FUNDAMENTALS
OF GAS DYNAMICS
FUNDAMENTALS
OF GAS DYNAMICS
Second Edition
ROBERT D. ZUCKER
OSCAR BIBLARZ
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
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This book is printed on acid-free paper. 䡬
Copyright © 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Zucker, Robert D.
Fundamentals of gas dynamics.—2nd ed. / Robert D. Zucker and Oscar Biblarz.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-471-05967-6 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Gas dynamics. I. Biblarz, Oscar. II. Title.
QC168 .Z79 2002
533'.2—dc21
Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2002028816
[-4], (4)
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Contents
PREFACE
xi
TO THE STUDENT
1
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
Introduction
Units and Notation
Some Mathematical Concepts
Thermodynamic Concepts for Control Mass Analysis
Review Questions
Review Problems
Introduction
Objectives
Flow Dimensionality and Average Velocity
Transformation of a Material Derivative to a Control
Volume Approach
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Energy
Summary
Problems
Check Test
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART II
3.1
Introduction
xiii
1
1
1
7
10
18
20
23
23
23
24
27
32
35
44
46
48
51
51
v
vi
CONTENTS
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4
Objectives
Comments on Entropy
Pressure–Energy Equation
The Stagnation Concept
Stagnation Pressure–Energy Equation
Consequences of Constant Density
Momentum Equation
Summary
Problems
Check Test
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Introduction
Objectives
Sonic Velocity and Mach Number
Wave Propagation
Equations for Perfect Gases in Terms of Mach Number
h–s and T –s Diagrams
Summary
Problems
Check Test
5 VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
Introduction
Objectives
General Fluid—No Losses
Perfect Gases with Losses
The ∗ Reference Concept
Isentropic Table
Nozzle Operation
Nozzle Performance
Diffuser Performance
When γ Is Not Equal to 1.4
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
51
52
54
55
59
61
66
75
77
81
83
83
83
84
89
92
97
99
100
102
105
105
105
106
111
115
118
124
131
133
135
135
138
139
144
CONTENTS
6
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
7
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
8
Introduction
Objectives
Shock Analysis—General Fluid
Working Equations for Perfect Gases
Normal-Shock Table
Shocks in Nozzles
Supersonic Wind Tunnel Operation
When γ Is Not Equal to 1.4
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
Introduction
Objectives
Normal Velocity Superposition: Moving Normal Shocks
Tangential Velocity Superposition: Oblique Shocks
Oblique-Shock Analysis: Perfect Gas
Oblique-Shock Table and Charts
Boundary Condition of Flow Direction
Boundary Condition of Pressure Equilibrium
Conical Shocks
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Introduction
Objectives
Argument for Isentropic Turning Flow
Analysis of Prandtl–Meyer Flow
Prandtl–Meyer Function
Overexpanded and Underexpanded Nozzles
Supersonic Airfoils
vii
147
147
147
148
151
154
159
164
166
168
169
170
174
175
175
175
176
179
185
187
189
193
195
198
200
201
205
207
207
207
208
214
218
221
226
viii
CONTENTS
8.8
8.9
8.10
9
FANNO FLOW
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
10
11
When γ Is Not Equal to 1.4
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
Introduction
Objectives
Analysis for a General Fluid
Working Equations for Perfect Gases
Reference State and Fanno Table
Applications
Correlation with Shocks
Friction Choking
When γ Is Not Equal to 1.4
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
230
231
232
233
238
241
241
241
242
248
253
257
261
264
267
268
269
270
274
RAYLEIGH FLOW
277
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
277
278
278
288
293
295
298
302
305
306
307
308
313
Introduction
Objectives
Analysis for a General Fluid
Working Equations for Perfect Gases
Reference State and the Rayleigh Table
Applications
Correlation with Shocks
Thermal Choking due to Heating
When γ Is Not Equal to 1.4
(Optional) Beyond the Tables
Summary
Problems
Check Test
REAL GAS EFFECTS
315
11.1
11.2
315
316
Introduction
Objectives
CONTENTS
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
12
What’s Really Going On
Semiperfect Gas Behavior, Development of the Gas Table
Real Gas Behavior, Equations of State and
Compressibility Factors
Variable γ —Variable-Area Flows
Variable γ —Constant-Area Flows
Summary
Problems
Check Test
ix
317
319
325
329
336
338
340
341
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
343
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
343
343
344
353
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
Introduction
Objectives
Brayton Cycle
Propulsion Engines
General Performance Parameters,
Thrust, Power, and Efficiency
Air-Breathing Propulsion Systems
Performance Parameters
Air-Breathing Propulsion Systems
Incorporating Real Gas Effects
Rocket Propulsion Systems
Performance Parameters
Supersonic Diffusers
Summary
Problems
Check Test
369
375
380
381
384
387
388
392
APPENDIXES
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Summary of the English Engineering (EE) System of Units
Summary of the International System (SI) of Units
Friction-Factor Chart
Oblique-Shock Charts (γ = 1.4) (Two-Dimensional)
Conical-Shock Charts (γ = 1.4) (Three-Dimensional)
Generalized Compressibility Factor Chart
Isentropic Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4)
(including Prandtl–Meyer Function)
H. Normal-Shock Parameters (γ = 1.4)
I. Fanno Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4)
396
400
404
406
410
414
416
428
438
x
CONTENTS
J. Rayleigh Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4)
K. Properties of Air at Low Pressures
L. Specific Heats of Air at Low Pressures
450
462
470
SELECTED REFERENCES
473
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
477
INDEX
487
Preface
This book is written for the average student who wants to learn the fundamentals
of gas dynamics. It aims at the undergraduate level and thus requires a minimum
of prerequisites. The writing style is informal and incorporates ideas in educational
technology such as behavioral objectives, meaningful summaries, and check tests.
Such features make this book well suited for self-study as well as for conventional
course presentation. Sufficient material is included for a typical one-quarter or onesemester course, depending on the student’s background.
Our approach in this book is to develop all basic relations on a rigorous basis with
equations that are valid for the most general case of the unsteady, three-dimensional
flow of an arbitrary fluid. These relations are then simplified to represent meaningful
engineering problems for one- and two-dimensional steady flows. All basic internal
and external flows are covered with practical applications which are interwoven
throughout the text. Attention is focused on the assumptions made at every step of the
analysis; emphasis is placed on the usefulness of the T –s diagram and the significance
of any relevant loss terms.
Examples and problems are provided in both the English Engineering and SI
systems of units. Homework problems range from the routine to the complex, with
all charts and tables necessary for their solution included in the Appendixes.
The goals for the user should be not only to master the fundamental concepts
but also to develop good problem-solving skills. After completing this book the
student should be capable of pursuing the many references that are available on more
advanced topics.
Professor Oscar Biblarz joins Robert D. Zucker as coauthor in this edition. We
have both taught gas dynamics from this book for many years. We both shared in
the preparation of the new manuscript and in the proofreading. This edition has been
expanded to include (1) material on conical shocks, (2) several sections showing how
computer calculations can be helpful, and (3) an entire chapter on real gases, including
simple methods to handle these problems. These topics have made the book more
complete while retaining its original purpose and style.
xi
xii
PREFACE
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the help of Professors Raymond P.
Shreeve and Garth V. Hobson of the Turbopropulsion Laboratory at the Naval Postgraduate School, particularly in the propulsion area. We also want to mention that
our many students throughout the years have provided the inspiration and motivation
for preparing this material. In particular, for the first edition, we want to acknowledge Ernest Lewis, Allen Roessig, and Joseph Strada for their contributions beyond
the classroom. We would also like to thank the Lockheed-Martin Aeronautics Company, General Electric Aircraft Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, the Boeing Company, and the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom for providing
photographs that illustrate various parts of the book. John Wiley & Sons should be
recognized for understanding that the deliberate informal style of this book makes it
a more effective teaching tool.
Professor Zucker owes a great deal to Newman Hall and Ascher Shapiro, whose
books provided his first introduction to the area of compressible flow. Also, he would
like to thank his wife, Polly, for sharing this endeavor with him for a second time.
ROBERT D. ZUCKER
Pebble Beach, CA
OSCAR BIBLARZ
Monterey, CA
To the Student
You don’t need much background to enter the fascinating world of gas dynamics.
However, it will be assumed that you have been exposed to college-level courses in
calculus and thermodynamics. Specifically, you are expected to know:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Simple differentiation and integration
The meaning of a partial derivative
The significance of a dot product
How to draw free-body diagrams
How to resolve a force into its components
Newton’s Second Law of motion
About properties of fluids, particularly perfect gases
The Zeroth, First, and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
The first six prerequisites are very specific; the last two cover quite a bit of territory.
In fact, a background in thermodynamics is so important to the study of gas dynamics
that a review of the necessary concepts for control mass analysis is contained in
Chapter 1. If you have recently completed a course in thermodynamics, you may
skip most of this chapter, but you should read the questions at the end of the chapter.
If you can answer these, press on! If any difficulties arise, refer back to the material
in the chapter. Many of these equations will be used throughout the rest of the book.
You may even want to get more confidence by working some of the review problems
in Chapter 1.
In Chapters 2 and 3 we convert the fundamental laws into a form needed for control volume analysis. If you have had a good course in fluid mechanics, much of this
material should be familiar to you. A section on constant-density fluids is included to
show the general applicability in that area and to tie in with any previous work that
you have done in this area. If you haven’t studied fluid mechanics, don’t worry. All
the material that you need to know in this area is included. Because several special
xiii
xiv
TO THE STUDENT
concepts are developed that are not treated in many thermodynamics and fluid mechanics courses, read these chapters even if you have the relevant background. They
form the backbone of gas dynamics and are referred to frequently in later chapters.
In Chapter 4 you are introduced to the characteristics of compressible fluids. Then
in the following chapters, various basic flow phenomena are analyzed one by one:
varying area, normal and oblique shocks, supersonic expansions and compressions,
duct friction, and heat transfer. A wide variety of practical engineering problems can
be solved with these concepts, and many of these problems are covered throughout the
text. Examples of these are the off-design operation of supersonic nozzles, supersonic
wind tunnels, blast waves, supersonic airfoils, some methods of flow measurement,
and choking from friction or thermal effects. You will find that supersonic flow brings
about special problems in that it does not seem to follow your intuition. In Chapter
11 you will be exposed to what goes on at the molecular level. You will see how this
affects real gases and learn some simple techniques to handle these situations.
Aircraft propulsion systems (with their air inlets, afterburners, and exit nozzles)
represent an interesting application of nearly all the basic gas dynamic flow situations. Thus, in Chapter 12 we describe and analyze common airbreathing propulsion
systems, including turbojets, turbofans, and turboprops. Other propulsion systems,
such as rockets, ramjets, and pulsejets, are also covered.
A number of chapters contain material that shows how to use computers in certain
calculations. The aim is to indicate how software might be applied as a means of getting answers by using the same equations that could be worked on by other methods.
The computer utility MAPLE is our choice, but if you have not studied MAPLE, don’t
worry. All the gas dynamics is presented in the sections preceding such applications
so that the computer sections may be completely omitted.
This book has been written especially for you, the student. We hope that its
informal style will put you at ease and motivate you to read on. Student comments
on the first edition indicate that this objective has been accomplished. Once you
have passed the review chapter, the remaining chapters follow a similar format. The
following suggestions may help you optimize your study time. When you start each
chapter, read the introduction, as this will give you the general idea of what the
chapter is all about. The next section contains a set of learning objectives. These
tell exactly what you should be able to do after completing the chapter successfully.
Some objectives are marked optional, as they are only for the most serious students.
Merely scan the objectives, as they won’t mean much at first. However, they will
indicate important things to look for. As you read the material you may occasionally
be asked to do something—complete a derivation, fill in a chart, draw a diagram, etc.
Make an honest attempt to follow these instructions before proceeding further. You
will not be asked to do something that you haven’t the background to do, and your
active participation will help solidify important concepts and provide feedback on
your progress.
As you complete each section, look back to see if any of these objectives have been
covered. If so, make sure that you can do them. Write out the answers; these will help
you in later studies. You may wish to make your own summary of important points
in each chapter, then see how well it agrees with the summary provided. After having
TO THE STUDENT
xv
worked a representative group of problems, you are ready to check your knowledge
by taking the test at the end of the chapter. This should always be treated as a closedbook affair, with the exception of tables and charts in the Appendixes. If you have any
difficulties with this test, you should go back and restudy the appropriate sections. Do
not proceed to the next chapter without completing the previous one satisfactorily.
Not all chapters are the same length, and in fact most of them are a little long
to tackle all at once. You might find it easier to break them into “bite-sized” pieces
according to the Correlation Table on the following page. Work some problems on
the first group of objectives and sections before proceeding to the next group. Crisis
management is not recommended. You should spend time each day working through
the material. Learning can be fun—and it should be! However, knowledge doesn’t
come free. You must expend time and effort to accomplish the job. We hope that this
book will make the task of exploring gas dynamics more enjoyable. Any suggestions
that you might have to improve this material will be most welcome.
xvi
TO THE STUDENT
Correlation Table for Sections, Objectives, and Problems
Optional
Section
1
1–3
4
4
2
1–5
6
1–5
6–9
1–6
7–15
3
1–7
8
1–9
10–12
1–14
15–22
4
1–6
1–10
1–17
5
1–6
7–10
11
1–7
8–12
1–8
9–24
1–5
6–8
9
1–7
8–10
1–6
7–19
1–3
4–8
9
10
1–2
3–9
10–11
1–5
6–8
1–6
7–9
5
9
1–6
7–9
10
1–7
8–11
2, 5
10
1–12
13–23
23
1–6
7–9
10
1–7
8–11
2, 6
10
1–8
9–22
22
1–5
6–7
1–7
8
9
1–10
11–15
1–3
4–7
8–9
1–4
5–11
12–15
8, 9, 11
14
1–5
6–15
16–24
7
8
9
10
11
12
Problems
Optional
Problem
Sections
6
Objectives
Optional
Objectives
Chapter
Q: 1–9
Q: 10–34
P: 1–5
5
1–5
6–17
18–19
1–6
7–18
Chapter 1
Review of
Elementary
Principles
1.1
INTRODUCTION
It is assumed that before entering the world of gas dynamics you have had a reasonable background in mathematics (through calculus) together with a course in elementary thermodynamics. An exposure to basic fluid mechanics would be helpful
but is not absolutely essential. The concepts used in fluid mechanics are relatively
straightforward and can be developed as we need them. On the other hand, some of
the concepts of thermodynamics are more abstract and we must assume that you already understand the fundamental laws of thermodynamics as they apply to stationary
systems. The extension of these laws to flow systems is so vital that we cover these
systems in depth in Chapters 2 and 3.
This chapter is not intended to be a formal review of the courses noted above;
rather, it should be viewed as a collection of the basic concepts and facts that will be
used later. It should be understood that a great deal of background is omitted in this
review and no attempt is made to prove each statement. Thus, if you have been away
from this material for any length of time, you may find it necessary occasionally to
refer to your notes or other textbooks to supplement this review. At the very least,
the remainder of this chapter may be considered an assumed common ground of
knowledge from which we shall venture forth.
At the end of this chapter a number of questions are presented for you to answer.
No attempt should be made to continue further until you feel that you can answer all
of these questions satisfactorily.
1.2
UNITS AND NOTATION
Dimension: a qualitative definition of a physical entity
(such as time, length, force)
1
2
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Unit: an exact magnitude of a dimension
(such as seconds, feet, newtons)
In the United States most work in the area of thermo-gas dynamics (particularly
in propulsion) is currently done in the English Engineering (EE) system of units.
However, most of the world is operating in the metric or International System (SI) of
units. Thus, we shall review both systems, beginning with Table 1.1.
Force and Mass
In either system of units, force and mass are related through Newton’s second law of
motion, which states that
−−−→
d(momentum)
F∝
dt
(1.1)
The proportionality factor is expressed as K = 1/gc , and thus
−→
1 d(momentum)
F=
gc
dt
(1.2)
For a mass that does not change with time, this becomes
ma
(1.3)
F=
gc
where
F is the vector force summation acting on the mass m and a is the vector
acceleration of the mass.
In the English Engineering system, we use the following definition:
A 1-pound force will give a 1-pound mass an acceleration of 32.174
ft/sec2.
Table 1.1
Systems of Unitsa
Basic Unit Used
Dimension
English Engineering
International System
Time
Length
Force
Mass
Temperature
Absolute Temperature
second (sec)
foot (ft)
pound force (lbf)
pound mass (lbm)
Fahrenheit (°F)
Rankine (°R)
second (s)
meter (m)
newton (N)
kilogram (kg)
Celsius (°C)
kelvin (K)
a
Caution: Never say pound, as this is ambiguous. It is either a pound force or a pound mass. Only for mass
at the Earth’s surface is it unambiguous, because here a pound mass weighs a pound force.
1.2
UNITS AND NOTATION
3
With this definition, we have
1 lbf =
1 lbm · 32.174 ft/sec2
gc
and thus
gc = 32.174
lbm-ft
lbf-sec2
(1.4a)
Note that gc is not the standard gravity (check the units). It is a proportionality factor
whose value depends on the units being used. In further discussions we shall take the
numerical value of gc to be 32.2 when using the English Engineering system.
In other engineering fields of endeavor, such as statics and dynamics, the British
Gravitational system (also known as the U.S. customary system) is used. This is very
similar to the English Engineering system except that the unit of mass is the slug.
In this system of units we follow the definition:
A 1-pound force will give a 1-slug mass an acceleration of 1
ft/sec2.
Using this definition, we have
1 lbf =
1 slug · 1 ft/sec2
gc
(1.4b)
and thus
gc = 1
slug-ft
lbf-sec2
Since gc has the numerical value of unity, most authors drop this factor from the
equations in the British Gravitational system. Consistent with the thermodynamics
approach, we shall not use this system here. Comparison of the Engineering and
Gravitational systems shows that 1 slug ≡ 32.174 lbm.
In the SI system we use the following definition:
A 1-N force will give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of
1 m/sec2.
Now equation (1.3) becomes
1N =
1 kg · 1 m/s2
gc
4
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
and thus
gc = 1
kg · m
N · s2
(1.4c)
Since gc has the numerical value of unity (and uses the dynamical unit of mass, i.e.,
the kilogram) most authors omit this factor from equations in the SI system. However,
we shall leave the symbol gc in the equations so that you may use any system of units
with less likelihood of making errors.
Density and Specific Volume
Density is the mass per unit volume and is given the symbol ρ. It has units of lbm/ft3,
kg/m3, or slug/ft3.
Specific volume is the volume per unit mass and is given the symbol v. It has units
of ft3/lbm, m3/kg, or ft3/slug. Thus
ρ=
1
v
(1.5)
Specific weight is the weight (due to the gravity force) per unit volume and is given
the symbol γ . If we take a unit volume under the influence of gravity, its weight will
be γ . Thus, from equation (1.3) we have
γ =ρ
g
gc
lbf/ft3 or N/m3
(1.6)
Note that mass, density, and specific volume do not depend on the value of the local
gravity. Weight and specific weight do depend on gravity. We shall not refer to specific
weight in this book; it is mentioned here only to distinguish it from density. Thus the
symbol γ may be used for another purpose [see equation (1.49)].
Pressure
Pressure is the normal force per unit area and is given the symbol p. It has units of
lbf/ft2 or N/m2. Several other units exist, such as the pound per square inch (psi;
lbf/in2), the megapascal (MPa; 1 × 106 N/m2), the bar (1 × 105 N/m2), and the
atmosphere (14.69 psi or 0.1013 MPa).
Absolute pressure is measured with respect to a perfect vacuum.
Gage pressure is measured with respect to the surrounding (ambient) pressure:
pabs = pamb + pgage
(1.7)
When the gage pressure is negative (i.e., the absolute pressure is below ambient) it is
usually called a (positive) vacuum reading:
pabs = pamb − pvac
(1.8)
1.2
UNITS AND NOTATION
5
Figure 1.1 Absolute and gage pressures.
Two pressure readings are shown in Figure 1.1. Case 1 shows the use of equation
(1.7) and case 2 illustrates equation (1.8). It should be noted that the surrounding
(ambient) pressure does not necessarily have to correspond to standard atmospheric
pressure. However, when no other information is available, one has to assume that
the surroundings are at 14.69 psi or 0.1013 MPa. Most often, equations require the
use of absolute pressure, and we shall use a numerical value of 14.7 when using the
English Engineering system and 0.1 MPa (1 bar) when using the SI system.
Temperature
Degrees Fahrenheit (or Celsius) can safely be used only when differences in temperature are involved. However, most equations require the use of absolute temperature
in Rankine (or kelvins).
°R = °F + 459.67
(1.9a)
K = °C + 273.15
(1.9b)
The values 460 and 273 will be used in our calculations.
Viscosity
We shall be dealing with fluids, which are defined as
Any substance that will continuously deform when subjected to a shear stress.
6
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Thus the amount of deformation is of no significance (as it is with a solid), but rather,
the rate of deformation is characteristic of each individual fluid and is indicated by
the viscosity:
viscosity ≡
shear stress
rate of angular deformation
(1.10)
Viscosity, sometimes called absolute viscosity, is given the symbol µ and has the
units lbf-sec/ft2 or N · s/m2.
For most common fluids, because viscosity is a function of the fluid, it varies with
the fluid’s state. Temperature has by far the greatest effect on viscosity, so most charts
and tables display only this variable. Pressure has a slight effect on the viscosity of
gases but a negligible effect on liquids.
A number of engineering computations use a combination of (absolute) viscosity
and density. This kinematic viscosity is defined as
ν≡
µgc
ρ
(1.11)
Kinematic viscosity has the units ft2/sec or m2/s. We shall see more regarding viscosity in Chapter 9 when we deal with flow losses caused by duct friction.
Equation of State
In most of this book we consider all liquids as having constant density and all gases
as following the perfect gas equation of state. Thus, for liquids we have the relation
ρ = constant
(1.12)
The perfect gas equation of state is derived from kinetic theory and neglects molecular
volume and intermolecular forces. Thus it is accurate under conditions of relatively
low density which correspond to relatively low pressures and/or high temperatures.
The form of the perfect gas equation normally used in gas dynamics is
p = ρRT
(1.13)
where
p ≡ absolute pressure
ρ ≡ density
T ≡ absolute temperature
R ≡ individual gas constant
lbf/ft2
lbm/ft3
°R
ft-lbf/lbm-°R
or
or
or
or
N/m2
kg/m3
K
N · m/kg · K
The individual gas constant is found in the English Engineering system by dividing
1545 by the molecular mass of the gas chemical constituents. In the SI system, R
1.3
SOME MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
7
is found by dividing 8314 by the molecular mass. More exact numbers are given in
Appendixes A and B.
Example 1.1 The (equivalent) molecular mass of air is 28.97.
R=
1545
= 53.3 ft-lbf/lbm-°R
28.97
or R =
8314
= 287 N · m/kg · K
28.97
Example 1.2 Compute the density of air at 50 psia and 100°F.
ρ=
p
(50)(144)
=
= 0.241 lbm/ft3
RT
(53.3)(460 + 100)
Properties of selected gases are given in Appendixes A and B. In most of this book
we use English Engineering units. However, there are many examples and problems
in SI units. Some helpful conversion factors are also given in Appendixes A and B.
You should become familiar with solving problems in both systems of units.
In Chapter 11 we discuss real gases and show how these may be handled. The simplifications that the perfect gas equation of state brings about are not only extremely
useful but also accurate for ordinary gases because in most gas dynamics applications
low temperatures exist with low pressures and high temperatures with high pressures.
In Chapter 11 we shall see that deviations from ideality become particularly important
at high temperatures and low pressures.
1.3
SOME MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
Variables
The equation
y = f (x)
(1.14)
indicates that a functional relation exists between the variables x and y. Further, it
denotes that
x is the independent variable, whose value can be given anyplace within an appropriate range.
y is the dependent variable, whose value is fixed once x has been selected.
In most cases it is possible to interchange the dependent and independent variables
and write
x = f (y)
(1.15)
Frequently, a variable will depend on more than one other variable. One might write
P = f (x,y,z)
(1.16)
8
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
indicating that the value of the dependent variable P is fixed once the values of the
independent variables x, y, and z are selected.
Infinitesimal
A quantity that is eventually allowed to approach zero in the limit is called an infinitesimal. It should be noted that a quantity, say x, can initially be chosen to have
a rather large finite value. If at some later stage in the analysis we let x approach
zero, which is indicated by
x → 0
x is called an infinitesimal.
Derivative
If y = f (x), we define the derivative dy/dx as the limit of y/x as x is allowed
to approach zero. This is indicated by
dy
y
≡ lim
x→0 x
dx
(1.17)
For a unique derivative to exist, it is immaterial how x is allowed to approach zero.
If more than one independent variable is involved, partial derivatives must be
used. Say that P = f (x,y,z). We can determine the partial derivative ∂P /∂x by
taking the limit of P /x as x approaches zero, but in so doing we must hold the
values of all other independent variables constant. This is indicated by
P
∂P
≡ lim
(1.18)
x→0
∂x
x y,z
where the subscripts y and z denote that these variables remain fixed in the limiting
process. We could formulate other partial derivatives as
P
∂P
≡ lim
and so on
(1.19)
y→0
∂y
y x,z
Differential
For functions of a single variable such as y = f (x), the differential of the dependent
variable is defined as
dy ≡
dy
x
dx
(1.20)
The differential of an independent variable is defined as its increment; thus
dx ≡ x
(1.21)
1.3
SOME MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
9
and one can write
dy =
dy
dx
dx
(1.22)
For functions of more than one variable, such as P = f (x,y,z), the differential of
the dependent variable is defined as
∂P
∂P
∂P
x +
y +
z
(1.23a)
dP ≡
∂x y,z
∂y x,z
∂z x,y
or
dP ≡
∂P
∂x
dx +
y,z
∂P
∂y
dy +
x,z
∂P
∂z
dz
(1.23b)
x,y
It is important to note that quantities such as ∂P , ∂x, ∂y, and ∂z by themselves are
never defined and do not exist. Under no circumstance can one “separate” a partial
derivative. This is an error frequently made by students when integrating partial
differential equations.
Maximum and Minimum
If a plot is made of the functional relation y = f (x), maximum and/or minimum
points may be exhibited. At these points dy/dx = 0. If the point is a maximum,
d 2 y/dx 2 will be negative; whereas if it is a minimum point, d 2 y/dx 2 will be positive.
Natural Logarithms
From time to time you will be required to manipulate expressions containing natural
logarithms. For this you need to recall that
ln A = x
means
ex = A
(1.24)
ln CD = ln C + ln D
(1.24a)
ln E = n ln E
(1.24b)
n
Taylor Series
When the functional relation y = f (x) is not known but the values of y together with
those of its derivatives are known at a particular point (say, x1 ), the value of y may
be found at any other point (say, x2 ) through the use of a Taylor series expansion:
f (x2 ) = f (x1 ) +
df
d 2 f (x2 − x1 )2
(x2 − x1 ) +
dx
dx 2
2!
d 3 f (x2 − x1 )3
+ ···
+
dx 3
3!
(1.25)
10
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
To use this expansion the function must be continuous and possess continuous derivatives throughout the interval x1 to x2 . It should be noted that all derivatives in the
expression above must be evaluated about the point of expansion x1 .
If the increment x = x2 − x1 is small, only a few terms need be evaluated to
obtain an accurate answer for f (x2 ). If x is allowed to approach zero, all higherorder terms may be dropped and
df
dx
for dx → 0
(1.26)
f (x2 ) ≈ f (x1 ) +
dx x=x1
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL MASS ANALYSIS
We apologize for the length of this section, but a good understanding of thermodynamic principles is essential to a study of gas dynamics.
General Definitions
Microscopic approach: deals with individual molecules, and with their motion
and behavior, on a statistical basis. It depends on our understanding of the
structure and behavior of matter at the atomic level. Thus this view is being
refined continually.
Macroscopic approach: deals directly with the average behavior of molecules
through observable and measurable properties (temperature, pressure, etc.).
This classical approach involves no assumptions regarding the molecular structure of matter; thus no modifications of the basic laws are necessary. The macroscopic approach is used in this book through the first 10 chapters.
Control mass: a fixed quantity of mass that is being analyzed. It is separated from
its surroundings by a boundary. A control mass is also referred to as a closed
system. Although no matter crosses the boundary, energy may enter or leave
the system.
Control volume: a region of space that is being analyzed. The boundary separating
it from its surroundings is called the control surface. Matter as well as energy
may cross the control surface, and thus a control volume is also referred to as
an open system. Analysis of a control volume is introduced in Chapters 2 and 3.
Properties: characteristics that describe the state of a system; any quantity that has
a definite value for each definite state of a system (e.g., pressure, temperature,
color, entropy).
Intensive property: depends only on the state of a system and is independent of its
mass (e.g., temperature, pressure).
Extensive property: depends on the mass of a system (e.g., internal energy, volume).
Types of properties:
1. Observable: readily measured
(pressure, temperature, velocity, mass, etc.)
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL MASS ANALYSIS
11
2. Mathematical: defined from combinations of other properties
(density, specific heats, enthalpy, etc.)
3. Derived: arrived at as the result of analysis
a. Internal energy (from the first law of thermodynamics)
b. Entropy (from the second law of thermodynamics)
State change: comes about as the result of a change in any property.
Path or process: represents a series of consecutive states that define a unique path
from one state to another. Some special processes:
Adiabatic
→
no heat transfer
Isothermal
→
T = constant
Isobaric
→
p = constant
Isentropic
→
s = constant
Cycle: a sequence of processes in which the system is returned to the original state.
Point functions: another way of saying properties, since they depend only on the
state of the system and are independent of the history or process by which the
state was obtained.
Path functions: quantities that are not functions of the state of the system but rather
depend on the path taken to move from one state to another. Heat and work are
path functions. They can be observed crossing the system’s boundaries during
a process.
Laws of Classical Thermodynamics
02
0
1
2
Relation among properties
Thermal equilibrium
Conservation of energy
Degradation of energy (irreversibilities)
The 02 law (sometimes called the 00 law) is seldom listed as a formal law of thermodynamics; however, one should realize that without such a statement our entire
thermodynamic structure would collapse. This law states that we may assume the
existence of a relation among the properties, that is, an equation of state. Such an
equation might be extremely complicated or even undefined, but as long as we know
that such a relation exists, we can continue our studies. The equation of state can also
be given in the form of tabular or graphical information.
For a single component or pure substance only three independent properties are
required to fix the state of the system. Care must be taken in the selection of these
properties; for example, temperature and pressure are not independent if the substance
exists in more than one phase (as in a liquid together with its vapor). When dealing
with a unit mass, only two independent properties are required to fix the state. Thus
12
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
one can express any property in terms of two other known independent properties
with a relation such as
P = f (x,y)
If two systems are separated by a nonadiabatic wall (one that permits heat transfer),
the state of each system will change until a new equilibrium state is reached for the
combined system. The two systems are then said to be in thermal equilibrium with
each other and will then have one property in common which we call the temperature.
The zeroth law states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system
are in thermal equilibrium with each other (and thus have the same temperature).
Among other things, this allows the use of thermometers and their standardization.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law deals with conservation of energy, and it can be expressed in many
equivalent ways. Heat and work are two extreme types of energy in transit. Heat is
transferred from one system to another when an effect occurs solely as a result of a
temperature difference between the two systems.
Heat is always transferred from the system at the higher temperature to the one at
the lower temperature.
Work is transferred from a system if the total external effect can be reduced to the
raising of a mass in a gravity field. For a closed system that executes a complete cycle,
Q=
W
(1.27)
where
Q = heat transferred into the system
W = work transferred from the system
Other sign conventions are sometimes used but we shall adopt those above for this
book.
For a closed system that executes a process,
Q = W + E
(1.28)
where E represents the total energy of the system. On a unit mass basis, equation
(1.28) is written as
q = w + e
(1.29)
The total energy may be broken down into (at least) three types:
e ≡u+
V2
g
+ z
2gc
gc
(1.30)
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL MASS ANALYSIS
13
where
u = the intrinsic internal energy manifested by the
motion of the molecules within the system
V2
= the kinetic energy represented by the movement
2gc
of the system as a whole
g
z = the potential energy caused by the position of the
gc
system in a field of gravity
It is sometimes necessary to include other types of energy (such as dissociation
energy), but those mentioned above are the only ones that we are concerned with in
this book.
For an infinitesimal process, one could write equation (1.29) as
δq = δw + de
(1.31)
Note that since heat and work are path functions (i.e., they are a function of how the
system gets from one state point to another), infinitesimal amounts of these quantities
are not exact differentials and thus are written as δq and δw. The infinitesimal change
in internal energy is an exact differential since the internal energy is a point function
or property. For a stationary system, equation (1.31) becomes
δq = δw + du
(1.32)
The reversible work done by pressure forces during a change of volume for a stationary system is
δw = p dv
(1.33)
Combination of the terms u and pv enters into many equations (particularly for
open systems) and it is convenient to define the property enthalpy:
h ≡ u + pv
(1.34)
Enthalpy is a property since it is defined in terms of other properties. It is frequently
used in differential form:
dh = du + d(pv) = du + p dv + v dp
(1.35)
Other examples of defined properties are the specific heats at constant pressure (cp )
and constant volume (cv ):
14
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
cp ≡
cv ≡
∂h
∂T
∂u
∂T
(1.36)
p
(1.37)
v
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law has been expressed in many equivalent forms. Perhaps the most
classic is the statement by Kelvin and Planck stating that it is impossible for an
engine operating in a cycle to produce net work output when exchanging heat with
only one temperature source. Although by itself this may not appear to be a profound
statement, it leads the way to several corollaries and eventually to the establishment
of a most important property (entropy).
The second law also recognizes the degradation of energy quality by irreversible
effects such as internal fluid friction, heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, lack of pressure equilibrium between a system and its surroundings, and so
on. All real processes have some degree of irreversibility present. In some cases these
effects are very small and we can envision an ideal limiting condition that has none
of these effects and thus is reversible. A reversible process is one in which both the
system and its surroundings can be restored to their original states.
By prudent application of the second law it can be shown that the integral of δQ/T
for a reversible process is independent of the path. Thus this integral must represent
the change of a property, which is called entropy:
δQR
(1.38)
S ≡
T
where the subscript R indicates that it must be applied to a reversible process. An
alternative expression on a unit mass basis for a differential process is
ds ≡
δqR
T
(1.39)
Although you have no doubt used entropy for many calculations, plots, and so on,
you probably do not have a good feeling for this property. In Chapter 3 we divide
entropy changes into two parts, and by using it in this fashion for the remainder of
this book we hope that you will gain a better understanding of this elusive “creature.”
Property Relations
Some extremely important relations come from combinations of the first and second
laws. Consider the first law for a stationary system that executes an infinitesimal
process:
δq = δw + du
(1.32)
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL MASS ANALYSIS
15
If it is a reversible process,
δw = p dv
(1.33)
and
δq = T ds
(from 1.39)
Substitution of these relations into the first law yields
T ds = du + p dv
(1.40)
Differentiating the enthalpy, we obtained
dh = du + p dv + v dp
(1.35)
Combining equations (1.35) and (1.40) produces
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
Although the assumption of a reversible process was made to derive equations (1.40)
and (1.41), the results are equations that contain only properties and thus are valid
relations to use between any end states, whether reached reversibly or not. These are
important equations that are used throughout the book.
T ds = du + p dv
(1.40)
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
If you are uncomfortable with the foregoing technique (one of making special
assumptions to derive a relation which is then generalized to be always valid since
it involves only properties), perhaps the following comments might be helpful. First
let’s write the first law in an alternative form (as some authors do):
δq − δw = du
(1.32a)
Since the internal energy is a property, changes in u depend only on the end states
of a process. Let’s now substitute an irreversible process between the same end points
as our reversible process. Then du must remain the same for both the reversible and
irreversible cases, with the following result:
(δq − δw)rev = du = (δq − δw)irrev
For example, the extra work that would be involved in an ireversible compression process must be compensated by exactly the same amount of heat released (an
equivalent argument applies to an expansion). In this fashion, irreversible effects will
appear to be “washed out” in equations (1.40) and (1.41) and we cannot tell from
them whether a particular process is reversible or irreversible.
16
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Perfect Gases
Recall that for a unit mass of a single component substance, any one property can
be expressed as a function of at most two other independent properties. However, for
substances that follow the perfect gas equation of state,
p = ρRT
(1.13)
it can be shown (see p. 173 of Ref. 4) that the internal energy and the enthalpy are
functions of temperature only. These are extremely important results, as they permit
us to make many useful simplifications for such gases.
Consider the specific heat at constant volume:
∂u
cv ≡
(1.37)
∂T v
If u = f (T ) only, it does not matter whether the volume is held constant when
computing cv ; thus the partial derivative becomes an ordinary derivative. Thus
cv =
du
dt
(1.42)
or
du = cv dT
(1.43)
Similarly, for the specific heat at constant pressure, we can write for a perfect gas:
dh = cp dT
(1.44)
It is important to realize that equations (1.43) and (1.44) are applicable to any and all
processes (as long as the gas behaves as a perfect gas). If the specific heats remain
reasonably constant (normally good over limited temperature ranges), one can easily
integrate equations (1.43) and (1.44):
u = cv T
(1.45)
h = cp T
(1.46)
In gas dynamics one simplifies calculations by introducing an arbitrary base for
internal energy. We let u = 0 when T = 0 absolute. Then from the definition of
enthalpy, h also equals zero when T = 0. Equations (1.45) and (1.46) can now be
rewritten as
u = cv T
(1.47)
h = cp T
(1.48)
1.4 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL MASS ANALYSIS
17
Typical values of the specific heats for air at normal temperature and pressure are cp =
0.240 and cv = 0.171 Btu/lbm-°R. Learn these numbers (or their SI equivalents)! You
will use them often.
Other frequently used relations in connection with perfect gases are
γ ≡
cp
cv
(1.49)
cp − cv =
R
J
(1.50)
Notice that the conversion factor
J = 778 ft-lbf/Btu
(1.51)
has been introduced in (1.50) since the specific heats are normally given in units of
Btu/lbm-°R. This factor will be omitted in future equations and it will be left for you
to consider when it is required. It is hoped that by this procedure you will develop
careful habits of checking units in all your work. What units are used for specific heat
and R in the SI system? (See the table on gas properties in Appendix B.) Would this
require a J factor in equation (1.50)?
Entropy Changes
The change in entropy between any two states can be obtained by integrating equation
(1.39) along any reversible path or combination of reversible paths connecting the
points, with the following results for perfect gases:
s1−2 = cp ln
v2
p2
+ cv ln
v1
p1
(1.52)
s1−2 = cp ln
T2
p2
− R ln
T1
p1
(1.53)
s1−2 = cv ln
T2
v2
+ R ln
T1
v1
(1.54)
Remember, absolute values of pressures and temperatures must be used in these
equations; volumes may be either total or specific, but both volumes must be of the
same type. Watch the units on cp , cv , and R.
Process Diagrams
Many processes in the gaseous region can be represented as a polytropic process, that
is, one that follows the relation
pv n = const = C1
(1.55)
18
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Figure 1.2 General polytropic process plots for perfect gases.
where n is the polytropic exponent, which can be any positive number. If the fluid is
a perfect gas, the equation of state can be introduced into (1.55) to yield
Tp
Tv n−1 = const = C2
(1.56)
= const = C3
(1.57)
(1−n)/n
Keep in mind that C1 , C2 , and C3 in the equations above are different constants. It is
interesting to note that certain values of n represent particular processes:
n=0
→
p = const
n=1
→
T = const
n=γ
→
s = const
n=∞
→
v = const
These plot in the p–v and T –s diagrams as shown in Figure 1.2, Learn these diagrams! You should also be able to figure out how temperature and entropy vary
in the p–v diagram and how pressure and volume vary in the T –s diagram (Try
drawing several T = const lines in the p–v plane. Which one represents the highest
temperature?).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
A number of questions follow that are based on concepts that you have covered in earlier
calculus and thermodynamic courses. State your answers as clearly and concisely as possible
using any source that you wish (although all the material has been covered in the preceding
REVIEW QUESTIONS
19
review). Do not proceed to Chapter 2 until you fully understand the correct answers to all
questions and can write them down without reference to your notes.
1.1. How is an ordinary derivative such as dy/dx defined? How does this differ from a
partial derivative?
1.2. What is the Taylor series expansion, and what are its applications and limitations?
1.3. State Newton’s second law as you would apply it to a control mass.
1.4. Define a 1-pound force in terms of the acceleration it will give to a 1-pound mass. Give
a similar definition for a newton in the SI system.
1.5. Explain the significance of gc in Newton’s second law. What are the magnitude and
units of gc in the English Engineering system? In the SI system?
1.6. What is the relation between degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Rankine? Degrees Celsius
and Kelvin?
1.7. What is the relationship between density and specific volume?
1.8. Explain the difference between absolute and gage pressures.
1.9. What is the distinguishing characteristic of a fluid (as compared to a solid)? How is this
related to viscosity?
1.10. Describe the difference between the microscopic and macroscopic approach in an
analysis of fluid behavior.
1.11. Describe the control volume approach to problem analysis and contrast it to the control
mass approach. What kinds of systems are these also called?
1.12. Describe a property and give at least three examples.
1.13. Properties may be categorized as either intensive or extensive. Define what is meant by
each, and list examples of each type of property.
1.14. When dealing with a unit mass of a single component substance, how many independent
properties are required to fix the state?
1.15. Of what use is an equation of state? Write down one with which you are familiar.
1.16. Define point functions and path functions. Give examples of each.
1.17. What is a process? What is a cycle?
1.18. How does the zeroth law of thermodynamics relate to temperature?
1.19. State the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system that is executing a single
process.
1.20. What are the sign conventions used in this book for heat and work?
1.21. State any form of the second law of thermodynamics.
1.22. Define a reversible process for a thermodynamic system. Is any real process ever
completely reversible?
1.23. What are some effects that cause processes to be irreversible?
20
REVIEW OF ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
1.24. What is an adiabatic process? An isothermal process? An isentropic process?
1.25. Give equations that define enthalpy and entropy.
1.26. Give differential expressions that relate entropy to
(a) internal energy and
(b) enthalpy.
1.27. Define (in the form of partial derivatives) the specific heats cv and cp . Are these
expressions valid for a material in any state?
1.28. State the perfect gas equation of state. Give a consistent set of units for each term in
the equation.
1.29. For a perfect gas, specific internal energy is a function of which state variables? How
about specific enthalpy?
1.30. Give expressions for u and h that are valid for perfect gases. Do these hold for any
process?
1.31. For perfect gases, at what temperature do we arbitrarily assign u = 0 and h = 0?
1.32. State any expression for the entropy change between two arbitrary points which is valid
for a perfect gas.
1.33. If a perfect gas undergoes an isentropic process, what equation relates the pressure to
the volume? Temperature to the volume? Temperature to the pressure?
1.34. Consider the general polytropic process (pv n = const) for a perfect gas. In the p–v and
T –s diagrams shown in Figure RQ1.34, label each process line with the correct value
of n and identify which fluid property is held constant.
Figure RQ1.34
REVIEW PROBLEMS
If you have been away from thermodynamics for a long time, it might be useful to work the
following problems.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
21
1.1. How well is the relation cp = cv + R represented in the table of gas properties in
Appendix A? Use entries for hydrogen.
1.2. A perfect gas having specific heats cv = 0.403 Btu/lbm-°R and cp = 0.532 Btu/lbm-°R
undergoes a reversible polytropic process in which the polytropic exponent n = 1.4.
Giving clear reasons, answer the following:
(a) Will there be any heat transfer in the process?
(b) Which would this process be nearest, a horizontal or a vertical line on a p–v or a T –s
diagram? (Alternatively, state between which constant property lines the process
lies.)
1.3. Nitrogen gas is reversibly compressed from 70°F and 14.7 psia to one-fourth of its
original volume by (1) a T = const process or (2) a p = const process followed by
a v = const process to the same end point as (1).
(a) Which compression involves the least amount of work? Show clearly on a p–v
diagram.
(b) Calculate the heat and work interaction for the isothermal compression.
1.4. For the reversible cycle shown in Figure RP1.4, compute the cyclic integrals [ d(·)] of
dE, δQ, dH, δW, and dS.
1
2
Figure RP1.4
P
p1 = p2 = 1.0 × 106 Pa
p3 = p4 = 0.4 × 106 Pa
3
4
V1 = V4 = 0.6 m3
V2 = V3 = 1.0 m3
V
1.5. A perfect gas (methane) undergoes a reversible, polytropic process in which the polytrotic exponent is 1.4.
(a) Using the first law, arrive at an expression for the heat transfer per unit mass solely as
a function of the temperature difference T . This should be some numerical value
(use SI units).
(b) Would this heat transfer be equal to either the enthalpy change or the internal energy
change for the same T ?
