; Bedford et al. 2011; Kinaston et al. 2014 2800–2600 Bedford 2003 2800–2600 Bedford 2003 3000–2600 Bedford 2003, 2006b; Bedford et al. 2011 No code Lamap surface – – – No code Port Stanley surface – Talasea obsidian dentate sherd Santo No code Extent (sq m) back beach 3000 terra australis 52 Content Ceramic series pottery and Late obsidian pottery and Middle obsidian to Late Middle Age BP References 2900–2800 Bedford and Spriggs 2008 2900–2800 Bedford and Spriggs 2008; Bedford fieldnotes 2500 Galipaud 2010; Noury and Galipaud 2011 Hedrick n.d. Galipaud 1998 Hedrick n.d. Galipaud 1998; Bedford and Galipaud 2010 Hedrick 1971 Hedrick 1971 Bedford fieldnotes Bedford fieldnotes 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name Locale type Efate No code Teouma No code Content Ceramic series Age BP back beach 2000 promontory full range Early to Late Teouma west surface Early No code Erueti back beach 1000–2000 dentate sherd full range 3000–2800 Bedford et al. 2010; Petchey et al. 2014, 2015 3000–2800 Shing and Willie this volume 3000–2800 Garanger 1972; Bedford and Spriggs 2014 Erromango No code Ifo coastal flat full range No code Ponamla back beach 100–500 Aneityum No code Anelguhuat NEW CALEDONIA North coast NKM001 Boirra Extent (sq m) 17 — 1000–2000 full range Middle to Late Late 2800 Bedford et al. 1998; Bedford 2006a back beach 3000 full range Late 2800 Bedford et al. 2016 coastal flat 10 000 full range Early to Late ? Late ? Late 3000–2750 Galipaud 1988 NAR098 NPL001 West coast WKO027 WKO013 Arama Pam coastal flat mangrove – – pottery pottery Oundjo Lapita coastal flat coastal flat – 500 pottery full range WKO013A Lapita coastal flat 20 000 full range WKO013B Lapita coastal flat 250 full range WKO014 Podtanean coastal flat – WKO028 WKO141 WNP003 Koniene Podtanean Franco WNP038 Pindai WBR001 Nessadiou WBR009 Île Verte WBR006 WPT055 WPT055 Temroc Naïa Naïa coastal flat coastal flat coastal sand coastal sand coastal sand coastal dune coastal flat coastal flat coastal flat WPT148 Ongoué V8 Vavouto GD 2006–042 Deva Middle to Late References 3000–2800 Bedford 2006a – – Galipaud 1988 Sand et al. 2001 pot sherd ?Late Early to Late Early to Late Early to Late ?Late – – – – pottery pottery pot sherd ?Late ?Late ?Late – – – Gifford and Shutler 1956 Sand 1996 Galipaud 1988 Galipaud 1988 – pottery ?Late – Sand 1996 – full range 3000–2750 Sand 1996 – pot sherd Early to Late ?Late – – – pottery pottery pottery coastal flat 10 000 pottery coastal flat 10 000 full range coastal flat no estimate pottery ?Late ?Late ?Early to Late ?Early to Late Early to Late ?Late – – Baret et al. 2000 Gifford and Shutler 1956 3000–2750 Sand 1998a; Sand et al. this volume 3000–2750 Sand 1998a – – – – Frimigacci and Siorat 1988 Frimigacci 1975 Smart n.d. Frimigacci 1975 – Sand 1994 2900–2750 Sand 2010 – Barp et al. 2006 terra australis 52 18 Debating Lapita Code Location name WBR040 Deva South coast SNA019 Anse Vata Ile des Pines KVO001 Kapume KVO003 St MauriceVatcha Gadji (1) KGJ004 East coast EHI050 Dowalwoue SUN014 STY007 STY015 Witpwe Pwekina Goro Locale type coastal flat Extent Content (sq m) no estimate pot sherd Ceramic series Late Age BP References 2750 Sand et al. 2013 coastal flat – pot sherd ?Late – Frimigacci 1975 coastal dune coastal dune coastal flat – pot sherd ?Late – Golson 1962 18 000 full range 2950–2700 Sand 1999 – pot sherd Early to Late ?Late coastal sand coastal flat coastal flat coastal flat – pot sherd ?Late – – 5000 >10 000 pot sherd pottery full range Late Late Early to Late ?Late Early – – – Gifford and Shutler 1956 Sand and Ouetcho 1992 Sand and Ouetcho 1992 Sand et al. 2000 – – Sand 2010 Chiu et al. 2016 – – Sémah and Galipaud 1992 Sand et al. 2002 – Sand et al. 1999b – Sand et al. 1999b Sand et al. 2010 Frimigacci 1975 No code Kouaoua No code Pouebo Loyalty Islands LPO020 Patho coastal flat unknown no estimate pottery no estimate pottery coastal flat >2000 full range LPO023 Kurin coastal flat >5000 full range LLI002 Hnaeo – full range LWT008 LWT054 Hnajoisisi Keny 50 >20 000 full range full range LUV081 Wadrilla – pottery LTD825 Namara coastal dune rock shelter coastal dune coastal sand coastal beach ?Early to Late Early to Late Early