Chapter 2
Control Volume
Analysis—Part I
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In the study of gas dynamics we are interested in fluids that are flowing. The analysis
of flow problems is based on the same fundamental principles that you have used in
earlier courses in thermodynamics or fluid dynamics:
1. Conservation of mass
2. Conservation of energy
3. Newton’s second law of motion
When applying these principles to the solution of specific problems, you must also
know something about the properties of the fluid.
In Chapter 1 the concepts listed above were reviewed in a form applicable to a
control mass. However, it is extremely difficult to approach flow problems from the
control mass point of view. Thus it will first be necessary to develop some fundamental expressions that can be used to analyze control volumes. A technique is developed
to transform our basic laws for a control mass into integral equations that are applicable to finite control volumes. Simplifications will be made for special cases such
as steady one-dimensional flow. We also analyze differential control volumes that
will produce some valuable differential relations. In this chapter we tackle mass and
energy, and in Chapter 3 we discuss momentum concepts.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. State the basic concepts from which a study of gas dynamics proceeds.
2. Explain one-, two-, and three-dimensional flow.
23
24
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
3. Define steady flow.
4. (Optional) Compute the flow rate and average velocity from a multidimensional velocity profile.
5. Write the equation used to relate the material derivative of any extensive property to the properties inside, and crossing the boundaries of, a control volume.
Interpret in words the meaning of each term in the equation.
6. (Optional) Starting with the basic concepts or equations that are valid for a
control mass, obtain the integral forms of the continuity and energy equations
for a control volume.
7. Simplify the integral forms of the continuity and energy equations for a control
volume for conditions of steady one-dimensional flow.
8. (Optional) Apply the simplified forms of the continuity and energy equations
to differential control volumes.
9. Demonstrate the ability to apply continuity and energy concepts in an analysis
of control volumes.
2.3
FLOW DIMENSIONALITY AND AVERAGE VELOCITY
As we observe fluid moving around, the various properties can be expressed as
functions of location and time. Thus, in an ordinary rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system, we could say in general that
V = f (x,y,z,t)
(2.1)
p = g(x,y,z,t)
(2.2)
or
Since it is necessary to specify three spatial coordinates and time, this is called threedimensional unsteady flow.
Two-dimensional unsteady flow would be represented by
V = f (x,y,t)
(2.3)
and one-dimensional unsteady flow by
V = f (x,t)
(2.4)
The assumption of one-dimensional flow is a simplification normally applied to
flow systems and the single coordinate is usually taken in the direction of flow. This
is not necessarily unidirectional flow, as the direction of the flow duct might change.
Another way of looking at one-dimensional flow is to say that at any given section
2.3
FLOW DIMENSIONALITY AND AVERAGE VELOCITY
25
(x-coordinate) all fluid properties are constant across the cross section. Keep in mind
that the properties can still change from section to section (as x changes).
The fundamental concepts reviewed in Chapter 1 were expressed in terms of a
given mass of material (i.e., the control mass approach). When using the control
mass approach we observe some property of the mass, such as enthalpy or internal
energy. The (time) rate at which this property changes is called a material derivative
(sometimes called a total or substantial derivative). It is written by various authors
as D(·)/Dt or d(·)/dt. Note that it is computed as we follow the material around,
and thus it involves two contributions.
First, the property may change because the mass has moved to a new position
(e.g., at the same instant of time the temperature in Tucson is different from that
in Anchorage). This contribution to the material derivative is sometimes called the
convective derivative.
Second, the property may change with time at any given position (e.g., even in
Monterey the temperature varies from morning to night). This latter contribution is
called the local or partial derivative with respect to time and is written ∂(·)/∂t. As
an example, for a typical three-dimensional unsteady flow the material derivative of
the pressure would be represented as
∂p dx
∂p dy
∂p dz ∂p
dp
=
+
+
+
dt
∂x dt
∂y dt
∂z dt ∂t
Convective derivative
Local time derivative
(2.5)
If the fluid properties at every point are independent of time, we call this steady
flow. Thus in steady flow the partial derivative of any property with respect to time
is zero:
∂(·)
=0
∂t
for steady flow
(2.6)
Notice that this does not prevent properties from being different in different locations.
Thus the material derivative may be nonzero for the case of steady flow, due to the
contribution of the convective portion.
Next we examine the problem of computing mass flow rates when the flow is not
one-dimensional. Consider the flow of a real fluid in a circular duct. At low Reynolds
numbers, where viscous forces predominate, the fluid tends to flow in layers without
any energy exchange between adjacent layers. This is termed laminar flow, and we
could easily establish (see p. 185 of Ref. 9) that the velocity profile for this case would
be a paraboloid of revolution, a cross section of which is shown in Figure 2.1.
At any given cross section the velocity can be expressed as
u = Umax 1 −
r
r0
2
(2.7)
26
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
Figure 2.1 Velocity profile for laminar flow.
To compute the mass flow rate, we integrate:
ṁ = mass flow rate =
ρu dA
(2.8)
A
where
dA = 2π r dr
(2.9)
Assuming ρ to be a constant, carry out the indicated integration and show that
ṁ = ρ π r02
Um
2
= ρA
Um
2
(2.10)
Note that for a multidimensional flow problem, when the flow rate is expressed as
ṁ = ρAV
(2.11)
the velocity V is an average velocity, which for this case is Um /2. Since the density
was held constant during integration, V is more properly called an area-averaged
velocity. But because there is generally little change in density across any given
section, this is a reasonable average velocity.
As we move to higher Reynolds numbers, the large inertia forces cause irregular
velocity fluctuations in all directions, which in turn cause mixing between adjacent
layers. The resulting energy transfer causes the fluid particles near the center to slow
down while those particles next to the wall speed up. This produces the relatively
flat velocity profile shown in Figure 2.2, which is typical of turbulent flow. Notice
that for this type of flow, all particles at a given section have very nearly the same
velocity, which closely approximates a one-dimensional flow picture. Since most
flows of engineering interest are well into this turbulent regime, we can see why the
assumption of one-dimensional flow is reasonably accurate.
27
2.4 TRANSFORMATION OF A MATERIAL DERIVATIVE TO A CONTROL VOLUME APPROACH
Figure 2.2 Velocity profile for turbulent flow.
Streamlines and Streamtubes
As we progress through this book, we will occasionally mention the following:
Streamline: a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vectors of those fluid
particles that are on the line
Streamtube: a flow passage that is formed by adjacent streamlines
By virtue of these definitions, no fluid particles ever cross a streamline. Hence
fluid flows through a streamtube much as it does through a physical pipe.
2.4 TRANSFORMATION OF A MATERIAL DERIVATIVE
TO A CONTROL VOLUME APPROACH
In most gas dynamics problems it will be more convenient to examine a fixed region
in space, or a control volume. The fundamental equations were listed in Chapter 1 for
the analysis of a control mass. We now ask ourselves what form these equations take
when applied to a control volume. In each case the troublesome term is a material
derivative of an extensive property.
It will be simplest to show first how the material derivative of any extensive
property transforms to a control volume approach. The result will be a valuable
general relation that can be used for many particular situations. Let
N ≡ the total amount of any extensive property in a given mass
η ≡ the amount of N per unit mass
Thus
N=
η dm =
ρη d ṽ =
ρη d ṽ
v
(2.12)
28
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
where
dm ≡ incremental element of mass
d ṽ ≡ incremental volume element
Note that for simplicity we are indicating the triple volume integral as v .
Now let us consider what happens to the material derivative dN/dt. Recall that a
material derivative is the (time) rate of change of a property computed as the mass
moves around. Figure 2.3 shows an arbitrary mass at time t and the same mass at
time t + t. Remember that this system is at all times composed of the same mass
particles. If t is small, there will be an overlap of the two regions as shown in Figure
2.4, with the common region identified as region 2. At time t the given mass particles
occupy regions 1 and 2. At time t + t the same mass particles occupy regions 2 and
3. We shall call the original confines of the mass (regions 1 and 2) the control volume.
Figure 2.3 Identification of control mass.
Figure 2.4 Control mass for small t.
2.4 TRANSFORMATION OF A MATERIAL DERIVATIVE TO A CONTROL VOLUME APPROACH
29
We construct our material derivative from the mathematical definition
(final value of N)t+t − (initial value of N)t
dN
≡ lim
t→0
dt
t
(2.13)
where the final value of N is the N of regions 2 and 3 computed at time t + t, and
the initial value of N is the N of regions 1 and 2 computed at time t.
A more specific expression is:
dN
(N2 + N3 )t+t − (N1 + N2 )t
= lim
t→0
dt
t
(2.14)
First, consider the term
lim
t→0
N3 (t + t)
t
The numerator represents the amount of N in region 3 at time t + t, and by definition region 3 is formed by the fluid moving out of the control volume. Let n̂ be a unit
normal, positive when pointing outward from the control volume. Also let dA be an
increment of the surface area that separates regions 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 2.5.
V · n̂ = component of V ⊥ to dA
(V · n̂) dA = incremental volumetric flow rate
ρ(V · n̂) dA = incremental mass flow rate
ρ(V · n̂) dA t = amount of mass that crossed dA in time t
ηρ(V · n̂) dA t = amount of N that crossed dA in time t
Thus
ηρ(V · n̂) dA t ≈ total amount of N in region 3
(2.15)
Sout
where Sout is a double integral over the surface where fluid leaves the control volume.
The term in question becomes
N3 (t + t)
lim
=
t→0
t
ηρ(V · n̂) dA
Sout
This integral is called a flux or rate of N flow out of the control volume.
(2.16)
30
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
Figure 2.5 Flow out of control volume.
Since the t cancels, one might question the limit process. Actually, the integral
expression in equation (2.15) is only approximately correct. This is because all the
properties in this integral are going to be evaluated at the surface S at time t. Thus
equation (2.15) is only approximate as written but becomes exact in the limit as t
approaches zero.
Now let us consider the term
lim
t→0
N1 (t)
t
How has region 1 been formed? It has been formed by the original mass particles
moving on (during time t) and other fluid has moved into the control volume. Thus
we evaluate N1 by the following procedure. Let n̂ be a unit normal, positive when
pointing inward to the control volume, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Complete the following in words:
V · n̂ =
(V · n̂ ) dA =
ρ(V · n̂ ) dA =
ρ(V · n̂ ) dA t =
ηρ(V · n̂ ) dA t =
It should be clear that
2.4 TRANSFORMATION OF A MATERIAL DERIVATIVE TO A CONTROL VOLUME APPROACH
31
Figure 2.6 Flow into control volume.
ηρ(V · n̂ ) dA t ≈ total amount of N in region 1
(2.17)
Sin
and
N1 (t)
=
lim
t→0 t
ηρ(V · n̂ ) dA
(2.18)
Sin
where Sin is a double integral over the surface where fluid enters the control volume.
This term represents the N flux into the control volume.
Now look at the first and last terms of equation (2.14):
lim
t→0
N2 (t + t) − N2 (t)
t
which by definition is
∂N2
∂t
Note that the partial derivative notation is used since the region of integration is fixed
and time is the only independent parameter allowed to vary. Also note that as t
approaches zero, region 2 approaches the original confines of the mass, which we
have called the control volume. Thus
lim
t→0
N2 (t + t) − N2 (t)
∂
∂Ncv
=
ρη d ṽ
=
t
∂t
∂t cv
(2.19)
where cv stands for the control volume.
We now substitute into equation (2.14) all the terms that we have developed in
equations (2.16), (2.18), and (2.19):
32
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
dN
∂
=
dt
∂t
ρη d ṽ +
ηρ(V · n̂ ) dA
ηρ(V · n̂) dA −
Sout
cv
(2.20)
Sin
Noting that n̂ = −n̂ , we can combine the last two terms into
Sout
ηρ(V · n̂) dA −
ηρ(V · n̂ ) dA
Sin
=
ηρ(V · n̂) dA =
ηρ(V · n̂) dA
ηρ(V · n̂) dA +
Sout
Sin
(2.21)
cs
where cs represents the entire control surface surrounding the control volume.
This term represents the net rate at which N passes out of the control volume (i.e.,
flow rate out minus flow rate in). The final transformation equation becomes
dN
dt
=
material derivative
∂
∂t
ηρ d ṽ +
cv
Triple integral
ηρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.22)
cs
Double integral
This relation, known as Reynolds’s transport theorem, can be interpreted in words as:
The rate of change of N for a given mass as it is moving around is equal
to the rate of change of N inside the control volume plus the net efflux
(flow out minus flow in) of N from the control volume.
It is essential to note that we have not placed any restriction on N other than that it
must be a mass-dependent (extensive) property. Thus N may be a scalar or a vector
quantity. Examples of the application of this powerful transformation equation are
provided in the next two sections and in Chapter 3.
2.5
CONSERVATION OF MASS
If we exclude from consideration the possibility of nuclear reactions, we can account
separately for the conservation of mass and energy. Thus if we observe a given
quantity of mass as it moves around, we can say by definition that the mass will
remain fixed. Another way of stating this is that the material derivative of the mass
is zero:
2.5
CONSERVATION OF MASS
d(mass)
=0
dt
33
(2.23)
This is the continuity equation for a control mass. What corresponding expression can
we write for a control volume? To find out, we must transform the material derivative
according to the relation developed in Section 2.4.
If N represents the total mass, η is the mass per unit mass, or 1. Substitution into
equation (2.22) yields
∂
d(mass)
=
dt
∂t
ρ d ṽ +
cv
ρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.24)
cs
But we know by equation (2.23) that this must be zero; thus the transformed equation is
∂
0=
∂t
ρ d ṽ +
cv
ρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.25)
cs
This is the continuity equation for a control volume. State in words what each term
represents. For steady flow, any partial derivative with respect to time is zero and the
equation becomes
ρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.26)
0=
cs
Let us now evaluate the remaining integral for the case of one-dimensional flow.
Figure 2.7 shows fluid crossing a portion of the control surface. Recall that for onedimensional flow any fluid property will be constant over an entire cross section.
Thus both the density and the velocity can be brought out from under the integral
sign. If the surface is always chosen perpendicular to V , the integral is very simple
to evaluate:
Figure 2.7 One-dimensional velocity profile.
34
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
ρ(V · n̂) dA = ρV · n̂
dA = ρVA
This integral must be evaluated over the entire control surface, which yields
ρ(V · n̂) dA =
ρVA
(2.27)
cs
This summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface and
is positive where fluid leaves the control volume (since V · n̂ is positive here) and
negative where fluid enters the control volume. For steady, one-dimensional flow, the
continuity equation for a control volume becomes
ρAV = 0
(2.28)
If there is only one section where fluid enters and one section where fluid leaves the
control volume, this becomes
(ρAV )out − (ρAV )in = 0
or
(ρAV )out = (ρAV )in
(2.29)
We usually write this as
ṁ = ρAV = constant
(2.30)
Implicit in this expression is the fact that V is the component of velocity perpendicular
to the area A. If the density ρ is in lbm per cubic foot, the area A is in square feet,
and the velocity V is in feet per second, what are the units of the mass flow rate ṁ?
What will each of these be in SI units?
Note that as a result of steady flow the mass flow rate into a control volume is
equal to the mass flow rate out of the control volume. The converse of this is not
necessarily true; that is, just because it is known that the flow rates into and out of a
control volume are the same, this does not ensure that the flow is steady.
Example 2.1 Air flows steadily through a 1-in.-diameter section with a velocity of 1096
ft/sec. The temperature is 40°F and the pressure is 50 psia. The flow passage expands to 2 in.
in diameter, and at this section the pressure and temperature have dropped to 2.82 psia and
−240°F, respectively. What is the average velocity at this section?
Knowing that
p = ρRT
and A =
π D2
4
2.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
35
for steady, one-dimensional flow, we obtain
p1
RT1
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
π D12
π D22
p2
V1 =
V2
4
RT2
4
V2 = V1
2
D12 p1 T2
220
50
1
=
(1096)
2.82
500
2
D22 p2 T1
V2 = 2138 ft/sec
An alternative form of the continuity equation can be obtained by differentiating
equation (2.30). For steady one-dimensional flow this means that
d(ρAV ) = AV dρ + ρV dA + ρA dV = 0
(2.31)
Dividing by ρAV yields
dA dV
dρ
+
+
=0
ρ
A
V
(2.32)
This expression can also be obtained by first taking the natural logarithm of equation
(2.30) and then differentiating the result. This is called logarithmic differentiation.
Try it.
This differential form of the continuity equation is useful in interpreting the
changes that must occur as fluid flows through a duct, channel, or streamtube. It
indicates that if mass is to be conserved, the changes in density, velocity, and crosssectional area must compensate for one another. For example, if the area is constant
(dA = 0), any increase in velocity must be accompanied by a corresponding decrease
in density. We shall also use this form of the continuity equation in several future
derivations.
2.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy. For a system
composed of a given quantity of mass that undergoes a process, we can say that
Q = W + E
where
Q = the net heat transferred into the system
(1.28)
36
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
W = the net work done by the system
E = the change in total energy of the system
This can also be written on a rate basis to yield an expression that is valid at any
instant of time:
δQ
δW
dE
=
+
dt
dt
dt
(2.33)
We must carefully examine each term in this equation to clearly understand its significance. δQ/dt and δW/dt represent instantaneous rates of heat and work transfer
between the system and its surroundings. They are rates of energy transfer across the
boundaries of the system. These terms are not material derivatives. (Recall that heat
and work are not properties of a system.) On the other hand, energy is a property of
the system and dE/dt is a material derivative.
We now ask what form the energy equation takes when applied to a control volume.
To answer this, we must first transform the material derivative in equation (2.33)
according to the relation developed in Section 2.4. If we let N be E, the total energy
of the system, then η represents e, the energy per unit mass:
e =u+
g
V2
+ z
2gc
gc
(1.30)
Substitution into equation (2.22) yields
∂
dE
=
dt
∂t
eρ d ṽ +
cv
eρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.34)
cs
and the transformed equation that is applicable to a control volume is
δW
∂
δQ
=
+
dt
dt
∂t
eρ d ṽ +
cv
eρ(V · n̂) dA
(2.35)
cs
In this case, δQ/dt and δW/dt represent instantaneous rates of heat and work transfer
across the surface that surrounds the control volume. State in words what the other
terms represent. [See the discussion following equation (2.22).]
For one-dimensional flow the last integral in equation (2.35) is simple to evaluate,
as e, ρ, and V are constant over any given cross section. Assuming that the velocity
V is perpendicular to the surface A, we have
eρ(V · n̂) dA =
cs
eρV
dA =
eρVA =
ṁe
(2.36)
2.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
37
The summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface and
is positive where fluid leaves the control volume and negative where fluid enters the
control volume.
In using equation (2.35) we must be careful to include all forms of work, whether
done by pressure forces (from normal stresses) or shear forces (from tangential
stresses). Figure 2.8 shows a simple control volume. Note that the control surface
is chosen carefully so that there is no fluid motion at the boundary except
(a) where fluid enters and leaves the system, or
(b) where a mechanical device such as a shaft crosses the boundaries of the
system.
This prudent choice of the system boundary simplifies calculation of the work quantities. For example, recall that for a real fluid there is no motion at the wall (e.g., see
Figures 2.1 and 2.2). Thus the pressure and shear forces along the sidewalls do no
work since they do not move through any distance.
The rate at which work is transmitted out of the system by the mechanical device is
called δWs /dt and is accomplished by shear stresses between the device and the fluid.
(Think of the subscript s for shear stresses or shaft work.) The other work quantities
considered are where fluid enters and leaves the system. Here the pressure forces do
work to push fluid into or out of the control volume. The shaded area at the inlet
represents the fluid that enters the control volume during time dt. The work done
here is
δW = F · dx = pA dx = pAV dt
(2.37)
The rate of doing work is
δW
= pAV
dt
Figure 2.8 Identification of work quantities.
(2.38)
38
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
This is called flow work or displacement work. It can be expressed in a more meaningful form by introducing
ṁ = ρAV
(2.11)
Thus the rate of doing flow work is
pAV = p
ṁ
= ṁρv
ρ
(2.39)
This represents work done by the system (positive) to force fluid out of the control
volume and represents work done on the system (negative) to force fluid into the
control volume. Thus the total work
δWs
δW
=
+
ṁpv
dt
dt
We may now rewrite our energy equation in a more useful form which is applicable
to one-dimensional flow. Notice how the flow work has been included in the last term:
δQ
δWs
∂
=
+
dt
dt
∂t
eρ d ṽ +
ṁ(e + pv)
(2.40)
cv
If we consider steady flow, the term involving the partial derivative with respect to
time is zero. Thus for steady one-dimensional flow the energy equation for a control
volume becomes
δWs
δQ
=
+
ṁ(e + pv)
dt
dt
(2.41)
If there is only one section where fluid leaves and one section where fluid enters the
control volume, we have (from continuity)
ṁin = ṁout = ṁ
(2.42)
We may now divide equation (2.41) by ṁ:
1 δQ
1 δWs
=
+ (e + pv)out − (e + pv)in
ṁ dt
ṁ dt
(2.43)
We now define
q≡
1 δQ
ṁ dt
(2.44)
2.6
ws ≡
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
1 δWs
ṁ dt
39
(2.45)
where q and ws represent quantities of heat and shaft work crossing the control
surface per unit mass of fluid flowing. What are the units of q and ws ?
Our equation has now become
q = ws + (e + pv)out − (e + pv)in
(2.46)
This can be applied directly to the finite control volume shown in Figure 2.9, with the
result
q = ws + (e2 + p2 v2 ) − (e1 + p1 v1 )
(2.47)
Detailed substitution for e [from equation (1.30)] yields
u1 + p1 v1 +
v12
v2
g
g
+ z1 + q = u2 + p2 v2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
(2.48)
If we introduce the definition of enthalpy
h ≡ u + pv
(1.34)
the equation can be shortened to
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
g
g
+ z1 + q = h2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
Figure 2.9 Finite control volume for energy analysis.
(2.49)
40
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
This is the form of the energy equation that may be used to solve many problems.
Can you list the assumptions that have been made to develop equation (2.49)?
Note that in Figure 2.9 we have not drawn a dashed line completely surrounding
the fluid inside the control volume. Rather, we have only identified sections where
the fluid enters or leaves the control volume. This practice will generally be followed
throughout the remainder of this book and should not cause any confusion. But
remember, the analysis will always be made for the fluid inside the control volume.
Example 2.2 Steam enters an ejector (Figure E2.2) at the rate of 0.1 lbm/sec with an enthalpy
of 1300 Btu/lbm and negligible velocity. Water enters at the rate of 1.0 lbm/sec with an enthalpy
of 40 Btu/lbm and negligible velocity. The mixture leaves the ejector with an enthalpy of 150
Btu/lbm and a velocity of 90 ft/sec. All potentials may be neglected. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the heat transfer.
Figure E2.2
ṁ1 = 0.1 lbm/sec
V1 ≈ 0
h1 = 1300 Btu/lbm
ṁ2 = 1.0 lbm/sec
V2 ≈ 0
h2 = 40 Btu/lbm
V3 = 90 ft/sec
h3 = 150 Btu/lbm
Note the importance of making a sketch. It is necessary to establish the control volume
and indicate clearly where fluid and energy cross the boundaries of the system. Identify these
locations by number and list the given information with units. Make logical assumptions. Get
in the habit of following this procedure for every problem.
Continuity:
ṁ3 = ṁ1 + ṁ2 = 0.1 + 1.0 = 1.1 lbm/sec
Energy:
ṁ1
V3 2
V1 2
V2 2
g
g
g
h1 +
+ z1 + ṁ2 h2 +
+ z2 + Q̇ = ṁ3 h3 +
+ z3 + Ẇs
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
V 2
ṁ1 h1 + ṁ2 h2 + Q̇ = ṁ3 h3 + 3
2gc
2.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(0.1)(1300) + (1.0)(40) + Q̇ = (1.1) 150 +
41
902
(2)(32.2)(778)
130 + 40 + Q̇ = (1.1)(150 + 0.162) = 165.2
Q̇ = 165.2 − 130 − 40 = −4.8 Btu/sec
The minus sign indicates that heat is lost from the ejector.
Example 2.3 A horizontal duct of constant area contains CO2 flowing isothermally (Figure
E2.3). At a section where the pressure is 14 bar absolute, the average velocity is know to be 50
m/s. Farther downstream the pressure has dropped to 7 bar abs. Find the heat transfer.
Figure E2.3
p1 = 14 × 105 N/m2
p2 = 7 × 105 N/m2
V1 = 50 m/s
V2 = ?
z1 = z2 (horizontal)
A1 = A2 (given)
ws(1−2) = 0
q1−2 = ?
Energy:
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
g
g
+ z1 + q = h2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
Since perfect gas and isothermal, h = cp t = 0 by equation (1.46), and thus
q1−2 =
V2 2 − V1 2
2gc
State:
p1
p2
=
ρ1 T1
ρ 2 T2
→
p1
ρ1
=
p2
ρ2
Continuity:
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
Show that
ρ1
p1
V2
=
=
V1
ρ2
p2
42
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
and thus
V2 =
p1
V1 =
p2
14 × 105
7 × 105
(50) = 100 m/s
Returning to the energy equation, we have
q1−2 =
V2 2 − V1 2
1002 − 502
= 3750 J/kg
=
2gc
(2)(1)
Example 2.4 Air at 2200°R enters a turbine at the rate of 1.5 lbm/sec (Figure E2.4). The air
expands through a pressure ratio of 15 and leaves at 1090°R . Velocities entering and leaving
are negligible and there is no heat transfer. Calculate the horsepower (hp) output of the turbine.
Figure E2.4
T1 = 2200°R
T2 = 1090°R
ṁ = 1.5 lbm/sec
V1 ≈ 0
V2 ≈ 0
q=0
Energy:
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
g
g
+ z1 + q = h2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
ws = h1 − h2 = cp (T1 − T2 )
= (0.24)(2200 − 1090) = 266 Btu/lbm
778
778
= (1.5)(266)
= 564 hp
hp = ṁws
550
550
Differential Form of Energy Equation
One can also apply the energy equation to a differential control volume, as shown
in Figure 2.10. We assume steady one-dimensional flow. The properties of the fluid
entering the control volume are designated as ρ, u, p, V , and so on. Fluid leaves the
2.6
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
43
Figure 2.10 Energy analysis on infinitesimal control volume.
control volume with properties that have changed slightly as indicated by ρ + dρ,
u + du, and so on. Application of equation (2.46) to this differential control volume
will produce
(V + dV )2
g
δq = δws + (p + dp)(v + dv) + (u + du) +
+ (z + dz)
2gc
gc
2
V
g
− pv + u +
+ z
(2.50)
2gc
gc
Expand equation (2.50), cancel like terms, and show that
HOT
δq = δws + p dv + v dp + dpdv + du +
HOT
2V dV + (dV )2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(2.51)
As dx is allowed to approach zero, we can neglect any higher-order terms (HOT).
Noting that
2V dV = dV 2
and
p dv + v dp = d(pv)
we obtain
δq = δws + d(pv) + du +
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(2.52)
44
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
and since
dh = du + d(pv)
we have
δq = δws + dh +
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(2.53)
This can be integrated directly to produce equation (2.49) for a finite control volume,
but the differential form is frequently of considerable value by itself. The technique
of analyzing a differential control volume is also an important one that we shall use
many times.
2.7
SUMMARY
In the study of gas dynamics, as in any branch of fluid dynamics, most analyses are
made on a control volume. We have shown how the material derivative of any massdependent property can be transformed into an equivalent expression for use with
control volumes. We then applied this relation [equation (2.22)] to show how the
basic laws regarding conservation of mass and energy can be converted from a control
mass analysis into a form suitable for control volume analysis. Most of the work in
this course will be done assuming steady one-dimensional flow; thus each general
equation was simplified for these conditions.
Care should be taken to approach each problem in a consistent and organized
fashion. For a typical problem, the following steps should be taken:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sketch the flow system and identify the control volume.
Label sections where fluid enters and leaves the control volume.
Note where energy (Q and Ws ) crosses the control surface.
Record all known quantities with their units.
Make any logical assumptions regarding unknown information.
Solve for the unknowns by a systematic application of the basic equations.
The basic concepts that we have used so far are few in number:
State: a simple density relation such as p = ρRT or ρ = constant
Continuity: derived from conservation of mass
Energy: derived from conservation of energy
Some of the most frequently used equations that were developed in this unit
are summarized below. Some are restricted to steady one-dimensional flow; others
2.7
45
SUMMARY
involve additional assumptions. You should know under what conditions each may
be used.
1. Mass flow rate past a section
ρu dA
ṁ =
(2.8)
A
u = velocity perpendicular to dA
2. Transformation of material derivative to control volume analysis
∂
dN
=
ηρ d ṽ +
ηρ(V · n̂) dA
dt
∂t cv
cs
(2.22)
If one-dimensional,
ηρ(V · n̂) dA =
ṁη
(2.54)
cs
If steady,
∂(·)
=0
∂t
(2.6)
N = mass
3. Mass conservation—continuity equation
η =1
∂
ρ d ṽ +
ρ(V · n̂) dA = 0
∂t cv
cs
(2.25)
For steady one-dimensional flow,
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
dA dV
dρ
+
=0
+
ρ
A
V
(2.32)
4. Energy conservation—energy equation
δW
∂
δQ
=
+
dt
dt
∂t
N =E
η = e = u + V 2 /2gc + (g/gc )z
eρ d ṽ +
cv
eρ(V · n̂) dA
cs
w = shaft work (ws ) + flow work (pv)
For steady one-dimensional flow,
(2.35)
46
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
g
g
+ z1 + q = h2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
δq = δws + dh +
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(2.49)
(2.53)
PROBLEMS
Problem statements may occasionally give some irrelevant information; on the other hand,
sometimes logical assumptions have to be made before a solution can be carried out. For
example, unless specific information is given on potential differences, it is logical to assume
that these are negligible; if no machine is present, it is reasonable to assume that ws = 0, and
so on. However, think carefully before arbitrarily eliminating terms from any equation—you
may be eliminating a vital element from the problem. Check to see if there isn’t some way to
compute the desired quantity (such as calculating the enthalpy of a gas from its temperature).
Properties of selected gases are provided in Appendixes A and B.
2.1. There is three-dimensional flow of an incompressible fluid in a duct of radius R. The
velocity distribution at any section is hemispherical, with the maximum velocity Um at
the center and zero velocity at the wall. Show that the average velocity is 23 Um .
2.2. A constant-density fluid flows between two flat parallel plates that are separated by
a distance δ (Figure P2.2). Sketch the velocity distribution and compute the average
velocity based on the velocity u given by:
(a) u = k1 y.
(b) u = k2 y 2 .
(c) u = k3 (δy − y 2 ).
In each case, express your answer in terms of the maximum velocity Um .
Figure 2.P2
2.3. An incompressible fluid is flowing in a rectangular duct whose dimensions are 2 units
in the Y -direction and 1 unit in the Z-direction. The velocity in the X-direction is given
by the equation u = 3y 2 + 5z. Compute the average velocity.
2.4. Evaluate the integral ρe(V · n̂) dA over the surface shown in Figure P2.4 for the
velocity and energy distributions indicated. Assume that the density is constant.
PROBLEMS
47
Figure P2.4
2.5. In a 10-in.-diameter duct the average velocity of water is 14 ft/sec.
(a) What is the average velocity if the diameter changes to 6 in.?
(b) Express the average velocity in terms of an arbitrary diameter.
2.6. Nitrogen flows in a constant-area duct. Conditions at section 1 are as follows: p1 = 200
psia, T1 = 90°F, and V1 = 10 ft/sec. At section 2, we find that p2 = 45 psia and T2 =
90°F. Determine the velocity at section 2.
2.7. Steam enters a turbine with an enthalpy of 1600 Btu/lbm and a velocity of 100 ft/sec
at a flow rate of 80,000 lbm/hr. The steam leaves the turbine with an enthalpy of 995
Btu/lbm and a velocity of 150 ft/sec. Compute the power output of the turbine, assuming
it to be 100% efficient. Neglect any heat transfer and potential energy changes.
2.8. A flow of 2.0 lbm/sec of air is compressed from 14.7 psia and 60°F to 200 psia and
150°F. Cooling water circulates around the cylinders at the rate of 25 lbm/min. The
water enters at 45°F and leaves at 130°F. (The specific heat of water is 1.0 Btu/lbm-°F.)
Calculate the power required to compress the air, assuming negligible velocities at inlet
and outlet.
2.9. Hydrogen expands isentropically from 15 bar absolute and 340 K to 3 bar absolute in
a steady flow process without heat transfer.
(a) Compute the final velocity if the initial velocity is negligible.
(b) Compute the flow rate if the final duct size is 10 cm in diameter.
2.10. At a section where the diameter is 4 in., methane flows with a velocity of 50 ft/sec and a
pressure of 85 psia. At a downstream section, where the diameter has increased to 6 in.,
the pressure is 45 psia. Assuming the flow to be isothermal, compute the heat transfer
between the two locations.
2.11. Carbon dioxide flows in a horizontal duct at 7 bar abs. and 300 K with a velocity of 10
m/s. At a downstream location the pressure is 3.5 bar abs. and the temperature is 280
K. If 1.4 × 104 J/kg of heat is lost by the fluid between these locations:
(a) Determine the velocity at the second location.
(b) Compute the ratio of initial to final areas.
2.12. Hydrogen flows through a horizontal insulated duct. At section 1 the enthalpy is 2400
Btu/lbm, the density is 0.5 lbm/ft3, and the velocity is 500 ft/sec. At a downstream
section, h2 = 2240 Btu/lbm and ρ2 = 0.1 lbm/ft3. No shaft work is done. Determine
the velocity at section 2 and the ratio of areas.
2.13. Nitrogen, traveling at 12 m/s with a pressure of 14 bar abs. at a temperature of 800
K, enters a device with an area of 0.05 m2. No work or heat transfer takes place. The
48
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS—PART I
temperature at the exit, where the area is 0.15 m2, has dropped to 590 K. What are the
velocity and pressure at the outlet section?
2.14. Cold water with an enthalpy of 8 Btu/lbm enters a heater at the rate of 5 lbm/sec with
a velocity of 10 ft/sec and at a potential of 10 ft with respect to the other connections
shown in Figure P2.14. Steam enters at the rate of 1 lbm/sec with a velocity of 50 ft/sec
and an enthalpy of 1350 Btu/lbm. These two streams mix in the heater, and hot water
emerges with an enthalpy of 168 Btu/lbm and a velocity of 12 ft/sec.
(a) Determine the heat lost from the apparatus.
(b) What percentage error is involved if both kinetic and potential energy changes are
neglected?
Figure P2.14
2.15. The control volume shown in Figure P2.15 has steady, incompressible flow and all
properties are uniform at the inlet and outlet. For u1 = 1.256 MJ/kg and u2 = 1.340
MJ/kg and ρ = 10 kg/m3, calculate the work if there is a heat output of 0.35 MJ/kg.
Figure P2.15
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
2.1. Name the basic concepts (or equations) from which the study of gas dynamics proceeds.
2.2. Define steady flow. Explain what is meant by one-dimensional flow.
CHECK TEST
49
2.3. An incompressible fluid flows in a duct of radius r0 . At a particular location, the velocity
distribution is u = Um [1 − (r/r0 )2 ] and the distribution of an extensive property is
β = Bm [1 − (r/r0 )]. Evaluate the integral ρβ(V · n̂) dA at this location.
2.4. Write the equation used to relate the material derivative of any mass-dependent property
to the properties inside, and crossing the boundaries of, a control volume. State in words
what the integrals actually represent.
2.5. Simplify the integral cs ρβ(V · n̂) dA for the control volume shown in Figure CT2.5
if the flow is steady and one-dimensional. (Careful: β and ρ may vary from section to
section.)
Figure CT2.5
2.6. Write the simplest form of the energy equation that you would use to analyze the control
volume shown in Figure CT2.6. You may assume steady one-dimensional flow.
Figure CT2.6
2.7. Work Problem 2.13.
Chapter 3
Control Volume
Analysis—Part II
3.1
INTRODUCTION
We begin this chapter with a discussion of entropy, which is one of the most useful thermodynamic properties in the study of gas dynamics. Entropy changes will be
divided into two categories, to facilitate a better understanding of this important property. Next, we introduce the concept of a stagnation process. This leads to the stagnation state as a reference condition, which will be used throughout our remaining
discussions. These ideas permit rewriting our energy equations in alternative forms
from which interesting observations can be made.
We then investigate some of the consequences of a constant-density fluid. This
leads to special relations that can be used not only for liquids but under certain
conditions are excellent approximations for gases. At the close of the chapter we
complete our basic set of equations by transforming Newton’s second law for use in
the analysis of control volumes. This is done for both finite and differential volume
elements.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. Explain how entropy changes can be divided into two categories. Define and
interpret each part.
2. Define an isentropic process and explain the relationships among reversible,
adiabatic, and isentropic processes.
3. (Optional) Show that by introducing the concept of entropy and the definition
of enthalpy, the path function heat (δQ) may be removed from the energy
equation to yield an expression called the pressure–energy equation:
51
52
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
dp dV 2
g
+
+
dz + T dsi + δws = 0
ρ
2gc
gc
4. (Optional) Simplify the pressure–energy equation to obtain Bernoulli’s equation. Note all assumptions or restrictions that apply to Bernoulli’s equation.
5. Explain the stagnation state concept and the difference between static and
stagnation properties.
6. Define stagnation enthalpy by an equation that is valid for any fluid.
7. Draw an h–s diagram representing a flow system and indicate static and
stagnation points for an arbitrary section.
8. (Optional) Introduce the stagnation concept into the energy equation and
derive the stagnation pressure–energy equation:
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
9. Demonstrate the ability to apply continuity and energy concepts to the solution
of typical flow problems with constant-density fluids.
10. (Optional) Given the basic concept or equation that is valid for a control mass,
obtain the integral form of the momentum equation for a control volume.
11. Simplify the integral form of the momentum equation for a control volume
for the conditions of steady one-dimensional flow.
12. Demonstrate the ability to apply momentum concepts in the analysis of control volumes.
3.3
COMMENTS ON ENTROPY
In Section 1.4 entropy changes were defined in the usual manner in terms of reversible
processes:
δQR
(1.38)
S ≡
T
The term δQR is related to a fictitious reversible process (a rare happening indeed),
and consequently, it may not represent the total entropy change in the process under
consideration. It would seem more appropriate to work with the actual heat transfer
for the irreversible process. To accomplish this it is necessary to divide the entropy
changes of any system into two categories. We shall follow the notation of Hall
(Ref. 15). Let
dS ≡ dSe + dSi
(3.1)
The term dSe represents that portion of entropy change caused by the actual
heat transfer between the system and its (external) surroundings. It can be evaluated
readily from
3.3
dSe =
COMMENTS ON ENTROPY
δQ
T
53
(3.2)
One should note that dSe can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction
of heat transfer. If heat is removed from a system, δQ is negative and thus dSe will
be negative. Obviously, dSe = 0 for an adiabatic process.
The term dSi represents that portion of entropy change caused by irreversible
effects. Moreover, dSi effects are internal in nature, such as temperature and pressure
gradients within the system as well as friction along the internal boundaries of the
system. Note that this term depends on the process path and from observations we
know that all irreversibilities generate entropy (i.e., cause the entropy of the system
to increase). Thus we could say that dSi ≥ 0. Obviously, dSi = 0 only for a reversible
process.
Recall that an isentropic process is one of constant entropy. This is also represented
by dS = 0. The equation
dS = dSe + dSi
(3.1)
confirms the well-known fact that a reversible-adiabatic process is also isentropic. It
also clearly shows that the converse is not necessarily true; an isentropic process does
not have to be reversible and adiabatic. If isentropic, we merely know that
dS = 0 = dSe + dSi
(3.3)
If an isentropic process is known to contain irreversibilities, what can be said about
the direction of heat transfer? Note that dSe and dSi are unusual mathematical quantities and perhaps require a symbol other than the common one used for an exact
differential. But in this book we continue with the notation of equation (3.1) because
it is the most commonly used.
Another familiar relation can be developed by taking the cyclic integral of equation
(3.1):
(3.4)
dS = dSe + dSi
Since a cyclic integral must be taken around a closed path and entropy (S) is a
property,
dS = 0
(3.5)
We know that irreversible effects always generate entropy, so
dSi ≥ 0
with the equal sign holding only for a reversible cycle.
(3.6)
54
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
Thus
0=
dSe + (≥ 0)
(3.7)
and since
dSe =
then
δQ
T
(3.2)
δQ
≤0
T
(3.8)
which is the inequality of Clausius.
The expressions above can be written for a unit mass, in which case we have
ds = dse + dsi
dse =
3.4
(3.9)
δq
T
(3.10)
PRESSURE–ENERGY EQUATION
We are now ready to develop a very useful equation. Starting with the thermodynamic
property relation
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
we introduce ds = dse + dsi and v = 1/ρ, to obtain
T dse + T dsi = dh −
dp
ρ
dh = T dse + T dsi +
dp
ρ
or
(3.11)
Recalling the energy equation from Section 2.6,
δq = δws + dh +
dV 2
g
+ dz
2gc
gc
we now substitute for dh from (3.11) and obtain
(2.53)
55
3.5 THE STAGNATION CONCEPT
dp
δq = δws + T dse + T dsi +
ρ
+
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(3.12)
Recognize [from Eq. (3.10)] that δq = T dse and we obtain a form of the energy
equation which is often called the pressure–energy equation:
dp dV 2
g
+
+
dz + δws + T dsi = 0
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.13)
Notice that even though the heat term (δq) does not appear in this equation, it is still
applicable to cases that involve heat transfer.
Equation (3.13) can readily be simplified for special cases. For instance, if no shaft
work crosses the boundary (δws = 0) and if there are no losses (dsi = 0), then
dp dV 2
g
+
+
dz = 0
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.14)
This is called Euler’s equation and can be integrated only if we know the functional
relationship that exists between the pressure and density.
Example 3.1 Integrate Euler’s equation for the case of isothermal flow of a perfect gas.
2
dp
+
ρ
1
1
2
dV 2
+
2gc
2
1
g
dz = 0
gc
For isothermal flow, pv = const or p/ρ = c. Thus
1
2
dp
=c
ρ
1
2
dp
p2
p2
p
p2
= c ln
ln
=
= RT ln
p
p1
ρ
p1
p1
and
RT ln
V 2 − V1 2
p2
g
+ 2
+ (z2 − z1 ) = 0
p1
2gc
gc
The special case of incompressible fluids is considered in Section 3.7.
3.5 THE STAGNATION CONCEPT
When we speak of the thermodynamic state of a flowing fluid and mention its properties (e.g., temperature, pressure), there may be some question as to what these properties actually represent or how they can be measured. Imagine that you have been
56
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
miniaturized and put aboard a small submarine that is drifting along with the fluid.
(An alternative might be to “saddle-up” a small fluid particle and take a ride.) If you
had a thermometer and pressure gage with you, they would indicate the temperature
and pressure corresponding to the static state of the fluid, although the word static is
usually omitted. Thus the static properties are those that would be measured if you
moved with the fluid.
It is convenient to introduce the concept of a stagnation state. This is a reference
state defined as that thermodynamic state which would exist if the fluid were brought
to zero velocity and zero potential. To yield a consistent reference state, we must
qualify how this stagnation process should be accomplished. The stagnation state
must be reached
(1) without any energy exchange (Q = W = 0) and
(2) without losses.
By virtue of (1), dse = 0; and from (2), dsi = 0. Thus the stagnation process is
isentropic!
We can imagine the following example of actually carrying out the stagnation
process. Consider fluid that is flowing and has the static properties shown as (a)
in Figure 3.1. At location (b) the fluid has been brought to zero velocity and zero
potential under the foregoing restrictions. If we apply the energy equation to the
control volume indicated for steady one-dimensional flow, we have
ha +
V 2
Va 2
g
g
+
za + q = hb + b +
zb + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
(2.49)
which simplifies to
ha +
Va 2
g
+
za = hb
2gc
gc
Figure 3.1 Stagnation process.
(3.15)
3.5 THE STAGNATION CONCEPT
57
But condition (b) represents the stagnation state corresponding to the static state
(a). Thus we call hb the stagnation or total enthalpy corresponding to state (a) and
designate it as hta . Thus
hta = ha +
g
Va 2
+
za
2gc
gc
(3.16)
V2
g
+ z
2gc
gc
(3.17)
Or for any state, we have in general,
ht = h +
This is an important relation that is always valid. Learn it! When dealing with gases,
potential changes are usually neglected, and we write
ht = h +
Example 3.2
enthalpies?
V2
2gc
(3.18)
Nitrogen at 500°R is flowing at 1800 ft/sec. What are the static and stagnation
h = cp T = (0.248)(500) = 124 Btu/lbm
2
(1800)2
V
= 64.7 Btu/lbm
=
2gc
(2)(32.2)(778)
ht = h +
V2
= 124 + 64.7 = 188.7 Btu/lbm
2gc
Introduction of the stagnation (or total) enthalpy makes it possible to write equations in a more compact form. For example, the one-dimensional steady-flow energy
equation
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
g
g
+ z1 + q = h2 + 2 + z2 + ws
2gc
gc
2gc
gc
(2.49)
becomes
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
and
δq = δws + dh +
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
(2.53)
58
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
Figure 3.2 h–s diagram showing static and stagnation states.
becomes
δq = δws + dht
(3.20)
Equation (3.19) [or (3.20)] shows that in any adiabatic no-work steady one-dimensional flow system, the stagnation enthalpy remains constant, irrespective of the
losses. What else can be said if the fluid is a perfect gas?
You should note that the stagnation state is a reference state that may or may not
actually exist in the flow system. Also, in general, each point in a flow system may
have a different stagnation state, as shown in Figure 3.2. Remember that although
the hypothetical process from 1 to 1t must be reversible and adiabatic (as well as the
process from 2 to 2t ), this in no way restricts the actual process that exists in the flow
system between 1 and 2.
Also, one must realize that when the frame of reference is changed, stagnation
conditions change, although the static conditions remain the same. (Recall that static
properties are defined as those that would be measured if the measuring devices move
with the fluid.) Consider still air with Earth as a reference frame (see Figure 3.3). In
this case, since the velocity is zero (with respect to the frame of reference), the static
and stagnation conditions are the same.
Figure 3.3 Earth as a frame of reference.
3.6
STAGNATION PRESSURE–ENERGY EQUATION
59
Figure 3.4 Missile as a frame of reference.
Now let’s change the frame of reference by flying through this same air on a
missile at 600 ft/sec (see Figure 3.4). As we look forward it appears that the air is
coming at us at 600 ft/sec. The static pressure and temperature of the air remain
unchanged at 14.7 psia and 520°R, respectively. However, in this case, the air has a
velocity (with respect to the frame of reference) and thus the stagnation conditions are
different from the static conditions. You should always remember that the stagnation
reference state is completely dependent on the frame of reference used for velocities.
(Changing the arbitrary z = 0 reference would also affect the stagnation conditions,
but we shall not become involved with this situation.) You will soon learn how to
compute stagnation properties other than enthalpy. Incidentally, is there any place in
this system where the stagnation conditions actually exist? Is the fluid brought to rest
any place?
3.6
STAGNATION PRESSURE–ENERGY EQUATION
Consider the two section locations on the physical system shown in Figure 3.2. If
we let the distance between these locations approach zero, we are dealing with an
infinitesimal control volume with the thermodynamic states differentially separated,
as shown in Figure 3.5. Also shown are the corresponding stagnation states for these
two locations.
We may write the following property relation between points 1 and 2:
Figure 3.5
Infinitesimally separated static states with associated stagnation states.
60
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
Note that even though the stagnation states do not actually exist, they represent
legitimate thermodynamic states, and thus any valid property relation or equation
may be applied to these points. Thus we may also apply equation (1.41) between
states 1t and 2t :
Tt dst = dht − vt dpt
(3.21)
However,
dst = ds
(3.22)
and
ds = dse + dsi
(3.9)
Thus we may write
Tt (dse + dsi ) = dht − vt dpt
(3.23)
Recall the energy equation written in the form
δq = δws + dht
(3.20)
By substituting dht from equation (3.23) into (3.20), we obtain
δq = δws + Tt (dse + dsi ) + vt dpt
(3.24)
Now also recall that
δq = T dse
(3.10)
Substitute equation (3.10) into (3.24) and note that vt = 1/ρt [from (1.5)] and
you should obtain the following equation, called the stagnation pressure–energy
equation:
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
Consider what happens under the following assumptions:
(a) There is no shaft work
→
δws = 0
(3.25)
3.7
(b) There is no heat transfer
(c) There are no losses
→
→
61
CONSEQUENCES OF CONSTANT DENSITY
dse = 0
dsi = 0
Under these conditions, equation (3.25) becomes
dpt
=0
ρt
(3.26)
and since ρt cannot be infinite,
dpt = 0
or
pt = constant
(3.27)
Note that, in general, the total pressure will not remain constant; only under a special
set of circumstances will equation (3.27) hold true. What are these circumstances?
Many flow systems are adiabatic and contain no shaft work. For these systems,
dpt
+ Tt dsi = 0
ρt
(3.28)
and the losses are clearly reflected by a change in stagnation pressure. Will the
stagnation pressure increase or decrease if there are losses in this system? This point
will be discussed many times as we examine various flow systems in the remainder
of the book.
3.7
CONSEQUENCES OF CONSTANT DENSITY
The density of a liquid is nearly constant and in Chapter 4 we shall see that under
certain circumstances, gases change their density very little. Thus it will be interesting
to see the form that some of our equations take for the limiting case of constant
density.
Energy Relations
We start with the pressure–energy equation
dp dV 2
g
+
+
dz + δws + T dsi = 0
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.13)
If ρ = const, we can easily integrate (3.13) between points 1 and 2 of a flow system:
V 2 − V1 2
p2 − p1
g
+ 2
+ (z2 − z1 ) + ws +
gc
ρ
2gc
2
1
T dsi = 0
62
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
or
V 2
V 2
p1
p2
g
g
+ 1 + z1 =
+ 2 + z2 +
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
2
T dsi + ws
(3.29)
1
Compare (3.29) to another form of the energy equation (2.48) and show that
2
T dsi = u2 − u1 − q
(3.30)
1
Does this result seem reasonable? To determine this, let us examine two extreme
cases for the flow of a constant-density fluid. For the first case, assume that the system
is perfectly insulated. Since the integral of T dsi is a positive quantity, equation (3.30)
shows that the losses (i.e., irreversible effects) will cause an increase in internal
energy, which means a temperature increase. Now consider an isothermal system.
For this case, how will the losses manifest themselves?
For the flow of a constant-density fluid, “losses” must appear in some combination of the two forms described above. In either case, mechanical energy has been
degraded into a less useful form—thermal energy. Thus, when dealing with constantdensity fluids, we normally use a single loss term and generally
refer to it as a head
loss or friction loss, using the symbol h or hf in place of T dsi . If you have studied
fluid mechanics, you have undoubtedly used equation (3.29) in the form
V 2
V 2
p1
g
p2
g
+ 1 + z1 =
+ 2 + z2 + h + ws
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.31)
How many restrictions and/or assumptions are embodied in equation (3.31)?
Example 3.3 A turbine extracts 300 ft-lbf/lbm of water flowing (Figure E3.3). Frictional
losses amount to 8Vp2 /2gc , where Vp is the velocity in a 2-ft-diameter pipe. Compute the
power output of the turbine if it is 100% efficient and the available potential is 350 ft.
p1 = patm
p2 = patm
V1 ≈ 0
V2 ≈ 0
z1 = 350 ft
z2 = 0
ws = 300 ft-lbf/lbm
h = 8Vp2 /2gc
Note how the sections are chosen to make application of the energy equation easy.
3.7
CONSEQUENCES OF CONSTANT DENSITY
63
Figure E3.3
Energy:
V 2
p1
g
+ 1 +
z1 =
ρ
2gc
gc
32.2
(350) =
32.2
V 2
p2
g
+ 2 +
z2 + h + ws
ρ
2gc
gc
8Vp2
2gc
+ 300
2gc (350 − 300)
= 402.5
8
Vp = 20.1 ft/sec
Vp2 =
Flow rate:
ṁ = ρAV = 62.4(π)20.1 = 3940 lbm/sec
Power:
hp =
(3940)(300)
ṁws
=
= 2150 hp
550
550
We can further restrict the flow to one in which no shaft work and no losses occur.
In this case, equation (3.31) simplifies to
V 2
V 2
p1
g
p2
g
+ 1 + z1 =
+ 2 + z2
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
or
V2
p
g
+
+ z = const
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.32)
64
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
This is called Bernoulli’s equation and could also have been obtained by integrating
Euler’s equation (3.14) for a constant-density fluid. How many assumptions have been
made to arrive at Bernoulli’s equation?
Example 3.4 Water flows in a 6-in.-diameter duct with a velocity of 15 ft/sec. Within a short
distance the duct converges to 3 in. in diameter. Find the pressure change if there are no losses
between these two sections.
Figure E3.4
Bernoulli:
V 2
V 2
g
p2
g
p1
+ 1 +
+ 2 +
z1 =
z2
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
V 2 − V1 2
p1 − p2 =
2gc 2
Continuity:
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
V2 = V1
A1
= V1
A2
D1
D2
2
= (15)
2
6
= 60 ft/sec
3
Thus:
p1 − p2 =
62.4
602 − 152 = 3270 lbf/ft2 = 22.7 lbf/in2
(2)(32.2)
Stagnation Relations
We start by considering the property relation
T ds = du + p dv
(1.40)
If ρ = const, dv = 0, then
T ds = du
(3.33)
3.7
CONSEQUENCES OF CONSTANT DENSITY
65
Note that for a process in which ds = 0, du = 0. We also have, by definition,
∂u
cv =
(1.37)
∂T v
But for a constant-density fluid every process is one in which v = const. Thus for
these fluids, we can drop the partial notation and write equation (1.37) as
cv =
du
dT
or
du = cv dT
(3.34)
Note that for a process in which du = 0, dT = 0.
We now consider the stagnation process, which by virtue of its definition is isentropic, or ds = 0. From (3.33) we see that the internal energy does not change during
the stagnation process.
u = ut
for ρ = const
(3.35)
From (3.34) it must then be that the temperature also does not change during the
stagnation process.
for ρ = const
T = Tt
(3.36)
Summarizing the above, we have shown that for a constant-density fluid the stagnation process is not only one of constant entropy but also one of constant temperature
and internal energy. Let us continue and discover some other interesting relations.
From
h = u + pv
(1.34)
we have
dh = du + v dp + p dv
(3.37)
Let us integrate equation (3.37) between the static and stagnation states:
ht − h = (ut − u) + v(pt − p)
(3.38)
But we know that
ht = h +
V2
g
+ z
2gc
gc
Combining these last two equations yields
(3.17)
66
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
V2
g
h+
+ z − h = v(pt − p)
2gc
gc
which becomes
pt = p +
ρV 2
g
+ρ z
2gc
gc
(3.39)
This equation may also be familiar to those of you who have studied fluid mechanics.
It is imperative to note that this relation between static and stagnation pressures is
valid only for a constant-density fluid. In Section 4.5 we develop the corresponding
relation for perfect gases.
Example 3.5 Water is flowing at a velocity of 20 m/s and has a pressure of 4 bar abs. What
is the total pressure?
pt = p +
ρV 2
g
+ρ z
2gc
gc
pt = 4 × 105 +
(103 )(20)2
= 4 × 105 + 2 × 105
(2)(1)
pt = 6 × 105 N/m2 abs.
In many problems you will be confronted by flow exiting a pipe or duct. To solve
this type of problem, you must know the pressure at the duct exit. The flow will adjust
itself so that the pressure at the duct exit exactly matches that of the surrounding
ambient pressure (which may or may not be the atmospheric pressure). In Section
5.7 you will find that this is true only for subsonic flow; but since the sonic velocity
in liquids is so great, you will always be dealing with subsonic flow in these cases.
3.8
MOMENTUM EQUATION
If we observe the motion of a given quantity of mass, Newton’s second law tells us
that its linear momentum will be changed in direct proportion to the applied forces.
This is expressed by the following equation:
−−−→
F=
1 d(momentum)
gc
dt
(1.2)
3.8
MOMENTUM EQUATION
67
We could write a similar expression relating torque and angular momentum, but we
shall confine our discussion to linear momentum. Note that equation (1.2) is a vector
relation and must be treated as such or we must carefully work with components of
the equation. In nearly all fluid flow problems, unbalanced forces exist and thus the
momentum of the system being analyzed does not remain constant. Thus we shall
carefully avoid listing this as a conservation law.
Again, the question is: What corresponding expression can we write for a control
volume? We note that the term on the right side of equation (1.2) is a material
derivative and must be transformed according to the relation developed in Section
2.4. If we let N be the linear momentum of the system, η represents the momentum
per unit mass, which is V. Substitution into equation (2.22) yields
−−−→
d(momentum)
∂
=
dt
∂t
Vρ(V · n̂) dA
Vρ d ṽ +
cv
(3.40)
cs
and the transformed equation which is applicable to a control volume is
1 ∂
F=
gc ∂t
1
Vρ d ṽ +
g
c
cv
Vρ(V · n̂) dA
(3.41)
cs
This equation is usually called the momentum or momentum flux equation. The F
represents the summation of all forces on the fluid within the control volume. What
do the other terms represent? [See the discussion following equation (2.22.)]
In the solution of actual problems, one normally works with the components of
the momentum equation. In fact, frequently, only one component is required for the
solution of a problem. The x-component of this equation would appear as
Fx =
1 ∂
gc ∂t
Vx ρ d ṽ +
cv
1
gc
Vx ρ(V · n̂) dA
(3.42)
cs
Note carefully how the last term is written.
In the event that one-dimensional flow exists, the last integral in equation (3.41) is
easy to evaluate, as ρ and V are constant over any given cross section. If we choose
the surface A perpendicular to the velocity, then
Vρ(V · n̂) dA =
V ρV
dA =
VρVA =
ṁV
(3.43)
cs
The summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface and
is positive where fluid leaves the control volume and negative where fluid enters the
control volume. (Recall how n̂ was chosen.)
68
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
If we now consider steady flow, the term involving the partial derivative with
respect to time is zero. Thus for steady one-dimensional flow, the momentum equation
for a control volume becomes
F=
1
ṁV
gc
(3.44)
If there is only one section where fluid enters and one section where fluid leaves the
control volume, we know (from continuity) that
ṁin = ṁout = ṁ
(2.42)
and the momentum equation becomes
F=
ṁ
(Vout − Vin )
gc
(3.45)
This is the form of the equation for a finite control volume.
What assumptions have been fed into this equation? In using this relation one must
be sure to:
1. Identify the control volume.
2. Include all forces acting on the fluid inside the control volume.
3. Be extremely careful with the signs of all quantities.
Example 3.6 There is a steady one-dimensional flow of air through a 12-in.-diameter horizontal duct (Figure E3.6). At a section where the velocity is 460 ft/sec, the pressure is 50
psia and the temperature is 550°R. At a downstream section the velocity is 880 ft/sec and the
pressure is 23.9 psia. Determine the total wall shearing force between these sections.
Figure E3.6
3.8
MOMENTUM EQUATION
V1 = 460 ft/sec
V2 = 880 ft/sec
p1 = 50 psia
p2 = 23.9 psia
69
T1 = 550°R
We establish a coordinate system and indicate the forces on the control volume. Let Ff
represent the frictional force of the duct on the gas. We write the x-component of equation
(3.45):
Fx =
p1 A1 − p2 A2 − Ff =
ṁ
(Voutx − Vinx )
gc
ṁ
ρ1 A1 V1
(V2 − V1 ) =
(V2 − V1 )
gc
gc
Note that any force in the negative direction must include a minus sign. We divide by A =
A1 = A2 :
p1 − p2 −
ρ1 =
Ff
ρ1 V1
=
(V2 − V1 )
A
gc
p1
(50)(144)
= 0.246 lbm/ft3
=
RT1
(53.3)(550)
Ff
(0.246)(460)
=
(880 − 460)
A
32.2
Ff
= 1476
3758 −
A
(50 − 23.9)(144) −
Ff = (3758 − 1476)π(0.5)2 = 1792 lbf
Example 3.7 Water flowing at the rate of 0.05 m3/s has a velocity of 40 m/s. The jet strikes
a vane and is deflected 120° (Figure E3.7). Friction along the vane is negligible and the entire
system is exposed to the atmosphere. Potential changes can also be neglected. Determine the
force necessary to hold the vane stationary.
p1 = p2 = patmos
h =0
z1 = z2
ws = 0
Energy:
V 2
V 2
g
p2
g
p1
+ 1 +
+ 2 +
z1 =
z2 + h + w s
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
Thus
V1 = V2
70
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
Figure E3.7
We indicate the force components of the vane on the fluid as Rx and Ry and put them on
the diagram in assumed directions. (If we have guessed wrong, our answer will turn out to be
negative.)
For the x-component:
Fx =
−Rx =
ṁ
(V2x − V1x )
gc
ṁ
ṁV1
[(−V2 sin 30) − V1 ] =
(− sin 30 − 1)
gc
gc
(103 )(0.05)(40)
(−0.5 − 1)
1
Rx = 3000 N
−Rx =
For the y-component:
Fy =
ṁ
(V2y − V1y )
gc
Ry =
ṁ
[(V2 cos 30) − 0]
gc
(103 )(0.05)(40)
(0.866)
1
Ry = 1732 N
Ry =
Note that the assumed directions for Rx and Ry were correct since the answers came out
positive.
3.8
MOMENTUM EQUATION
71
Figure 3.6 Momentum analysis on infinitesimal control volume.
Differential Form of Momentum Equation
As a further example of the meticulous care that must be exercised when utilizing the
momentum equation, we apply it to the differential control volume shown in Figure
3.6. Under conditions of steady, one-dimensional flow, the properties of the fluid
entering the control volume are designated as ρ, V , p, and so on. Fluid leaves the
control volume with slightly different properties, as indicated by ρ + dρ, V + dV ,
and so on. The x-coordinate is chosen as positive in the direction of flow, and the
positive z-direction is opposite gravity. (Note that the x and z axes are not necessarily
orthogonal.)
Now that the control volume has been identified, we note all forces that act on it.
The forces can be divided into two types:
1. Surface forces. These act on the control surface and from there indirectly on
the fluid. These are either from normal or tangential stress components.
2. Body forces. These act directly on the fluid within the control volume. Examples of these are gravity and electromagnetic forces. We shall limit our discussion to gravity forces.
Thus we have
F1 ≡ Upstream pressure force
F2 ≡ Downstream pressure force
F3 ≡ Wall pressure force
72
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
F4 ≡ Wall friction force
F5 ≡ Gravity force
It should be mentioned that wall forces F3 and F4 are usually lumped together into
a single force called the enclosure force for the reason that it is extremely difficult to
account for them separately in most finite control volumes. Fortunately, it is the total
enclosure force that is of significance in the solution of these problems. However, in
dealing with a differential control volume, it will be more instructive to separate each
portion of the enclosure force as we have indicated.
We write the x-component of the momentum equation for steady one-dimensional
flow:
Fx =
ṁ
(Voutx − Vinx )
gc
(3.46)
Now we proceed to evaluate the x-component of each force, taking care to indicate
whether it is in the positive or negative direction.
F1x = F1 = (pressure) (area)
F1x = pA
(3.47)
F2x = −F2 = −(pressure) (area)
HOT
F2x = −(p + dp)(A + dA) = −(pA + p dA + A dp + dp dA)
(3.48)
Neglecting the higher-order term, this becomes
F2x = −(pA + p dA + A dp)
(3.49)
The wall pressure force can be obtained with a mean pressure value:
F3x = F3 sin θ = [(mean pressure)(wall area)] sin θ
but dA = (wall area) sin θ; and thus
F3x
dp
= p+
dA
2
(3.50)
The same result could be obtained using principles of basic fluid mechanics, which
show that a component of the pressure force can be computed by considering the
pressure distribution over the projected area. Expanding and neglecting the higherorder term, we have
F3x = p dA
(3.51)
3.8
MOMENTUM EQUATION
73
To compute the wall friction force, we define
τw ≡ the mean shear stress along the wall
P ≡ the mean wetted perimeter
F4x = − F4 cos θ = −[(mean shear stress) (wall area)] cos θ
F4x = τw (P dL) cos θ
(3.52)
but dx = dL cos θ, and thus
F4x = −τw P dx
(3.53)
For the body force we have
F5x
F5x
g
= −F5 cos φ = − (volume)(mean density)
gc
dρ g
dA
dx ρ +
=− A+
cos φ
2
2 gc
cos φ
(3.54)
But dx cos φ = dz, and thus
dρ g
dA
ρ+
dz
F5x = − A +
2
2 gc
(3.55)
Expand this and eliminate all the higher-order terms to show that
F5x = −Aρ
g
dz
gc
(3.56)
Summarizing the above, we have
Fx = F1x + F2x + F3x + F4x + F5x
Fx = pA − (pA + p dA + A dp) + p dA − τw P dx − Aρ
Fx = −A dp − τw P dx − Aρ
g
dz
gc
g
dz
gc
(3.57)
We now turn our attention to the right side of equation (3.46). Looking at Figure
3.6, we see that this is
ṁ
ṁ
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx =
dV
[(V + dV ) − V ] =
gc
gc
gc
(3.58)
74
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
Combining equations (3.57) and (3.58) yields the x-component of the momentum
equation applied to a differential control volume:
Fx =
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx
gc
− A dp − τw P dx − Aρ
g
ṁ
ρAV dV
dz =
dV =
gc
gc
gc
(3.46)
(3.59)
Equation (3.59) can be put into a more useful form by introducing the concepts of the
friction factor and equivalent diameter.
The friction factor (f ) relates the average shear stress at the wall (τw ) to the
dynamic pressure in the following manner:
f ≡
4τw
ρV 2 /2gc
(3.60)
This is the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor and is the one we use in this book. Care
should be taken when reading literature in this area since some authors use the
Fanning friction factor, which is only one-fourth as large, due to omission of the
factor of 4 in the definition.
Frequently, fluid flows through a noncircular cross section such as a rectangular
duct. To handle these problems, an equivalent diameter has been devised, which is
defined as
De ≡
4A
P
(3.61)
where
A ≡ the cross-sectional area
P ≡ the perimeter of the enclosure wetted by the fluid
Note that if equation (3.61) is applied to a circular duct completely filled with fluid,
the equivalent diameter is the same as the actual diameter.
Use the definitions given for the friction factor and the equivalent diameter and
show that equation (3.59) can be rearranged to
V 2 dx
dp
g
V dV
+f
+
dz +
=0
ρ
2gc De
gc
gc
(3.62)
This is a very useful form of the momentum equation (written in the direction of flow)
for steady one-dimensional flow through a differential control volume. The last term
can be written in an alternative form to yield
3.9
V 2 dx
dp
g
dV 2
+f
+
dz +
=0
2gc De
gc
2gc
ρ
75
SUMMARY
(3.63)
We shall use this equation in Chapter 9 when we discuss flow through ducts with
friction.
It might be instructive at this time to compare equation (3.63) with equation
(3.13). Recall that (3.13) was derived from energy considerations, whereas (3.63)
was developed from momentum concepts. A comparison of this nature reinforces
our division of entropy concept, for it shows that
T dsi = f
3.9
V 2 dx
2gc De
(3.64)
SUMMARY
We have taken a new look at entropy changes by dividing them into two parts, that
caused by heat transfer and that caused by irreversible effects. We then introduced the
concept of a stagnation reference state. These two ideas permitted the energy equation
to be written in alternative forms called pressure–energy equations. Several interesting conclusions were drawn from these equations under appropriate assumptions.
Newton’s second law was transformed into a form suitable for control volume
analysis. Extreme care should be taken when the momentum equation is used. The following steps should be noted in addition to those listed in the summary for Chapter 2:
1. Establish a coordinate system.
2. Indicate all forces acting on the fluid inside the control volume.
3. Be especially careful with the signs of vector quantities such as F and V.
Some of the most frequently used equations developed in this chapter are summarized below. Most are restricted to steady one-dimensional flow; others involve
additional assumptions. You should determine under what conditions each may be
used.
1. Entropy division
ds = dse + dsi =
δq
+ dsi
T
dse is positive or negative (depends on δq);
dsi is always positive (irreversibilities).
(3.9), (3.10)
76
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
2. Pressure–energy equation
dp dV 2
g
+
+
dz + δws + T dsi = 0
ρ
2gc
gc
(3.13)
3. Stagnation concept (depends on reference frame)
ht = h +
V2
g
+ z
2gc
gc
(neglect z for gas)
(3.17)
st = s
4. Energy equation
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
δq = δws + dht
(3.20)
If q = ws = 0, ht = const.
5. Stagnation pressure–energy equation
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
(3.25)
If q = ws = 0, and loss = 0, pt = const.
6. Constant-density fluids
V 2
V 2
p1
g
p2
g
+ 1 + z1 =
+ 2 + z2 + h + ws
ρ
2gc
gc
ρ
2gc
gc
u = ut
T = Tt
and
pt = p +
ρV
g
+ρ z
2gc
gc
∂
F=
∂t
cv
(3.35), (3.36)
2
7. Second law of motion—momentum equation
(3.31)
ρV
d ṽ +
gc
cs
(3.39)
−−−→
N = momentum
η =V
ρV
(V · n̂) dA
gc
(3.41)
For steady, one-dimensional flow:
F=
ṁ
(Vout − Vin )
gc
V 2 dx
dp
g
dV 2
+f
+
dz +
=0
ρ
2gc De
gc
2gc
(3.45)
(3.63)
PROBLEMS
77
PROBLEMS
For those problems involving water, you may use ρ = 62.4 lbm/ft3 or 1000 kg/m3, and the
specific heat equals 1 Btu/lbm-°R or 4187 J/kg-K.
3.1. Compare the pressure–energy equation (3.13) for the case of no external work with the
differential form of the momentum equation (3.63). Does the result seem reasonable?
3.2. Consider steady flow of a perfect gas in a horizontal insulated frictionless duct. Start
with the pressure–energy equation and show that
γ
p
V2
= const
+
2gc
(γ − 1) ρ
3.3. It is proposed to determine the flow rate through a pipeline from pressure measurements at two points of different cross-sectional areas. No energy transfers are involved
(q = ws = 0) and potential differences are negligible. Show that for the steady onedimensional, frictionless flow of an incompressible fluid, the flow rate can be represented by
ṁ = A1 A2
2ρgc (p1 − p2 )
A12 − A22
1/2
3.4. Pressure taps in a low-speed wind tunnel reveal the difference between stagnation and
static pressure to be 0.5 psi. Calculate the test section air velocity under the assumption
that the air density remains constant at 0.0765 lbm/ft3.
3.5. Water flows through a duct of varying area. The difference in stagnation pressures
between two sections is 4.5 × 105 N/m2.
(a) If the water remains at a constant temperature, how much heat will be transferred
in this length of duct?
(b) If the system is perfectly insulated against heat transfer, compute the temperature
change of water as it flows through the duct.
3.6. The following information is known about the steady flow of methane through a horizontal insulated duct:
Entering stagnation enthalpy = 634 Btu/lbm
Leaving static enthalpy
= 532 Btu/lbm
Leaving static temperature
= 540°F
Leaving static pressure
= 50psia
(a) Determine the outlet velocity.
(b) What is the stagnation temperature at the outlet?
(c) Determine the stagnation pressure at the outlet.
3.7. Under what conditions would it be possible to have an adiabatic flow process with a real
fluid (with friction) and have the stagnation pressures at inlet and outlet to the system
be the same? (Hint: Look at the stagnation pressure–energy equation.)
78
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
3.8 Simplify the stagnation pressure–energy equation (3.25) for the case of an incompressible fluid. Integrate the result and compare your answer to any other energy equation
that you might use for an incompressible fluid [say, equation (3.29)].
3.9. An incompressible fluid (ρ = 55 lbm/ft3) leaves the pipe shown in Figure P3.9 with a
velocity of 15 ft/sec.
(a) Calculate the flow losses.
(b) Assume that all losses occur in the constant-area pipe and find the pressure at the
entrance to the pipe.
Figure P3.9
3.10. For the flow depicted in Figure P3.10, what z value is required to produce a jet
velocity (Vj ) of 30 m/s if the flow losses are h = 15Vp2 /2gc ?
Figure P3.10
3.11. Water flows in a 2-ft-diameter duct under the following conditions: p1 = 55 psia and
V1 = 20 ft/sec. At another section 12 ft below the first the diameter is 1 ft and the
pressure p2 = 40 psia.
(a) Compute the frictional losses between these two sections.
(b) Determine the direction of flow.
3.12. For Figure P3.12, find the pipe diameter required to produce a flow rate of 50 kg/s if
the flow losses are h = 6V 2 /2gc .
Figure P3.12
PROBLEMS
79
3.13. A pump at the surface of a lake expels a vertical jet of water (the water falls back into
the lake).
(a) Discuss briefly (but clearly) all possible sources of irreversibilities in this situation.
(b) Now neglecting all losses that you discussed in part (a), what is the maximum
height that the water may reach for ws = 35 ft-lbf/lbm?
3.14. Which of the two pumping arrangements shown in Figure P3.14 is more desirable
(i.e., less demanding of pump work)? You may neglect the minor loss at the elbow
in arrangement (A).
Figure P3.14
3.15. For a given mass, we can relate the moment of the applied force to the angular momentum by the following:
−−−−−−→
M=
1 d(angular momentum)
gc
dt
(a) What is the angular momentum per unit mass?
(b) What form does the equation above take for the analysis of a control volume?
3.16. An incompressible fluid flows through a 10-in.-diameter horizontal constant-area pipe.
At one section the pressure is 150 psia and 1000 ft downstream the pressure has dropped
to 100 psia.
(a) Find the total frictional force exerted on the fluid by the pipe.
(b) Compute the average wall shear stress.
3.17. Methane gas flows through a horizontal constant-area pipe of 15 cm diameter. At
section 1, p1 = 6 bar abs., T1 = 66°C, and V1 = 30 m/s. At section 2, T2 = 38°C
and V2 = 110 m/s.
(a) Determine the pressure at section 2.
(b) Find the total wall frictional force.
(c) What is the heat transfer?
3.18. Seawater (ρ = 64 lbm/ft3) flows through the reducer shown in Figure P3.18 with p1 =
50 psig. The flow losses between the two sections amount to h = 5.0 ft-1bf/lbm.
(a) Find V2 and p2 .
(b) Determine the force exerted by the reducer on the seawater between sections 1
and 2.
80
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
Figure P3.18
3.19. (a) Neglect all losses and compute the exit velocity from the tank shown in Figure
P3.19.
(b) If the opening is 4 in. in diameter, determine the mass flow rate.
(c) Compute the force tending to push the tank along the floor.
Figure P3.19
3.20. A jet of water with a velocity of 5 m/s has an area of 0.05 m2. It strikes a 1-m-thick
concrete block at a point 2 m above the ground (Figure P3.20). After hitting the block,
the water drops straight to the ground. What minimum weight must the block have in
order not to tip over?
Figure P3.20
3.21. It is proposed to brake a racing car by opening an air scoop to deflect the air as shown
in Figure P3.21. You may assume that the density of the air remains approximately
CHECK TEST
81
constant at the inlet conditions of 14.7 psia and 60°F. Assume that there is no spillage—
that all the air enters the inlet in the direction shown and the conditions specified. You
may also assume that there is no change in the drag of the car when the air scoop is
opened. What inlet area is needed to provide a braking force of 2000 1bf when traveling
at 300 mph?
Figure P3.21
3.22. A fluid jet strikes a vane and is deflected through angle θ (Figure P3.22). For a given
jet (fluid, area, and velocity are fixed), what deflection angle will cause the greatest
x-component of force between the fluid and vane? You may assume an incompressible
fluid and no friction along the vane. Set up the general problem and then differentiate
to find the maximum.
Figure P3.22
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
3.1. Entropy changes can be divided into two categories. Define these categories with words
and where possible by equations. Comment on the sign of each part.
3.2. Given the differential form of the energy equation, derive the pressure–energy equation.
3.3. (a) Define the stagnation process. Be careful to state all conditions.
82
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS — PART II
(b) Give a general equation for stagnation enthalpy that is valid for all substances.
(c) When can you use the following equation?
g
p
V2
pt
= +
+ z
ρ
ρ
2gc
gc
3.4. One can use either person A (who is standing still) or person B (who is running) as a
frame of reference (Figure CT3.4). Check the statement below that is correct.
(a) The stagnation pressure is the same for A and B.
(b) The static pressure is the same for A and B.
(c) Neither statement (a) nor (b) is correct.
Figure CT3.4
3.5. Consider the case of steady one-dimensional flow with one stream in and one stream out
of the control volume.
(a) Under what conditions can we say that the stagnation enthalpy remains constant?
(Can pt vary under these conditions?)
(b) If the conditions of part (a) are known to exist, what additional assumption is required before we can say that the stagnation pressure remains constant?
3.6. Under certain circumstances, the momentum equation is sometimes written in the following form when used to analyze a control volume:
F=
ṁ
(Vr − Vs )
gc
(a) Which of the sections (r or s) represents the location where fluid enters the control
volume?
(b) What circumstances must exist before you can use the equation in this form?
3.7. Work Problem 3.18.
Chapter 4
Introduction to
Compressible Flow
4.1
INTRODUCTION
In earlier chapters we developed the fundamental relations that are needed for the
analysis of fluid flow. We have seen the special form that some of these take for
the case of constant-density fluids. Our main interest now is in compressible fluids
or gases. We shall soon learn that it is not uncommon to encounter gases that are
traveling faster than the speed of sound. Furthermore, when in this situation, their
behavior is quite different than when traveling slower than the speed of sound. Thus
we begin by developing an expression for sonic velocity through an arbitrary medium.
This relation is then simplified for the case of perfect gases. We then examine subsonic
and supersonic flows to gain some insight as to why their behavior is different.
The Mach number is introduced as a key parameter and we find that for the case of
a perfect gas it is very simple to express our basic equations and many supplementary
relations in terms of this new parameter. The chapter closes with a discussion of
the significance of h–s and T –s diagrams and their importance in visualizing flow
problems.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. Explain how sound is propagated through any medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
2. Define sonic velocity. State the basic differences between a shock wave and a
sound wave.
3. (Optional) Starting with the continuity and momentum equations for steady,
one-dimensional flow, utilize a control volume analysis to derive the general
expression for the velocity of an infinitesimal pressure disturbance in an arbitrary medium.
83
84
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
4. State the relations for:
a. Speed of sound in an arbitrary medium
b. Speed of sound in a perfect gas
c. Mach number
5. Discuss the propagation of signal waves from a moving body in a fluid by explaining zone of action, zone of silence, Mach cone, and Mach angle. Compare
subsonic and supersonic flow in these respects.
6. Write an equation for the stagnation enthalpy (ht ) of a perfect gas in terms of
enthalpy (h), Mach number (M), and ratio of specific heats (γ ).
7. Write an equation for the stagnation temperature (Tt ) of a perfect gas in terms
of temperature (T ), Mach number (M), and ratio of specific heats (γ ).
8. Write an equation for the stagnation pressure (pt ) of a perfect gas in terms of
pressure (p), Mach number (M), and ratio of specific heats (γ ).
9. (Optional) Demonstrate manipulative skills by developing simple relations in
terms of Mach number for a perfect gas, such as
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
pt = p 1 +
2
10. Demonstrate the ability to utilize the concepts above in typical flow problems.
4.3
SONIC VELOCITY AND MACH NUMBER
We now examine the means by which disturbances pass through an elastic medium.
A disturbance at a given point creates a region of compressed molecules that is passed
along to its neighboring molecules and in so doing creates a traveling wave. Waves
come in various strengths, which are measured by the amplitude of the disturbance.
The speed at which this disturbance is propagated through the medium is called the
wave speed. This speed not only depends on the type of medium and its thermodynamic state but is also a function of the strength of the wave. The stronger the wave
is, the faster it moves.
If we are dealing with waves of large amplitude, which involve relatively large
changes in pressure and density, we call these shock waves. These will be studied in
detail in Chapter 6. If, on the other hand, we observe waves of very small amplitude,
their speed is characteristic only of the medium and its state. These waves are of vital
importance to us since sound waves fall into this category. Furthermore, the presence
of an object in a medium can only be felt by the object’s sending out or reflecting
infinitesimal waves which propagate at the characteristic sonic velocity.
Let us hypothesize how we might form an infinitesimal pressure wave and then
apply the fundamental concepts to determine the wave velocity. Consider a long
constant-area tube filled with fluid and having a piston at one end, as shown in
Figure 4.1. The fluid is initially at rest. At a certain instant the piston is given an
4.3
SONIC VELOCITY AND MACH NUMBER
85
Figure 4.1 Initiation of infinitesimal pressure pulse.
incremental velocity dV to the left. The fluid particles immediately next to the piston
are compressed a very small amount as they acquire the velocity of the piston.
As the piston (and these compressed particles) continue to move, the next group
of fluid particles is compressed and the wave front is observed to propagate through
the fluid at the characteristic sonic velocity of magnitude a. All particles between
the wave front and the piston are moving with velocity dV to the left and have been
compressed from ρ to ρ + dρ and have increased their pressure from p to p + dp.
We next recognize that this is a difficult situation to analyze. Why? Because it is
unsteady flow! [As you observe any given point in the tube, the properties change
with time (e.g., pressure changes from p to p + dp as the wave front passes).] This
difficulty can easily be solved by superimposing on the entire flow field a constant
velocity to the right of magnitude a. This procedure changes the frame of reference to
the wave front as it now appears as a stationary wave. An alternative way of achieving
this result is to jump on the wave front. Figure 4.2 shows the problem that we now
Figure 4.2 Steady-flow picture corresponding to Figure 4.1.
86
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
have. Note that changing the reference frame in this manner does not in any way alter
the actual (static) thermodynamic properties of the fluid, although it will affect the
stagnation conditions. Since the wave front is extremely thin, we can use a control
volume of infinitesimal thickness.
Continuity
For steady one-dimensional flow, we have
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
But A = const; thus
ρV = const
(4.1)
Application of this to our problem yields
ρa = (ρ + dρ)(a − dV )
Expanding gives us
HOT
ρa = ρa − ρ dV + a dρ − dρ dV
Neglecting the higher-order term and solving for dV , we have
dV =
a dρ
ρ
(4.2)
Momentum
Since the control volume has infinitesimal thickness, we can neglect any shear stresses
along the walls. We shall write the x-component of the momentum equation, taking
forces and velocity as positive if to the right. For steady one-dimensional flow we
may write
Fx =
pA − (p + dp)A =
A dp =
ṁ
(Voutx − Vinx )
gc
ρAa
[(a − dV ) − a]
gc
ρAa
dV
gc
Canceling the area and solving for dV , we have
(3.46)
4.3
dV =
87
SONIC VELOCITY AND MACH NUMBER
gc dp
ρa
(4.3)
Equations (4.2) and (4.3) may now be combined to eliminate dV , with the result
dp
dρ
a 2 = gc
(4.4)
However, the derivative dp/dρ is not unique. It depends entirely on the process. Thus
it should really be written as a partial derivative with the appropriate subscript. But
what subscript? What kind of a process are we dealing with?
Remember, we are analyzing an infinitesimal disturbance. For this case we can
assume negligible losses and heat transfer as the wave passes through the fluid. Thus
the process is both reversible and adiabatic, which means that it is isentropic. (Why?)
After we have studied shock waves, we shall prove that very weak shock waves (i.e.,
small disturbances) approach an isentropic process in the limit. Therefore, equation
(4.4) should properly be written as
a 2 = gc
∂p
∂ρ
(4.5)
s
This can be expressed in an alternative form by introducing the bulk or volume
modulus of elasticity Ev . This is a relation between volume or density changes that
occurs as a result of pressure fluctuations and is defined as
∂p
∂p
≡ρ
(4.6)
Ev ≡ −v
∂v s
∂ρ s
Thus
a = gc
2
Ev
ρ
(4.7)
Equations (4.5) and (4.7) are equivalent general relations for sonic velocity through
any medium. The bulk modulus is normally used in connection with liquids and
solids. Table 4.1 gives some typical values of this modulus, the exact value depending
on the temperature and pressure of the medium. For solids it also depends on the
type of loading. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility.
What is the sonic velocity in a truly incompressible fluid? [Hint: What is the value of
(∂p/∂ρ)s ?]
Equation (4.5) is normally used for gases and this can be greatly simplified for the
case of a gas that obeys the perfect gas law. For an isentropic process, we know that
88
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Table 4.1
Bulk Modulus Values for Common Media
Medium
Bulk Modulus (psi)
Oil
Water
Mercury
Steel
185,000–270,000
300,000–400,000
approx. 4,000,000
approx. 30,000,000
pv γ = const or
p = ρ γ const
(4.8)
Thus
∂p
∂ρ
= γρ γ −1 const
s
But from (4.8), the constant = p/ρ γ . Therefore,
∂p
p
p
= γρ γ −1 γ = γ = γ RT
∂ρ s
ρ
ρ
and from (4.5)
a 2 = γ gc RT
or
a=
γ gc RT
(4.9)
(4.10)
Notice that for perfect gases, sonic velocity is a function of the individual gas and
temperature only.
Example 4.1 Compute the sonic velocity in air at 70°F.
a 2 = γ gc RT = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(460 + 70)
a = 1128 ft/sec
Example 4.2 Sonic velocity through carbon dioxide is 275 m/s. What is the temperature in
Kelvin?
a 2 = γ gc RT
(275)2 = (1.29)(1)(189)(T )
T = 310.2 K
4.4 WAVE PROPAGATION
89
Always keep in mind that in general, sonic velocity is a property of the fluid and
varies with the state of the fluid. Only for gases that can be treated as perfect is the
sonic velocity a function of temperature alone.
Mach Number
We define the Mach number as
M≡
V
a
(4.11)
where
V ≡ the velocity of the medium
a ≡ sonic velocity through the medium
It is important to realize that both V and a are computed locally for conditions that
actually exist at the same point. If the velocity at one point in a flow system is twice
that at another point, we cannot say that the Mach number has doubled. We must seek
further information on the sonic velocity, which has probably also changed. (What
property would we be interested in if the fluid were a perfect gas?)
If the velocity is less than the local speed of sound, M is less than 1 and the flow is
called subsonic. If the velocity is greater than the local speed of sound, M is greater
than 1 and the flow is called supersonic. We shall soon see that the Mach number is
the most important parameter in the analysis of compressible flows.
4.4 WAVE PROPAGATION
Let us examine a point disturbance that is at rest in a fluid. Infinitesimal pressure
pulses are continually being emitted and thus they travel through the medium at sonic
velocity in the form of spherical wave fronts. To simplify matters we shall keep track
of only those pulses that are emitted every second. At the end of 3 seconds the picture
will appear as shown in Figure 4.3. Note that the wave fronts are concentric.
Now consider a similar problem in which the disturbance is no longer stationary.
Assume that it is moving at a speed less than sonic velocity, say a/2. Figure 4.4
shows such a situation at the end of 3 seconds. Note that the wave fronts are no longer
concentric. Furthermore, the wave that was emitted at t = 0 is always in front of the
disturbance itself. Therefore, any person, object, or fluid particle located upstream
will feel the wave fronts pass by and know that the disturbance is coming.
Next, let the disturbance move at exactly sonic velocity. Figure 4.5 shows this case
and you will note that all wave fronts coalesce on the left side and move along with
the disturbance. After a long period of time this wave front would approximate a
plane indicated by the dashed line. In this case, no region upstream is forewarned of
the disturbance as the disturbance arrives at the same time as the wave front.
90
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Figure 4.3 Wave fronts from a stationary disturbance.
Figure 4.4 Wave fronts from subsonic disturbance.
The only other case to consider is that of a disturbance moving at velocities greater
than the speed of sound. Figure 4.6 shows a point disturbance moving at Mach number
= 2 (twice sonic velocity). The wave fronts have coalesced to form a cone with the
disturbance at the apex. This is called a Mach cone. The region inside the cone is
called the zone of action since it feels the presence of the waves. The outer region
is called the zone of silence, as this entire region is unaware of the disturbance. The
surface of the Mach cone is sometimes referred to as a Mach wave; the half-angle
at the apex is called the Mach angle and is given the symbol µ. It should be easy to
see that
sin µ =
1
a
=
V
M
(4.12)
4.4 WAVE PROPAGATION
91
Figure 4.5 Wave fronts from sonic disturbance.
Figure 4.6 Wave fronts from supersonic disturbance.
In this section we have discovered one of the most significant differences between
subsonic and supersonic flow fields. In the subsonic case the fluid can “sense” the
presence of an object and smoothly adjust its flow around the object. In supersonic
flow this is not possible, and thus flow adjustments occur rather abruptly in the
form of shock or expansion waves. We study these in great detail in Chapters 6
through 8.
92
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
4.5 EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
IN TERMS OF MACH NUMBER
In Section 4.4 we saw that supersonic and subsonic flows have totally different
characteristics. This suggests that it would be instructive to use Mach number as a
parameter in our basic equations. This can be done very easily for the flow of a perfect
gas since in this case we have a simple equation of state and an explicit expression
for sonic velocity. Development of some of the more important relations follow.