to Late Late ?Early to Late – — pottery — — coastal flat – full range Late 2800–2400 Hunt et al. 1999 coastal flat – full range Late 2850–2750 Cochrane et al. 2011 unknown – pottery Late – Ewin 1995 coastal flat – pottery Late – Crosby 1988 coastal flat <1000 full range Late – coastal flat – pottery Late – Anderson and Clark 1999 Crosby 1988 coastal flat – pottery Late – Crosby 1988 FIJI ISLANDS Western Islands Y2–25 Yalobi, Waya Island K27–11 Tavua, Tavua Island Southern Islands No code Unlocalised, Vatulele Island BQ178A Nadawa, Beqa Island BQ175A Kulu, Beqa Island 93A Melabe, Beqa Island BQ132 Beqa, Beqa Island terra australis 52 2800–2750 Sand 1998b 2950–2750 Sand 1998b 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name UG1–2 Ugaga, Ugaga Island Nalotu Water Tank, Kadavu Island Tiliva Resort, Kadavu Island Waisomo Makawa, Ono Island No code No code No code Viti Levu Island VL1/1 Natunuku VL16/81 Yanuca No code Qara-I-Oso II VL15/1 VL16/22 Natadola Bay Naqarai VL16/1 Sigatoka No code Bourewa No code No code Rove Beach Waikereira Bay No code No code Jugendars Farm Bay Tomato Patch Bay Qoqo Island No code No code No code Locale type islet Extent (sq m) 100–500 inland, creek – full range Ceramic series Late 2800–2300 Clark 2009 pottery Late – Burley and Balenaivalu 2012 back beach 500 pottery Late – coastal flat pottery Late – Burley and Balenaivalu 2012 Burley and Balenaivalu 2012 coastal 1000 dune rock shelter 1000–3000 full range 2900–2300 Davidson et al. 1990 – Hunt 1980 inland shelter 150 pot sherd Middle to Late Middle to Late Late – Anderson et al. 2000 – – pot sherd pottery Late Late – – Palmer 1966 Hunt 1980 – pottery Late Middle to Late Late Late 2550–2700 Petchey 1995; Burley and Connaughton 2010 3000–2700 Nunn 2007 – – Kumar et al. 2004 Nunn 2007 Late – Nunn 2007 Late – Nunn 2007 Middle to Late – 2850–2650 Nunn et al. 2006 – Kumar et al. 2004 Late – Kumar 2002 pottery Late – Nunn 1999 back beach 300 full range 2900–2700 Nunn et al. 2007 coastal flat 1000–3000 full range Middle to Late Middle coastal flat – pottery Late 2900–2700 Best 2002; Irwin et al. 2011 2600 Nunn et al. 2005 coastal flat – surface sherds – – Nunn et al. 2004 unknown – pottery Late – Parke 2000 – Content full range coastal dune coastal dune sandspit/ beach coastal flat coastal flat 12 500 full range – – coastal flat – coastal flat – tombolo 5000 pottery surface sherds surface sherds surface sherds full range Navutulevu coastal flat – Qaqaruku rock shelter – Central Islands (Koro Sea) No code Saulevu, Moturiki Island No code Naitabale, Moturiki Island VL21/5 Naigani, Naigani Island No code Vagariki, Yadua Island No code Taviya, Ovalau Island Northern Islands No code Yacata, Yacata Island islet – surface sherds surface sherds Age BP 19 References terra australis 52 20 Debating Lapita Code Location name No code Vaturekuka, Vanua Levu Island Nukubalavu, Vanua Levu Island Vorovoro, Vorovoro Island Ligaulevu, Mali Island Kavewa, Kavewa Island Naselala, Cikobia-i-Ra Island No code No code No code No code CIK006 Lau Group No code No code No code No code 101/7/197 101/7/196 No code No code No code No code To31/1 To31/2 To31/3 No code No code No code Susui, Bureniwaqa Cikobia-i-Lau, Cikobia-i-Lau Island Votua, Mago Island Sovanibeka, Mago Island Lakeba, Lakeba Island QaranipuqaWakea, Lakeba Island Namuka, Namuka Island Komo, Komo Island Unlocalised (2), Moce Island Fulaga, Fulaga Island Udu, Totoya Island Lawaki Levu, Totoya Island Waroke, Totoya Island Ono-i-Lau (3), Oni-i-Lau Island Na Masimasi, Nayau Island Vulago, Nayau Island Locale type riverbank Extent (sq m) – Ceramic series pottery and Late lithics Age BP References – Parke 2000 back beach 500 full range Late 2800 Jones pers. comm. tombolo 500 full range Middle 3000 Burley 2012 coastal flat – pottery Late – Burley notes coastal flat 750 full range Middle – coastal flat – full range Late Burley et al. this volume 2800–2400 Sand et al. 1999a coastal flat – pottery Late – coastal flat – pottery Late – coastal flat 1000–3000 full range Late 2800–2600 Clark 2009 rock shelter 30 pottery Late 2700–2300 Clark and Hope 1997 rock shelter 80 full range 2800–2700 Best 1984 coastal flat 15 000 full range Middle to