Continuity
For steady one-dimensional flow with a single inlet and a single outlet, we have
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
From the perfect gas equation of state,
p
RT
(1.13)
V = Ma
(4.11)
ρ=
and from the definition of Mach number,
Also recall the expression for sonic velocity in a perfect gas:
a=
γ gc RT
(4.10)
Substitution of equations (1.13), (4.11), and (4.10) into (2.30) yields
p
γ gc
ρAV =
AM γ gc RT = pAM
RT
RT
Thus for steady one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas, the continuity equation becomes
ṁ = pAM
γ gc
= const
RT
(4.13)
Stagnation Relations
For gases we eliminate the potential term and write
ht = h +
V2
2gc
(3.18)
4.5
EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES IN TERMS OF MACH NUMBER
93
Knowing
V 2 = M 2a2
[from (4.11)]
and
a 2 = γ gc RT
(4.9)
we have
ht = h +
M 2 γ gc RT
M 2 γ RT
=h+
2gc
2
(4.14)
From equations (1.49) and (1.50) we can write the specific heat at constant pressure
in terms of γ and R. Show that
cp =
γR
γ −1
(4.15)
Combining (4.15) and (4.14), we have
ht = h + M 2
γ −1
cp T
2
(4.16)
But for a gas we can say that
h = cp T
(1.48)
Thus
ht = h + M 2
γ −1
h
2
or
γ −1 2
M
ht = h 1 +
2
(4.17)
Using h = cp T and ht = cp Tt , this can be written as
Tt = T
γ −1 2
M
1+
2
Equations (4.17) and (4.18) are used frequently. Memorize them!
(4.18)
94
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Now, the stagnation process is isentropic. Thus γ can be used as the exponent n
in equation (1.57), and between any two points on the same isentropic, we have
p2
=
p1
T2
T1
γ /(γ −1)
(4.19)
Let point 1 refer to the static conditions, and point 2, the stagnation conditions. Then,
combining (4.19) and (4.18) produces
pt
=
p
Tt
T
γ /(γ −1)
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
= 1+
2
(4.20)
or
γ −1 2
M
pt = p 1 +
2
γ /(γ −1)
(4.21)
This expression for total pressure is important. Learn it!
Example 4.3 Air flows with a velocity of 800 ft/sec and has a pressure of 30 psia and
temperature of 600°R. Determine the stagnation pressure.
a = (γ gc RT )1/2 = [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(600)]1/2 = 1201 ft/sec
V
800
= 0.666
=
1201
a
1.4/(1.4−1)
1.4 − 1
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
(0.666)2
= 30 1 +
pt = p 1 +
2
2
M=
pt = (30)(1 + 0.0887)3.5 = (30)(1.346) = 40.4 psia
Example 4.4 Hydrogen has a static temperature of 25°C and a stagnation temperature of
250°C. What is the Mach number?
γ −1 2
M
Tt = T 1 +
2
1.41 − 1 2
M
(250 + 273) = (25 + 273) 1 +
2
523 = (298)(1 + 0.205M 2 )
M 2 = 3.683
and
Stagnation Pressure–Energy Equation
For steady one-dimensional flow, we have
M = 1.92
4.5
EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES IN TERMS OF MACH NUMBER
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
95
(3.25)
For a perfect gas,
pt = ρt RTt
(4.22)
Substitute for the stagnation density and show that equation (3.25) can be written as
dpt
dse
+
pt
R
1−
T
Tt
+
dsi
δws
=0
+
R
RTt
(4.23)
A large number of problems are adiabatic and involve no shaft work. In this case, dse
and δws are zero:
dsi
dpt
=0
+
pt
R
(4.24)
This can be integrated between two points in the flow system to give
ln
pt2
si2 − si1
=0
+
pt1
R
(4.25)
But since dse = 0, dsi = ds, and we really do not need to continue writing the
subscript i under the entropy. Thus
ln
s2 − s1
pt2
=−
pt1
R
(4.26)
Taking the antilog, this becomes
pt2
= e−(s2 −s1 )/R
pt1
(4.27)
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
or
Watch your units when you use this equation! Total pressures must be absolute, and
s/R must be dimensionless. For this case of adiabatic no-work flow, s will always
be positive. (Why?) Thus pt2 will always be less than pt1 . Only for the limiting case
of no losses will the stagnation pressure remain constant.
96
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
This confirms previous knowledge gained from the stagnation pressure–energy
equation: that for the case of an adiabatic, no-work system, without flow losses pt =
const for any fluid. Thus stagnation pressure is seen to be a very important parameter
which in many systems reflects the flow losses. Be careful to note, however, that the
specific relation in equation (4.28) is applicable only to perfect gases, and even then
only under certain flow conditions. What are these conditions?
Summarizing the above: For steady one-dimensional flow, we have
δq = δws + dht
(3.20)
Note that equation (3.20) is valid even if flow losses are present:
If δq = δws = 0,
then
ht = constant
If in addition to the above, no losses occur, that is,
if δq = δws = dsi = 0,
then
pt = constant
Example 4.5 Oxygen flows in a constant-area, horizontal, insulated duct. Conditions at
section 1 are p1 = 50 psia, T1 = 600°R, and V1 = 2860 ft/sec. At a downstream section
the temperature is T2 = 1048°R.
(a) Determine M1 and Tt1 .
(b) Find V2 and p2 .
(c) What is the entropy change between the two sections?
(a) a1 = (γ gc RT1 )1/2 = [(1.4)(32.2)(48.3)(600)]1/2 = 1143 ft/sec
V1
2860
= 2.50
=
a1
1143
γ −1 2
1.4 − 1
2
Tt1 = T1 1 +
M1 = (600) 1 +
(2.5) = 1350°R
2
2
M1 =
(b) Energy:
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
ht1 = ht2
and since this is a perfect gas,
Tt1 = Tt2 .
γ −1 2
M2
Tt2 = T2 1 +
2
1.4 − 1 2
M2
and
1350 = (1048) 1 +
2
M2 = 1.20
4.6 h–s AND T –s DIAGRAMS
97
V2 = M2 a2 = (1.20)[(1.4)(32.2)(48.3)(1048)]1/2 = 1813 ft/sec
Continuity:
ṁ = ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
but
A1 = A2
and ρ = p/RT
Thus
p2 V2
p1 V1
=
T1
T2
V 1 T2
1048
2860
(50) = 137.8 psia
p2 =
p1 =
V 2 T1
1813
600
(c) To obtain the entropy change, we need pt1 and pt2 .
1.4/(1.4−1)
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
1.4 − 1
M1
(2.5)2
= (50) 1 +
= 854 psia
pt1 = p1 1 +
2
2
Similarly,
pt2 = 334 psia
e−s/R =
pt2
334
= 0.391
=
pt1
854
1
s
= ln
= 0.939
R
0.391
(0.939)(48.3)
= 0.0583 Btu/lbm-°R
s =
(778)
4.6
h–s AND T –s DIAGRAMS
Every problem should be approached with a simple sketch of the physical system
and also a thermodynamic state diagram. Since the losses affect the entropy changes
(through dsi ), one generally uses either an h–s or T –s diagram. In the case of perfect
gases, enthalpy is a function of temperature only and therefore the T –s and h–s
diagrams are identical except for scale.
Consider a steady one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas. Let us assume no heat
transfer and no external work. From the energy equation
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
98
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Figure 4.7 Stagnation reference states.
the stagnation enthalpy remains constant, and since it is a perfect gas, the total
temperature is also constant. This is represented by the solid horizontal line in Figure
4.7. Two particular sections in the system have been indicated by 1 and 2. The actual
process that takes place between these points is indicated on the T –s diagram.
Notice that although the stagnation conditions do not actually exist in the system,
they are also shown on the diagram for reference. The distance between the static
and stagnation points is indicative of the velocity that exists at that location (since
gravity has been neglected). It can also be clearly seen that if there is a s1−2 , then
pt2 < pt1 and the relationship between stagnation pressure and flow losses is again
verified.
It is interesting to hypothesize a third section that just happens to be at the same
enthalpy (and temperature) as the first. What else do these points have in common?
The same velocity? Obviously! How about sonic velocity? (Recall for gases that this
is a function of temperature only.) This means that points 1 and 3 would also have
the same Mach number (something that is not immediately obvious). One can now
imagine that someplace on this diagram there is a horizontal line that represents the
locus of points having a Mach number of unity. Between this line and the stagnation
line lie all points in the subsonic regime. Below this line lie all points in the supersonic
regime. These conclusions are based on certain assumptions. What are they?
4.7
4.7
SUMMARY
99
SUMMARY
In general, waves propagate at a speed that depends on the medium, its thermodynamic state, and the strength of the wave. However, infinitesimal disturbances travel
at a speed determined only by the medium and its state. Sound waves fall into this
latter category. A discussion of wave propagation and sonic velocity brought out a
basic difference between subsonic and supersonic flows. If subsonic, the flow can
“sense” objects and flow smoothly around them. This is not possible in supersonic
flow, and this topic will be discussed further after the appropriate background has
been laid.
As you progress through the remainder of this book and analyze specific flow
situations, it will become increasingly evident that fluids behave quite differently
in the supersonic regime than they do in the more familiar subsonic flow regime.
Thus it will not be surprising to see Mach number become an important parameter.
The significance of T –s diagrams as a key to problem visualization should not be
overlooked.
Some of the most frequently used equations that were developed in this unit are
summarized below. Most are restricted to the steady one-dimensional flow of any
fluid, while others apply only to perfect gases. You should determine under what
conditions each may be used.
1. Sonic velocity (propagation speed of infinitesimal pressure pulses)
∂p
Ev
a 2 = gc
(4.5), (4.7)
= gc
∂ρ s
ρ
V
a
1
sin µ =
M
M=
(all at the same location)
(4.11)
(4.12)
2. Special relations for perfect gases
a 2 = γ gc RT
γ −1 2
M
ht = h 1 +
2
γ −1 2
M
Tt = T 1 +
2
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
pt = p 1 +
2
δws
dse
dpt
dsi
T
+
+
=0
+
1−
pt
R
Tt
R
RTt
(4.9)
(4.17)
(4.18)
(4.21)
(4.23)
100
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
for Q = W = 0
(4.28)
PROBLEMS
4.1. Compute and compare sonic velocity in air, hydrogen, water, and mercury. Assume
normal room temperature and pressure.
4.2. At what temperature and pressure would carbon monoxide, water vapor, and helium
have the same speed of sound as standard air (288 K and 1 atm)?
4.3. Start with the relation for stagnation pressure that is valid for a perfect gas:
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
pt = p 1 +
M
2
Expand the right side in a binomial series and evaluate the result for small (but not zero)
Mach numbers. Show that your answer can be written as
pt = p +
ρV 2
+ HOT
2gc
Remember, the higher-order terms are negligible only for very small Mach numbers.
(See Problem 4.4.)
4.4. Measurement of airflow shows the static and stagnation pressures to be 30 and 32 psig,
respectively. (Note that these are gage pressures.) Assume that pamb = 14.7 psia and
the temperature is 120°F.
(a) Find the flow velocity using equation (4.21).
(b) Now assume that the air is incompressible and calculate the velocity using equation
(3.39).
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) for static and stagnation pressures of 30 and 80 psig,
respectively.
(d) Can you reach any conclusions concerning when a gas may be treated as a constantdensity fluid?
4.5. If γ = 1.2 and the fluid is a perfect gas, what Mach number will give a temperature
ratio of T /Tt = 0.909? What will the ratio of p/pt be for this flow?
4.6. Carbon dioxide with a temperature of 335 K and a pressure of 1.4 × 105 N/m2 is flowing
with a velocity of 200 m/s.
(a) Determine the sonic velocity and Mach number.
(b) Determine the stagnation density.
4.7. The temperature of argon is 100°F, the pressure 42 psia, and the velocity 2264 ft/sec.
Calculate the Mach number and stagnation pressure.
4.8. Helium flows in a duct with a temperature of 50°C, a pressure of 2.0 bar abs., and a
total pressure of 5.3 bar abs. Determine the velocity in the duct.
4.9. An airplane flies 600 mph at an altitude of 16,500 ft, where the temperature is 0°F and
the pressure is 1124 psfa. What temperature and pressure might you expect on the nose
of the airplane?
PROBLEMS
101
4.10. Air flows at M = 1.35 and has a stagnation enthalpy of 4.5 × 105 J/kg. The stagnation
pressure is 3.8 × 105 N/m2. Determine the static conditions (pressure, temperature, and
velocity).
4.11. A large chamber contains a perfect gas under conditions p1 , T1 , h1 , and so on. The gas
is allowed to flow from the chamber (with q = ws = 0). Show that the velocity cannot
be greater than
Vmax = a1
2
γ −1
1/2
If the velocity is the maximum, what is the Mach number?
4.12. Air flows steadily in an adiabatic duct where no shaft work is involved. At one section,
the total pressure is 50 psia, and at another section, it is 67.3 psia. In which direction is
the fluid flowing, and what is the entropy change between these two sections?
4.13. Methane gas flows in an adiabatic, no-work system with negligible change in potential.
At one section p1 = 14 bar abs., T1 = 500 K, and V1 = 125 m/s. At a downstream
section M2 = 0.8.
(a) Determine T2 and V2 .
(b) Find p2 assuming that there are no friction losses.
(c) What is the area ratio A2 /A1 ?
4.14. Air flows through a constant-area, insulated passage. Entering conditions are T1 =
520°R, p1 = 50 psia, and M1 = 0.45. At a point downstream, the Mach number is
found to be unity.
(a) Solve for T2 and p2 .
(b) What is the entropy change between these two sections?
(c) Determine the wall frictional force if the duct is 1 ft in diameter.
4.15. Carbon dioxide flows in a horizontal adiabatic, no-work system. Pressure and temperature at section 1 are 7 atm and 600 K. At a downstream section, p2 = 4 atm., T2 =
550 K, and the Mach number is M2 = 0.90.
(a) Compute the velocity at the upstream location.
(b) What is the entropy change?
(c) Determine the area ratio A2 /A1 .
4.16. Oxygen with Tt1 = 1000°R, pt1 = 100 psia, and M1 = 0.2 enters a device with a
cross-sectional area A1 = 1 ft2 . There is no heat transfer, work transfer, or losses as
the gas passes through the device and expands to 14.7 psia.
(a) Compute ρ1 , V1 , and ṁ.
(b) Compute M2 , T2 , V2 , ρ2 , and A2 .
(c) What force does the fluid exert on the device?
4.17. Consider steady, one-dimensional, constant-area, horizontal, isothermal flow of a perfect gas with no shaft work (Figure P4.17). The duct has a cross-sectional area A and
perimeter P . Let τw be the shear stress at the wall.
102
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Figure P4.17
(a) Apply momentum concepts [equation (3.45)] and show that
− dp − f
dx ρV 2
ρV dV
=
De 2gc
gc
(b) From the concept of continuity and the equation of state, show that
dρ
dp
dV
=
=−
ρ
p
V
(c) Combine the results of parts (a) and (b) to show that
γ M2
f dx
dρ
=
ρ
2(γ M 2 − 1) De
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
4.1. (a) Define Mach number and Mach angle.
(b) Give an expression that represents sonic velocity in an arbitrary fluid.
(c) Give the relation used to compute sonic velocity in a perfect gas.
4.2. Consider the steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas with heat transfer. The T –s
diagram (Figure CT4.2) shows both static and stagnation points at two locations in the
system. It is known that A = B.
(a) Is heat transferred into or out of the system?
(b) Is M2 > M1 , M2 = M1 , or M2 < M1 ?
4.3. State whether each of the following statements is true or false.
(a) Changing the frame of reference (or superposition of a velocity onto an existing
flow) does not change the static enthalpy.
(b) Shock waves travel at sonic velocity through a medium.
(c) In general, one can say that flow losses will show up as a decrease in stagnation
enthalpy.
(d) The stagnation process is one of constant entropy.
(e) A Mach cone does not exist for subsonic flow.
CHECK TEST
103
Figure CT4.2
4.4. Cite the conditions that are necessary for the stagnation temperature to remain constant
in a flow system.
4.5. For steady flow of a perfect gas, the continuity equation can be written as
ṁ = f (p, M, T , γ , A, R, gc ) = const
Determine the precise function.
4.6. Work Problem 4.14.
Chapter 5
Varying-Area
Adiabatic Flow
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Area changes, friction, and heat transfer are the most important factors that affect the
properties in a flow system. Although some situations may involve the simultaneous
effects of two or more of these factors, the majority of engineering problems are
such that only one of these factors becomes the dominant influence for any particular
device. Thus it is more than academic interest that leads to the separate study of each
of the above-mentioned effects. In this manner it is possible to consider only the
controlling factor and develop a simple solution that is within the realm of acceptable
engineering accuracy.
In this chapter we consider the general problem of varying-area flow under the
assumptions of no heat transfer (adiabatic) and no shaft work. We first consider the
flow of an arbitrary fluid without losses and determine how its properties are affected
by area changes. The case of a perfect gas is then considered and simple working
equations developed to aid in the solution of problems with or without flow losses.
The latter case (isentropic flow) lends itself to the construction of tables which are
used throughout the remainder of the book. The chapter closes with a brief discussion
of the various ways in which nozzle and diffuser performance can be represented.
5.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. (Optional) Simplify the basic equations for continuity and energy to relate
differential changes in density, pressure, and velocity to the Mach number
and a differential change in area for steady, one-dimensional flow through a
varying-area passage with no losses.
105
106
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
2. Show graphically how pressure, density, velocity, and area vary in steady,
one-dimensional, isentropic flow as the Mach number ranges from zero to
supersonic values.
3. Compare the function of a nozzle and a diffuser. Sketch physical devices that
perform as each for subsonic and supersonic flow.
4. (Optional) Derive the working equations for a perfect gas relating property
ratios between two points in adiabatic, no-work flow, as a function of the Mach
number (M), ratio of specific heats (γ ), and change in entropy (s).
5. Define the ∗ reference condition and the properties associated with it (i.e., A∗ ,
p∗ , T ∗ , ρ ∗ , etc.).
6. Express the loss (si ) (between two points in the flow) as a function of
stagnation pressures (pt ) or reference areas (A∗ ). Under what conditions are
these relations true?
7. State and interpret the relation between stagnation pressure (pt ) and reference
area (A∗ ) for a process between two points in adiabatic no-work flow.
8. Explain how a converging nozzle performs with various receiver pressures. Do
the same for the isentropic performance of a converging–diverging nozzle.
9. State what is meant by the first and third critical modes of nozzle operation.
Given the area ratio of a converging–diverging nozzle, determine the operating
pressure ratios that cause operation at the first and third critical points.
10. With the aid of an h–s diagram, give a suitable definition for both nozzle
efficiency and diffuser performance.
11. Describe what is meant by a choked flow passage.
12. Demonstrate the ability to utilize the adiabatic and isentropic flow relations
and the isentropic table to solve typical flow problems.
5.3
GENERAL FLUID-NO LOSSES
We first consider the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid. To isolate the effects of
area change, we make the following assumptions:
Steady, one-dimensional flow
Adiabatic
No shaft work
Neglect potential
No losses
δq = 0, dse = 0
δws = 0
dz = 0
dsi = 0
Our objective will be to obtain relations that indicate the variation of fluid properties with area changes and Mach number. In this manner we can distinguish the
important differences between subsonic and supersonic behavior. We start with the
energy equation:
5.3
δq = δws + dh +
GENERAL FLUID-NO LOSSES
dV 2
g
+
dz
2gc
gc
107
(2.53)
But
δq = δws = 0
and
dz = 0
which leaves
0 = dh +
dV 2
2gc
(5.1)
or
dh = −
V dV
gc
(5.2)
We now introduce the property relation
T ds = dh −
dp
ρ
(1.41)
Since our flow situation has been assumed to be adiabatic (dse = 0) and to contain
no losses (dsi = 0), it is also isentropic (ds = 0). Thus equation (1.41) becomes
dh =
dp
ρ
(5.3)
We equate equations (5.2) and (5.3) to obtain
−
V dV
dp
=
gc
ρ
or
dV = −
gc dp
ρV
(5.4)
We introduce this into equation (2.32) and the differential form of the continuity
equation becomes
dρ
dA gc dp
+
−
=0
ρ
A
ρV 2
(5.5)
108
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Solve this for dp/ρ and show that
dp
V2
=
ρ
gc
dρ
dA
+
ρ
A
(5.6)
Recall the definition of sonic velocity:
a = gc
2
∂p
∂ρ
(4.5)
s
Since our flow is isentropic, we may drop the subscript and change the partial
derivative to an ordinary derivative:
a 2 = gc
dp
dρ
(5.7)
This permits equation (5.7) to be rearranged to
dp =
a2
dρ
gc
(5.8)
Substituting this expression for dp into equation (5.6) yields
dρ
V2
= 2
ρ
a
dA
dρ
+
ρ
A
(5.9)
Introduce the definition of Mach number,
M2 =
V22
a2
(4.11)
and combine the terms in dρ/ρ to obtain the following relation between density and
area changes:
dρ
=
ρ
M2
1 − M2
dA
A
(5.10)
If we now substitute equation (5.10) into the differential form of the continuity
equation (2.32), we can obtain a relation between velocity and area changes. Show
that
dV
1
dA
=−
(5.11)
2
V
1−M
A
Now equation (5.4) can be divided by V to yield
5.3
GENERAL FLUID-NO LOSSES
gc dp
dV
=−
V
ρV 2
109
(5.12)
If we equate (5.11) and (5.12), we can obtain a relation between pressure and area
changes. Show that
ρV 2
1
dA
dp =
(5.13)
2
gc
1−M
A
For convenience, we collect the three important relations that will be referred to
in the analysis that follows:
1
dA
ρV 2
2
gc
1−M
A
2
M
dA
=
2
1−M
A
dA
1
=−
2
1−M
A
dp =
(5.13)
dρ
ρ
(5.10)
dV
V
(5.11)
Let us consider what is happening as fluid flows through a variable-area duct.
For simplicity we shall assume that the pressure is always decreasing. Thus dp is
negative. From equation (5.13) you see that if M < 1, dA must be negative, indicating
that the area is decreasing; whereas if M > 1, dA must be positive and the area is
increasing.
Now continue to assume that the pressure is decreasing. Knowing the area variation you can now consider equation (5.10). Fill in the following blanks with the
words increasing or decreasing: If M < 1 (and dA is
), then dρ must be
. If M > 1 (and dA is
), then dρ must be
.
Looking at equation (5.11) reveals that if M < 1 (and dA is
) then, dV
must be
meaning that velocity is
, whereas if M > 1 (and
dA is
), then dV must be
and velocity is
.
We summarize the above by saying that as the pressure decreases, the following
variations occur:
Area
Density
Velocity
A
ρ
V
Subsonic
(M < 1)
Supersonic
(M > 1)
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Increases
A similar chart could easily be made for the situation where pressure increases, but it
is probably more convenient to express the above in an alternative graphical form, as
110
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.1 Property variation with area change.
shown in Figure 5.1. The appropriate shape of these curves can easily be visualized
if one combines equations (5.10) and (5.11) to eliminate the term dA/A with the
following result:
dV
dρ
= −M 2
ρ
V
(5.14)
From this equation we see that at low Mach numbers, density variations will be quite
small, whereas at high Mach numbers the density changes very rapidly. (Eventually,
as V becomes very large and ρ becomes very small, small density changes occur
once again.) This means that the density is nearly constant in the low subsonic regime
(dρ ≈ 0) and the velocity changes compensate for area changes. [See the differential
form of the continuity equation (2.32).] At a Mach number equal to unity, we reach
a situation where density changes and velocity changes compensate for one another
and thus no change in area is required (dA = 0). As we move on into the supersonic
area, the density decreases so rapidly that the accompanying velocity change cannot
accommodate the flow and thus the area must increase. We now recognize another
aspect of flow behavior which is exactly opposite in subsonic and supersonic flow.
Consider the operation of devices such as nozzles and diffusers.
A nozzle is a device that converts enthalpy (or pressure energy for the case of an
incompressible fluid) into kinetic energy. From Figure 5.1 we see that an increase
in velocity is accompanied by either an increase or decrease in area, depending on
the Mach number. Figure 5.2 shows what these devices look like in the subsonic and
supersonic flow regimes.
A diffuser is a device that converts kinetic energy into enthalpy (or pressure energy
for the case of incompressible fluids). Figure 5.3 shows what these devices look like
5.4
PERFECT GASES WITH LOSSES
111
Figure 5.2 Nozzle configurations.
Figure 5.3 Diffuser configurations.
in the subsonic and supersonic regimes. Thus we see that the same piece of equipment
can operate as either a nozzle or a diffuser, depending on the flow regime.
Notice that a device is called a nozzle or a diffuser because of what it does, not what
it looks like. Further consideration of Figures 5.1 and 5.2 leads to some interesting
conclusions. If one attached a converging section (see Figure 5.2a) to a high-pressure
supply, one could never attain a flow greater than Mach 1, regardless of the pressure
differential available. On the other hand, if we made a converging–diverging device
(combination of Figure 5.2a and b), we see a means of accelerating the fluid into
the supersonic regime, provided that the proper pressure differential exists. Specific
examples of these cases are given later in the chapter.
5.4
PERFECT GASES WITH LOSSES
Now that we understand the general effects of area change in a flow system, we will
develop some specific working equations for the case of a perfect gas. The term
working equations will be used throughout this book to indicate relations between
properties at arbitrary sections of a flow system written in terms of Mach numbers,
112
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.4 Varying-area flow system.
specific heat ratio, and a loss indicator such as si . An example of this for the system
shown in Figure 5.4 is
p2
= f (M1 , M2 , γ , si )
p1
(5.15)
We begin by feeding the following assumptions into our fundamental concepts of
state, continuity, and energy:
Steady one-dimensional flow
Adiabatic
No shaft work
Perfect gas
Neglect potential
State
We have the perfect gas equation of state:
p = ρRT
(1.13)
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
Continuity
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
(5.16)
A2
ρ1 V1
=
A1
ρ2 V2
(5.17)
We first seek the area ratio
We substitute for the densities using the equation of state (1.13) and for velocities
from the definition of Mach number (4.11):
5.4
A2
=
A1
p1
RT1
RT2
p2
PERFECT GASES WITH LOSSES
M1 a 1
p1 T2 M1 a1
=
M2 a2
p2 T1 M2 a2
113
(5.18)
Introduce the expression for the sonic velocity of a perfect gas:
a=
γ gc RT
(4.10)
and show that equation (5.18) becomes
A2
p1 M1
=
p2 M2
A1
T2
T1
1/2
(5.19)
We must now find a means to express the pressure and temperature ratios in terms of
M1 , M2 , γ , and s.
Energy
We start with
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
For an adiabatic, no-work process, this shows that
ht1 = ht2
(5.20)
However, we can go further than this since we know that for a perfect gas, enthalpy
is a function of temperature only. Thus
Tt1 = Tt2
(5.21)
Recall from Chapter 4 that we developed a general relationship between static and
stagnation temperatures for a perfect gas as
Tt = T
γ −1 2
M
1+
2
(4.18)
Hence equation (5.21) can be written as
γ −1 2
γ −1 2
M1 = T2 1 +
M2
T1 1 +
2
2
(5.22)
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(5.23)
or
114
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
which is the ratio desired for equation (5.19). Note that no subscripts have been put
on the specific heat ratio γ , which means we are assuming that γ1 = γ2 . This might
be questioned since the specific heats cp and cv are known to vary somewhat with
temperature. In Chapter 11 we explore real gas behavior and learn why these specific
heats vary and discover that their ratio (γ ) does not exhibit much change except
over large temperature ranges. Thus the assumption of constant γ generally leads to
acceptable engineering accuracy.
Recall from Chapter 4 that we also developed a general relationship between static
and stagnation pressures for a perfect gas:
γ −1 2
M
pt = p 1 +
2
γ /(γ −1)
(4.21)
Furthermore, the stagnation pressure–energy equation was easily integrated for the
case of a perfect gas in adiabatic, no-work flow to yield
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
If we introduce equation (4.21) into (4.28), we have
pt2
p2
=
pt1
p1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
= e−s/R
(5.24)
Rearrange this to obtain the ratio
p1
=
p2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
e+s/R
(5.25)
We now have the desired information to accomplish the original objective. Direct
substitution of equations (5.23) and (5.25) into (5.19) yields
A2
=
A1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
M1
M2
γ /(γ −1)
es/R ×
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1/2
(5.26)
Show that this can be simplified to
A2
M1
=
A1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
es/R
(5.27)
5.5 THE ∗ REFERENCE CONCEPT
115
Note that to obtain this equation, we automatically discovered a number of other
working equations, which for convenience we summarize below.
Tt1 = Tt2
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(5.21)
(4.28)
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
γ /(γ −1)
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
p2
=
e−s/R
p1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(5.23)
from
(5.25)
From equations (1.13), (5.23), and (5.25) you should also be able to show that
ρ2
=
ρ1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1/(γ −1)
e−s/R
(5.28)
Example 5.1 Air flows in an adiabatic duct without friction. At one section the Mach number
is 1.5, and farther downstream it has increased to 2.8. Find the area ratio.
For a frictionless, adiabatic system, s = 0. We substitute directly into equation (5.27):
(1.4+1)/2(1.4−1)
1.5 1 + [(1.4 − 1)/2](2.8)2
A2
=
(1) = 2.98
A1
2.8 1 + [(1.4 − 1)/2](1.5)2
This problem is very simple since both Mach numbers are known. The inverse
problem (given A1 , A2 , and M1 , find M2 ) is not so straightforward. We shall come
back to this in Section 5.6 after we develop a new concept.
5.5 THE ∗ REFERENCE CONCEPT
In Section 3.5 the concept of a stagnation reference state was introduced, which by
the nature of its definition turned out to involve an isentropic process. Before going
any further with the working equations developed in Section 5.4, it will be convenient
to introduce another reference condition because, among other things, the stagnation
state is not a feasible reference when dealing with area changes. (Why?) We denote
this new reference state with a superscript ∗ and define it as “that thermodynamic state
which would exist if the fluid reached a Mach number of unity by some particular
process”. The italicized phrase is significant, for there are many processes by which
we could reach Mach 1.0 from any given starting point, and they would each lead to a
different thermodynamic state. Every time we analyze a different flow phenomenon
we will be considering different types of processes, and thus we will be dealing with
a different ∗ reference state.
116
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.5 Isentropic ∗ reference states.
We first consider a ∗ reference state reached under reversible-adiabatic conditions
(i.e., by an isentropic process). Every point in the flow system has its own ∗ reference
state, just as it has its own stagnation reference state. As an illustration, consider a
system that involves the flow of a perfect gas with no heat or work transfer. Figure 5.5
shows a T –s diagram indicating two points in such a flow system. Above each point
is shown its stagnation reference state, and we now add the isentropic ∗ reference state
that is associated with each point. Not only is the stagnation line for the entire system
a horizontal line, but in this system all ∗ reference points will lie on a horizontal line
(see the discussion in Section 4.6). Is the flow subsonic or supersonic in the system
depicted in Figure 5.5?
We now proceed to develop an extremely important relation. Keep in mind that ∗
reference states probably don’t exist in the system, but with appropriate area changes
they could exist, and as such they represent legitimate section locations to be used
with any of the equations that we developed earlier [such as equations (5.23), (5.25),
(5.27), etc.]. Specifically, let us consider
A2
M1
=
A1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
es/R
(5.27)
In this equation, points 1 and 2 represent any two points that could exist in a system
(subject to the same assumptions that led to the development of the equation). We
now apply equation (5.27) between points 1∗ and 2∗ . Thus
and we have:
A1 ⇒ A1∗
M1 ⇒ M1∗ ≡ 1
A2 ⇒ A2∗
M2 ⇒ M2∗ ≡ 1
5.5 THE ∗ REFERENCE CONCEPT
A2∗
1
=
A1∗
1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]12
117
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
es/R
or
A2∗
= es/R
A1∗
(5.29)
Before going further, it might be instructive to check this relation to see if it appears
reasonable. First, take the case of no losses where s = 0. Then equation (5.29) says
that A1∗ = A2∗ . Check Figure 5.5 for the case of s1−2 = 0. Under these conditions
the diagram collapses into a single isentropic line on which 1t is identical with 2t and
1∗ is the same point as 2∗ . Under this condition, it should be obvious that A1∗ is the
same as A2∗ .
Next, take the more general case where s1−2 is nonzero. Assuming that these
points exist in a flow system, they must pass the same amount of fluid, or
ṁ = ρ1∗ A1∗ V1 ∗ = ρ2∗ A2∗ V2 ∗
(5.30)
Recall from Section 4.6 that since these state points are on the same horizontal line,
V1 ∗ = V2 ∗
(5.31)
Similarly, we know that T1 ∗ = T2 ∗ , and from Figure 5.5 it is clear that p1∗ > p2∗ .
Thus from the equation of state, we can easily determine that
ρ2∗ < ρ1∗
(5.32)
Introduce equations (5.31) and (5.32) into (5.30) and show that for the case of
s1−2 > 0,
A2∗ > A1∗
(5.33)
which agrees with equation (5.29).
We have previously developed a relation between the stagnation pressures (which
involves the same assumptions as equation (5.29):
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
Check Figure 5.5 to convince yourself that this equation also appears to give reasonable answers for the special case of s = 0 and for the general case of s > 0.
118
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
We now multiply equation (5.29) by equation (4.28):
A2∗ pt2
= es/R e−s/R = 1
∗
A1 pt1
(5.34)
pt1 A1∗ = pt2 A2∗
(5.35)
or
This is a most important relation that is frequently the key to problem solutions in
adiabatic flow. Learn equation (5.35) and the conditions under which it applies.
5.6
ISENTROPIC TABLE
In Section 5.4 we considered the steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas under
the conditions of no heat and work transfer and negligible potential changes. Looking
back over the working equations that were developed reveals that many of them do not
include the loss term (si ). In those where the loss term does appear, it takes the form
of a simple multiplicative factor such as es/R . This leads to the natural use of the
isentropic process as a standard for ideal performance with appropriate corrections
made to account for losses when necessary. In a number of cases, we find that some
actual processes are so efficient that they are very nearly isentropic and thus need no
corrections.
If we simplify equation (5.27) for an isentropic process, it becomes
M1
A2
=
A1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
(5.36)
This is easy to solve for the area ratio if both Mach numbers are known (see Example
5.1), but let’s consider a more typical problem. The physical situation is fixed (i.e.,
A1 and A2 are known). The fluid (and thus γ ) is known, and the Mach number at one
location (say, M1 ) is known. Our problem is to solve for the Mach number (M2 ) at
the other location. Although this is not impossible, it is messy and a lot of work.
We can simplify the solution by the introduction of the ∗ reference state. Let point
2 be an arbitrary point in the flow system, and let its isentropic ∗ point be point 1.
Then
A2 ⇒ A
M2 ⇒ M
A1 ⇒ A ∗
M1 ⇒ 1
and equation (5.36) becomes
(any value)
5.6
A
1
=
A∗
M
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(γ + 1)/2
ISENTROPIC TABLE
119
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
= f (M, γ )
(5.37)
We see that A/A ∗ = f (M, γ ), and we can easily construct a table giving values of
A/A ∗ versus M for a particular γ . The problem posed earlier could then be solved
as follows:
Given: γ , A1 , A2 , M1 , and isentropic flow.
Find: M2 .
We approach the solution by formulating the ratio A2 /A2∗ in terms of known
quantities.
A2 A1 A1∗
A2
=
A2∗
A1 A1∗ A2∗
Given
(5.38)
Evaluated by equation (5.29) and
equals 1.0 if flow is isentropic
A function of M1 ; look
up in isentropic table
Thus A2 /A2∗ can be calculated, and by entering the isentropic table with this value,
M2 can be determined. A word of caution here! The value of A2 /A2∗ will be found
in two places in the table, as we are really solving equation (5.36), or the more
general case equation (5.27), which is a quadratic for M2 . One value will be in the
subsonic region and the other in the supersonic regime. You should have no difficulty
determining which answer is correct when you consider the physical appearance of
the system together with the concepts developed in Section 5.3.
Note that the general problem with losses can also be solved by the same technique
as long as information is available concerning the loss. This could be given to us in the
form of A1∗ /A2∗ , pt2 /pt1 , or possibly as s1−2 . All three of these represent equivalent
ways of expressing the loss [through equations (4.28) and (5.29)].
We now realize that the key to simplified problem solution is to have available
a table of property ratios as a function of γ and one Mach number only. These
are obtained by taking the equations developed in Section 5.4 and introducing a
reference state, either the ∗ reference condition (reached by an isentropic process)
or the stagnation reference condition (reached by an isentropic process). We proceed
with equation (5.23):
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(5.23)
Let point 2 be any arbitrary point in the system and let its stagnation point be point
1. Then
120
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
T2 ⇒ T
M2 ⇒ M
T1 ⇒ T t
M1 ⇒ 0
(any value)
and equation (5.23) becomes
T
1
=
= f (M, γ )
Tt
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(5.39)
Equation (5.25) can be treated in a similar fashion. In this case we let 1 be the arbitrary
point and its stagnation point is taken as 2. Then
p1 ⇒ p
M1 ⇒ M
p2 ⇒ pt
M2 ⇒ 0
(any value)
and when we remember that the stagnation process is isentropic, equation (5.25)
becomes
p
=
pt
1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
γ /(γ −1)
= f (M, γ )
(5.40)
Equations (5.39) and (5.40) are not surprising, as we have developed these previously
by other methods [see equations (4.18) and (4.21)]. The tabulation of equation (5.40)
may be used to solve problems in the same manner as the area ratio. For example,
assume that we are
Given: γ , p1 , p2 , M2 , and s1−2 and asked to
Find: M1 .
To solve this problem, we seek the ratio p1 /pt1 in terms of known ratios:
p1
p1 p2 pt2
=
pt1
p2 pt2 pt1
Given
(5.41)
Evaluated by equation (4.28)
as a function of s1−2
A function of M2 ; look
up in isentropic table
After calculating the value of p1 /pt1 , we enter the isentropic table and find M1 . Note
that even though the flow from station 1 to 2 is not isentropic, the functions for p1 /pt1
and p2 /pt2 are isentropic by definition; thus the isentropic table can be used to solve
this problem. The connection between the two points is made through pt2 /pt1 , which
involves the entropy change.
5.6
ISENTROPIC TABLE
121
We could continue to develop other isentropic relations as functions of the Mach
number and γ . Apply the previous techniques to equation (5.28) and show that
ρ
=
ρt
1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
1/(γ −1)
(5.42)
Another interesting relationship is the product of equations (5.37) and (5.40):
A p
= f (M, γ )
A ∗ pt
(5.43)
Determine what unique function of M and γ is represented in equation (5.43). Since
A/A∗ and p/pt are isentropic by definition, we should not be surprised that their
product is listed in the isentropic table. But can these functions provide the connection
between two locations in a flow system with known losses?
Recall that
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
A2∗
= es/R
A1∗
(4.29)
and
Thus, for cases involving losses (s), changes in A∗ are exactly compensated for by
changes in pt . This is true for all steady, one-dimensional flows of a perfect gas in an
adiabatic no-work system. We shall see later that equation (5.43) provides the only
direct means of solving certain types of problems.
Values of these isentropic flow parameters have been calculated from equations
(5.37), (5.39), (5.40), and so on, and tabulated in Appendix G. To convince yourself
that there is nothing magical about this table, you might want to check some of the
numbers found in them opposite a particular Mach number. In fact, as an exercise in
programming a digital computer, you could work up your own set of tables for values
of γ other than 1.4, which is the only one included in Appendix G (see Problem
5.24). In Section 5.10 we suggest alternatives to the use of the table. As you read the
following examples, look up the numbers in the isentropic table to convince yourself
that you know how to find them.
Example 5.2 You are now in a position to rework Example 5.1 with a minimum of calculation. Recall that M1 = 1.5 and M2 = 2.8.
A2 A ∗ A ∗
A2
1
= 2.98
= ∗ 2∗ 1 = (3.5001)(1)
A1
A2 A1 A1
1.1762
The following information (and Figure E5.3) are common to Examples 5.3 through 5.5. We
are given the steady, one-dimensional flow of air (γ = 1.4), which can be treated as a perfect
gas. Assume that Q = Ws = 0 and negligible potential changes. A1 = 2.0 ft2 and A2 = 5.0 ft2.
122
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure E5.3
Example 5.3 Given that M1 = 1.0 and s1−2 = 0. Find the possible values of M2 .
To determine conditions at section 2 in Figure E5.3, we establish the ratio
A2
A2 A1 A1∗
5
(1.000)(1) = 2.5
=
=
A2∗
A1 A1∗ A2∗
2
Equals 1.0 since isentropic
From isentropic table at M = 1.0
From given physical configuration
Look up A/A ∗ = 2.5 in the isentropic table and determine that M2 = 0.24 or 2.44. We can’t
tell which Mach number exists without additional information.
Example 5.4 Given that M1 = 0.5, p1 = 4 bar, and s1−2 = 0, find M2 and p2 .
A2 A1 A1∗
A2
5
(1.3398)(1) = 3.35
=
=
A2∗
A1 A1∗ A2∗
2
M2 ≈ 0.175.
(Why isn’t it 2.75?)
p2 pt2 pt1
1
(4) = 4.64 bar
p2 =
p1 = (0.9788)(1)
pt2 pt1 p1
0.8430
Thus
Example 5.5 Given: M1 = 1.5, T1 = 70°F, and s1−2 = 0,
Find: M2 and T2 .
Find A2 /A2∗ = ?
(Thus M2 ≈ 2.62.)
Once M2 is known, we can find T2 .
T2 Tt2 Tt1
1
(530) = 324°R
T1 = (0.4214)(1)
T2 =
Tt2 Tt1 T1
0.6897
Why is Tt1 = Tt2 ? (Write an energy equation between 1 and 2.)
Example 5.6 Oxygen flows into an insulated device with the following initial conditions:
p1 = 20 psia, T1 = 600°R, and V1 = 2960 ft/sec. After a short distance the area has converged
5.6
ISENTROPIC TABLE
123
Figure E5.6
from 6 ft2 to 2.5 ft2 (Figure E5.6). You may assume steady, one-dimensional flow and a perfect
gas. (See the table in Appendix A for gas properties.)
(a) Find M1 , pt1 , Tt1 , and ht1 .
(b) If there are losses such that s1−2 = 0.005 Btu/1bm-°R, find M2 , p2 , and T2 .
(a) First, we determine conditions at station 1.
a1 = (γ gc RT1 )1/2 = [(1.4)(32.2)(48.3)(600)]1/2 = 1143 ft/sec
V1
2960
= 2.59
=
a1
1143
pt1
1
pt1 =
(20) = 393 psia
p1 =
p1
0.0509
Tt1
1
(600) = 1405°R
T1 =
Tt1 =
T1
0.4271
M1 =
ht1 = cp Tt1 = (0.218)(1405) = 306 Btu/lbm
(b) For a perfect gas with q = ws = 0, Tt1 = Tt2 (from an energy equation), and also from
equation (5.29):
A1∗
= e−s/R = e−(0.005)(778)/48.3 = 0.9226
A2∗
Thus
A2 A1 A1∗
A2
=
∗ =
A2
A1 A1∗ A2∗
2.5
(2.8688)(0.9226) = 1.1028
6
. Why is the use of the isentropic table
From the isentropic table we find that M2 ≈
legitimate here when there are losses in the flow? Continue and compute p2 and T2 .
124
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
p2 =
(P2 ≈ 117 psia)
T2 =
(T2 ≈ 1017°R)
Could you find the velocity at section 2?
5.7
NOZZLE OPERATION
We will now start a discussion of nozzle operation and at the same time gain more
experience in use of the isentropic table. Two types of nozzles are considered: a
converging-only nozzle and a converging–diverging nozzle. We start by examining
the physical situation shown in Figure 5.6. A source of air at 100 psia and 600°R is
contained in a large tank where stagnation conditions prevail. Connected to the tank
is a converging-only nozzle and it exhausts into an extremely large receiver where the
pressure can be regulated. We can neglect frictional effects, as they are very small in
a converging section.
If the receiver pressure is set at 100 psia, no flow results. Once the receiver pressure
is lowered below 100 psia, air will flow from the supply tank. Since the supply tank
has a large cross section relative to the nozzle outlet area, the velocities in the tank
may be neglected. Thus T1 ≈ Tt1 and p1 ≈ pt1 . There is no shaft work and we
assume no heat transfer. We identify section 2 as the nozzle outlet.
Energy
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
ht1 = ht2
and since we can treat this as a perfect gas,
Figure 5.6
Converging-only nozzle.
(3.19)
5.7
NOZZLE OPERATION
125
Tt1 = Tt2
It is important to recognize that the receiver pressure is controlling the flow. The
velocity will increase and the pressure will decrease as we progress through the nozzle
until the pressure at the nozzle outlet equals that of the receiver. This will always be
true as long as the nozzle outlet can “sense” the receiver pressure. Can you think
of a situation where pressure pulses from the receiver could not be “felt” inside the
nozzle? (Recall Section 4.4.)
Let us assume that
prec = 80.2 psia
Then
p2 = prec = 80.2 psia
and
p2 pt1
p2
=
=
pt2
pt1 pt2
80.2
(1) = 0.802
100
Note that pt1 = pt2 by equation (4.28) since we are neglecting friction.
From the isentropic table corresponding to p/pt = 0.802, we see that
M2 = 0.57 and
T2
= 0.939
Tt2
Thus
T2 =
T2
Tt2
Tt2 = (0.939)(600) = 563°R
a22 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(563)
a2 = 1163 ft/sec
and
V2 = M2 a2 = (0.57)(1163) = 663 ft/sec
Figure 5.7 shows this process on a T –s diagram as an isentropic expansion. If
the pressure in the receiver were lowered further, the air would expand to this lower
pressure and the Mach number and velocity would increase. Assume that the receiver
pressure is lowered to 52.83 psia. Show that
p2
= 0.5283
pt2
and thus
126
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.7 T –s diagram for converging-only nozzle.
M2 = 1.00
with V2 = 1096 ft/sec
Notice that the air velocity coming out of the nozzle is exactly sonic. If we now drop
the receiver pressure below this critical pressure (52.83 psia), the nozzle has no way
of adjusting to these conditions. Why not? Assume that the nozzle outlet pressure
could continue to drop along with the receiver. This would mean that p2 /pt2 <
0.5283, which corresponds to a supersonic velocity. We know that if the flow is to go
supersonic, the area must reach a minimum and then increase (see Section 5.3). Thus
for a converging-only nozzle, the flow is governed by the receiver pressure until sonic
velocity is reached at the nozzle outlet and further reduction of the receiver pressure
will have no effect on the flow conditions inside the nozzle. Under these conditions,
the nozzle is said to be choked and the nozzle outlet pressure remains at the critical
pressure. Expansion to the receiver pressure takes place outside the nozzle.
In reviewing this example you should realize that there is nothing magical about
a receiver pressure of 52.83 psia. The significant item is the ratio of the static to total
pressure at the exit plane, which for the case of no losses is the ratio of the receiver
pressure to the inlet pressure. With sonic velocity at the exit, this ratio is 0.5283.
The analysis above assumes that conditions within the supply tank remain constant. One should realize that the choked flow rate can change if, for example, the
supply pressure or temperature is changed or the size of the throat (exit hole) is
changed. It is instructive to take an alternative view of this situation. You are asked
in Problem 5.9 to develop the following equation for isentropic flow:
γ − 1 2 −(γ +1)/2(γ −1) γ gc 1/2 pt
ṁ
=M 1+
M
√
A
2
R
Tt
(5.44a)
Applying this equation to the outlet and considering choked flow, M = 1 and A = A∗ .
Then
5.7
127
NOZZLE OPERATION
Figure 5.8 Operation of a converging-only nozzle at various back pressures.
ṁ
A
max
ṁ
= ∗ =
A
γ gc
R
2
γ +1
(γ +1)/(γ −1)
1/2
pt
√
Tt
(5.44b)
For a given gas,
pt
ṁ
= constant √
A∗
Tt
(5.44c)
We now look at four distinct possibilities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
For a fixed Tt , pt , and A∗
For only pt increasing
For only Tt increasing
For only A∗ increasing
⇒
⇒
⇒
⇒
ṁmax
ṁmax
ṁmax
ṁmax
constant.
increases.
decreases.
increases.
Figure 5.8 shows this in yet another way.
Converging–Diverging Nozzle
Now let us examine a similar situation but with a converging–diverging nozzle (sometimes called a DeLaval nozzle), shown in Figures 5.9 and 5.10. We identify the throat
(or section of minimum area) as 2 and the exit section as 3. The distinguishing physical characteristic of this type of nozzle is the area ratio, meaning the ratio of the
exit area to the throat area. Assume this to be A3 /A2 = 2.494. Keep in mind that
the objective of making a converging–diverging nozzle is to obtain supersonic flow.
Let us first examine the design operating condition for this nozzle. If the nozzle is to
operate as desired, we know (see Section 5.3) that the flow will be subsonic from 1
to 2, sonic at 2, and supersonic from 2 to 3.
128
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.9 Typical converging–diverging nozzle. (Courtesy of the Boeing Company, Rocketdyne Propulsion and Power.)
Figure 5.10 Converging–diverging nozzle.
To discover the conditions that exist at the exit (under design operation), we seek
the ratio A3 /A3∗ :
A3
A3 A2 A2∗
=
= (2.494)(1)(1) = 2.494
A3∗
A2 A2∗ A3∗
Note that A2 = A2∗ since M2 = 1, and A2∗ = A3∗ by equation (5.29), as we are still
assuming isentropic operation. We look for A/A ∗ = 2.494 in the supersonic section
of the isentropic table and see that
5.7
M3 = 2.44,
p3
= 0.0643,
pt3
and
NOZZLE OPERATION
129
T3
= 0.4565
Tt3
Thus
p3 =
p3 pt3
pt1 = (0.0643)(1)(100) = 6.43 psia
pt3 pt1
and to operate the nozzle at this design condition the receiver pressure must be at
6.43 psia. The pressure variation through the nozzle for this case is shown as curve
“a” in Figure 5.11. This mode is sometimes referred to as third critical. From the
temperature ratio T3 /Tt3 we can easily compute T3 , a3 , and V3 by the procedure shown
previously.
One can also find A/A ∗ = 2.494 in the subsonic section of the isentropic table.
(Recall that these two answers come from the solution of a quadratic equation.) For
this case
M3 = 0.24,
p3
= 0.9607
pt3
T3
= 0.9886
Tt3
Thus
p3 =
p3 pt3
pt1 = (0.9607)(1)(100) = 96.07 psia
pt3 pt1
and to operate at this condition the receiver pressure must be at 96.07 psia. With this
receiver pressure the flow is subsonic from 1 to 2, sonic at 2, and subsonic again from
Figure 5.11 Pressure variation through converging–diverging nozzle.
130
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
2 to 3. The device is nowhere near its design condition and is really operating as a
venturi tube; that is, the converging section is operating as a nozzle and the diverging
section is operating as a diffuser. The pressure variation through the nozzle for this
case is shown as curve “b” in Figure 5.11. This mode of operation is frequently called
first critical.
Note that at both the first and third critical points, the flow variations are identical
from the inlet to the throat. Once the receiver pressure has been lowered to 96.07 psia,
Mach 1.0 exists in the throat and the device is said to be choked. Further lowering
of the receiver pressure will not change the flow rate. Again, realize that it is not the
pressure in the receiver by itself but rather the receiver pressure relative to the inlet
pressure that determines the mode of operation.
Example 5.7 A converging–diverging nozzle with an area ratio of 3.0 exhausts into a receiver
where the pressure is 1 bar. The nozzle is supplied by air at 22°C from a large chamber. At
what pressure should the air in the chamber be for the nozzle to operate at its design condition
(third critical point)? What will the outlet velocity be?
With reference to Figure 5.10, A3 /A2 = 3.0:
A3 A2 A2∗
A3
= (3.0)(1)(1) = 3.0
∗ =
A3
A2 A2∗ A3∗
From the isentropic table:
T3
= 0.4177
Tt3
pt1 pt3
1
(1 × 105 ) = 21.2 × 105 N/m2
p3 = (1)
p1 = pt1 =
pt3 p3
0.0471
M3 = 2.64
T3 =
p3
= 0.0471
pt3
T3 Tt3
Tt1 = (0.4177)(1)(22 + 273) = 123.2K
Tt3 Tt1
V3 = M3 a3 = (2.64) [(1.4)(1)(287)(123.2)]1/2 = 587 m/s
We have discussed only two specific operating conditions, and one might ask what
happens at other receiver pressures. We can state that the first and third critical points
represent the only operating conditions that satisfy the following criteria:
1. Mach 1 in the throat
2. Isentropic flow throughout the nozzle
3. Nozzle exit pressure equal to receiver pressure
With receiver pressures above the first critical, the nozzle operates as a venturi and
we never reach sonic velocity in the throat. An example of this mode of operation is
shown as curve “c” in Figure 5.11. The nozzle is no longer choked and the flow rate
is less than the maximum. Conditions at the exit can be determined by the procedure
5.8
NOZZLE PERFORMANCE
131
shown previously for the converging-only nozzle. Then properties in the throat can
be found if desired.
Operation between the first and third critical points is not isentropic. We shall learn
later that under these conditions shocks will occur in either the diverging portion of
the nozzle or after the exit. If the receiver pressure is below the third critical point,
the nozzle operates internally as though it were at the design condition but expansion
waves occur outside the nozzle. These operating modes will be discussed in detail as
soon as the appropriate background has been developed.
5.8
NOZZLE PERFORMANCE
We have seen that the isentropic operating conditions are very easy to determine.
Friction losses can then be taken into account by one of several methods. Direct information on the entropy change could be given, although this is usually not available.
Sometimes equivalent information is provided in the form of the stagnation pressure
ratio. Normally, however, nozzle performance is indicated by an efficiency parameter,
which is defined as follows:
ηn ≡
actual change in kinetic energy
ideal change in kinetic energy
or
ηn ≡
KEactual
KEideal
(5.45)
Since most nozzles involve negligible heat transfer (per unit mass of fluid flowing),
we have from
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
ht1 = ht2
(3.19)
(5.46)
Thus
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
= h2 + 2
2gc
2gc
(5.47a)
or
h1 − h2 =
V2 2 − V1 2
2gc
Therefore, one normally sees the nozzle efficiency expressed as
(5.47b)
132
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.12 h–s diagram for a nozzle with losses.
ηn =
hactual
hideal
(5.48)
With reference to Figure 5.12, this becomes
ηn =
h1 − h 2
h1 − h2s
(5.49)
Since nozzle outlet velocities are quite large (relative to the velocity at the inlet),
one can normally neglect the inlet velocity with little error. This is the case shown
in Figure 5.12. Also note that the ideal process is assumed to take place down to
the actual available receiver pressure. This definition of nozzle efficiency and its
application appear quite reasonable since a nozzle is subjected to fixed (inlet and
outlet) operating pressures and its purpose is to produce kinetic energy. The question
is how well it does this, and ηn not only answers the question very quickly but permits
a rapid determination of the actual outlet state.
Example 5.8 Air at 800°R and 80 psia feeds a converging-only nozzle having an efficiency
of 96%. The receiver pressure is 50 psia. What is the actual nozzle outlet temperature?
Note that since prec /pinlet = 50/80 = 0.625 > 0.528, the nozzle will not be choked, flow
will be subsonic at the exit, and p2 = prec (see Figure 5.12).
p2s
p2s pt1
=
=
pt2s
pt1 pt2s
50
(1) = 0.625
80
From table,
M2s ≈ 0.85
and
T2s
= 0.8737
Tt2s
5.9
T2s =
ηn =
DIFFUSER PERFORMANCE
133
T2s Tt2s
Tt1 = (0.8737)(1)(800) = 699°R
Tt2s Tt1
T1 − T2
T1 − T2s
0.96 =
800 − T2
800 − 699
T2 = 703°R
Can you find the actual outlet velocity?
Another method of expressing nozzle performance is with a velocity coefficient,
which is defined as
Cv ≡
actual outlet velocity
ideal outlet velocity
(5.50)
Sometimes a discharge coefficient is used and is defined as
Cd ≡
5.9
actual mass flow rate
ideal mass flow rate
(5.51)
DIFFUSER PERFORMANCE
Although the common use of nozzle efficiency makes this parameter well understood
by all engineers, there is no single parameter that is universally employed for diffusers. Nearly a dozen criteria have been suggested to indicate diffuser performance
(see p. 392, Vol. 1 of Ref 25). Two or three of these are the most popular, but unfortunately, even these are sometimes defined differently or called by different names.
The following discussion refers to the h–s diagram shown in Figure 5.13.
Most of the propulsion industry uses the total-pressure recovery factor as a measure of diffuser performance. With reference to Figure 5.13, it is defined as
ηr ≡
pt2
pt1
(5.52)
This function is directly related to the area ratio A1∗ /A2∗ or the entropy change s1−2 ,
which we have previously shown to be equivalent loss indicators. As we shall see
in Chapter 12, for propulsion applications this is usually referred to the free-stream
conditions rather than the diffuser inlet.
For a definition of diffuser efficiency analogous to that of a nozzle, we recall that
the function of a diffuser is to convert kinetic energy into pressure energy; thus it
is logical to compare the ideal and actual processes between the same two enthalpy
levels that represent the same kinetic energy change. Therefore, a suitable definition
of diffuser efficiency is
134
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.13 h–s diagram for a diffuser with losses.
ηd ≡
actual pressure rise
ideal pressure rise
(5.53)
p2 − p1
p2s − p1
(5.54)
or from Figure 5.13,
ηd ≡
You are again warned to be extremely cautious in accepting any performance figure
for a diffuser without also obtaining a precise definition of what is meant by the
criterion.
Example 5.9 A steady flow of air at 650°R and 30 psia enters a diffuser with a Mach
number of 0.8. The total-pressure recovery factor ηr = 0.95. Determine the static pressure
and temperature at the exit if M = 0.15 at that section.
With reference to Figure 5.13,
p2 =
1
p2 pt2 pt1
(30) = 42.8 psia
p1 = (0.9844)(0.95)
pt2 pt1 p1
0.6560
T2 =
T2 Tt2 Tt1
1
(650) = 730°R
T1 = (0.9955)(1)
Tt2 Tt1 T1
0.8865
5.11
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
135
5.10 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
In this section, as in the next few chapters, we present graphical information on one or
more key parameter ratios as a function of the Mach number. This is done for various
ratios of the specific heats (γ = 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67) to show the overall trends. Also,
within a certain range of Mach numbers, the tabulations in Appendix G for air at
normal temperature and pressure (γ = 1.4) which represent the middle of the range
turn out to be satisfactory for other values of γ .
Figure 5.14 shows curves for p/pt , T /Tt , and A/A∗ in the interval 0.2 ≤ M ≤ 5.
Actually, compressible flow manifests itself in the range M ≥ 0.3. Below this range
we can treat flows as constant density (see Section 3.7 and Problem 4.3). Moreover,
we have deliberately chosen to remain below the hypersonic range, which is generally
regarded to be the region M ≥ 5. So the interval chosen will be representative of many
situations encountered in compressible flow. The curves in Figure 5.14 clearly show
the important trends.
(a) As can be seen from Figure 5.14a, p/pt is the least sensitive (of the three
ratios plotted) to variations of γ . Below M ≈ 2.5 the pressure ratio is well
represented for any γ by the values tabulated in Appendix G.
(b) Figure 5.14b shows that T /Tt is more sensitive than the pressure ratio to
variations of γ . But it shows relative insensitivity below M ≈ 0.8 so that
in this range the values tabulated in Appendix G could be used for any γ with
little error.
(c) The same can be said about A/A∗ , as shown in Figure 5.14c, which turns out
to be relatively insensitive to variations in γ below M ≈ 1.5.
In summary, the tables in Appendix G can be used for estimates (within ±5%) for
almost any value of γ in the Mach number ranges identified above. Strictly speaking,
these curves are representative only for cases where γ variations are negligible within
the flow. However, they offer hints as to what magnitude of changes are to be expected
in other cases. Flows where γ variations are not negligible within the flow are treated
in Chapter 11.
5.11
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
Tables in gas dynamics are extremely useful but they have limitations, such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
They do not show trends or the “big picture.”
There is almost always the need for interpolation.
They display only one or at most a few values of γ .
They do not necessarily have the required accuracy.
136
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
Figure 5.14 (a) Stagnation pressure ratio versus Mach number, (b) Stagnation temperature
ratio versus Mach number, and (c) A/A∗ area ratio versus Mach number for various values
of γ .
5.11
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
137
Moreover, modern digital computers have made significant inroads in the working
of problems, particularly when high-accuracy results and/or graphs are required.
Simply put, the computer can be programmed to do the hard (and the easy) numerical
calculations. In this book we have deliberately avoided integrating any gas dynamics
software (some of which is commercially available) into the text material, preferring
to present computer work as an adjunct to individual calculations. One reason is that
we want you to spend your time learning about the wonderful world of gas dynamics
and not on how to manage the programming. Another reason is that both computers
and packaged software evolve too quickly, and therefore the attention that must be
paid just to use any particular software is soon wasted.
Once you have mastered the basics, however, we feel that it is appropriate to
discuss how things might be done with computers (and this could include handheld
programmable calculators). In this book we discuss how the computer utility MAPLE
can be of help in solving problems in gas dynamics. MAPLE is a powerful computer
environment for doing symbolic, numerical, and graphical work. It is the product of
Waterloo Maple, Inc., and the most recent version, MAPLE 7, was copyrighted in
2001. MAPLE is used routinely in many undergraduate engineering programs in the
United States.
Other software packages are also popular in engineering schools. One in particular is MATLAB, which can do things equivalent to those handled by MAPLE. MATLAB’s real forte is in manipulating linear equations and in constructing tables. But we
have chosen MAPLE because it can manipulate equations symbolically and because
of its superior graphics. In our view, this makes MAPLE somewhat more appropriate.
We will present some simple examples to show how MAPLE can be used. The experienced programmer can go much beyond these exercises. This section is optional
because we want you to concentrate on the learning of gas dynamics and not spend
extra time trying to demystify the computer approach. We focus on an example in
Section 5.6, but the techniques must be understood to apply in general.
Example 5.10 In Example 5.6(a) the calculations can be done from the formulas or by using
the tables for pt1 and Tt1 . In part (b), however, direct calculation of M2 given A2 /A2∗ is more
difficult because it involves equation (5.37), which cannot be solved explicitly for M.
1
A
=
A∗
M
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(γ + 1)/2
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
= f (M, γ )
(5.37)
If we were given M2 , it would be simple to compute A2 /A2∗ .
But we are given A2 /A2∗ and we want to find M2 .
This is a problem where MAPLE can be useful because a built-in solver routine handles
this type of problem easily.
First, we define some symbols: Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of the specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M2 )
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is A2 /A2∗ )
138
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
We need to introduce an index “m” to distinguish between subsonic and supersonic flow.
1
for subsonic flow
m≡
10
for supersonic flow.
Shown below is a copy of the precise MAPLE worksheet:
[ > g := 1.4:
Y := 1.1028:
m := 10:
> fsolve(Y = (((1+(g-1)*(X^2)/2)/((g+1)/2)))^((g+1)/(2*(g-1)))/
X, X, 1..m);
1.377333281
which is the desired answer.
Here we discuss details of the MAPLE solution. If you are familiar with these,
skip to the next paragraph. We must assume that the numerical value outputted is X
because that is what we asked for in the executable statement with “fsolve( ),” which
terminates in a semicolon. Statements terminated in a colon are also executed but no
return is asked for.
Example 5.11 We continue with this problem, as this is a good opportunity to show how
MAPLE can help you avoid interpolation. If you are on the same worksheet, MAPLE remembers the values of g, Y , and X. We are now looking for the ratio of static to stagnation
temperature, which is given the symbol Z. This ratio comes from equation (5.39):
T
1
=
= f (M, γ )
Tt
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(5.39)
Shown below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > X := 1.3773:
> z := 1/(1 + (g-1)*(X^2)/2);
Z := .7249575776
Now we can calculate the static temperature by the usual method.
T2 =
T2 Tt2
Tt1 = (0.725)(1)(1405) = 1019°R
Tt2 Tt1
The static pressure (p2 ) can be found by a similar procedure.
5.12
SUMMARY
We analyzed a general varying-area configuration and found that properties vary in a
radically different manner depending on whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic.
The case of a perfect gas enabled the development of simple working equations for
PROBLEMS
139
flow analysis. We then introduced the concept of a ∗ reference state. The combination
of the ∗ and the stagnation reference states led to the development of the isentropic
table, which greatly aids problem solution. Deviations from isentropic flow can be
handled by appropriate loss factors or efficiency criteria.
A large number of useful equations were developed; however, most of these are of
the type that need not be memorized. Equations (5.10), (5.11), and (5.13) were used
for the general analysis of varying-area flow, and these are summarized in the middle
of Section 5.3. The working equations that apply to a perfect gas are summarized
at the end of Section 5.4 and are (4.28), (5.21), (5.23), (5.25), (5.27), and (5.28).
Equations used as a basis for the isentropic table are numbered (5.37), (5.39), (5.40),
(5.42), and (5.43) and are located in Section 5.6.
Those equations that are most frequently used are summarized below. You should
be familiar with the conditions under which each may be used. Go back and review
the equations listed in previous summaries, particularly those in Chapter 4.
1. For steady one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas when Q = W = 0
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
A2∗
= es/R
A1∗
(5.29)
pt1 A1∗ = pt2 A2∗
(5.35)
2. Nozzle performance.
Nozzle efficiency (between same pressures):
ηn ≡
KEactual
h1 − h 2
=
KEideal
h1 − h2s
(5.45), (5.49)
3. Diffuser performance.
Total-pressure recovery factor:
ηr ≡
pt2
pt1
(5.52)
or diffuser efficiency (between the same enthalpies):
ηd ≡
p2 − p 1
actual pressure rise
=
ideal pressure rise
p2s − p1
(5.53), (5.54)
PROBLEMS
5.1. The following information is common to each of parts (a) and (b). Nitrogen flows
through a diverging section with A1 = 1.5 ft2 and A2 = 4.5 ft2 . You may assume
140
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
steady, one- dimensional flow, Q = Ws = 0, negligible potential changes, and no
losses.
(a) If M1 = 0.7 and p1 = 70 psia, find M2 and p2 .
(b) If M1 = 1.7 and T1 = 95°F, find M2 and T2 .
5.2. Air enters a converging section where A1 = 0.50 m2. At a downstream section A2 =
0.25 m2, M2 = 1.0, and s1−2 = 0. It is known that p2 > p1 . Find the initial Mach
number (M1 ) and the temperature ratio (T2 /T1 ).
5.3. Oxygen flows into an insulated device with initial conditions as follows: p1 = 30 psia,
T1 = 750°R, and V1 = 639 ft/sec. The area changes from A1 = 6 ft2 to A2 = 5 ft2.
(a) Compute M1 , pt1 , and Tt1 .
(b) Is this device a nozzle or diffuser?
(c) Determine M2 , p2 , and T2 if there are no losses.
5.4. Air flows with T1 = 250 K, p1 = 3 bar abs., pt1 = 3.4 bar abs., and the cross-sectional
area A1 = 0.40 m2. The flow is isentropic to a point where A2 = 0.30 m2. Determine
the temperature at section 2.
5.5. The following information is known about the steady flow of air through an adiabatic
system:
At section 1, T1 = 556°R, p1 , = 28.0 psia
At section 2, T2 = 70°F, Tt2 = 109°F, p2 , = 18 psia
(a) Find M2 , V2 , and pt2 .
(b) Determine M1 , V1 , and pt1 .
(c) Compute the area ratio A2 /A1 .
(d) Sketch a physical diagram of the system along with a T –s diagram.
5.6. Assuming the flow of a perfect gas in an adiabatic, no-work system, show that sonic
velocity corresponding to the stagnation conditions (at ) is related to sonic velocity
where the Mach number is unity (a ∗ ) by the following equation:
a∗
=
at
2
γ +1
1/2
5.7. Carbon monoxide flows through an adiabatic system. M1 = 4.0 and pt1 = 45 psia. At
a point downstream, M2 = 1.8 and p2 = 7.0 psia.
(a) Are there losses in this system? If so, compute s.
(b) Determine the ratio of A2 /A1 .
5.8. Two venturi meters are installed in a 30-cm-diameter duct that is insulated (Figure
P5.8). The conditions are such that sonic flow exists at each throat (i.e., M1 = M4 =
1.0). Although each venturi is isentropic, the connecting duct has friction and hence
losses exist between sections 2 and 3. p1 = 3 bar abs. and p4 = 2.5 bar abs. If the
diameter at section 1 is 15 cm and the fluid is air:
(a) Compute s for the connecting duct.
(b) Find the diameter at section 4.
PROBLEMS
141
Figure P5.8
5.9. Starting with the flow rate as from equation (2.30), derive the following relation:
−(γ +1)/2(γ −1) γ gc 1/2 pt
ṁ
= M 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
√
A
R
Tt
5.10. A smooth 3-in.-diameter hole is punched into the side of a large chamber where oxygen
is stored at 500°R and 150 psia. Assume frictionless flow.
(a) Compute the initial mass flow rate from the chamber if the surrounding pressure is
15.0 psia.
(b) What is the flow rate if the pressure of the surroundings is lowered to zero?
(c) What is the flow rate if the chamber pressure is raised to 300 psia?
5.11. Nitrogen is stored in a large chamber under conditions of 450 K and 1.5 × 105 N/m2.
The gas leaves the chamber through a convergent-only nozzle whose outlet area is 30
cm2. The ambient room pressure is 1 × 105 N/m2 and there are no losses.
(a) What is the velocity of the nitrogen at the nozzle exit?
(b) What is the mass flow rate?
(c) What is the maximum flow rate that could be obtained by lowering the ambient
pressure?
5.12. A converging-only nozzle has an efficiency of 96%. Air enters with negligible velocity
at a pressure of 150 psia and a temperature of 750°R. The receiver pressure is 100 psia.
What are the actual outlet temperature, Mach number, and velocity?
5.13. A large chamber contains air at 80 psia and 600°R. The air enters a converging–
diverging nozzle which has an area ratio (exit to throat) of 3.0.
(a) What pressure must exist in the receiver for the nozzle to operate at its first critical
point?
(b) What should the receiver pressure be for third critical (design point) operation?
(c) If operating at its third critical point, what are the density and velocity of the air at
the nozzle exit plane?
5.14. Air enters a convergent–divergent nozzle at 20 bar abs. and 40°C. At the end of the
nozzle the pressure is 2.0 bar abs. Assume a frictionless adiabatic process. The throat
area is 20 cm2.
(a) What is the area at the nozzle exit?
(b) What is the mass flow rate in kg/s?
142
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
5.15. A converging–diverging nozzle is designed to operate with an exit Mach number of
M = 2.25. It is fed by a large chamber of oxygen at 15.0 psia and 600°R and exhausts
into the room at 14.7 psia. Assuming the losses to be negligible, compute the velocity
in the nozzle throat.
5.16. A converging–diverging nozzle (Figure P5.16) discharges air into a receiver where the
static pressure is 15 psia. A 1-ft2 duct feeds the nozzle with air at 100 psia, 800°R, and a
velocity such that the Mach number M1 = 0.3. The exit area is such that the pressure at
the nozzle exit exactly matches the receiver pressure. Assume steady, one-dimensional
flow, perfect gas, and so on. The nozzle is adiabatic and there are no losses.
(a) Calculate the flow rate.
(b) Determine the throat area.
(c) Calculate the exit area.
Figure P5.16
5.17. Ten kilograms per second of air is flowing in an adiabatic system. At one section the
pressure is 2.0 × 105 N/m2, the temperature is 650°C, and the area is 50 cm2. At a
downstream section M2 = 1.2.
(a) Sketch the general shape of the system.
(b) Find A2 if the flow is frictionless.
(c) Find A2 if there is an entropy change between these two sections of 42 J/kg-K.
5.18. Carbon monoxide is expanded adiabatically from 100 psia, 540°F and negligible velocity through a converging–diverging nozzle to a pressure of 20 psia.
(a) What is the ideal exit Mach number?
(b) If the actual exit Mach number is found to be M = 1.6, what is the nozzle efficiency?
(c) What is the entropy change for the flow?
(d) Draw a T –s diagram showing the ideal and actual processes. Indicate pertinent
temperatures, pressures, etc.
5.19. Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle with T1 = 22°C, p1 = 10 bar abs., and V1 ≈
0. The exit Mach number is 2.0, the exit area is 0.25 m2, and the nozzle efficiency is
0.95.
(a) What are the actual exit values of T , p, and pt ?
PROBLEMS
143
(b) What is the ideal exit Mach number?
(c) Assume that all the losses occur in the diverging portion of the nozzle and compute
the throat area.
(d) What is the mass flow rate?
5.20. A diffuser receives air at 500°R, 18 psia, and a velocity of 750 ft/sec. The diffuser has an
efficiency of 90% [as defined by equation (5.54)] and discharges the air with a velocity
of 150 ft/sec.
(a) What is the pressure of the discharge air?
(b) What is the total-pressure recovery factor as given by equation (5.52)?
(c) Determine the area ratio of the diffuser.
5.21. Consider the steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas through a horizontal system
with no shaft work. No frictional losses are involved, but area changes and heat transfer
effects provide a flow at constant temperature.
(a) Start with the pressure-energy equation and develop
p2
2
2
= e(γ /2)(M1 −M2 )
p1
pt2
2
2
= e(γ /2)(M1 −M2 )
pt1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
(b) From the continuity equation show that
M2 (γ /2)(M 2 −M 2 )
A1
1
2
=
e
A2
M1
(c) By letting M1 be any Mach number and M2 = 1.0, write the expression for A/A∗ .
√
Show that the section of minimum area occurs at M = 1/ γ .
5.22. Consider the steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas through a horizontal system
with no heat transfer or shaft work. Friction effects are present, but area changes cause
the flow to be at a constant Mach number.
(a) Recall the arguments of Section 4.6 and determine what other properties remain
constant in this flow.
(b) Apply the concepts of continuity and momentum [equation (3.63)] to show that
D2 − D1 =
f M 2γ
(x2 − x1 )
4
You may assume a circular duct and a constant friction factor.
5.23. Assume that a supersonic nozzle operating isentropically delivers air at an exit Mach
number of 2.8. The entrance conditions are 180 psia, 1000°R, and near-zero Mach
number.
(a) Find the area ratio A3 /A2 and the mass flow rate per unit throat area.
(b) What are the receiver pressure and temperature?
(c) If the entire diverging portion of the nozzle were suddenly to detach, what would
the Mach number and ṁ/A be at the new outlet?
144
VARYING-AREA ADIABATIC FLOW
5.24. Write a computer program and construct a table of isentropic flow parameters for
γ = 1.4. (Useful values might be γ = 1.2, 1.3, or 1.67.) Use the following headings:
M, p/pt , T /Tt , ρ/ρt , A/A ∗ , and pA/pt A ∗ . (Hint: Use MATLAB).
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
5.1. Define the ∗ reference condition.
5.2. In adiabatic, no-work flow, the losses can be expressed by three different parameters.
List these parameters and show how they are related to one another.
5.3. In the T –s diagram (Figure CT5.3), point 1 represents a stagnation condition. Proceeding isentropically from 1, the flow reaches a Mach number of unity at 1∗ . Point
2 represents another stagnation condition in the same flow system. Assuming that the
fluid is a perfect gas, locate the corresponding isentropic 2∗ and prove that T2 ∗ is either
greater than, equal to, or less than T1 ∗ .
Figure CT5.3
5.4. A supersonic nozzle is fed by a large chamber and produces Mach 3.0 at the exit (Figure
CT5.4). Sketch curves (to no particular scale) that show how properties vary through
the nozzle as the Mach number increases from zero to 3.0.
Figure CT5.4
5.5. Give a suitable definition for nozzle efficiency in terms of enthalpies. Sketch an h–s
diagram to identify your state points.
CHECK TEST
145
5.6. Air flows steadily with no losses through a converging–diverging nozzle with an area
ratio of 1.50. Conditions in the supply chamber are T = 500°R and p = 150 psia.
(a) To choke the flow, to what pressure must the receiver be lowered?
(b) If the nozzle is choked, determine the density and velocity at the throat.
(c) If the receiver is at the pressure determined in part (a) and the diverging portion of
the nozzle is removed, what will the exit Mach number be?
5.7. For steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas in an adiabatic, no-work system,
derive the working relation between the temperatures at two locations:
T2
= f (M1 , M2 , γ )
T1
5.8. Work problem 5.20.
Chapter 6
Standing
Normal Shocks
6.1
INTRODUCTION
Up to this point we have considered only continuous flows, flow systems in which
state changes occur continuously and thus whose processes can easily be identified
and plotted. Recall from Section 4.3 that infinitesimal pressure disturbances are called
sound waves and these travel at a characteristic velocity that is determined by the
medium and its thermodynamic state. In Chapters 6 and 7 we turn our attention
to some finite pressure disturbances which are frequently encountered. Although
incorporating large changes in fluid properties, the thickness of these disturbances
is extremely small. Typical thicknesses are on the order of a few mean free molecular
paths and thus they appear as discontinuities in the flow and are called shock waves.
Due to the complex interactions involved, analysis of the changes within a shock
wave is beyond the scope of this book. Thus we deal only with the properties that
exist on each side of the discontinuity. We first consider a standing normal shock, a
stationary wave front that is perpendicular to the direction of flow. We will discover
that this phenomenon is found only when supersonic flow exists and that it is basically
a form of compression process. We apply the basic concepts of gas dynamics to
analyze a shock wave in an arbitrary fluid and then develop working equations for a
perfect gas. This procedure leads naturally to the compilation of tabular information
which greatly simplifies problem solution. The chapter closes with a discussion of
shocks found in the diverging portion of supersonic nozzles.
6.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. List the assumptions used to analyze a standing normal shock.
2. Given the continuity, energy, and momentum equations for steady one-dimensional flow, utilize control volume analysis to derive the relations between
properties on each side of a standing normal shock for an arbitrary fluid.
147
148
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
3. (Optional) Starting with the basic shock equations for an arbitrary fluid, derive
the working equations for a perfect gas relating property ratios on each side
of a standing normal shock as a function of Mach number (M) and specific
heat ratio (γ ).
4. (Optional) Given the working equations for a perfect gas, show that a unique
relationship must exist between the Mach numbers before and after a standing
normal shock.
5. (Optional) Explain how a normal-shock table may be developed that gives
property ratios across the shock in terms of only the Mach number before the
shock.
6. Sketch a normal-shock process on a T –s diagram, indicating as many pertinent features as possible, such as static and total pressures, static and total
temperatures, and velocities. Indicate each of the preceding before and after
the shock.
7. Explain why an expansion shock cannot exist.
8. Describe the second critical mode of nozzle operation. Given the area ratio
of a converging–diverging nozzle, determine the operating pressure ratio that
causes operation at the second critical point.
9. Describe how a converging–diverging nozzle operates between first and second critical points.
10. Demonstrate the ability to solve typical standing normal-shock problems by
use of tables and equations.
6.3
SHOCK ANALYSIS—GENERAL FLUID
Figure 6.1 shows a standing normal shock in a section of varying area. We first
establish a control volume that includes the shock region and an infinitesimal amount
of fluid on each side of the shock. In this manner we deal only with the changes that
occur across the shock. It is important to recognize that since the shock wave is so thin
(about 10−6 m), a control volume chosen in the manner described above is extremely
thin in the x-direction. This permits the following simplifications to be made without
introducing error in the analysis:
1. The area on both sides of the shock may be considered to be the same.
2. There is negligible surface in contact with the wall, and thus frictional effects
may be omitted.
We begin by applying the basic concepts of continuity, energy, and momentum
under the following assumptions:
Steady one-dimensional flow
Adiabatic
No shaft work
δq = 0 or dse = 0
δws = 0
6.3
SHOCK ANALYSIS—GENERAL FLUID
149
Figure 6.1 Control volume for shock analysis.
dz = 0
A1 = A2
Neglect potential
Constant area
Neglect wall shear
Continuity
ṁ = ρAV
(2.30)
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
(6.1)
ρ1 V1 = ρ2 V2
(6.2)
But since the area is constant,
Energy
We start with
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
For adiabatic and no work, this becomes
ht1 = ht2
or
(6.3)
150
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
h1 +
V1 2
V 2
= h2 + 2
2gc
2gc
(6.4)
Momentum
The x-component of the momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow is
Fx =
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx
gc
(3.46)
which when applied to Figure 6.1 becomes
Fx =
ṁ
(V2x − V1x )
gc
From Figure 6.1 we can also see that the force summation is
Fx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 = (p1 − p2 )A
(6.5)
(6.6)
Thus the momentum equation in the direction of flow becomes
(p1 − p2 )A =
ṁ
ρAV
(V2 − V1 ) =
(V2 − V1 )
gc
gc
(6.7)
With ṁ written as ρAV , we can cancel the area from both sides. Now the ρV
remaining can be written as either ρ1 V1 or ρ2 V2 [see equation (6.2)] and equation
(6.7) becomes
ρ2 V2 2 − ρ1 V1 2
gc
(6.8)
ρ1 V1 2
ρ2 V2 2
= p2 +
gc
gc
(6.9)
p1 − p2 =
or
p1 +
For the general case of an arbitrary fluid, we have arrived at three governing
equations: (6.2), (6.4), and (6.9). A typical problem would be: Knowing the fluid and
the conditions before the shock, predict the conditions that would exist after the shock.
The unknown parameters are then four in number (ρ2 , p2 , h2 , V2 ), which requires
additional information for a problem solution. The missing information is supplied
in the form of property relations for the fluid involved. For the general fluid (not a
6.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
151
perfect gas), this leads to iterative-type solutions, but with modern digital computers
these can be handled quite easily.
6.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
In Section 6.3 we have seen that a typical normal-shock problem has four unknowns,
which can be found through the use of the three governing equations (from continuity,
energy, and momentum concepts) plus additional information on property relations.
For the case of a perfect gas, this additional information is supplied in the form of an
equation of state and the assumption of constant specific heats. We now proceed to
develop working equations in terms of Mach numbers and the specific heat ratio.
Continuity
We start with the continuity equation developed in Section 6.3:
ρ1 V1 = ρ2 V2
(6.2)
Substitute for the density from the perfect gas equation of state:
p = ρRT
(1.13)
and for the velocity from equations (4.10) and (4.11):
V = Ma = M γ gc RT
(6.10)
Show that the continuity equation can now be written as
p1 M1
p2 M2
= √
√
T1
T2
(6.11)
Energy
From Section 6.3 we have
ht1 = ht2
(6.3)
But since we are now restricted to a perfect gas for which enthalpy is a function of
temperature only, we can say that
Tt1 = Tt2
Recall from Chapter 4 that for a perfect gas with constant specific heats,
(6.12)
152
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Tt = T
1+
γ −1 2
M
2
(4.18)
Hence the energy equation across a standing normal shock can be written as
γ −1 2
γ −1 2
M1 = T2 1 +
M2
(6.13)
T1 1 +
2
2
Momentum
The momentum equation in the direction of flow was seen to be
p1 +
ρ1 V1 2
ρ2 V2 2
= p2 +
gc
gc
(6.9)
Substitutions are made for the density from the equation of state (1.13) and for the
velocity from equation (6.10):
p1 +
p1
RT1
M12 γ gc RT1
gc
= p2 +
p2
RT2
M22 γ gc RT2
gc
(6.14)
and the momentum equation becomes
p1 1 + γ M12 = p2 1 + γ M22
(6.15)
The governing equations for a standing normal shock have now been simplified
for a perfect gas and for convenience are summarized below.
p1 M1
p2 M2
= √
√
T1
T2
γ −1 2
γ −1 2
M1 = T2 1 +
M2
T1 1 +
2
2
p1 1 + γ M12 = p2 1 + γ M22
(6.11)
(6.13)
(6.15)
There are seven variables involved in these equations:
γ , p1 , M1 , T1 , p2 , M2 , T2
Once the gas is identified, γ is known, and a given state preceding the shock fixes p1 ,
M1 , and T1 . Thus equations (6.11), (6.13), and (6.15) are sufficient to solve for the
unknowns after the shock: p2 , M2 , and T2 .
6.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
153
Rather than struggle through the details of the solution for every shock problem
that we encounter, let’s solve it once and for all right now. We proceed to combine the
equations above and derive an expression for M2 in terms of the information given.
First, we rewrite equation (6.11) as
p1 M1
T1
=
(6.16)
p2 M2
T2
and equation (6.13) as
T1
=
T2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1/2
(6.17)
and equation (6.15) as
1 + γ M22
p1
=
p2
1 + γ M12
(6.18)
We then substitute equations (6.17) and (6.18) into equation (6.16), which yields
1 + γ M22
1 + γ M12
M1
=
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1/2
(6.19)
At this point notice that M2 is a function of only M1 and γ . A trivial solution of
this is seen to be M1 = M2 , which represents the degenerate case of no shock. To
solve the nontrivial case, we square equation (6.19), cross-multiply, and arrange the
result as a quadratic in M22 :
A M22
2
+ BM22 + C = 0
(6.20)
where A, B, and C are functions of M1 and γ . Only if you have considerable motivation should you attempt to carry out the tedious algebra (or to utilize a computer
utility, see Section 6.9) required to show that the solution of this quadratic is
M22 =
M12 + 2/(γ − 1)
[2γ /(γ − 1)]M12 − 1
(6.21)
For our typical shock problem the Mach number after the shock is computed
with the aid of equation (6.21), and then T2 and p2 can easily be found from equations (6.13) and (6.15). To complete the picture, the total pressures pt1 and pt2
can be computed in the usual manner. It turns out that since M1 is supersonic, M2
154
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Figure 6.2 T –s diagram for typical normal shock.
will always be subsonic and a typical problem is shown on the T –s diagram in
Figure 6.2.
The end points 1 and 2 (before and after the shock) are well-defined states, but
the changes that occur within the shock do not follow an equilibrium process in the
usual thermodynamic sense. For this reason the shock process is usually shown by a
dashed or wiggly line. Note that when points 1 and 2 are located on the T –s diagram,
it can immediately be seen that an entropy change is involved in the shock process.
This is discussed in greater detail in the next section.
Example 6.1 Helium is flowing at a Mach number of 1.80 and enters a normal shock.
Determine the pressure ratio across the shock.
We use equation (6.21) to find the Mach number after the shock and (6.15) to obtain the
pressure ratio.
M22 =
M12 + 2/(γ − 1)
(1.8)2 + 2/(1.67 − 1)
= 0.411
=
2
[(2 × 1.67)/(1.67 − 1)](1.8)2 − 1
[2γ /(γ − 1)]M1 − 1
M2 = 0.641
1 + γ M12
1 + (1.67)(1.8)2
p2
= 3.80
=
=
2
p1
1 + (1.67)(0.411)
1 + γ M2
6.5
NORMAL-SHOCK TABLE
We have found that for any given fluid with a specific set of conditions entering a
normal shock there is one and only one set of conditions that can result after the
shock. An iterative solution results for a fluid that cannot be treated as a perfect gas,
whereas the case of the perfect gas produces an explicit solution. The latter case opens
the door to further simplifications since equation (6.21) yields the exit Mach number
6.5
155
NORMAL-SHOCK TABLE
M2 for any given inlet Mach number M1 and we can now eliminate M2 from all
previous equations.
For example, equation (6.13) can be solved for the temperature ratio
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(6.22)
If we now eliminate M2 by the use of equation (6.21), the result will be
{1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12 }{[2γ /(γ − 1)]M12 − 1}
T2
=
T1
[(γ + 1)2 /2(γ − 1)]M12
(6.23)
Similarly, equation (6.15) can be solved for the pressure ratio
1 + γ M12
p2
=
p1
1 + γ M22
(6.24)
and elimination of M2 through the use of equation (6.21) will produce
p2
2γ
γ −1
M2−
=
p1
γ +1 1
γ +1
(6.25)
If you are very persistent (and in need of algebraic exercise or want to do it with a
computer), you might carry out the development of equations (6.23) and (6.25). Also,
these can be combined to form the density ratio
(γ + 1)M12
ρ2
=
ρ1
(γ − 1)M12 + 2
(6.26)
Other interesting ratios can be developed, each as a function of only M1 and γ .
For example, since
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
pt = p 1 +
2
(4.21)
we may write
pt2
p2
=
pt1
p1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
(6.27)
The ratio p2 /p1 can be eliminated by equation (6.25) with the following result:
pt2
=
pt1
[(γ + 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
2γ
γ −1
M12 −
γ +1
γ +1
1/(1−γ )
(6.28)
156
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Equation (6.28) is extremely important since the stagnation pressure ratio is related
to the entropy change through equation (4.28):
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
In fact, we could combine equations (4.28) and (6.28) to obtain an explicit relation
for s as a function of M1 and γ .
Note that for a given fluid (γ known), the equations (6.23), (6.25), (6.26), and
(6.28) express property ratios as a function of the entering Mach number only. This
suggests that we could easily construct a table giving values of M2 , T2 /T1 , p2 /p1 ,
ρ2 /ρ1 , pt2 /pt1 , and so on, versus M1 for a particular γ . Such a table of normal-shock
parameters is given in Appendix H. This table greatly aids problem solution, as the
following example shows.
Example 6.2 Fluid is air and can be treated as a perfect gas. If the conditions before the shock
are: M1 = 2.0, p1 = 20 psia, and T1 = 500°R; determine the conditions after the shock and
the entropy change across the shock.