Late Middle to Late unknown – pottery – – Best pers. comm. unknown – pottery – – Best pers. comm. unknown – pottery – – Best 1984 unknown – pottery – – Best 1984 coastal flat – pottery Late – Clark and Cole 1997 coastal flat – pottery Late – Clark and Cole 1997 coastal flat – pottery Late – Clark and Cole 1997 coastal flat – pottery – – Best 1984 coastal flat – full range Late – O’Day et al. 2004 coastal flat – full range Late – O’Day et al. 2004 terra australis 52 Content Nunn and Matararaba 2000 Nunn and Matararaba 2000 2800–2700 Best 1984 1. Debating Lapita Code Location name Locale type Extent (sq m) Content Ceramic series Age BP TONGA Tongatapu To.2/TO–NK–2 Nukuleka coastal flat 2500 full range No code Hopoate coastal flat 2000 full range 2850–2650 Poulsen 1987; Burley et al. 2010, 2012 2850–2650 Burley 2016 No code Talasiu 450 full range 2700–2650 Clark et al. 2015 No code Tatakamotonga – pottery Late – Burley et al. 2001 No code – pottery Late – Burley notes No code No code Captain Cook Landing Tinopai Kauvai 1 back beach ridge back beach ridge back beach ridge coastal flat coastal flat Middle/ Late Middle/ Late Late – – pottery pottery No code Kauvai 2 500 full range Late 2750–2650 Burley notes ?Middle/ – Burley notes Late Late 2750–2650 Burley notes No code Nukuhetulu – pottery Late – Burley et al. 2001 No code Kanatea Island – pottery Late – Burley notes – full range Late 750 full range Late 2800–2650 Poulsen 1987; Burley et al. 2001 2750–2650 Burley notes 2150 full range Late 2750–2650 Poulsen 1987 4300 1500 full range full range Late Late 2800–2650 Poulsen 1987 2600–2300 Poulsen 1987 – pottery Late – To.5/TO–Pe–5 Ha‘ateiho No code Uluaki (Golf Course) To.3 & 4/ Pea, Taufa‘ahau TO–Pe–3 Road To.1 Pea School Yard To.6/TO–Pe–6 Tufu Mahina back beach ridge back beach ridge back beach ridge back beach ridge back beach ridge coastal flat TO–Pe–28 Vaiola Hospital No code Hofoa TO–Nu–2 Fire Station coastal flat back beach ridge back beach ridge back beach ridge coastal flat TO–Nu–12 Unga Road coastal flat TO–Nu–8 No code Mangaia Mound coastal flat 500 Puke back beach 500 ridge Sia‘atoutai Flats coastal flat – No code Ha‘apai Group No code Fakatafenga, Tungua No code Ha‘afeva, Mele Havea No code Vaipuna, ‘Uiha No code Tongoleleka, Lifuka References Spennemann 1989; Burley et al. 2001 Burley notes – pottery Late – 2500 full range Late – pottery Late full range full range Late Late 2750–2650 Spennemann 1989; Burley et al. 2001 – Spennemann 1989; Burley et al. 2001 2750–2650 Poulsen 1987 2700–2600 Burley notes pottery Late – Burley notes coastal flat 500 pottery Late – Burley et al. 1999 coastal flat 750 pottery Late – Burley et al. 1999 pottery full range Late Late 2800–2500 Burley et al. 1999 2800–2600 Burley et al. 1999 coastal flat 750 back beach 1500 ridge 21 terra australis 52 22 Debating Lapita Code No code No code Location name Locale type Faleloa, Foa back beach ridge Pukotala, Ha‘ano back beach ridge Vava‘u Group No code Vuna, Pangaimotu Island No code Ofu, Ofu Island No code No code No code ‘Otea, Kapa Island Falevai, Kapa Island Mafana, Mafana Island Niuatoputapu NT–90 Lolokoka SAMOA Upolu No code Mulifanua Extent (sq m) 750 Content Age BP full range Ceramic series Late 100 pottery Late 2700–2600 Burley et al. 1999 coastal dune 1500 full range Late 2750–2600 Burley 2007; Burley and Connaughton 2007 coastal flat 1500 full range Late back beach 800 ridge back beach 500 ridge coastal flat 400 full range Late full range Late pottery Late 2750–2600 Burley 2007; Burley and Connaughton 2007 2750–2600 Burley 2007; Burley and Connaughton 2007 2700–2600 Burley 2007; Burley and Connaughton 2007 – Burley 2007 coastal flat 3000 pottery Late 2750–2600 Kirch 1988 submerged 6000 beach pottery ?Early 2750 10 000 full range 2800–2750 Sand 1998c 1000 full range WALLIS MU021 Utuleve MU046 Utuleve coastal sand coastal flat HI012 FUTUNA SI001 Utupoa coastal flat – pottery Early to Late Early to Late Late Asipani coastal flat >3000 full range Late References 2650–2550 Burley et al. 1999 Dickinson and Green 1998 – Frimigacci 2000 – Frimigacci 2000 – Sand 1993 Source: See references throughout table. 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