First we compute pt1 with the aid of the isentropic table.
pt1
1
pt1 =
(20) = 156.5 psia
p1 =
p1
0.1278
Now from the normal-shock table opposite M1 = 2.0, we find
M2 = 0.57735
p2
= 4.5000
p1
T2
= 1.6875
T1
pt2
= 0.72087
pt1
Thus
p2 =
p2
p1 = (4.5)(20) = 90 psia
p1
T2
T1 = (1.6875)(500) = 844°R
T1
pt2
pt1 = (0.72087)(156.5) = 112.8 psia
pt2 =
pt1
T2 =
Or pt2 can be computed with the aid of the isentropic table:
pt2
1
pt2 =
(90) = 112.8 psia
p2 =
p2
0.7978
To compute the entropy change, we use equation (4.28):
pt2
= 0.72087 = e−s/R
pt1
s
= 0.3273
R
6.5
s =
NORMAL-SHOCK TABLE
157
(0.3273)(53.3)
= 0.0224 Btu/lbm-°R
778
It is interesting to note that as far as the governing equations are concerned, the
problem in Example 6.2 could be completely reversed. The fundamental relations of
continuity (6.11), energy (6.13), and momentum (6.15) would be satisfied completely
if we changed the problem to M1 = 0.577, p1 = 90 psia, T1 = 844°R, with the resulting M2 = 2.0, p2 = 20 psia, and T2 = 500°R (which would represent an expansion
shock). However, in the latter case the entropy change would be negative, which
clearly violates the second law of thermodynamics for an adiabatic no-work system.
Example 6.2 and the accompanying discussion clearly show that the shock phenomenon is a one-way process (i.e., irreversible). It is always a compression shock,
and for a normal shock the flow is always supersonic before the shock and subsonic
after the shock. One can note from the table that as M1 increases, the pressure, temperature, and density ratios increase, indicating a stronger shock (or compression). One
can also note that as M1 increases, pt2 /pt1 decreases, which means that the entropy
change increases. Thus as the strength of the shock increases, the losses also increase.
Example 6.3 Air has a temperature and pressure of 300 K and 2 bar abs., respectively. It is
flowing with a velocity of 868 m/s and enters a normal shock. Determine the density before
and after the shock.
ρ1 =
p1
2 × 105
= 2.32 kg/m3
=
RT1
(287)(300)
a1 = (γ gc RT1 )1/2 = [(1.4)(1)(287)(300)]1/2 = 347 m/s
M1 =
V1
868
= 2.50
=
a1
347
From the shock table we obtain
p2 T1
1
ρ2
= 3.333
=
= (7.125)
ρ1
p1 T2
2.1375
ρ2 = 3.3333ρ1 = (3.3333)(2.32) = 7.73 kg/m3
Example 6.4 Oxygen enters the converging section shown in Figure E6.4 and a normal shock
occurs at the exit. The entering Mach number is 2.8 and the area ratio A1 /A2 = 1.7. Compute
the overall static temperature ratio T3 /T1 . Neglect all frictional losses.
A2
A2 A1 A1∗
1
(3.5001)(1) = 2.06
∗ =
∗
∗ =
A2
A1 A1 A2
1.7
Thus M2 ≈ 2.23, and from the shock table we get
M3 = 0.5431
and
T3
= 1.8835
T2
T3 T2 Tt2 Tt1
1
T3
= 2.43
=
= (1.8835)(0.5014)(1)
T1
T2 Tt2 Tt1 T1
0.3894
158
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Figure E6.4
We can also develop a relation for the velocity change across a standing normal
shock for use in Chapter 7. Starting with the basic continuity equation
ρ1 V1 = ρ2 V2
(6.2)
we introduce the density relation from (6.26):
(γ − 1)M12 + 2
ρ1
V2
=
=
V1
ρ2
(γ + 1)M12
(6.29)
and subtract 1 from each side:
(γ − 1)M12 + 2 − (γ + 1)M12
V2 − V 1
=
V1
(γ + 1)M12
2 1 − M12
V2 − V1
=
M1 a1
(γ + 1)M12
(6.30)
(6.31)
or
V1 − V2
=
a1
2
γ +1
M12 − 1
M1
(6.32)
This is another parameter that is a function of M1 and γ and thus may be added to our
shock table. Its usefulness for solving certain types of problems will become apparent
in Chapter 7.
6.6
6.6
SHOCKS IN NOZZLES
159
SHOCKS IN NOZZLES
In Section 5.7 we discussed the isentropic operations of a converging–diverging
nozzle. Remember that this type of nozzle is physically distinguished by its area
ratio, the ratio of the exit area to the throat area. Furthermore, its flow conditions are
determined by the operating pressure ratio, the ratio of the receiver pressure to the
inlet stagnation pressure. We identified two significant critical pressure ratios. For any
pressure ratio above the first critical point, the nozzle is not choked and has subsonic
flow throughout (typical venturi operation). The first critical point represents flow
that is subsonic in both the convergent and divergent sections but is choked with a
Mach number of 1.0 in the throat. The third critical point represents operation at the
design condition with subsonic flow in the converging section and supersonic flow
in the entire diverging section. It is also choked with Mach 1.0 in the throat. The
first and third critical points are the only operating points that have (1) isentropic
flow throughout, (2) a Mach number of 1 at the throat, and (3) exit pressure equal to
receiver pressure.
Remember that with subsonic flow at the exit, the exit pressure must equal the
receiver pressure. Imposing a pressure ratio slightly below that of the first critical
point presents a problem in that there is no way that isentropic flow can meet the
boundary condition of pressure equilibrium at the exit. However, there is nothing
to prevent a nonisentropic flow adjustment from occurring within the nozzle. This
internal adjustment takes the form of a standing normal shock, which we now know
involves an entropy change.
As the pressure ratio is lowered below the first critical point, a normal shock forms
just downstream of the throat. The remainder of the nozzle is now acting as a diffuser
since after the shock the flow is subsonic and the area is increasing. The shock will
locate itself in a position such that the pressure changes that occur ahead of the shock,
across the shock, and downstream of the shock will produce a pressure that exactly
matches the outlet pressure. In other words, the operating pressure ratio determines
the location and strength of the shock. An example of this mode of operation is shown
in Figure 6.3. As the pressure ratio is lowered further, the shock continues to move
toward the exit. When the shock is located at the exit plane, this condition is referred
to as the second critical point.
We have ignored boundary layer effects that are always present due to fluid viscosity. These effects sometimes cause what are known as lambda shocks. It is important
for you to understand that real flows are often much more complicated than the idealizations that we are describing.
If the operating pressure ratio is between the second and third critical points, a
compression takes place outside the nozzle. This is called overexpansion (i.e., the
flow has been expanded too far within the nozzle). If the receiver pressure is below
the third critical point, an expansion takes place outside the nozzle. This condition is
called underexpansion. We investigate these conditions in Chapters 7 and 8 after the
appropriate background has been covered.
For the present we proceed to investigate the operational regime between the first
and second critical points. Let us work with the same nozzle and inlet conditions that
160
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Figure 6.3 Operating modes for DeLaval nozzle.
we used in Section 5.7. The nozzle has an area ratio of 2.494 and is fed by air at 100
psia and 600°R from a large tank. Thus the inlet conditions are essentially stagnation.
For these fixed inlet conditions we previously found that a receiver pressure of 96.07
psia (an operating pressure ratio of 0.9607) identifies the first critical point and a
receiver pressure of 6.426 psia (an operating pressure ratio of 0.06426) exists at the
third critical point.
What receiver pressure do we need to operate at the second critical point? Figure
6.4 shows such a condition and you should recognize that the entire nozzle up to the
shock is operating at its design or third critical condition.
From the isentropic table at A/A∗ = 2.494, we have
M3 = 2.44
and
p3
= 0.06426
pt3
From the normal-shock table for M3 = 2.44, we have
M4 = 0.5189 and
p4
= 6.7792
p3
6.6
SHOCKS IN NOZZLES
161
Figure 6.4 Operation at second critical.
and the operating pressure ratio will be
prec
p4
p4 p3 pt3
=
=
= (6.7792)(0.06426)(1) = 0.436
pt1
pt1
p3 pt3 pt1
or for p1 = pt1 = 100 psia,
p4 = prec = 43.6 psia
Thus for our converging–diverging nozzle with an area ratio of 2.494, any operating
pressure ratio between 0.9607 and 0.436 will cause a normal shock to be located
someplace in the diverging portion of the nozzle.
Suppose that we are given an operating pressure ratio of 0.60. The logical question
to ask is: Where is the shock? This situation is shown in Figure 6.5. We must take
advantage of the only two available pieces of information and from these construct a
solution. We know that
Figure 6.5 DeLaval nozzle with normal shock in diverging section.
162
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
A5
= 2.494
A2
and
p5
= 0.60
pt1
We may also assume that all losses occur across the shock and we know that M2 =
1.0. It might also be helpful to visualize the flow on a T –s diagram, and this is shown
in Figure 6.6. Since there are no losses up to the shock, we know that
A2 = A1∗
Thus
A 5 p5
A 5 p5
= ∗
A2 pt1
A1 pt1
(6.33)
We also know from equation (5.35) that for the case of adiabatic no-work flow of a
perfect gas,
A1∗ pt1 = A5∗ pt5
(6.34)
Thus
A 5 p5
A5 p5
= ∗
∗
A1 pt1
A5 pt5
In summary:
Figure 6.6 T –s diagram for DeLaval nozzle with normal shock. (For physical picture see
Figure 6.5.)
6.6
SHOCKS IN NOZZLES
A 5 p5
A 5 p5
A 5 p5
= ∗
= ∗
A2 pt1
A1 pt1
A5 pt5
163
(6.35)
known
(2.494)(0.6)
=
1.4964
Note that we have manipulated the known information into an expression with all
similar station subscripts. In Section 5.6 we showed with equation (5.43) that the
ratio Ap/A∗ pt is a simple function of M and γ and thus is listed in the isentropic
table. A check in the table shows that the exit Mach number is M5 ≈ 0.38.
To locate the shock, seek the ratio
1
pt5 p5
pt5
(0.6) = 0.664
=
=
pt1
p5 pt1
0.9052
Given
From isentropic table at M = 0.38
and since all the loss is assumed to take place across the shock, we have
pt5 = pt4
and
pt1 = pt3
Thus
pt4
pt5
=
= 0.664
pt3
pt1
Knowing the total pressure ratio across the shock, we can determine from the normalshock table that M3 ≈ 2.12, and then from the isentropic table we note that this Mach
number will occur at an area ratio of about A3 /A3∗ = A3 /A2 = 1.869. More accurate
answers could be obtained by interpolating within the tables.
We see that if we are given a physical converging–diverging nozzle (area ratio is
known) and an operating pressure ratio between the first and second critical points,
it is a simple matter to determine the position and strength of the normal shock in the
diverging section.
Example 6.5 A converging–diverging nozzle has an area ratio of 3.50. At off-design conditions, the exit Mach number is observed to be 0.3. What operating pressure ratio would cause
this situation?
Using the section numbering system of Figure 6.5, for M3 = 0.3, we have
p 5 A5
= 1.9119
pt5 A5∗
p5 A5
p5
=
pt1
pt5 A5∗
pt5 A5∗
pt1 A1∗
A1∗ A2
1
= 0.546
= (1.9119)(1)(1)
A2 A5
3.50
Could you now find the shock location and Mach number?
164
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Example 6.6 Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle that has an overall area ratio of 1.76.
A normal shock occurs at a section where the area is 1.19 times that of the throat. Neglect
all friction losses and find the operating pressure ratio. Again, we use the numbering system
shown in Figure 6.5.
From the isentropic table at A3 /A2 = 1.19, M3 = 1.52.
From the shock table, M4 = 0.6941 and pt4 /pt3 = 0.9233. Then
A5
1
A5 A2 A4 A4∗
=
(1.76)
(1.0988)(1) = 1.625
=
A5∗
A2 A4 A4∗ A5∗
1.19
Thus M5 ≈ 0.389.
p5
p5 pt5 pt4 pt3
=
= (0.9007)(1)(0.9233)(1) = 0.832
pt1
pt5 pt4 pt3 pt1
6.7
SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL OPERATION
To provide a test section with supersonic flow requires a converging–diverging nozzle. To operate economically, the nozzle–test-section combination must be followed
by a diffusing section which also must be converging–diverging. This configuration
presents some interesting problems in flow analysis. Starting up such a wind tunnel
is another example of nozzle operation at pressure ratios above the second critical
point. Figure 6.7 shows a typical tunnel in its most unfavorable operating condition,
which occurs at startup. A brief analysis of the situation follows.
Figure 6.7 Supersonic tunnel at startup (with associated Mach number variation).
6.7
SUPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL OPERATION
165
As the exhauster is started, this reduces the pressure and produces flow through
the tunnel. At first the flow is subsonic throughout, but at increased power settings
the exhauster reduces pressures still further and causes increased flow rates until the
nozzle throat (section 2) becomes choked. At this point the nozzle is operating at its
first critical condition. As power is increased further, a normal shock is formed just
downstream of the throat, and if the tunnel pressure is decreased continuously, the
shock will move down the diverging portion of the nozzle and pass rapidly through
the test section and into the diffuser. Figure 6.8 shows this general running condition,
which is called the most favorable condition.
We return to Figure 6.7, which shows the shock located in the test section. The
variation of Mach number throughout the flow system is also shown for this case.
This is called the most unfavorable condition because the shock occurs at the highest
possible Mach number and thus the losses are greatest. We might also point out that
the diffuser throat (section 5) must be sized for this condition. Let us see how this
is done.
Recall the relation pt A∗ = constant. Thus
pt2 A2∗ = pt5 A5∗
But since Mach 1 exists at both sections 2 and 5 (during startup),
A2 = A2∗
and
A5 = A5∗
Figure 6.8 Supersonic tunnel in running condition (with associated pressure variation).
166
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Hence
pt2 A2 = pt5 A5
(6.36)
Due to the shock losses (and other friction losses), we know that pt5 < pt2 , and
therefore A5 must be greater than A2 . Knowing the test-section-design Mach number
fixes the shock strength in this unfavorable condition and A5 is easily determined from
equation (6.36). Keep in mind that this represents a minimum area for the diffuser
throat. If it is made any smaller than this, the tunnel could never be started (i.e., we
could never get the shock into and through the test section). In fact, if A5 is made too
small, the flow will choke first in this throat and never get a chance to reach sonic
conditions in section 2.
Once the shock has passed into the diffuser throat, knowing that A5 > A2 we
realize that the tunnel can never run with sonic velocity at section 5. Thus, to operate
as a diffuser, there must be a shock at this point, as shown in Figure 6.8. We have also
shown the pressure variation through the tunnel for this running condition.
To keep the losses during running at a minimum, the shock in the diffuser should
occur at the lowest possible Mach number, which means a small throat. However,
we have seen that it is necessary to have a large diffuser throat in order to start the
tunnel. A solution to this dilemma would be to construct a diffuser with a variablearea throat. After startup, A5 could be decreased, with a corresponding decrease in
shock strength and operating power. However, the power required for any installation
must always be computed on the basis of the unfavorable startup condition.
Although the supersonic wind tunnel is used primarily for aeronautically oriented
work, its operation serves to solidify many of the important concepts of variable-area
flow, normal shocks, and their associated flow losses. Equally important is the fact
that it begins to focus our attention on some practical design applications.
6.8 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
As indicated in Chapter 5, we discuss the effects that changes from γ = 1.4 bring
about. Figures 6.9 and 6.10 show curves for T2 /T1 and p2 /p1 versus Mach number
in the interval 1 ≤ M ≤ 5 entering the shock. This is done for various ratios of the
specific heats (γ = 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67).
1. Figure 6.9 depicts T2 /T1 across a normal-shock wave. As can be seen in the
figure, the temperature ratio is very sensitive to γ .
2. On the other hand, as shown in Figure 6.10, the pressure ratio across the normal
shock is relatively less sensitive to γ . Below M ≈ 1.5 the pressure ratio
tabulated in Appendix H could be used with little error for any γ .
6.8 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
167
8
γ = 1.67
6
γ = 1.40
T2/T1
4
γ = 1.13
2
1
2
3
M
4
5
Figure 6.9 Temperature ratio across a normal shock versus Mach number for various
values of γ .
30
γ = 1.67
25
γ = 1.40
γ = 1.13
20
p2/p1
15
10
5
1
Figure 6.10
values of γ .
2
3
M
4
5
Pressure ratio across a normal shock versus Mach number for various
168
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
Strictly speaking, these curves are representative only for cases where γ variations
are negligible within the flow. However, they offer hints as to what magnitude of
changes are to be expected in other cases. Flows where γ -variations are not negligible
within the flow are treated in Chapter 11.
6.9
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
As illustrated in Chapter 5, one can eliminate a lot of interpolation and get accurate
answers for any ratio of the specific heats γ and/or any Mach number by using a
computer utility such as MAPLE. For instance, we can easily calculate the left-hand
side of equations (6.21), (6.23), (6.25), (6.26), and (6.28) to a high degree of precision
given M1 and γ (or calculate any one of the three variables given the other two).
Example 6.7 Let’s go back to Example 6.3, where the density ratio across the shock is
desired. We can compute this from equation (6.26):
(γ + 1)M12
ρ2
=
ρ1
(γ − 1)M12 + 2
(6.26)
Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M1 )
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is ρ2 /ρ1 )
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > g := 1.4: X := 2.5:
> Y := ((g+1)*X^2)/((g-1)*X^2 + 2);
Y := 3.333333333
which is the desired answer.
A rather unique capability of MAPLE is its ability to solve equations symbolically
(in contrast to strictly numerically). This comes in handy when trying to reproduce
proofs of somewhat complicated algebraic expressions.
Example 6.8 Suppose that we want to solve for M2 in equation (6.19):
1/2
1 + γ M22 M1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
=
1 + γ M12 M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M12 )
(6.19)
6.10
SUMMARY
169
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is M22 )
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
> solve((((1 + g*Y)^2)/((1 + g*X)^2))*(X/Y) = (2 +
(g - 1)*Y)/(2 + (g-1)*X), Y);
X,
2 + Xg − X
−g + 1 + 2Xg
which are the desired answers.
Above are the two roots of Y (or M22 ), because we are solving a quadratic. With some
manipulation we can get the second or nontrivial root to look like equation (6.21). It is easy to
check it by substituting in some numbers and comparing results with the normal-shock table.
The type of calculation shown above can be integrated into more sophisticated
programs to handle most gas dynamic calculations.
6.10
SUMMARY
We examined stationary discontinuities of a type perpendicular to the flow. These
are finite pressure disturbances and are called standing normal shock waves. If conditions are known ahead of a shock, a precise set of conditions must exist after the
shock. Explicit solutions can be obtained for the case of a perfect gas and these lend
themselves to tabulation for various specific heat ratios.
Shocks are found only in supersonic flow, and the flow is always subsonic after a
normal shock. The shock wave is a type of compression process, although a rather
inefficient one since relatively large losses are involved in the process. (What has
been lost?) Shocks provide a means of flow adjustment to meet imposed pressure
conditions in supersonic flow.
As in Chapter 5, most of the equations in this chapter need not be memorized.
However, you should be completely familiar with the fundamental relations that
apply to all fluids across a normal shock. These are equations (6.2), (6.4), and (6.9).
Essentially, these say that the end points of a shock have three things in common:
1. The same mass flow per unit area
2. The same stagnation enthalpy
3. The same value of p + ρV 2 /gc
The working equations that apply to perfect gases, equations (6.11), (6.13), and
(6.15), are summarized in Section 6.4. In Section 6.5 we developed equation (6.32)
and noted that it can be very useful in solving certain types of problems. You should
also be familiar with the various ratios that have been tabulated in Appendix H. Just
knowing what kind of information you have available is frequently very helpful in
setting up a problem solution.
170
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
PROBLEMS
Unless otherwise indicated, you may assume that there is no friction in any of the following
flow systems; thus the only losses are those generated by shocks.
6.1. A standing normal shock occurs in air that is flowing at a Mach number of 1.8.
(a) What are the pressure, temperature, and density ratios across the shock?
(b) Compute the entropy change for the air as it passes through the shock.
(c) Repeat part (b) for flows at M = 2.8 and 3.8.
6.2. The difference between the total and static pressure before a shock is 75 psi. What is
the maximum static pressure that can exist at this point ahead of the shock? The gas is
oxygen. (Hint: Start by finding the static and total pressures ahead of the shock for the
limiting case of M = 1.0.)
6.3. In an arbitrary perfect gas, the Mach number before a shock is infinite.
(a) Determine a general expression for the Mach number after the shock. What is the
value of this expression for γ = 1.4?
(b) Determine general expressions for the ratios p2 /p1 , T2 /T1 , ρ2 /ρ1 , and pt2 /pt1 .
Do these agree with the values shown in Appendix H for γ = 1.4?
6.4. It is known that sonic velocity exists in each throat of the system shown in Figure P6.4.
The entropy change for the air is 0.062 Btu/lbm-°R. Negligible friction exists in the
duct. Determine the area ratios A3 /A1 and A2 /A1 .
Figure P6.4
6.5. Air flows in the system shown in Figure P6.5. It is known that the Mach number after
the shock is M3 = 0.52. Considering p1 and p2 , it is also known that one of these
pressures is twice the other.
(a) Compute the Mach number at section 1.
(b) What is the area ratio A1 /A2 ?
PROBLEMS
171
Figure P6.5
6.6. A shock stands at the inlet to the system shown in Figure P6.6. The free-stream Mach
number is M1 = 2.90, the fluid is nitrogen, A2 = 0.25 m2, and A3 = 0.20 m2. Find
the outlet Mach number and the temperature ratio T3 /T1 .
Figure P6.6
6.7. A converging–diverging nozzle is designed to produce a Mach number of 2.5 with air.
(a) What operating pressure ratio (prec /pt inlet) will cause this nozzle to operate at the
first, second, and third critical points?
(b) If the inlet stagnation pressure is 150 psia, what receiver pressures represent operation at these critical points?
(c) Suppose that the receiver pressure were fixed at 15 psia. What inlet pressures are
necessary to cause operation at the critical points?
6.8. Air enters a convergent–divergent nozzle at 20 × 105 N/m2 and 40°C. The receiver
pressure is 2 × 105 N/m2 and the nozzle throat area is 10 cm2.
(a) What should the exit area be for the design conditions above (i.e., to operate at third
critical?)
(b) With the nozzle area fixed at the value determined in part (a) and the inlet pressure
held at 20 × 105 N/m2, what receiver pressure would cause a shock to stand at the
exit?
(c) What receiver pressure would place the shock at the throat?
172
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
6.9. In Figure P6.9, M1 = 3.0 and A1 = 2.0 ft2. If the fluid is carbon monoxide and the
shock occurs at an area of 1.8 ft2, what is the minimum area possible for section 4?
Figure P6.9
6.10. A converging–diverging nozzle has an area ratio of 7.8 but is not being operated at its
design pressure ratio. Consequently, a normal shock is found in the diverging section
at an area twice that of the throat. The fluid is oxygen.
(a) Find the Mach number at the exit and the operating pressure ratio.
(b) What is the entropy change through the nozzle if there is negligible friction?
6.11. The diverging section of a supersonic nozzle is formed from the frustrum of a cone.
When operating at its third critical point with nitrogen, the exit Mach number is 2.6.
Compute the operating pressure ratio that will locate a normal shock as shown in Figure
P6.11.
Figure P6.11
6.12. A converging–diverging nozzle receives air from a tank at 100 psia and 600°R. The
pressure is 28.0 psia immediately preceding a plane shock that is located in the diverging section. The Mach number at the exit is 0.5 and the flow rate is 10 lbm/sec.
Determine:
(a) The throat area.
(b) The area at which the shock is located.
(c) The outlet pressure required to operate the nozzle in the manner described above.
(d) The outlet area.
(e) The design Mach number.
PROBLEMS
173
6.13. Air enters a device with a Mach number of M1 = 2.0 and leaves with M2 = 0.25. The
ratio of exit to inlet area is A2 /A1 = 3.0.
(a) Find the static pressure ratio p2 /p1 .
(b) Determine the stagnation pressure ratio pt2 /pt1 .
6.14. Oxygen, with pt = 95.5 psia, enters a diverging section of area 3.0 ft2. At the outlet the
area is 4.5 ft2, the Mach number is 0.43, and the static pressure is 75.3 psia. Determine
the possible values of Mach number that could exist at the inlet.
6.15. A converging–diverging nozzle has an area ratio of 3.0. The stagnation pressure at the
inlet is 8.0 bar and the receiver pressure is 3.5 bar. Assume that γ = 1.4.
(a) Compute the critical operating pressure ratios for the nozzle and show that a shock
is located within the diverging section.
(b) Compute the Mach number at the outlet.
(c) Compute the shock location (area) and the Mach number before the shock.
6.16. Nitrogen flows through a converging–diverging nozzle designed to operate at a Mach
number of 3.0. If it is subjected to an operating pressure ratio of 0.5:
(a) Determine the Mach number at the exit.
(b) What is the entropy change in the nozzle?
(c) Compute the area ratio at the shock location.
(d) What value of the operating pressure ratio would be required to move the shock to
the exit?
6.17. Consider a converging–diverging nozzle feeding air from a reservoir at p1 and T1 . The
exit area is Ae = 4A2 , where A2 is the area at the throat. The back pressure prec is
steadily reduced from an initial prec = p1 .
(a) Determine the receiver pressures (in terms of p1 ) that would cause this nozzle to
operate at first, second, and third critical points.
(b) Explain how the nozzle would be operating at the following back pressures:
(i) prec = p1 ; (ii) prec = 0.990p1 ; (iii) prec = 0.53p1 ; (iv) prec = 0.03p1 .
6.18. Draw a detailed T –s diagram corresponding to the supersonic tunnel startup condition
(Figure 6.7). Identify the various stations (i.e., 1, 2, 3, etc.) in your diagram. You may
assume no heat transfer and no frictional losses in the system.
6.19. Consider the wind tunnel shown in Figures 6.7 and 6.8. Atmospheric air enters the
system with a pressure and temperature of 14.7 psia and 80°F, respectively, and has
negligible velocity at section 1. The test section has a cross-sectional area of 1 ft2 and
operates at a Mach number of 2.5. You may assume that the diffuser reduces the velocity to approximately zero and that final exhaust is to the atmosphere with negligible
velocity. The system is fully insulated and there are negligible friction losses. Find:
(a) The throat area of the nozzle.
(b) The mass flow rate.
(c) The minimum possible throat area of the diffuser.
(d) The total pressure entering the exhauster at startup (Figure 6.7).
(e) The total pressure entering the exhauster when running (Figure 6.8).
(f) The hp value required for the exhauster (based on an isentropic compression).
174
STANDING NORMAL SHOCKS
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
6.1. Given the continuity, energy, and momentum equations in a form suitable for steady onedimensional flow, analyze a standing normal shock in an arbitrary fluid. Then simplify
your results for the case of a perfect gas.
6.2. Fill in the following blanks with increases, decreases, or remains constant. Across a
standing normal shock, the
(a) Temperature
(b) Stagnation pressure
(c) Velocity
(d) Density
6.3. Consider a converging–diverging nozzle with an area ratio of 3.0 and assume operation
with a perfect gas (γ = 1.4). Determine the operating pressure ratios that would cause
operation at the first, second, and third critical points.
6.4. Sketch a T –s diagram for a standing normal shock in a perfect gas. Indicate static and
total pressures, static and total temperatures, and velocities (both before and after the
shock).
6.5. Nitrogen flows in an insulated variable-area system with friction. The area ratio is A2 /A1
= 2.0 and the static pressure ratio is p2 /p1 = 0.20. The Mach number at section 2 is
M2 = 3.0.
(a) What is the Mach number at section 1?
(b) Is the gas flowing from 1 to 2 or from 2 to 1?
6.6. A large chamber contains air at 100 psia and 600°R. A converging–diverging nozzle with
an area ratio of 2.50 is connected to the chamber and the receiver pressure is 60 psia.
(a) Determine the outlet Mach number and velocity.
(b) Find the s value across the shock.
(c) Draw a T –s diagram for the flow through the nozzle.
Chapter 7
Moving and
Oblique Shocks
7.1
INTRODUCTION
In Section 4.3 we superimposed a uniform velocity on a traveling sound wave so that
we could obtain a standing wave and analyze it by the use of steady flow equations.
We use precisely the same technique in this chapter to compare standing and moving
normal shocks. Recall that velocity superposition does not affect the static thermodynamic state of a fluid but does change the stagnation conditions (see Section 3.5).
We then superimpose a velocity tangential to a standing normal shock and find that
this results in the formation of an oblique shock, one in which the wave front is at an
angle of other than 90° to the approaching flow. The case of an oblique shock in a
perfect gas will then be analyzed in detail, and as you might suspect, these results lend
themselves to the construction of tables and charts that greatly aid problem solution.
We then discuss a number of places where oblique shocks can be found, along with
an investigation of the boundary conditions that control shock formation. The chapter
closes with a discussion of conical shocks and their solutions.
7.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. Identify the properties that remain constant and the properties that change
when a uniform velocity is superimposed on another flow field.
2. Describe how moving normal shocks can be analyzed with the relations developed for standing normal shocks.
3. Explain how an oblique shock can be described by the superposition of a
normal shock and another flow field.
4. Sketch an oblique shock and define the shock angle and deflection angle.
175
176
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
5. (Optional) Analyze an oblique shock in a perfect gas and develop the relation
among shock angle, deflection angle, and entering Mach number.
6. Describe the general results of an oblique-shock analysis in terms of a diagram
such as shock angle versus inlet Mach number for various deflection angles.
7. Distinguish between weak and strong shocks. Know when each might result.
8. Describe the conditions that cause a detached shock to form.
9. State what operating conditions will cause an oblique shock to form at a
supersonic nozzle exit.
10. Explain the reason that (three-dimensional) conical shocks and (two-dimensional) wedge shocks differ quantitatively.
11. Demonstrate the ability to solve typical problems involving moving normal
shocks or oblique shocks (planar or conical) by use of the appropriate equations and tables or charts.
7.3 NORMAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION:
MOVING NORMAL SHOCKS
Let us consider a plane shock wave that is moving into a stationary fluid such as
shown in Figure 7.1. Such a wave could be found traveling down a shock tube or
could have originated from a distant explosive device in open air. In the latter case
the shock travels out from the explosion point in the form of a spherical wave front.
However, very quickly the radius of curvature becomes so large that it may be treated
as a planar wave front with little error. A typical problem might be to determine the
conditions that exist after passage of the shock front, assuming that we know the
original conditions and the speed of the shock wave.
In Figure 7.1 we are on the ground viewing a normal shock that is moving to the
left at speed Vs into standard sea-level air. This is an unsteady picture and we seek a
means to make this fit the analysis made in Chapter 6. To do this we superimpose on
the entire flow field a velocity of Vs to the right. An alternative way of accomplishing
the same effect is to get on the shock wave and go for a ride, as shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.1 Moving normal shock with ground as reference.
7.3
NORMAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION: MOVING NORMAL SHOCKS
177
Figure 7.2 Moving shock transformed into stationary shock.
By either method the result is to change the frame of reference to the shock wave,
and thus it appears to be a standing normal shock.
Example 7.1 The shock was given as moving at 1800 ft/sec into air at 14.7 psia and 520°R.
Solve the problem represented in Figure 7.2 by the methods developed in Chapter 6.
a1 γ gc RT1 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(520) = 1118 ft/sec
M1 =
V1
1800
= 1.61
=
a1
1118
From the normal-shock table we find that
M2 = 0.6655
p2
= 2.8575
p1
T2
= 1.3949
T1
Thus
p2 =
p2
p1 = (2.8575)(14.7) = 42.0 psia = p2
p1
T2
T1 = (1.3949)(520) = 725°R = T2
T1
a2 = γ gc RT2 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(725) = 1320 ft/sec = a2
T2 =
V2 = M2 a2 = (0.6655)(1320) = 878 ft/sec
V2 = Vs − V2 = 1800 − 878 = 922 ft/sec
Therefore, after the shock passes (referring now to Figure 7.1), the pressure and temperature
will be 42 psia and 725°R, respectively, and the air will have acquired a velocity of 922 ft/sec
to the left. It will be interesting to compute and compare the stagnation pressures in each case.
Notice that they are completely different because of the change in reference that has taken
place.
For Figure 7.1:
pt1 = p1 = 14.7 psia
178
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
V2
922
= 0.698
=
a2
1320
pt2
1
pt2 =
(42) = 58.2 psia
p2 =
p2
0.7222
M2 =
For Figure 7.2:
1
(14.7) = 63.4 psia
0.2318
pt2
1
(42) = 56.5 psia
= p2 =
0.7430
p2
pt1 =
pt2
pt1
p1 =
p1
For the steady flow picture, pt2 < pt1 , as expected. However, note that this
decrease in stagnation pressure does not occur for the unsteady case. You might
compute the stagnation temperatures on each side of the shock for the unsteady and
steady flow cases. Would you expect Tt2 = Tt1 ? How about Tt1 and Tt2 ?
Another type of moving shock is illustrated in Figure 7.3, where air is flowing
through a duct under known conditions and a valve is suddenly closed. The fluid is
compressed as it is quickly brought to rest. This results in a shock wave propagating
back through the duct as shown. In this case the problem is not only to determine the
conditions that exist after passage of the shock but also to predict the speed of the
shock wave.
This can also be viewed as the reflection of a shock wave, similar to what happens
at the end of a shock tube. Our procedure is exactly the same as before. We hop on the
shock wave and with this new frame of reference we have the standing normal-shock
problem shown in Figure 7.4. (We have merely superimposed the velocity Vs on the
entire flow field.) Solution of this problem, however, is not as straightforward as in
Example 7.1 for the reason that the velocity of the shock wave is unknown. Since Vs
is unknown, V1 is unknown and M1 cannot be calculated. We could approach this as
a trial-and-error problem, but a direct solution is available to us. Recall the relation
for the velocity difference across a normal shock that was developed in Chapter 6
[equation (6.32)]. Applied to Figure 7.4, this becomes
Figure 7.3 Moving normal shock in duct.
179
7.4 TANGENTIAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION: OBLIQUE SHOCKS
Figure 7.4 Moving shock transformed into stationary shock.
V1 − V2
=
a1
2
γ +1
M12 − 1
M1
(7.1)
Example 7.2 Solve for Vs with the information given above.
a1 = γ gc RT1
1/2
= [(1.4)(1)(287)(300)]1/2 = 347 m/s
240
V1 − V2
= 0.6916
=
a1
347
From the normal-shock table, we see that M1 ≈ 1.5,
M2 = 0.7011,
T2 /T1 = 1.3202, and p2 /p1 = 2.4583.
p2 = (2.4583)(2) = 4.92 bar abs. = p2
T2 = (1.3202)(300) = 396 K = T2
a2 = [(1.4)(1)(287)(396)]1/2 = 399 m/s
V2 = M2 a2 = (0.7011)(399) = 280 m/s = Vs
Do not forget that the static temperatures and pressures obtained in problem solutions of this type are the desired answers to the original problem, but the velocities
and Mach numbers for the standing-shock problem are not the same as those in the
original moving-shock problem.
7.4 TANGENTIAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION: OBLIQUE SHOCKS
We now consider the standing normal shock shown in Figure 7.5. To emphasize the
fact that these velocities are normal to the shock front, we label them V1n and V2n .
Recall that the velocity is decreased as the fluid passes through a shock wave, and thus
V1n > V2n . Also remember that for this type of shock, V1n must always be supersonic
and V2n is always subsonic.
Now let us superimpose on the entire flow field a velocity of magnitude Vt which
is perpendicular to V1n and V2n . This is equivalent to running along the shock front at
a speed of Vt . The resulting picture is shown in Figure 7.6. As before, we realize that
velocity superposition does not affect the static states of the fluid. What does change?
180
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
Figure 7.5 Standing normal shock.
Figure 7.6 Standing normal shock plus tangential velocity.
We would normally view this picture in a slightly different manner. If we concentrate on the total velocity (rather than its components), we see the flow as illustrated
in Figure 7.7 and immediately notice several things:
1. The shock is no longer normal to the approaching flow; hence it is called an
oblique shock.
2. The flow has been deflected away from the normal.
3. V1 must still be supersonic.
4. V2 could be supersonic (if Vt is large enough).
We define the shock angle θ as the acute angle between the approaching flow (V1 )
and the shock front. The deflection angle δ is the angle through which the flow has
been deflected.
Viewing the oblique shock in this way, as a combination of a normal shock and a
tangential velocity, permits one to use the normal-shock equations and table to solve
oblique-shock problems for perfect gases provided that proper care is taken.
V1n = V1 sin θ
(7.2)
7.4 TANGENTIAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION: OBLIQUE SHOCKS
181
Figure 7.7 Oblique shock with angle definitions.
Since sonic velocity is a function of temperature only,
a1n = a1
(7.3)
V1n
V1 sin θ
=
a1n
a1
(7.4)
M1n = M1 sin θ
(7.5)
Dividing (7.2) by (7.3), we have
or
Thus, if we know the approaching Mach number (M1 ) and the shock angle (θ ), the
normal-shock table can be utilized by using the normal Mach number (M1n ). This
procedure can be used to obtain static temperature and pressure changes across the
shock, since these are unaltered by the superposition of Vt on the original normalshock picture.
Let us now investigate the range of possible shock angles that may exist for a given
Mach number. We know that for a shock to exist,
M1n ≥ 1
(7.6)
M1 sin θ ≥ 1
(7.7)
Thus
and the minimum θ will occur when M1 sin θ = 1, or
182
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
θmin = sin−1
1
M1
(7.8)
Recall that this is the same expression that was developed for the Mach angle
µ. Hence the Mach angle is the minimum possible shock angle. Note that this is a
limiting condition and really no shock exists since for this case, M1n = 1.0. For
this reason these are called Mach waves or Mach lines rather than shock waves. The
maximum value that θ can achieve is obviously 90°. This is another limiting condition
and represents our familiar normal shock.
Notice that as the shock angle θ decreases from 90° to the Mach angle µ, M1n
decreases from M1 to 1. Since the strength of a shock is dependent on the normal
Mach number, we have the means to produce a shock of any strength equal to or
less than the normal shock. Do you see any possible application of this information
for the case of a converging–diverging nozzle with an operating pressure ratio someplace between the second and third critical points? We shall return to this thought in
Section 7.8.
The following example is presented to provide a better understanding of the correlation between oblique and normal shocks.
Example 7.3 With the information shown in Figure E7.3a, we proceed to compute the
conditions following the shock.
Figure E7.3
a1 = (γ gc RT1 )1/2
= [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(1000)]1/2
= 1550 ft/sec
V1 = M1 a1
= (1.605)(1550)
= 2488 ft/sec
M1n = M1 sin θ
= 1.605 sin 60°
= 1.39
V1n = M1n a1
= (1.39)(1550)
= 2155 ft/sec
= 2488 cos 60°
= 1244 ft/sec
Vt = V1 cos θ
Using information from the normal-shock table at M1n = 1.39, we find that M2n = 0.7440,
T2 /T1 = 1.2483, p2 /p1 = 2.0875, and pt2 /pt1 = 0.9607. Remember that the static temperatures and pressures are the same whether we are talking about the normal shock or the oblique
shock.
7.4 TANGENTIAL VELOCITY SUPERPOSITION: OBLIQUE SHOCKS
p2 =
p2
p1
p1
= (2.0875)(20)
= 41.7 psia
T2 =
T2
T1
T1
= (1.2483)(1000)
= 1248°R
= [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(1248)]1/2
= 1732 ft/sec
V2n = M2n a2
= (0.7440)(1732)
= 1289 ft/sec
V2t = V1t
1/2
V2 = (V2n )2 + (V2t )2
= Vt
1/2
= (1289)2 + (1244)2
= 1244 ft/sec
a2 = (γ gc RT2 )1/2
M2 =
V2
a2
=
1791
1732
183
= 1791 ft/sec
= 1.034
Note that although the normal component is subsonic after the shock, the velocity after the
shock is supersonic in this case.
We now calculate the deflection angle (Figure E7.3b).
tan β =
1244
= 0.9651
1289
β = 44°
90 − θ = β − δ
Thus
δ = θ − 90 + β = 60 − 90 + 44 = 14°
Once δ is known, an alternative calculation for M2 would be
M2 =
M2 =
M2n
sin(θ − δ)
(7.5a)
0.7440
= 1.034
sin(60 − 14)
Example 7.4 For the conditions in Example 7.3, compute the stagnation pressures and temperatures.
1
(20) = 85.7 psia
0.2335
pt2
1
pt2 =
(41.7) = 82.2 psia
p2 =
p2
0.5075
pt1
pt1 =
p1 =
p1
If we looked at the normal-shock problem and computed stagnation pressures on the basis of
the normal Mach numbers, we would have
184
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
1
(20) = 62.8 psia
=
p1 =
0.3187
n
pt2
1
(41.7) = 60.2 psia
=
p2 =
p2 n
0.6925
pt1n
pt2n
pt1
p1
We now proceed to calculate the stagnation temperatures and show that for the actual
oblique-shock problem, Tt = 1515°R, and for the normal-shock problem, Tt = 1386°R. All
of these static and stagnation pressures and temperatures are shown in the T –s diagram of
Figure E7.4. This clearly shows the effect of superimposing the tangential velocity on top of the
normal-shock problem with the corresponding change in stagnation reference. It is interesting
to note that the ratio of stagnation pressures is the same whether figured from the oblique-shock
problem or the normal-shock problem.
82.2
pt2
= 0.959
=
pt1
85.7
pt2n
60.2
= 0.959
=
pt1n
62.8
Figure E7.4 T –s diagram for oblique shock (showing the included normal shock).
Is this a coincidence? No! Remember that the stagnation pressure ratio is a measure of the loss across the shock. Superposition of a tangential velocity onto a normal
shock does not affect the actual shock process, so the losses remain the same. Thus,
although one cannot use the stagnation pressures from the normal-shock problem,
one can use the stagnation pressure ratio (which is listed in the tables). Be careful!
These conclusions do not apply to the moving normal shock, which was discussed in
Section 7.3.
7.5
7.5
OBLIQUE-SHOCK ANALYSIS: PERFECT GAS
185
OBLIQUE-SHOCK ANALYSIS: PERFECT GAS
In Section 7.4 we saw how an oblique shock could be viewed as a combination of a
normal shock and a tangential velocity. If the initial conditions and the shock angle
are known, the problem can be solved through careful application of the normalshock table. Frequently, however, the shock angle is not known and thus we seek a
new approach to the problem. The oblique shock with its components and angles is
shown again in Figure 7.8.
Our objective will be to relate the deflection angle (δ) to the shock angle (θ ) and
the entering Mach number. We start by applying the continuity equation to a unit area
at the shock:
ρ1 V1n = ρ2 V2n
(7.9)
ρ2
V1n
=
ρ1
V2n
(7.10)
and V2n = Vt tan(θ − δ)
(7.11)
or
From Figure 7.8 we see that
V1n = Vt tan θ
Thus, from equations (7.10) and (7.11),
tan θ
ρ2
V1n
Vt tan θ
=
=
=
ρ1
V2n
Vt tan(θ − δ)
tan(θ − δ)
(7.12)
From the normal-shock relations that we derived in Chapter 6, property ratios across
the shock were developed as a function of the approaching (normal) Mach number.
Specifically, the density ratio was given in equation (6.26) as
Figure 7.8
Oblique shock.
186
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
2
(γ + 1)M1n
ρ2
=
2
ρ1
(γ − 1)M1n
+2
(6.26)
Note that we have added subscripts to the Mach numbers to indicate that these are
normal to the shock. Equating (7.12) and (6.26) yields
2
(γ + 1)M1n
tan θ
=
2
tan(θ − δ)
(γ − 1)M1n
+2
(7.13)
But
M1n = M1 sin θ
(7.5)
Hence
(γ + 1)M12 sin2 θ
tan θ
=
tan(θ − δ)
(γ − 1)M12 sin2 θ + 2
(7.14)
and we have succeeded in relating the shock angle, deflection angle, and entering
Mach number. Unfortunately, equation (7.14) cannot be solved for θ as an explicit
function of M, δ, and γ , but we can obtain an explicit solution for
δ = f (M, θ, γ )
which is
M12 sin2 θ − 1
tan δ = 2(cot θ )
M12 (γ + cos 2θ ) + 2
(7.15)
It is interesting to examine equation (7.15) for the extreme values of θ that might
accompany any given Mach number.
For θ = θmax = π/2, equation (7.15) yields tan δ = 0, or δ = 0, which we know
to be true for the normal shock.
For θ = θmin = sin−1 (1/M1 ), equation (7.15) again yields tan δ = 0 or δ = 0,
which we know to be true for the limiting case of the Mach wave or no shock. Thus the
relationship developed for the oblique shock includes as special cases the strongest
shock possible (normal shock) and the weakest shock possible (no shock) as well
as all other intermediate-strength shocks. Note that for the given deflection angle of
δ = 0°, there are two possible shock angles for any given Mach number. In the next
section we see that this holds true for any deflection angle.
7.6
7.6
OBLIQUE-SHOCK TABLE AND CHARTS
187
OBLIQUE-SHOCK TABLE AND CHARTS
Equation (7.14) provides a relationship among the shock angle, deflection angle,
and entering Mach number. Our motivation to obtain this relationship was to solve
problems in which the shock angle (θ ) is the unknown, but we found that an explicit
solution θ = f (M, δ, γ ) was not possible. The next best thing is to plot equation
(7.14) or (7.15). This can be done in several ways, but it is perhaps most instructive
to look at a plot of shock angle (θ) versus entering Mach number (M1 ) for various
deflection angles (δ). This is shown in Figure 7.9.
One can quickly visualize from the figure all possible shocks for any entering
Mach number. For example, the dashed vertical line at any arbitrary Mach number
starts at the top of the plot with the normal shock (θ = 90°, δ = 0°), which is
the strongest possible shock. As we move downward, the shock angle decreases
continually to θmin = µ (Mach angle), which means that the shock strength is
decreasing continually. Why is this so? What is the normal Mach number doing as
we move down this line?
It is interesting to note that as the shock angle decreases, the deflection angle at
first increases from δ = 0 to δ = δmax , and then the deflection angle decreases back
to zero. Thus for any given Mach number and deflection angle, two shock situations
are possible (assuming that δ < δmax ). Two such points are labeled A and B. One of
these (A) is associated with a higher shock angle and thus has a higher normal Mach
number, which means that it is a stronger shock with a resulting higher pressure ratio.
The other (B) has a lower shock angle and thus is a weaker shock with a lower pressure
rise across the shock.
Figure 7.9 Skeletal oblique shock relations among θ, M1 , and δ. (See Appendix D for
detailed working charts.)
188
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
All of the strong shocks (above the δmax points) result in subsonic flow after passage
through the shock wave. In general, nearly all the region of weak shocks (below δmax )
result in supersonic flow after the shock, although there is a very small region just
below δmax where M2 is still subsonic. This is clearly shown on the detailed working
chart in Appendix D. Normally, we find the weak shock solution occurring more
frequently, although this is entirely dependent on the boundary conditions that are
imposed. This point, along with several applications of oblique shocks, is the subject
of the next two sections. In many problems, explicit knowledge of the shock angle
θ is not necessary. In Appendix D you will find two additional charts which may be
helpful. The first of these depicts the Mach number after the oblique shock M2 as
a function of M1 and δ. The second shows the static pressure ratio across the shock
p2 /p1 as a function of M1 and δ. One can also use detailed oblique-shock tables such
as those by Keenan and Kaye (Ref. 31). Another possibility is to use equation (7.15)
with a computer as discussed in Section 7.10. Use of the table or of equation (7.15)
yields higher accuracies, which are essential for some problems.
Example 7.5 Observation of an oblique shock in air (Figure E7.5) reveals that a Mach 2.2
flow at 550 K and 2 bar abs. is deflected by 14°. What are the conditions after the shock?
Assume that the weak solution prevails.
We enter the chart (in Appendix D) with M1 = 2.2 and δ = 14° and we find that θ = 40°
and 83°. Knowing that the weak solution exists, we select θ = 40°.
Figure E7.5
M1n = M1 sin θ = 2.2 sin 40° = 1.414
Enter the normal-shock table at M1n = 1.414 and interpolate:
M2n = 0.7339
T2 =
T2
= 1.2638
T1
p2
= 2.1660
p1
T2
T1 = (1.2638)(550) = 695 K
T1
7.7
BOUNDARY CONDITION OF FLOW DIRECTION
p2 =
p2
p1 = (2.166)(2 × 105 ) = 4.33 × 105 N/m2
p1
M2 =
0.7339
M2n
=
= 1.674
sin(θ − δ)
sin(40 − 14)
189
We could have found M2 and p2 using the other charts in Appendix D. From these the value
of M2 ≈ 1.5 and p2 is found as
p2 =
7.7
p2
p1 ≈ (2)(2 × 105 ) = 4 × 105 N/m2
p1
BOUNDARY CONDITION OF FLOW DIRECTION
We have seen that one of the characteristics of an oblique shock is that the flow direction is changed. In fact, this is one of only two methods by which a supersonic flow
can be turned. (The other method is discussed in Chapter 8.) Consider supersonic flow
over a wedge-shaped object as shown in Figure 7.10. For example, this could represent the leading edge of a supersonic airfoil. In this case the flow is forced to change
direction to meet the boundary condition of flow tangency along the wall, and this can
be done only through the mechanism of an oblique shock. The example in Section 7.6
was just such a situation. (Recall that a flow of M = 2.2 was deflected by 14°.) Now,
for any given Mach number and deflection angle there are two possible shock angles.
Thus a question naturally arises as to which solution will occur, the strong one or
the weak one. Here is where the surrounding pressure must be considered. Recall
that the strong shock occurs at the higher shock angle and results in a large pressure
change. For this solution to occur, a physical situation must exist that can sustain the
necessary pressure differential. It is conceivable that such a case might exist in an
internal flow situation. However, for an external flow situation such as around the
Figure 7.10 Supersonic flow over a wedge.
190
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
airfoil, there is no means available to support the greater pressure difference required
by the strong shock. Thus, in external flow problems (flow around objects), we always
find the weak solution.
Looking back at Figure 7.9 you may notice that there is a maximum deflection
angle (δmax ) associated with any given Mach number. Does this mean that the flow
cannot turn through an angle greater than this? This is true if we limit ourselves to
the simple oblique shock that is attached to the object as shown in Figure 7.10. But
what happens if we build a wedge with a half angle greater than δmax ? Or suppose
we ask the flow to pass over a blunt object? The resulting flow pattern is shown in
Figure 7.11.
A detached shock forms which has a curved wave front. Behind this wave we
find all possible shock solutions associated with the initial Mach number M1 . At
the center a normal shock exists, with subsonic flow resulting. Subsonic flow has no
difficulty adjusting to the large deflection angle required. As the wave front curves
around, the shock angle decreases continually, with a resultant decrease in shock
strength. Eventually, we reach a point where supersonic flow exists after the shock
front. Although Figures 7.10 and 7.11 illustrate flow over objects, the same patterns
result from internal flow along a wall, or corner flow, shown in Figure 7.12. The
significance of δmax is again seen to be the maximum deflection angle for which the
shock can remain attached to the corner.
A very practical situation involving a detached shock is caused when a pitot tube
is installed in a supersonic tunnel (see Figure 7.13). The tube will reflect the total
pressure after the shock front, which at this location is a normal shock. An additional
Figure 7.11 Detached shock caused by δ > δmax .
7.7
BOUNDARY CONDITION OF FLOW DIRECTION
191
Figure 7.12 Supersonic flow in a corner.
Figure 7.13 Supersonic pitot tube installation.
tap off the side of the tunnel can pick up the static pressure ahead of the shock.
Consider the ratio
pt2 pt1
pt2
=
p1
pt1 p1
pt2 /pt1 is the total pressure ratio across the shock and is a function of M1 only [see
equation (6.28)]. pt1 /p1 is also a function of M1 only [see equation (5.40)]. Thus the
192
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
ratio pt2 /p1 is a function of the initial Mach number and can be found as a parameter
in the shock table.
Example 7.6 A supersonic pitot tube indicates a total pressure of 30 psig and a static pressure
of zero gage. Determine the free-stream velocity if the temperature of the air is 450°R.
44.7
30 + 14.7
pt2
=
= 3.041
=
p1
0 + 14.7
14.7
From the shock table we find that M1 = 1.398.
a1 = [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(450)]1/2 = 1040 ft/sec
V1 = M1 a1 = (1.398)(1040) = 1454 ft/sec
So far we have discussed oblique shocks that are caused by flow deflections. Another case of this is found in engine inlets of supersonic aircraft. Figure 7.14 shows
a sketch of an aircraft that is an excellent example of this situation. As aircraft and
missile speeds increase, we usually see two directional changes with their accompanying shock systems, as shown in Figure 7.15. The losses that occur across the
Figure 7.14 Sketch of a rectangular engine inlet.
Figure 7.15 Multiple-shock inlet for supersonic aircraft.
7.8
BOUNDARY CONDITION OF PRESSURE EQUILIBRIUM
193
series of shocks shown are less than those which would occur across a single normal
shock at the same initial Mach number. A warning should be given here concerning
the application of our results to inlets with circular cross sections. These will have
conical spikes for flow deflection which cause conical-shock fronts to form. This type
of shock has been analyzed and is covered in Section 7.9. The design of supersonic
diffusers for propulsion systems is discussed further in Chapter 12.
In problems such as the multiple-shock inlet and the supersonic airfoil, we are
generally not interested in the shock angle itself but are concerned with the resulting
Mach numbers and pressures downstream of the oblique shock. Remember that the
charts in Appendix D show these exact variables as a function of M1 and the turning
angle δ. The stagnation pressure ratio can be inferred from these using the proper
relations.
7.8
BOUNDARY CONDITION OF PRESSURE EQUILIBRIUM
Now let us consider a case where the existing pressure conditions cause an oblique
shock to form. Recall our friend the converging–diverging nozzle. When it is operating at its second critical point, a normal shock is located at the exit plane. The
pressure rise that occurs across this shock is exactly that which is required to go from
the low pressure that exists within the nozzle up to the higher receiver pressure that
has been imposed on the system. We again emphasize that the existing operating
pressure ratio is what causes the shock to be located at this particular position. (If
you have forgotten these details, review Section 6.6.)
We now ask: What happens when the operating pressure ratio is between the
second and third critical points? A normal shock is too strong to meet the required
pressure rise. What is needed is a compression process that is weaker than a normal
shock, and our oblique shock is precisely the mechanism for the job. No matter what
pressure rise is required, the shock can form at an angle that will produce any desired
pressure rise from that of a normal shock on down to the third critical condition, which
requires no pressure change. Figure 7.16 shows a typical weak oblique shock at the
Figure 7.16 Supersonic nozzle operating between second and third critical points.
194
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
lip of a two-dimensional nozzle. We have shown only half the picture, as symmetry
considerations force the upper half to be the same. This also permits an alternative
viewpoint—thinking of the central streamline as though it were a solid boundary.
The flow in region 1 is parallel to the centerline and is at the design conditions for
the nozzle (i.e., the flow is supersonic and p1 < prec . The weak oblique shock A forms
at the appropriate angle such that the pressure rise that occurs is just sufficient to meet
the boundary condition of p2 = prec . There is a free boundary between the jet and the
surroundings as opposed to a physical boundary. Now remember that the flow is also
turned away from the normal and thus will have the direction indicated in region 2.
This presents a problem since the flow in region 2 cannot cross the centerline.
Something must occur where wave A meets the centerline, and this something must
turn the flow parallel to the centerline. Here it is the boundary condition of flow direction that causes another oblique shock B to form, which not only changes the flow
direction but also increases the pressure still further. Since p2 = prec and p3 > p2 ,
p3 > prec and pressure equilibrium does not exist between region 3 and the receiver.
Obviously, some type of an expansion is needed which emanates from the point
where wave B intersects the free boundary. An expansion shock would be just the
thing, but we know that such an animal cannot exist. Do you recall why not? We shall
have to study another phenomenon before we can complete the story of a supersonic
nozzle operating between the second and third critical points, and we do that in
Chapter 8.
Example 7.7 A converging–diverging nozzle (Figure E7.7) with an area ratio of 5.9 is fed
by air from a chamber with a stagnation pressure of 100 psia. Exhaust is to the atmosphere at
14.7 psia. Show that this nozzle is operating between the second and third critical points and
determine the conditions after the first shock.
Figure E7.7
Third critical:
A3 A2 A2∗
A3
= (5.9)(1)(1) = 5.9
∗ =
A3
A2 A2∗ A3∗
7.9
M3 = 3.35
and
CONICAL SHOCKS
195
p3
= 0.01625
pt3
p3
p3 pt3
=
= (0.01625)(1) = 0.01625
pt1
pt3 pt1
Second critical: normal shock at
M3 = 3.35
and
p4
= 12.9263
p3
p4 p3
p4
=
= (12.9263)(0.01625) = 0.2100
pt1
p3 pt1
Since our operating pressure ratio (14.7/100 = 0.147) lies between that of the second and
third critical points, an oblique shock must form as shown. Remember, under these conditions
the nozzle operates internally as if it were at the third critical point. Thus the required pressure
ratio across the oblique shock is
p4
prec
14.7
= 9.046
=
=
p3
p3
1.625
From the normal-shock table we see that this pressure ratio requires that M3n = 2.81 and
M4n = 0.4875:
sin θ =
M3n
2.81
= 0.8388
=
M3
3.35
θ = 57°
From the oblique-shock chart, δ = 34° and
M4 =
0.4875
M4n
=
= 1.25
sin(θ − δ)
sin(57 − 34)
Thus to match the receiver pressure, an oblique shock forms at 57°. The flow is deflected 34°
and is still supersonic at a Mach number of 1.25.
7.9
CONICAL SHOCKS
We include here the subject of conical shocks because of its practical importance in
many design problems. For example, many supersonic aircraft have diffusers with
conical spikes at their air inlets. Figure 7.17 shows the YF-12 aircraft, which is an
excellent example of this case. In addition to inlets of this type, the forebodies of missiles and supersonic aircraft fuselages are largely conical in shape. Although detailed
analysis of such flows is beyond the scope of this book, the results bear great similarity to flows associated with planar (wedge-generated) oblique shocks. We examine
conical flows at zero angle of attack. For the continuity equation in axisymmetric
(three-dimensional) flows to be satisfied, the streamlines are no longer parallel to the
cone surface but must curve. After the conical shock, the static pressure increases as
we approach the surface of the cone, and this increase is isentropic. Conical shocks
are weak shocks, and there is no counterpart to the strong oblique shock of wedge
196
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
Figure 7.17 YF-12 plane showing conical air inlets. (Lockheed Martin photo.)
flow. If the angle of the cone is too high for an approaching Mach number to turn, the
flow will detach in a fashion similar to the two-dimensional oblique shock (see Figure
7.11). A comparison of the detached flow limits between these two types of shocks
is shown in Figure 7.18. The cone can sustain a higher flow turning angle because
it represents less blockage to the flow. Thus it also produces a weaker compression
or flow disturbance in comparison to the two-dimensional oblique shock at the same
Mach number. Note that the flow variables (M, T , p, etc.) are constant along any
given ray.
In Figure 7.19 we show the relevant geometry of a conical shock on a symmetrical
cone at zero angle of attack. In this section the subscript c will refer to the conical
analysis and the subscript s to the values of the variables at the cone’s surface.
(Those interested in the details of conical flow away from the cone’s surface should
consult Ref. 32 or Ref. 33.) The counterpart to Figure 7.19 is Figure 7.20, which
shows the shock wave angle θc as a function of the approaching Mach number M1
for various cone half-angles δc . Notice that only weak shock solutions are indicated.
In Appendix E you will find additional charts which give the downstream conditions
on the surface of the cone. Notice that we are only depicting the surface Mach number
and surface static pressure downstream of the conical shock because these variables
are not the same across the flow.
Example 7.8 Air approaches a 27° conical diffuser at M1 = 3.0 and p1 = 0.404 psia. Find
the conical-shock angle and the surface pressure.
7.9
CONICAL SHOCKS
197
60
Cone
Maximum values of δ and δc (deg)
50
Wedge
40
30
γ = 1.40
20
10
0
Figure 7.18
(Ref. 20.)
1
2
3
4
5
Mach number before shock wave, M1
6
Comparison between oblique- and conical-shock flow limits for attached shocks.
Conical-shock front
θc
δc
M1
Cone
M
s
Conditions at surface of cone
Figure 7.19 Conical shock with angle definitions.
198
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
90°
Shock Angle, θc
Maximum δc for attached shock
δc = constant
δc = 0
Mach line
0°
1.0
Entering Mach Number, M1
Figure 7.20 Skeletal conical-shock relations among θc , M1 , and δc . (See Appendix E for
detailed working charts.)
We enter the chart in Appendix E with M1 = 3.0 and δc = 13.5° and obtain θc ≈ 25°. Also
from the appendix we get pc /p1 ≈ 1.9, so that
pc = (p1 )/(pc /p1 ) = (1.9)(0.404) = 0.768 psia.
7.10
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
As illustrated in Chapter 5, one can eliminate a lot of interpolation and get accurate
answers for any ratio of the specific heats γ and/or any Mach number by using a
computer utility such as MAPLE. We return here to two-dimensional (wedge-type)
oblique shocks. Since the variations with γ are unchanged from normal shocks,
we are not presenting such curves in this chapter. But one unique difficulty with
oblique-shock problems is that the value of θ needs to be quite accurate, and often
the charts are not precise enough to permit this. Therefore, one is often motivated
to solve equation (7.15) (or its equivalent) by direct means. The MAPLE program
below actually works with equation (7.14), in which θ shows implicitly. The program
requires the entering Mach number (M), the wedge half-angle (δ), and the ratio of
specific heats (γ ). Because there are usually two values of θ for every value of M,
we need to introduce an index (m) to make the computer look for either the weak or
the strong shock solution. Furthermore, we need to be careful because these regions
are not divided by a unique value of m or θ. Moreover, there are certain δ and M
combinations for which no solution exists (i.e., when the shock must detach, as shown
in Figure 7.11). Beyond M = 1.75, the weak-shock solution is obtained with m ≤
7.10
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
199
1.13 (which is 65° in radians; see the chart in Appendix D) and the strong shock
solution with m > 1.13. This value has to be refined for the lower Mach numbers
because the weak shock region becomes more dominant. Note that MAPLE makes
calculations with angles in radians.
Example 7.9 For a two-dimensional oblique shock in air where M1 = 2.0 and the deflection
angle is 10°, calculate the two possible shock angles in degrees.
Start with equation (7.14):
(γ + 1)M12 sin2 θ
tan θ
=
tan(θ − δ)
(γ − 1)M12 sin2 θ + 2
(7.14)
Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
d ≡ δ, a parameter (the turning angle)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M1 )
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is θ)
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
First, the weak shock solution:
[ > g :=
[>
>
>
1.4:
x := 2.0:
m := 1.0:
del := 10*Pi/180:
fsolve((tan(Y))/(tan(Y - del)) = ((g + 1)*(X* sin(Y))^2)/
((g - 1)*((X*sin(Y))^2) + 2), Y, 0..m);
.6861575526
evalf(0.68615526*180/Pi);
39.31380048
Next, the strong shock solution:
[ > m := 1.5:
> fsolve((tan(Y))/(tan(Y - del)) = ((g + 1)*(X* sin(Y))^2)/
((g - 1)*((X*sin(Y))^2) + 2), Y, 0..m);
1.460841987
Since MAPLE always works with radians, we must convert the answer to degrees. For example,
for strong-shock solutions the value of θ = 1.46084 rad, so we proceed as follows:
> evalf(1.46084*180/Pi);
83.69996652
This will yield Y (i.e., θ = 83.7°), which is the desired value.
200
7.11
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
SUMMARY
We have seen how a standing normal shock can be made into a moving normal shock
by superposition of a velocity (normal to the shock front) on the entire flow field.
Similarly, the superposition of a velocity tangent to the shock front turns a normal
shock into an oblique shock. Since velocity superposition does not change the static
conditions in a flow fluid, the normal-shock table may be used to solve oblique-shock
problems if we deal with the normal Mach number. However, to avoid trial-and-error
solutions, oblique-shock tables and charts are available. The following is a significant
relation among the variables in an oblique shock:
M12 sin2 θ − 1
tan δ = 2(cot θ )
M12 (γ + cos 2θ ) + 2
(7.15)
Another helpful relation is
M2 =
M2n
sin(θ − δ)
(7.5a)
We summarize the important characteristics of an oblique shock.
1. The flow is always turned away from the normal.
2. For given values of M1 and δ, two values of θ may result.
(a) If a large pressure ratio is available (or required), a strong shock at the
higher θ will occur and M2 will be subsonic.
(b) If a small pressure ratio is available (or required), a weak shock at the lower
θ will occur and M2 will be supersonic (except for a small region near
δmax ).
3. A maximum value of δ exists for any given Mach number. If δ is physically
greater than δmax , a detached shock will form.
It is important to realize that oblique shocks are caused for two reasons:
1. To meet a physical boundary condition that causes the flow to change direction,
or
2. To meet a free boundary condition of pressure equilibrium.
An alternative way of stating this is to say that the flow must be tangent to any
boundary, whether it is a physical wall or a free boundary. If it is a free boundary,
pressure equilibrium must also exist across the flow boundary.
Conical shocks (three-dimensional) are introduced as similar in nature to oblique
shocks (two-dimensional) but more complicated in their solution.
PROBLEMS
201
PROBLEMS
7.1. A normal shock is traveling into still air (14.7 psia and 520°R) at a velocity of 1800
ft/sec.
(a) Determine the temperature, pressure, and velocity that exist after passage of the
shock wave.
(b) What is the entropy change experienced by the air?
7.2. The velocity of a certain atomic blast wave has been determined to be approximately
46,000 m/s relative to the ground. Assume that it is moving into still air at 300 K and
1 bar. What static and stagnation temperatures and pressures exist after the blast wave
passes? (Hint: You will have to resort to equations, as the table does not cover this
Mach number range.)
7.3. Air flows in a duct, and a valve is quickly closed. A normal shock is observed to
propagate back through the duct at a speed of 1010 ft/sec. After the air has been brought
to rest, its temperature and pressure are 600°R and 30 psia, respectively. What were the
original temperature, pressure and velocity of the air before the valve was closed?
7.4. Oxygen at 100°F and 20 psia is flowing at 450 ft/sec in a duct. A valve is quickly shut,
causing a normal shock to travel back through the duct.
(a) Determine the speed of the traveling shock wave.
(b) What are the temperature and pressure of the oxygen that is brought to rest?
7.5. A closed tube contains nitrogen at 20°C and a pressure of 1 × 104 N/m2 (Figure P7.5).
A shock wave progresses through the tube at a speed of 380 m/s.
(a) Calculate the conditions that exist immediately after the shock wave passes a given
point. (The fact that this is inside a tube should not bother you, as it is merely a
normal shock moving into a gas at rest.)
(b) When the shock wave hits the end wall, it is reflected back. What are the temperature and pressure of the gas between the wall and the reflected shock? At what
speed is the reflected shock traveling? (This is just like the sudden closing of a
valve in a duct.)
Figure P7.5
202
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
7.6. An oblique shock forms in air at an angle of θ = 30°. Before passing through the shock,
the air has a temperature of 60°F, a pressure of 10 psia, and is traveling at M = 2.6.
(a) Compute the normal and tangential velocity components before and after the shock.
(b) Determine the temperature and pressure after the shock.
(c) What is the deflection angle?
7.7. Conditions before a shock are T1 = 40°C, p1 = 1.2 bar, and M1 = 3.0. An oblique
shock is observed at 45° to the approaching air flow.
(a) Determine the Mach number and flow direction after the shock.
(b) What are the temperature and pressure after the shock?’
(c) Is this a weak or a strong shock?
7.8. Air at 800°R and 15 psia is flowing at a Mach number of M = 1.8 and is deflected
through a 15° angle. The directional change is accompanied by an oblique shock.
(a) What are the possible shock angles?
(b) For each shock angle, compute the temperature and pressure after the shock.
7.9. The supersonic flow of a gas (γ = 1.4) approaches a wedge with a half-angle of 24°
(δ = 24°).
(a) What Mach number will put the shock on the verge of detaching?
(b) Is this value a minimum or a maximum?
7.10. A simple wedge with a total included angle of 28° is used to measure the Mach number
of supersonic flows. When inserted into a wind tunnel and aligned with the flow, oblique
shocks are observed at 50° angles to the free stream (similar to Figure 7.10).
(a) What is the Mach number in the wind tunnel?
(b) Through what range of Mach numbers could this wedge be useful? (Hint: Would
it be of any value if a detached shock were to occur?)
7.11. A pitot tube is installed in a wind tunnel in the manner shown in Figure 7.13. The tunnel
air temperature is 500°R and the static tap (p1 ) indicates a pressure of 14.5 psia.
(a) Determine the tunnel air velocity if the stagnation probe (pt2 ) indicates 65 psia.
(b) Suppose that pt2 = 26 psia. What is the tunnel velocity under this condition?
7.12. A converging–diverging nozzle is designed to produce an exit Mach number of 3.0
when γ = 1.4. When operating at its second critical point, the shock angle is 90° and
the deflection angle is zero. Call pexit the pressure at the exit plane of the nozzle just
before the shock. As the receiver pressure is lowered, both θ and δ change. For the
range between the second and third critical points:
(a) Plot θ versus prec /pexit .
(b) Plot δ versus prec /pexit .
7.13. Pictured in Figure P7.13 is the air inlet to a jet aircraft. The plane is operating at 50,000
ft, where the the pressure is 243 psfa and the temperature is 392°R. Assume that the
flight speed is M0 = 2.5.
(a) What are the conditions of the air (temperature, pressure, and entropy change) just
after it passes through the normal shock?
(b) Draw a reasonably detailed T –s diagram for the air inlet. Start the diagram at the
free stream and end it at the subsonic diffuser entrance to the compressor.
PROBLEMS
203
(c) If the single 15° wedge is replaced by a double wedge of 7° and 8° (see Figure
7.15), determine the conditions of the air after it enters the diffuser.
(d) Compare the losses for parts (a) and (c).
Figure P7.13
7.14. A converging–diverging nozzle is operating between the second and third critical points
as shown in Figure 7.16. M1 = 2.5, T1 = 150 K, p1 = 0.7 bar, the receiver pressure is
1 bar, and the fluid is nitrogen.
(a) Compute the Mach number, temperature, and flow deflection in region 2.
(b) Through what angle is the flow deflected as it passes through shock wave B?
(c) Determine the conditions in region 3.
7.15. For the flow situation shown in Figure P7.15, M1 = 1.8, T1 = 600°R, p1 = 15 psia,
and γ = 1.4.
(a) Find conditions in region 2 assuming that they are supersonic.
(b) What must occur along the dashed line?
(c) Find the conditions in region 3.
(d) Find the value of T2 , p2 , and M2 if pt2 = 71 psia.
(e) How would the problem change if the flow in region 2 were subsonic?
Figure P7.15
204
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
7.16. Carbon monoxide flows in the duct shown in Figure P7.16. The first shock, which turns
the flow 15°, is observed to form at a 40° angle. The flow is known to be supersonic in
regions 1 and 2 and subsonic in region 3.
(a) Determine M3 and β.
(b) Determine the pressure ratios p3 /p1 and pt3 /pt1 .
Figure P7.16
7.17. A uniform flow of air has a Mach number of 3.3. The bottom of the duct is bent upward
at a 25° angle. At the point where the shock intersects the upper wall, the boundary is
bent 5° upward as shown in Figure P7.17. Assume that the flow is supersonic throughout the system. Compute M3 , p3 /p1 , T3 /T1 , and β.
Figure P7.17
7.18. A round-nosed projectile travels through air at a temperature of −15°C and a pressure
of 1.8 × 104 N/m2. The stagnation pressure on the nose of the projectile is measured at
2.1 × 105 N/m2.
(a) At what speed (m/s) is the projectile traveling?
(b) What is the temperature on the projectile’s nose?
(c) Now assume that the nose tip is shaped like a cone. What is the maximum cone
angle for the shock to remain attached?
7.19. Work Problem 7.13(a) for a conical shock of the same half-angle and compare results.
CHECK TEST
205
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
7.1. By velocity superposition the moving shock picture shown in Figure CT7.1 can be
transformed into the stationary shock problem shown. Select the statements below which
are true.
Figure CT7.1
(a)
p1 = p1
(b) Tt1 > Tt2
(c)
ρ1 > ρ2
(d) u2 > u1
p1 < p1
p1 > p1
p1 = p2
Tt1 = Tt2
Tt1 < Tt2
Tt1 = Tt1
ρ1 = ρ2
ρ1 < ρ1
ρ1 > ρ2
u2 = u1
u2 < u1
u2 = u2
(u ≡ internal energy)
7.2. Fill in the blanks from the choices indicated.
(a) A blast wave will travel through standard air (14.7 psia and 60°F) at a speed (less
than, equal to, greater than)
approximately 1118 ft/sec.
(b) If an oblique shock is broken down into components that are normal and tangent to
the wave front:
(i) The normal Mach number (increases, decreases, remains constant)
as the flow passes through the wave.
(ii) The tangential Mach number (increases, decreases, remains constant)
as the flow passes through the wave. (Careful! This deals with Mach number,
not velocity.)
7.3. List the conditions that cause an oblique shock to form.
7.4. Describe the general results of oblique-shock analysis by drawing a plot of shock angle
versus deflection angles.
7.5. Sketch the resulting flow pattern over the nose of the object shown in Figure CT7.5. The
figure depicts a two-dimensional wedge.
206
MOVING AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
Figure CT7.5
7.6. A normal-shock wave travels at 2500 ft/sec into still air at 520°R and 14.7 psia. What
velocity exists just after the wave passes?
7.7. Oxygen at 5 psia and 450°R is traveling at M = 2.0 and leaves a duct as shown in Figure
CT7.7. The receiver conditions are 14.1 psia and 600°R.
(a) At what angle will the first shocks form? By how much is the flow deflected?
(b) What are the temperature, pressure, and Mach number in region 2?
Figure CT7.7
Chapter 8
Prandtl–Meyer Flow
8.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with an examination of weak shocks. We show that for very weak
oblique shocks the pressure change is related to the first power of the deflection angle,
whereas the entropy change is related to the third power of the deflection angle. This
will enable us to explain how a smooth turn can be accomplished isentropically—
a situation known as Prandtl–Meyer Flow. Being reversible, such flows may be
expansions or compressions, depending on the circumstances.
A detailed analysis of Prandtl–Meyer flow is made for the case of a perfect gas
and, as usual, a tabular entry is developed to aid in problem solution. Typical flow
fields involving Prandtl–Meyer flow are discussed. In particular, the performance of
a converging–diverging nozzle can now be fully explained, as well as supersonic flow
around objects.
8.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. State how entropy and pressure changes vary with deflection angles for weak
oblique shocks.
2. Explain how finite turns (with finite pressure ratios) can be accomplished isentropically in supersonic flow.
3. Describe and sketch what occurs as fluid flows supersonically past a smooth
concave corner and a smooth convex corner.
207
208
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
4. Show Prandtl–Meyer flow (both expansions and compressions) on a T –s diagram.
5. (Optional) Develop the differential relation between Mach number (M) and
flow turning angle (ν) for Prandtl–Meyer flow.
6. Given the equation for the Prandtl–Meyer function (8.58), show how tabular
entries can be developed for Prandt-Meyer flow. Explain the significance of
the angle ν.
7. Explain the governing boundary conditions and show the results when shock
waves and Prandtl–Meyer waves reflect off both physical and free boundaries.
8. Draw the wave forms created by flow over rounded and/or wedge-shaped wings
as the angle of attack changes. Be able to solve for the flow properties in each
region.
9. Demonstrate the ability to solve typical Prandtl–Meyer flow problems by use
of the appropriate equations and tables.
8.3
ARGUMENT FOR ISENTROPIC TURNING FLOW
Pressure Change for Normal Shocks
Let us first investigate some special characteristics of any normal shock. Throughout
this section we assume that the medium is a perfect gas, and this will enable us to
develop some precise relations. We begin by recalling equation (6.25):
p2
2γ
γ −1
M12 −
=
p1
γ +1
γ +1
(6.25)
Subtracting 1 from both sides, we get
p2
2γ
2γ
M12 −
−1=
p1
γ +1
γ +1
(8.1)
The left-hand side is readily seen to be the pressure difference across the normal
shock divided by the initial pressure. Now express the right side over a common
denominator, and this becomes
p2 − p 1
2γ
M12 − 1
=
p1
γ +1
(8.2)
This relation shows that the pressure rise across a normal shock is directly proportional to the quantity (M12 − 1). We return to this fact later when we apply it to weak
shocks at very small Mach numbers.
8.3
ARGUMENT FOR ISENTROPIC TURNING FLOW
209
Entropy Changes for Normal Shocks
The entropy change for any process with a perfect gas can be expressed in terms of the
specific volumes and pressures by equation (1.52). It is a simple matter to change the
ratio of specific volumes to a density ratio and to introduce γ from equation (1.49):
p2
1
s2 − s1
γ
ρ1
=
ln
ln
+
(8.3)
R
γ −1
ρ2
γ −1
p1
Since we are after the entropy change across a normal shock purely in terms of M1 , γ ,
and R, we are going to use equations (5.25) and (5.28). These equations express the
pressure ratio and density ratio across the shock as a function of the entropy rise s
as well as the Mach number and γ . To get our desired result, we manipulate equations
(5.25) and (5.28) as follows:
From (5.25) we obtain
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
s
γ
p2
=
ln
(8.4)
−
ln
2
p1
γ −1
R
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M1
From (5.28) we obtain:
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
γ
ρ2
s
=
ln
γ ln
−γ
ρ1
γ −1
R
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(8.5)
We can now subtract equation (8.5) from (8.4) to cancel out the bracketed term. Show
that after rearranging this can be written as
s2 − s1
= ln
R
p2
p1
1/(γ −1)
ρ2
ρ1
−γ /(γ −1)
(8.6)
Now equation (8.2) (in a slightly modified form) can be substituted for the pressure
ratio and similarly, equation (6.26) for the density ratio, with the following result:
−γ /(γ −1) !
1/(γ −1)
(γ + 1)M12
2γ
s2 − s1
2
M1 − 1
(8.7)
= ln 1 +
R
γ +1
(γ − 1)M12 + 2
To aid in simplification, let
m ≡ M12 − 1
(8.8)
M12 = m + 1
(8.9)
and thus, also,
Introduce equations (8.8) and (8.9) into (8.7) and show that this becomes
210
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
s2 − s1
= ln
R
!
(γ − 1)m γ /(γ −1)
2γ m 1/(γ −1)
−γ /(γ −1)
1+
1+
(1 + m)
(8.10)
γ +1
γ +1
Now each of the terms in equation (8.10) is of the form (1 + x) and we can take
advantage of the expansion
ln(1 + x) = x −
x3
x4
x2
+
−
+ ···
2
3
4
(8.11)
Put equation (8.10) into the proper form to expand each bracket according to
(8.11). Be careful to retain all terms up to and including the third power. If you have
not made any mistakes, you will find that all terms involving m and m2 cancel out
and you are left with
2γ m3
s2 − s1
=
+ higher-order terms in m
3(γ + 1)2
R
(8.12)
Or we can say that the entropy rise across a normal shock is proportional to the third
power of the quantity (M12 − 1) plus higher-order terms.
2γ M12 − 1
s2 − s 1
=
R
3(γ + 1)2
3
+ HOT
(8.13)
Note that if we want to consider weak shocks for which M1 → 1 or m → 0, we can
legitimately neglect the higher-order terms.
Pressure and Entropy Changes versus Deflection Angles
for Weak Oblique Shocks
The developments made earlier in this section were for normal shocks and thus apply
equally to the normal component of an oblique shock. Since
M1n = M1 sin θ
(7.5)
we can rewrite equation (8.2) as
p 2 − p1
2γ
M12 sin2 θ − 1
=
p1
γ +1
(8.14)
and equation (8.13) becomes
2γ M12 sin2 θ − 1
s2 − s 1
=
R
3(γ + 1)2
3
+ HOT
(8.15)
8.3
ARGUMENT FOR ISENTROPIC TURNING FLOW
211
We shall proceed to relate the quantity (M12 sin2 θ − 1) to the deflection angle for
the case of very weak oblique shocks. For this case,
(1) δ will be very small and tan δ ≈ δ; and
(2) θ will be approaching the Mach angle µ.
Thus from (7.15) we get
M12 sin2 θ − 1
δ ≈ 2(cot µ)
2
M1 (γ + cos 2µ) + 2
(8.16)
Now for a given M1 , µ1 is known, and equation (8.16) becomes
δ ≈ const M12 sin2 θ − 1
(8.17)
Remember, equation (8.17) is valid only for very weak oblique shocks which are
associated with very small deflection angles. But this will be exactly the case under consideration in the next section. If we introduce (8.17) into (8.14) and (8.15)
(omitting the higher-order terms), we get the following relations:
p2 − p 1
2γ
(const)δ
≈
p1
γ +1
2γ
s2 − s1
≈
[(const)δ]3
R
3(γ + 1)2
(8.18)
(8.19)
Let us now pause for a moment to interpret these results. They really say that for
very weak oblique shocks at any arbitrary set of initial conditions,
p ∝ δ
s ∝ δ
(8.20)
3
(8.21)
These are important results that should be memorized.
Isentropic Turns from Infinitesimal Shocks
We have laid the groundwork to show a remarkable phenomenon. Figure 8.1 shows
a finite turn divided into n equal segments of δ each. The total turning angle will be
indicated by δtotal or δT and thus
δT = nδ
(8.22)
Each segment of the turn causes a shock wave to form with an appropriate change in
Mach number, pressure, temperature, entropy, and so on. As we increase the number
212
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
Figure 8.1 Finite turn composed of many small turns.
of segments n, δ becomes very small, which means that each shock will become a
very weak oblique shock and the earlier results in this section are applicable. Thus,
for each segment we may write
p ∝ δ
(8.23)
s ∝ δ 3
(8.24)
where p and s are the pressure and entropy changes across each segment. Now
for the total turn,
(8.25)
total p =
p ∝ nδ
total s =
s ∝ nδ 3
(8.26)
But from (8.22) we can express δ = δT /n.
We now also take the limit as n → ∞:
total p ∝ lim n
n→∞
total s ∝ lim n
n→∞
δT
n
δT
n
∝ δT
3
→0
In the limit as n → ∞, we conclude that:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
(8.27)
The wall makes a smooth turn through angle δT .
The shock waves approach Mach waves.
The Mach number changes continuously.
There is a finite pressure change.
There is no entropy change.
(8.28)
8.3
ARGUMENT FOR ISENTROPIC TURNING FLOW
213
Figure 8.2 Smooth turn. Note the isentropic compression near the wall.
The final result is shown in Figure 8.2. Note that as the turn progresses, the Mach
number is decreasing and thus the Mach waves are at ever-increasing angles. (Also,
µ2 is measured from an increasing baseline.) Hence we observe an envelope of Mach
lines that forms a short distance from the wall. The Mach waves coalesce to form
an oblique shock inclined at the proper angle (θ), corresponding to the initial Mach
number and the overall deflection angle δT .
We return to the flow in the neighborhood of the wall, as this is a region of great
interest. Here we have an infinite number of infinitesimal compression waves. We
have achieved a decrease in Mach number and an increase in pressure without any
change in entropy. Since we are dealing with adiabatic flow (dse = 0), an isentropic
process (ds = 0) indicates that there are no losses (dsi = 0) (i.e., the process
is reversible!). The reverse process (an infinite number of infinitesimal expansion
waves) is shown in Figure 8.3. Here we have a smooth turn in the other direction
from that discussed previously. In this case, as the turn progresses, the Mach number
increases. Thus the Mach angles are decreasing and the Mach waves will never
intersect. If the corner were sharp, all of the expansion waves would emanate from
the corner as illustrated in Figure 8.4. This is called a centered expansion fan. Figures
8.3 and 8.4 depict the same overall result provided that the wall is turned through the
same angle.
All of the isentropic flows above are called Prandtl–Meyer flow. At a smooth
concave wall (Figure 8.2) we have a Prandtl–Meyer compression. Flows of this type
are not too important since boundary layer and other real gas effects interfere with
the isentropic region near the wall. At a smooth convex wall (Figure 8.3) or at a sharp
convex turn (Figure 8.4) we have Prandtl–Meyer expansions. These expansions are
quite prevalent in supersonic flow, as the examples given later in this chapter will
show. Incidentally, you have now discovered the second means by which the flow
direction of a supersonic stream may be changed. What was the first?
214
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
Figure 8.3 Smooth turn. Note the isentropic expansion.
Figure 8.4 Isentropic expansion around sharp corner.
8.4
ANALYSIS OF PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
We have already established that the flow is isentropic through a Prandtl–Meyer compression or expansion. If we know the final Mach number, we can use the isentropic
equations and table to compute the final thermodynamic state for any given set of
initial conditions. Thus our objective in this section is to relate the changes in Mach
number to the turning angle in Prandtl–Meyer flow. Figure 8.5 shows a single Mach
8.4
ANALYSIS OF PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
215
Figure 8.5 Infinitesimal Prandtl–Meyer expansion.
wave caused by turning the flow through an infinitesimal angle dν. It is more convenient to measure ν positive in the direction shown, which corresponds to an expansion
wave. The pressure difference across the wave front causes a momentum change and
hence a velocity change perpendicular to the wave front. There is no mechanism by
which the tangential velocity component can be changed. In this respect the situation
is similar to that of an oblique shock. A detail of this velocity relationship is shown
in Figure 8.6.
V represents the magnitude of the velocity before the expansion wave and V + dV
is the magnitude after the wave. In both cases the tangential component of the velocity
is Vt . From the velocity triangles we see that
Vt = V cos µ
Figure 8.6 Velocities in an infinitesimal Prandtl–Meyer expansion.
(8.29)
216
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
and
Vt = (V + dV ) cos(µ + dν)
(8.30)
V cos µ = (V + dV ) cos(µ + dν)
(8.31)
Equating these, we obtain
If we expand the cos(µ + dν), this becomes
V cos µ = (V + dV ) (cos µ cos dν − sin µ sin dν)
(8.32)
But dν is a very small angle; thus
cos dν ≈ 1 and
sin dν ≈ dν
and equation (8.32) becomes
V cos µ = (V + dV )(cos µ − dν sin µ)
(8.33)
By writing each term on the right side, we get
HOT
V cos µ = V cos µ − V dν sin µ + dV cos µ − dV dν sin µ
(8.34)
Canceling like terms and dropping the higher-order term yields
dν =
cos µ dV
sin µ V
or
dν = cot µ
dV
V
(8.35)
Now the cotangent of µ can easily be obtained in terms of the Mach number. We
know that sin µ = 1/M. From the triangle shown in Figure 8.7 we see that
cot µ = M 2 − 1
(8.36)
Substitution of equation (8.36) into (8.35) yields
dν =
dV
M2 − 1
V
(8.37)
8.4
ANALYSIS OF PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
217
Figure 8.7
Recall that our objective is to obtain a relationship between the Mach number (M)
and the turning angle (dν). Thus we seek a means of expressing dV /V as a function
of Mach number. To obtain an explicit expression, we shall assume that the fluid is a
perfect gas. From equations (4.10) and (4.11) we know that
V = Ma = M γ gc RT
(8.38)
Hence
M
dV = dM γ gc RT +
2
γ gc R
dT
T
(8.39)
Show that
dM
dT
dV
=
+
V
M
2T
(8.40)
Knowing that
γ −1 2
M
Tt = T 1 +
2
(4.18)
then
γ −1 2
dTt = dT 1 +
M + T (γ − 1)M dM
2
(8.41)
But since there is no heat or shaft work transferred to or from the fluid as it passes
through the expansion wave, the stagnation enthalpy (ht ) remains constant. For our
perfect gas this means that the total temperature remains fixed. Thus
Tt = constant or
From equations (8.41) and (8.42) we solve for
dTt = 0
(8.42)
218
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
(γ − 1)M dM
dT
=−
T
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(8.43)
If we insert this result for dT /T into equation (8.40), we have
dV
dM
(γ − 1)M dM
=
−
V
M
2(1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2 )
(8.44)
Show that this can be written as
1
dM
dV
=
V
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2 M
(8.45)
We can now accomplish our objective by substitution of equation (8.45) into (8.37)
with the following result:
dν =
dM
(M 2 − 1)1/2
2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M M
(8.46)
This is a significant relation, for it says that
dν = f (M,γ )
For a given fluid, γ is fixed and equation (8.46) can be integrated to yield
ν + const =
γ +1
γ −1
1/2
tan
−1
1/2
γ −1 2
(M − 1)
γ +1
− tan−1 (M 2 − 1)1/2
(8.47)
If we set ν = 0 when M = 1, the constant will be zero and we have
ν=
γ +1
γ −1
1/2
tan
−1
1/2
γ −1 2
(M − 1)
γ +1
− tan−1 (M 2 − 1)1/2
(8.48)
Establishing the constant as zero in the manner described above attaches a special
significance to the angle ν. This is the angle, measured from the flow direction where
M = 1, through which the flow has been turned (by an isentropic process) to reach the
Mach number indicated. The expression (8.48) is called the Prandtl–Meyer function.
8.5
PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION
Equation (8.48) is the basis for solving all problems involving Prandtl–Meyer expansions or compressions. If the Mach number is known, it is relatively easy to solve
8.5
PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION
219
for the turning angle. However, in a typical problem the turning angle might be prescribed and no explicit solution is available for the Mach number. Fortunately, none is
required, for the Prandtl–Meyer function can be calculated in advance and tabulated.
Remember that this type of flow is isentropic; therefore, the function (ν) has been
included as a column of the isentropic table. The following examples illustrate how
rapidly problems of this type are solved.
Example 8.1 The wall in Figure E8.1 turns an angle of 28° with a sharp corner. The fluid,
which is initially at M = 1, must follow the wall and in so doing executes a Prandtl–Meyer
expansion at the corner. Recall that ν represents the angle (measured from the flow direction
where M = 1) through which the flow has turned. Since M1 is unity, then ν2 = 28°.
From the isentropic table (Appendix G) we see that this Prandtl–Meyer function corresponds to M2 ≈ 2.06.
Figure E8.1 Prandtl–Meyer expansion from Mach = 1.
Example 8.2 Now consider flow at a Mach number of 2.06 which expands through a turning
angle of 12°. Figure E8.2 shows such a situation and we want to determine the final Mach
number M2 .
Figure E8.2 Prandtl–Meyer expansion from Mach = 1.
Now regardless of how the flow with M1 = 2.06 came into existence, we know that it could
have been obtained by expanding a flow at M = 1.0 around a corner of 28°. This is shown by
220
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
dashed lines in the figure. It is easy to see that the flow in region 2 could have been obtained
by taking a flow at M = 1.0 and turning it through an angle of 28° + 12°, or
ν2 = 28° + 12° = 40°
From the isentropic table we find that this corresponds to a flow at M2 ≈ 2.54.
From the examples above, we see the general rule for Prandtl–Meyer flow:
ν2 = ν1 + ν
(8.49)
where ν ≡ the turning angle.
Note that for an expansion (as shown in Figures E8.1 and E8.2) ν is positive
and thus both the Prandtl–Meyer function and the Mach number increase. Once the
final Mach number is obtained, all properties may be determined easily since it is
isentropic flow.
For a turn in the opposite direction, ν will be negative, which leads to a Prandtl–
Meyer compression. In this case both the Prandtl–Meyer function and the Mach
number will decrease. An example of this case follows.
Example 8.3 Air at M1 = 2.40, T1 = 325 K, and p1 = 1.5 bar approaches a smooth concave
turn of 20° as shown in Figure E8.3. We have previously discussed how the region close to the
wall will be an isentropic compression. We seek the properties in the flow after the turn.
Figure E8.3 Prandtl–Meyer compression.
From the table, ν1 = 36.7465°. Remember that ν is negative.
ν2 = ν1 + ν = 36.7465° + (−20°) = 16.7465°
Again, from the table we see that this corresponds to a Mach number of
M2 = 1.664
8.6
OVEREXPANDED AND UNDEREXPANDED NOZZLES
221
Since the flow is adiabatic, with no shaft work, and a perfect gas, we know that the stagnation
temperature is constant (Tt1 = Tt2 ). In addition, there are no losses and thus the stagnation
pressure remains constant (pt1 = pt2 ). Can you verify these statements with the appropriate
equations?
To continue with this example, we solve for the temperature and pressure in the usual
fashion:
1
p2 pt2 pt1
p2 =
(1.5 × 105 ) = 4.69 × 105 N/m2
p1 = (0.2139)(1)
pt2 pt1 p1
0.0684
T2 Tt2 Tt1
1
(325) = 450 K
T2 =
T1 = (0.6436)(1)
Tt2 Tt1 T1
0.4647
As we move away from the wall we know that the Mach waves will coalesce and form
an oblique shock. At what angle will the shock be to deflect the flow by 20°? What will the
temperature and pressure be after the shock? If you work out this oblique-shock problem, you
should obtain θ = 44°, M1n = 1.667, p2 = 4.61×105 N/m2 , and T2 = 466 K. Since pressure
equilibrium does not exist across this free boundary, another wave formation must emanate
from the region where the compression waves coalesce into the shock. Further discussion of
this problem is beyond the scope of this book, but interested readers are referred to Chapter 16
of Shapiro (Ref. 19).
8.6
OVEREXPANDED AND UNDEREXPANDED NOZZLES
Now we have the knowledge to complete the analysis of a converging–diverging nozzle. Previously, we discussed its isentropic operation, both in the subsonic (venturi)
regime and its design operation (Section 5.7). Nonisentropic operation with a normal
shock standing in the diverging portion was also covered (Section 6.6). In Section
7.8 we saw that with operating pressure ratios below second critical, oblique shocks
come into play, but we were unable to complete the picture.
Figure 8.8 shows an overexpanded nozzle; it is operating someplace between its
second and third critical points. Recall from the summary of Chapter 7 that there
are two types of boundary conditions that must be met. One of these concerns flow
direction and the other concerns pressure equilibrium.
1. From symmetry aspects we know that a central streamline exists. Any fluid
touching this boundary must have a velocity that is tangent to the streamline.
In this respect it is identical to a physical boundary.
2. Once the jet leaves the nozzle, there is an outer surface that is in contact with
the surrounding ambient fluid. Since this is a free or unrestrained boundary,
pressure equilibrium must exist across this surface.
We can now follow from region to region, and by matching the appropriate boundary
condition, determine the flow pattern that must exist.
Since the nozzle is operating with a pressure ratio between the second and third
critical points, it is obvious that we need a compression process at the exit in order for
222
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
Figure 8.8 Overexpanded nozzle for weak oblique shocks.
the flow to end up at the ambient pressure. However, a normal shock at the exit will
produce too strong a compression. What is needed is a shock process that is weaker
than a normal shock, and the oblique shock has been shown to be just this. Thus, at
the exit we observe oblique shock A at the appropriate angle so that p2 = pamb .
Before proceeding we must distinguish two subdivisions of the flow between the
second and third critical. If the oblique shock is strong (see Figure 7.9), then the
resulting flow will be subsonic and no more waves will be possible or necessary at
region 2. The pressure at region 2 is matched to that of the receiver, and subsonic
flow can turn without waves to avoid any centerline problems. On the other hand, if
the oblique shock is weak, supersonic flow will prevail (although attenuated) and
additional waves will be needed to turn the flow as described below. The exact
boundary between strong and weak shocks is close but not the same as the line
representing the minimum M1 for attached oblique shocks shown in Appendix D.
Rather, it is the line shown as M2 = 1.
We recall that the flow across an oblique shock is always deflected away from a
normal to the shock front, and thus the flow in region 2 is no longer parallel to the
centerline. Wave front B must deflect the flow back to its original axial direction. This
can easily be accomplished by another oblique shock. (A Prandtl–Meyer expansion
would turn the flow in the wrong direction.) An alternative way of viewing this is
that the oblique shocks from both the upper and lower lips of the nozzle pass through
each other when they meet at the centerline. If one adopts this philosophy, one should
realize that the waves are slightly altered or bent in the process of traveling through
one another.
Now, since p2 = pamb , passage of the flow through oblique shock B will make
p3 > pamb and region 3 cannot have a free surface in contact with the surroundings.
Consequently, a wave formation must emanate from the point where wave B meets
8.6
OVEREXPANDED AND UNDEREXPANDED NOZZLES
223
the free boundary, and the pressure must decrease across this wave. We now realize
that wave form C must be a Prandtl–Meyer expansion so that p4 = pamb .
However, passage of the flow through the expansion fan, C, causes it to turn away
from the centerline, and the flow in region 4 is no longer parallel to the centerline.
Thus as each wave of the Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan meets the centerline, a wave
form must emanate to turn the flow parallel to the axis again. If wave D were a compression, in which direction would the flow turn? We see that to meet the boundary
condition of flow direction, wave D must be another Prandtl–Meyer expansion. Thus
the pressure in region 5 is less than ambient.
Can you now reason that to get from 5 to 6 and meet the boundary condition
imposed by the free boundary, E must consist of Prandtl–Meyer compression waves?
Depending on the pressures involved, these usually coalese into an oblique shock, as
shown. Then F is another oblique shock to turn the flow from region 6 to match the
direction of the wall. Now is p7 equal to, greater than, or less than pamb ? You should
recognize that conditions in region 7 are similar to those in region 3, and so the cycle
repeats.
Now let us examine an underexpanded nozzle. This means that we have an operating pressure ratio below the third critical or design condition. Figure 8.9 shows such a
situation. The flow leaving this nozzle has a pressure greater than ambient and the flow
is parallel to the axis. Think about it and you will realize that this condition is exactly
the same as region 3 in the overexpanded nozzle (see Figure 8.8). Thus the flow patterns are identical from this point on. Figures 8.8 and 8.9 represent ideal behavior. The
general wave forms described can be seen by special flow visualization techniques
such as Schlieren photography. Eventually, the large velocity difference that exists
over the free boundary causes a turbulent shear layer which rather quickly dissipates
the wave patterns. This can be seen in Figure 8.10, which shows actual Schlieren
photographs of a converging–diverging nozzle operating at various pressure ratios.
Example 8.4 Nitrogen issues from a nozzle at a Mach number of 2.5 and a pressure of 10
psia. The ambient pressure is 5 psia. What is the Mach number, and through what angle is the
flow turned after passing through the first Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan?
Figure 8.9 Underexpanded nozzle.
224
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
pe
.
pamb = 0 4
pe
.
pamb = 0 6
pe
.
pamb = 0 8
pe
.
pamb = 1 5
Figure 8.10 Nozzle performance: flow from a converging–diverging nozzle at different backpressures. (pe = pressure just ahead of exit). (© Crown Copyright 2001. Reproduced by
permission of the Controller of HMSO.)
8.6
OVEREXPANDED AND UNDEREXPANDED NOZZLES
225
With reference to Figure 8.9, we know that M3 = 2.5, p3 = 10 psia, and p4 = pamb =
5 psia.
p4 p3 pt3
p4
5
(0.0585)(1) = 0.0293
=
=
pt4
p3 pt3 pt4
10
Thus
M4 = 2.952
ν = ν4 − ν3 = 48.8226 − 39.1236 ≈ 9.7°
Wave Reflections
From the discussions above we have not only learned about the details of nozzle
jets when operating at off-design conditions, but we have also been looking at wave
reflections, although we have not called them such. We could think of the waves as
bouncing or reflecting off the free boundary. Similarly, if the central streamline had
been visualized as a solid boundary, we could have thought of the waves as reflecting
off that boundary. In retrospect, we may draw some general conclusions about wave
reflections.
1. Reflections from a physical or pseudo-physical boundary (where the boundary
condition concerns the flow direction) are of the same family. That is, shocks
reflect as shocks, compression waves reflect as compression waves, and expansion waves reflect as expansion waves.
2. Reflections from a free boundary (where pressure equalization exists) are of
the opposite family (i.e., compression waves reflect as expansion waves, and
expansion waves reflect as compression waves).
Warning: Care should be taken in viewing waves as reflections. Not only is their
character sometimes changed (case 2 above) but the angle of reflection is not quite
the same as the angle of incidence. Also, the strength of the wave changes somewhat.
This can be shown clearly by considering the case of an oblique shock reflecting off
a solid boundary.
Example 8.5 Air at Mach = 2.2 passes through an oblique shock at a 35° angle. The shock
runs into a physical boundary as shown Figure E8.5. Find the angle of reflection and compare
the strengths of the two shock waves.
Figure E8.5
226
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
From the shock chart at M1 = 2.2 and θ1 = 35°, we find that δ1 = 9°.
M1n = 2.2 sin 35° = 1.262
M2 =
thus M2n = 0.806
0.806
M2n
=
= 1.839
sin(θ − δ)
sin(35 − 9)
The reflected shock must turn the flow back parallel to the wall. Thus, from the chart at
M2 = 1.839 and δ2 = 9°, we find that θ2 = 42°.
β = 42° − 9° = 33°
M2n = 1.839 sin 42° = 1.230
Notice that the angle of incidence (35°) is not the same as the angle of reflection (33°). Also,
the normal Mach number, which indicates the strength of the wave, has decreased from 1.262
to 1.230.
8.7
SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS
Airfoils designed for subsonic flight have rounded leading edges to prevent flow separation. The use of an airfoil of this type at supersonic speeds would cause a detached
shock to form in front of the leading edge (see Section 7.7). Consequently, all supersonic airfoil shapes have sharp leading edges. Also, to provide good aerodynamic
characteristics, supersonic foils are very thin. The obvious limiting case of a thin
foil with a sharp leading edge is the flat-plate airfoil shown in Figure 8.11. Although
impractical from structural considerations, it provides an interesting study and has
characteristics that are typical of all supersonic airfoils.
Figure 8.11 Flat-plate airfoil.
8.7
SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS
227
Using the foil as a frame of reference yields a steady flow picture. When operating
at an angle of attack (α) the flow must change direction to pass over the foil surface.
You should have no trouble recognizing that to pass along the upper surface requires
a Prandtl–Meyer expansion through angle α at the leading edge. Thus the pressure
in region 2 is less than atmospheric. To pass along the lower surface necessitates an
oblique shock which will be of the weak variety for the required deflection angle α.
(Why is it impossible for the strong solution to occur? See Section 7.7.) The pressure
in region 3 is greater than atmospheric.
Now consider what happens at the trailing edge. Pressure equilibrium must exist
between regions 4 and 5. Thus a compression must occur off the upper surface and
an expansion is necessary on the lower surface. The corresponding wave patterns are
indicated in the diagram; an oblique shock from 2 to 4 and a Prandtl–Meyer expansion
from 3 to 5. Note that the flows in regions 4 and 5 are not necessarily parallel to that
of region 1, nor are the pressures p4 and p5 necessarily atmospheric. The boundary
conditions that must be met are flow tangency and pressure equilibrium, or
V4 parallel to V5
and
p4 = p5
The solution at the trailing edge is a trial-and-error type since neither the final flow
direction nor the final pressure is known.
A sketch of the pressure distribution is given in Figure 8.12. One can easily see that
the center of pressure is at the middle or midchord position. If the angle of attack were
changed, the values of the pressures over the upper and lower surfaces would change,
but the center of pressure would still be at the midchord. Students of aeronautics, who
are familiar with the term aerodynamic center, will have no difficulty determining that
this important point is also located at the midchord. This is approximately true of all
supersonic airfoils since they are quite thin and generally operate at small angles of
attack. (The aerodynamic center of an airfoil section is defined as the point about
which the pitching moment is independent of angle of attack. For subsonic airfoils
Figure 8.12 Pressure distribution over flat-plate airfoil.
228
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
this is approximately at the one-quarter chord point, or 25% of the chord measured
from the leading edge back toward the trailing edge.)
Example 8.6 Compute the lift per unit span of a flat-plate airfoil with a chord of 2 m when
flying at M = 1.8 and an angle of attack of 5°. Ambient air pressure is 0.4 bar. Use Figure
8.11 for identification of regions.
The flow over the top is turned 5° by a Prandtl–Meyer expansion.
ν2 = ν1 + ν = 20.7251 + 5 = 25.7251°
Thus
M2 = 1.976
and
p2
= 0.1327
pt2
The flow under the bottom is turned 5° by an oblique shock. From the chart at M = 1.8 and
δ = 5°, we find that θ = 38.5°. (Compare this value to what would be obtained using the
relevant figure in Appendix D.)
M1n = 1.8 sin 38.5° = 1.20
and
p3
= 1.2968
p1
.
From Appendix D we get p3 /p1 =
The lift force is defined as that component which is perpendicular to the free stream. Thus
the lift force per unit span will be
L = (p3 − p2 ) (chord) (cos α) = (0.5187 − 0.3051)(105 ) · 2(cos 5°)
L = 4.26 × 104 N/unit span
A more practical design of a supersonic airfoil is shown in Figure 8.13. Here the
wave formation depends on whether or not the angle of attack is less than or greater
than the half angle of the wedge at the leading edge. In either case, straightforward
solutions exist on all surfaces up to the trailing edge. A trial-and-error solution is
required only if one is interested in regions 6 and 7. Fortunately, these regions are
only of academic interest, as they have no effect on the pressure distribution over the
foil. Modifications of the double-wedge airfoil with sections of constant thickness in
the center are frequently found in practice.
Another widely used supersonic airfoil shape is the biconvex, which is shown in
Figure 8.14. This is generally constructed of circular or parabolic arcs. The wave
formation is quite similar to that on the double wedge in that the type of waves found
at the leading (and trailing) edge is dependent on the angle of attack. Also, in the
case of the biconvex, the expansions are spread out over the entire upper and lower
surface.
Example 8.7 It has been suggested that a supersonic airfoil be designed as an isosceles
triangle with 10° equal angles and an 8-ft chord. When operating at a 5° angle of attack the air
flow appears as shown in Figure E8.7. Find the pressures on the various surfaces and the lift
and drag forces when flying at M = 1.5 through air with a pressure of 8 psia.
8.7
SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS
229
Figure 8.13 Double-wedge airfoil. (a) Low angle of attack. (b) High angle of attack.
Figure 8.14 Biconvex airfoil at low angle of attack.
230
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
Figure E8.7
From the shock chart at M1 = 1.5 and δ = 5°, θ = 48°:
M1n = M1 sin θ = 1.5 (sin 48°) = 1.115
From the shock table,
M2n = 0.900
and
p2
= 1.2838
p1
The Prandtl–Meyer expansion turns the flow by 20°:
ν4 = ν2 + 20 = 6.7213 + 20 = 26.7213
and M4 = 2.012
Note that conditions in region 3 are identical with region 2. We now find the pressures. The lift
force (perpendicular to the free stream) will be
L = F3 cos 5° − F2 cos 5° − F4 cos 15°
Show that the lift per unit span will be 3728 lbf.
The drag is that force which is parallel to the free-stream velocity. Show that the drag force
per unit span is 999 lbf. (Compare the oblique shock results above with those obtained using
the relevant charts in Appendix D).
8.8 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
As indicated earlier, the Prandtl–Meyer function is tabulated within the isentropic
table for γ = 1.4. The behavior of this function for γ = 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67 is
given in Figure 8.15 up to M = 5. Here we can see that the dependence on γ
is rather noticeable except perhaps for M ≤ 1.2. Thus, below this Mach number,
the tabulations in Appendix G can be used with little error for any γ . The appendix
tabulation indicates that the value of ν eventually saturates as M → ∞, but we do
not show this limit because, among other things, it is not realistic for any value of γ .
However, the calculation is not difficult and is demonstrated in Problem 8.15.
Strictly speaking, these curves are only representative for cases where γ variations
are negligible within the flow. However, they offer hints as to what magnitude of
8.9
231
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
125
100
= 1.13
ν (deg)
75
= 1.40
50
= 1.67
25
0
1
2
3
M
4
5
Figure 8.15 Prandtl–Meyer function versus Mach number for various values of γ .
changes is to be expected in other cases. Flows where γ variations are not negligible
within the flow are treated in Chapter 11.
8.9
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
As illustrated in Chapter 5, one can eliminate a lot of interpolation and get accurate
answers for any ratio of the specific heats γ and/or any Mach number by using a
computer utility such as MAPLE. The calculation of the Prandtl–Meyer function can
readily be obtained from the example below. We are going to use equation (8.48)
which for your convenience is repeated below. This procedure allows the solution for
different values of γ as well as the calculation of M given γ and ν.
Example 8.8 Calculate the function ν for γ = 1.4 and M = 3.0.
We begin with equation (8.48):
ν=
γ +1
γ −1
1/2
tan−1
γ −1 2
(M − 1)
γ +1
1/2
− tan−1 (M 2 − 1)1/2
Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M)
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is ν)
(8.48)
232
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > g := 1.4:
x := 3.0:
> Y := sqrt(((g + 1)/(g -1)))*arctan(sqrt(((g - 1)/(g + 1))
*(X^2 -1))) - arctan(sqrt(X^2 -1));
Y : = .868429529
We need to convert from radians to degrees as follows:
[ > evalf(Y*(180/Pi));
which gives the desired answer, ν = 49.76°.
8.10
SUMMARY
A detailed examination of very weak oblique shocks (with small deflection angles)
shows that
p ∝ δ
and
s ∝ δ 3
(8.30), (8.31)
This enables us to reason that a smooth concave turn can be negotiated isentropically
by a supersonic stream, although a typical oblique shock will form at some distance
from the wall. Of even greater significance is the fact that this is a reversible process
and turns of a convex nature can be accomplished by isentropic expansions.
The phenomenon above is called Prandtl–Meyer flow. An analysis for a perfect
gas reveals that the turning angle can be related to the change in Mach number by
1/2
M2 − 1
dM
dν =
2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M M
(8.46)
which when integrated yields the Prandtl–Meyer function:
ν=
γ +1
γ −1
1/2
tan
−1
1/2
γ −1 2
(M − 1)
γ +1
1/2
− tan−1 M 2 − 1
(8.48)
In establishing equation (8.48), ν was set equal to zero at M = 1.0, which means that
ν represents the angle, measured from the direction where M = 1.0, through which
the flow has been turned (isentropically) to reach the indicated Mach number. The
relation above has been tabulated in the isentropic table, which permits easy problem
solutions according to the relation
ν2 = ν1 + ν
(8.49)
in which ν is the turning angle. Remember that ν will be positive for expansions
and negative for compressions.
PROBLEMS
233
It must be understood that Prandtl–Meyer expansions and compressions are caused
by the same two situations that govern the formation of oblique shocks (i.e., the flow
must be tangent to a boundary, and pressure equilibrium must exist along the edge
of a free boundary). Consideration of these boundary conditions together with any
given physical situation should enable you to determine the resulting flow patterns
rather quickly.
Waves may sometimes be thought of as reflecting off boundaries, in which case it
is helpful to remember that:
1. Reflections from physical boundaries are of the same family.
2. Reflections from free boundaries are of the opposite family.
Remember that all isentropic relations and the isentropic table may be used when
dealing with Prandtl–Meyer flow.
PROBLEMS
8.1. Air approaches a sharp 15° convex corner (see Figure 8.4) with a Mach number of 2.0,
temperature of 520°R, and pressure of 14.7 psia. Determine the Mach number, static
and stagnation temperature, and static and stagnation pressure of the air after it has
expanded around the corner.
8.2. A Schleiren photo of the flow around a corner reveals the edges of the expansion fan
to be indicated by the angles shown in Figure P8.2. Assume that γ = 1.4.
(a) Determine the Mach number before and after the corner.
(b) Through what angle was the flow turned, and what is the angle of the expansion
fan (θ3 )?
Figure P8.2
8.3. A supersonic flow of air has a pressure of 1 × 105 N/m2 and a temperature of 350 K.
After expanding through a 35° turn, the Mach number is 3.5.
(a) What are the final temperature and pressure?
(b) Make a sketch similar to Figure P8.2 and determine angles θ1 , θ2 , and θ3 .
234
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
8.4. In a problem similar to Problem 8.2, θ1 is unknown, but θ2 = 15.90° and θ3 = 82.25°.
Can you determine the initial Mach number?
8.5. Nitrogen at 25 psia and 850°R is flowing at a Mach number of 2.54. After expanding
around a smooth convex corner, the velocity of the nitrogen is found to be 4000 ft/sec.
Through how many degrees did the flow turn?
8.6. A smooth concave turn similar to that shown in Figure 8.2 turns the flow through a 30°
angle. The fluid is oxygen and it approaches the turn at M1 = 4.0.
(a) Compute M2 , T2 /T1 , and p2 /p1 via the Prandtl–Meyer compression which occurs
close to the wall.
(b) Compute M2 , T2 /T1 , and p2 /p1 via the oblique shock that forms away from the
wall. Assume that this flow is also deflected by 30°.
(c) Draw a T –s diagram showing each process.
(d) Can these two regions coexist next to one another?
8.7. A simple flat-plate airfoil has a chord of 8 ft and is flying at M = 1.5 and a 10° angle
of attack. Ambient air pressure is 10 psia and the temperature is 450°R.
(a) Determine the pressures above and below the airfoil.
(b) Calculate the lift and drag forces per unit span.
(c) Determine the pressure and flow direction as the air leaves the trailing edge (regions
4 and 5 in Figure 8.11).
8.8. The symmetrical diamond-shaped airfoil shown in Figure P8.8 is operating at a 3° angle
of attack. The flight speed is M = 1.8 and the air pressure equals 8.5 psia.
(a) Compute the pressure on each surface.
(b) Calculate the lift and drag forces.
(c) Repeat the problem with a 10° angle of attack.
Figure P8.8
8.9. A biconvex airfoil (see Figure 8.14) is constructed of circular arcs. We shall approximate the curve on the upper surface by 10 straight-line segments, as shown in Figure
P8.9.
(a) Determine the pressure immediately after the oblique shock at the leading edge.
(b) Determine the Mach number and pressure on each segment.
(c) Compute the contribution to the lift and drag from each segment.
PROBLEMS
235
Figure P8.9
8.10. Properties of the flow are given at the exit plane of the two-dimensional duct shown in
Figure P8.10. The receiver pressure is 12 psia.
(a) Determine the Mach number and temperature just past the exit (after the flow has
passed through the first wave formation). Assume that γ = 1.4.
(b) Make a sketch showing the flow direction, wave angles, and so on.
Figure P8.10
8.11. Stagnation conditions in a large reservoir are 7 bar and 420 K. A converging-only nozzle
delivers nitrogen from this reservoir into a receiver where the pressure is 1 bar.
(a) Sketch the first wave formation that will be seen as the nitrogen leaves the nozzle.
(b) Find the conditions (T , p, V ) that exist after the nitrogen has passed through this
wave formation.
236
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
8.12. Air flows through a converging–diverging nozzle that has an area ratio of 3.5. The
nozzle is operating at its third critical (design condition). The jet stream strikes a twodimensional wedge with a total wedge angle of 40° as shown in Figure P8.12.
Figure P8.12
(a) Make a sketch to show the initial wave pattern that results from the jet stream
striking the wedge.
(b) Show the additional wave pattern formed by the interaction of the initial wave
system with the free boundary. Mark the flow direction in the region following
each wave form and show what happens to the free boundary.
(c) Compute the Mach number and direction of flow after the air jet passes through
each system of waves.
8.13. Air flows in a two-dimensional channel and exhausts to the atmosphere as shown in
Figure P8.13. Note that the oblique shock just touches the upper corner.
(a) Find the deflection angle.
(b) Determine M2 and p2 (in terms of pamb ).
(c) What is the nature of the wave form emanating from the upper corner and dividing
regions 2 and 3?
(d) Compute M3 , p3 , and T3 (in terms of T1 ). Show the flow direction in region 3.
Figure P8.13
PROBLEMS
237
8.14. A supersonic nozzle produces a flow of nitrogen at M1 = 2.0 and p1 = 0.7 bar. This
discharges into an ambient pressure of 1.0 bar, producing the flow pattern shown in
Figure 8.8.
(a) Compute the pressures, Mach numbers, and flow directions in regions 2, 3, and 4.
(b) Make a sketch of the exit jet showing all angles to scale (streamlines, shock lines,
and Mach lines).
8.15. Consider the expression for the Prandtl–Meyer function that is given in equation (8.48).
(a) Show that the maximum possible value for ν is
π
γ +1
νmax =
−1
2
γ −1
(b) At what Mach number does this occur?
(c) If γ = 1.4, what are the maximum turning angles for accelerating flows with initial
Mach numbers of 1.0, 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0?
(d) If a flow of air at M = 2.0, p = 100 psia, and T = 600°R expands through its
maximum turning angle, what is the velocity?
8.16. Flow, initially at a Mach number of unity, expands around a corner through angle ν
and reaches Mach number M2 (see Figure P8.16). Lengths L1 and L2 are measured
perpendicular to the wall and measure the distance out to the same streamline as shown.
(a) Derive an equation for the ratio L2 /L1 = f (M2 ,γ ). (Hints: What fundamental
concept must be obeyed? What kind of process is this?)
(b) If M1 = 1.0, M2 = 1.79, and γ = 1.67, compute the ratio L2 /L1 .
Figure P8.16
8.17. Nitrogen flows along a horizontal surface at M1 = 2.5. Calculate and sketch the
constant-slope surface orientation angles (with respect to the horizontal) that would
cause a change by Prandtl–Meyer flow to
(a) M2a = 2.9 and (b) M2b = 2.1. (c) Should these changes be equal? State why or
why not.
238
PRANDTL–MEYER FLOW
8.18. An experimental drone aircraft in the shape of a flat-plate wing flies at an angle of attack
α. It operates at a Mach number of 3.0.
(a) Find the maximum α consistent with both an attached oblique shock on the airfoil
and a Mach number over the airfoil not exceeding 5.
(b) Find the ratio of lift to (wave) drag forces on this airfoil at the α of part (a). You
may assume an arbitrary chord length c.
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
8.1. For very weak oblique shocks, state how entropy changes and pressure changes are
related to deflection angles.
8.2. Explain what the Prandtl–Meyer function represents. (That is, if someone were to say
that ν = 36.8°, what would this mean to you?)
8.3. State the rules for wave reflection.
.
(a) Waves reflect off physical boundaries as
(b) Waves reflect off free boundaries as
.
8.4. A flow at M1 = 1.5 and p1 = 2 × 105 N/m2 approaches a sharp turn. After negotiating
the turn, the pressure is 1.5 × 105 N/m2 . Determine the deflection angle if the fluid is
oxygen.
8.5. Compute the net force (per square foot of area) acting on the flat-plate airfoil shown in
Figure CT8.5.
Figure CT8.5
8.6. (a) Sketch the waveforms that you might expect to find over the airfoil shown in Figure
CT8.6.
(b) Identify all wave forms by name.
(c) State the boundary conditions that must be met as the flow comes off the trailing
edge of the airfoil.
Figure CT8.6
CHECK TEST
239
8.7. Figure CT8.7 is a representation of a Schlieren photo showing a converging–diverging
nozzle in operation. Indicate whether the pressures in regions a, b, c, d, and e are equal
to, greater than, or less than the receiver pressure.
Figure CT8.7
Chapter 9
Fanno Flow
9.1
INTRODUCTION
At the start of Chapter 5 we mentioned that area changes, friction, and heat transfer are
the most important factors affecting the properties in a flow system. Up to this point
we have considered only one of these factors, that of variations in area. However, we
have also discussed the various mechanisms by which a flow adjusts to meet imposed
boundary conditions of either flow direction or pressure equalization. We now wish
to take a look at the subject of friction losses.
To study only the effects of friction, we analyze flow in a constant-area duct
without heat transfer. This corresponds to many practical flow situations that involve
reasonably short ducts. We consider first the flow of an arbitrary fluid and discover
that its behavior follows a definite pattern which is dependent on whether the flow is in
the subsonic or supersonic regime. Working equations are developed for the case of a
perfect gas, and the introduction of a reference point allows a table to be constructed.
As before, the table permits rapid solutions to many problems of this type, which are
called Fanno flow.
9.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. List the assumptions made in the analysis of Fanno flow.
2. (Optional) Simplify the general equations of continuity, energy, and momentum to obtain basic relations valid for any fluid in Fanno flow.
3. Sketch a Fanno line in the h–v and the h–s planes. Identify the sonic point
and regions of subsonic and supersonic flow.
4. Describe the variation of static and stagnation pressure, static and stagnation
temperature, static density, and velocity as flow progresses along a Fanno line.
Do for both subsonic and supersonic flow.
241
242
FANNO FLOW
5. (Optional) Starting with basic principles of continuity, energy, and momentum, derive expressions for property ratios such as T2 /T1 , p2 /p1 , and so on,
in terms of Mach number (M) and specific heat ratio (γ ) for Fanno flow with
a perfect gas.
6. Describe (include T –s diagram) how the Fanno table is developed with the
use of a ∗ reference location.
7. Define friction factor, equivalent diameter, absolute and relative roughness,
absolute and kinematic viscosity, and Reynolds number, and know how to
determine each.
8. Compare similarities and differences between Fanno flow and normal shocks.
Sketch an h–s diagram showing a typical Fanno line together with a normal
shock for the same mass velocity.
9. Explain what is meant by friction choking.
10. (Optional) Describe some possible consequences of adding duct in a choked
Fanno flow situation (for both subsonic and supersonic flow).
11. Demonstrate the ability to solve typical Fanno flow problems by use of the
appropriate tables and equations.
9.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
We first consider the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid. To isolate the effects of
friction, we make the following assumptions:
Steady one-dimensional flow
Adiabatic
No shaft work
Neglect potential
Constant area
δq = 0, dse = 0
δws = 0
dz = 0
dA = 0
We proceed by applying the basic concepts of continuity, energy, and momentum.
Continuity
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
but since the flow area is constant, this reduces to
ρV = const
(9.1)
We assign a new symbol G to this constant (the quantity ρV ), which is referred to as
the mass velocity, and thus
ρV = G = const
What are the typical units of G?
(9.2)
9.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
243
Energy
We start with
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
For adiabatic and no work, this becomes
ht1 = ht2 = ht = const
(9.3)
If we neglect the potential term, this means that
ht = h +
V2
= const
2gc
(9.4)
Substitute for the velocity from equation (9.2) and show that
ht = h +
G2
= const
ρ 2 2gc
(9.5)
Now for any given flow, the constant ht and G are known. Thus equation (9.5)
establishes a unique relationship between h and ρ. Figure 9.1 is a plot of this equation
in the h–v plane for various values of G (but all for the same ht ). Each curve is called
a Fanno line and represents flow at a particular mass velocity. Note carefully that this
is constant G and not constant ṁ. Ducts of various sizes could pass the same mass
flow rate but would have different mass velocities.
Figure 9.1 Fanno lines in h–v plane.
244
FANNO FLOW
Once the fluid is known, one can also plot lines of constant entropy on the h–v
diagram. Typical curves of s = constant are shown as dashed lines in the figure. It
is much more instructive to plot these Fanno lines in the familiar h–s plane. Such a
diagram is shown in Figure 9.2. At this point, a significant fact becomes quite clear.
Since we have assumed that there is no heat transfer (dse = 0), the only way that
entropy can be generated is through irreversibilities (dsi ). Thus the flow can only
progress toward increasing values of entropy! Why? Can you locate the points of
maximum entropy for each Fanno line in Figure 9.1?
Let us examine one Fanno line in greater detail. Figure 9.3 shows a given Fanno
line together with typical pressure lines. All points on this line represent states with
the same mass flow rate per unit area (mass velocity) and the same stagnation enthalpy. Due to the irreversiible nature of the frictional effects, the flow can only proceed to the right. Thus the Fanno line is divided into two distinct parts, an upper and
a lower branch, which are separated by a limiting point of maximum entropy.
What does intuition tell us about adiabatic flow in a constant-area duct? We normally feel that frictional effects will show up as an internal generation of “heat” with
a corresponding reduction in density of the fluid. To pass the same flow rate (with
constant area), continuity then forces the velocity to increase. This increase in kinetic
energy must cause a decrease in enthalpy, since the stagnation enthalpy remains constant. As can be seen in Figure 9.3, this agrees with flow along the upper branch of
the Fanno line. It is also clear that in this case both the static and stagnation pressure
are decreasing.
But what about flow along the lower branch? Mark two points on the lower
branch and draw an arrow to indicate proper movement along the Fanno line. What
is happening to the enthalpy? To the density [see equation (9.5)]? To the velocity
[see equation (9.2)]? From the figure, what is happening to the static pressure? The
stagnation pressure? Fill in Table 9.1 with increase, decrease, or remains constant.
Figure 9.2 Fanno lines in h–s plane.
9.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
245
Figure 9.3 Two branches of a Fanno line.
Table 9.1
Analysis of Fanno Flow for Figure 9.3
Property
Upper Branch
Lower Branch
Enthalpy
Density
Velocity
Pressure (static)
Pressure (stagnation)
Notice that on the lower branch, properties do not vary in the manner predicted
by intuition. Thus this must be a flow regime with which we are not very familiar.
Before we investigate the limiting point that separates these two flow regimes, let us
note that these flows do have one thing in common. Recall the stagnation pressure
energy equation from Chapter 3.
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
(3.25)
For Fanno flow, dse = δws = 0.
Thus any frictional effect must cause a decrease in the total or stagnation pressure!
Figure 9.3 verifies this for flow along both the upper and lower branches of the
Fanno line.
Limiting Point
From the energy equation we had developed,
ht = h +
V2
= constant
2gc
(9.4)
246
FANNO FLOW
Differentiating, we obtain
dht = dh +
V dV
=0
gc
(9.6)
From continuity we had found that
ρV = G = constant
(9.2)
Differentiating this, we obtain
ρ dV + V dρ = 0
(9.7)
which can be solved for
dV = −V
dρ
ρ
(9.8)
Introduce equation (9.8) into (9.6) and show that
dh =
V 2 dρ
gc ρ
(9.9)
Now recall the property relation
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
which can be written as
T ds = dh −
dp
ρ
(9.10)
Substituting for dh from equation (9.9) yields
T ds =
dp
V 2 dρ
−
gc ρ
ρ
(9.11)
We hasten to point out that this expression is valid for any fluid and between
two differentially separated points anyplace along the Fanno line. Now let’s apply
equation (9.11) to two adjacent points that surround the limiting point of maximum
entropy. At this location s = const; thus ds = 0, and (9.11) becomes
V 2 dρ
= dp
gc
or
at limit point
(9.12)
9.3
V 2 = gc
dp
dρ
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
= gc
at limit point
∂p
∂ρ
247
(9.13)
s = const
This should be a familiar expression [see equation (4.5)] and we recognize that the
velocity is sonic at the limiting point. The upper branch can now be more significantly called the subsonic branch, and the lower branch is seen to be the supersonic
branch.
Now we begin to see a reason for the failure of our intuition to predict behavior
on the lower branch of the Fanno line. From our studies in Chapter 5 we saw that
fluid behavior in supersonic flow is frequently contrary to our expectations. This
points out the fact that we live most of our lives “subsonically,” and, in fact, our
knowledge of fluid phenomena comes mainly from experiences with incompressible
fluids. It should be apparent that we cannot use our intuition to guess at what might be
happening, particularly in the supersonic flow regime. We must learn to get religious
and put faith in our carefully derived relations.
Momentum
The foregoing analysis was made using only the continuity and energy relations. We
now proceed to apply momentum concepts to the control volume shown in Figure 9.4.
The x-component of the momentum equation for steady, one-dimensional flow is
Fx =
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx
gc
From Figure 9.4 we see that the force summation is
Fx = p1 A − p2 A − Ff
(3.46)
(9.14)
where Ff represents the total wall frictional force on the fluid between sections 1 and
2. Thus the momentum equation in the direction of flow becomes
Figure 9.4 Momentum analysis for Fanno flow.
248
FANNO FLOW
(p1 − p2 )A − Ff =
ṁ
ρAV
(V2 − V1 ) =
(V2 − V1 )
gc
gc
(9.15)
Show that equation (9.15) can be written as
p1 − p2 −
Ff
ρ2 V2 2
ρ1 V1 2
=
−
A
gc
gc
(9.16)
or
Ff
ρ2 V2 2
ρ1 V1 2
p1 +
−
= p2 +
gc
A
gc
(9.17)
In this form the equation is not particularly useful except to bring out one significant
fact. For the steady, one-dimensional, constant-area flow of any fluid, the value of
p + ρV 2 /gc cannot be constant if frictional forces are present. This fact will be
recalled later in the chapter when Fanno flow is compared with normal shocks.
Before leaving this section on fluids in general, we might say a few words about
Fanno flow at low Mach numbers. A glance at Figure 9.3 shows that the upper branch
is asymtotically approaching the horizontal line of constant total enthalpy. Thus the
extreme left end of the Fanno line will be nearly horizontal. This indicates that flow at
very low Mach numbers will have almost constant velocity. This checks our previous
work, which indicated that we could treat gases as incompressible fluids if the Mach
numbers were very small.
9.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
We have discovered the general trend of property variations that occur in Fanno flow,
both in the subsonic and supersonic flow regime. Now we wish to develop some
specific working equations for the case of a perfect gas. Recall that these are relations
between properties at arbitrary sections of a flow system written in terms of Mach
numbers and the specific heat ratio.
Energy
We start with the energy equation developed in Section 9.3 since this leads immediately to a temperature ratio:
ht1 = ht2
(9.3)
But for a perfect gas, enthalpy is a function of temperature only. Therefore,
Tt1 = Tt2
(9.18)
9.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
Now for a perfect gas with constant specific heats,
γ −1 2
Tt = T 1 +
M
2
Hence the energy equation for Fanno flow can be written as
γ −1 2
γ −1 2
T1 1 +
M1 = T2 1 +
M2
2
2
249
(4.18)
(9.19)
or
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(9.20)
Continuity
From Section 9.3 we have
ρV = G = const
(9.2)
or
ρ1 V1 = ρ2 V2
(9.21)
If we introduce the perfect gas equation of state
p = ρRT
(1.13)
V = Ma
(4.11)
the definition of Mach number
and sonic velocity for a perfect gas
a=
γ gc RT
(4.10)
equation (9.21) can be solved for
p2
M1
=
p1
M2
T2
T1
1/2
(9.22)
Can you obtain this expression? Now introduce the temperature ratio from (9.20) and
you will have the following working relation for static pressure:
250
FANNO FLOW
p2
M1
=
p1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1/2
(9.23)
The density relation can easily be obtained from equation (9.20), (9.23), and the
perfect gas law:
ρ2
M1
=
ρ1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1/2
(9.24)
Entropy Change
We start with an expression for entropy change that is valid between any two points:
s1−2 = cp ln
T2
p2
− R ln
T1
p1
(1.53)
Equation (4.15) can be used to substitute for cp and we nondimensionalize the equation to
γ
T2
p2
s2 − s1
=
ln
− ln
R
γ −1
T1
p1
(9.25)
If we now utilize the expressions just developed for the temperature ratio (9.20) and
the pressure ratio (9.23), the entropy change becomes
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ
s2 − s1
=
ln
R
γ −1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
− ln
M1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1/2
(9.26)
Show that this entropy change between two points in Fanno flow can be written as
s2 − s1
M2
= ln
R
M1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
(9.27)
Now recall that in Section 4.5 we integrated the stagnation pressure–energy equation
for adiabatic no-work flow of a perfect gas, with the result
pt2
= e−s/R
pt1
(4.28)
9.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
251
Thus, from equations (4.28) and (9.27) we obtain a simple expression for the stagnation pressure ratio:
pt2
M1
=
pt1
M2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
(9.28)
We now have the means to obtain all the properties at a downstream point 2 if
we know all the properties at some upstream point 1 and the Mach number at point
2. However, in many situations one does not know both Mach numbers. A typical
problem would be to predict the final Mach number, given the initial conditions and
information on duct length, material, and so on. Thus our next job is to relate the
change in Mach number to the friction losses.
Momentum
We turn to the differential form of the momentum equation that was developed in
Chapter 3:
dp
V 2 dx
g
dV 2
+f
+
dz +
=0
ρ
2gc De
gc
2gc
(3.63)
Our objective is to get this equation all in terms of Mach number. If we introduce the
perfect gas equation of state together with expressions for Mach number and sonic
velocity, we obtain
dx M 2 γ gc RT
g
dM 2 γ gc RT + M 2 γ gc R dT
dp
(RT ) + f
+
dz +
=0
p
De
2gc
gc
2gc
(9.29)
or
dx γ 2
γ
dp
dT
g dz
γ
+f
M +
+ dM 2 + M 2
=0
p
De 2
gc RT
2
2
T
(9.30)
Equation (9.30) is boxed since it is a useful form of the momentum equation that
is valid for all steady flow problems involving a perfect gas. We now proceed to apply
this to Fanno flow. From (9.18) and (4.18) we know that
γ −1 2
(9.31)
M = const
Tt = T 1 +
2
Taking the natural logarithm
252
FANNO FLOW
γ −1 2
M = ln const
ln T + ln 1 +
2
(9.32)
and then differentiating, we obtain
d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
dT
+
=0
T
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(9.33)
which can be used to substitute for dT /T in (9.30).
The continuity relation [equation (9.2)] put in terms of a perfect gas becomes
pM
√ = const
T
(9.34)
By logarithmic differentiation (take the natural logarithm and then differentiate) show
that
1 dT
dp dM
+
−
=0
p
M
2 T
(9.35)
We can introduce equation (9.33) to eliminate dT /T , with the result that
dp
dM
1 d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
=−
−
p
M
2 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(9.36)
which can be used to substitute for dp/p in (9.30).
Make the indicated substitutions for dp/p and dT /T in the momentum equation,
neglect the potential term, and show that equation (9.30) can be put into the following
form:
d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
dM 2
2 dM
dx
=
−
+
f
2
De
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M
M2
γ M3
1 d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
+
(9.37)
γ M 2 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
The last term can be simplified for integration by noting that
1 d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(γ − 1) dM 2
=
2
2
γ M 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M
2γ
M2
(γ − 1) d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
−
2γ
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
The momentum equation can now be written as
(9.38)
9.5
REFERENCE STATE AND FANNO TABLE
dx
γ + 1 d 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
2 dM
γ + 1 dM 2
f
=
+
−
De
2γ
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
γ M3
2γ M 2
253
(9.39)
Equation (9.39) is restricted to steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas, with no
heat or work transfer, constant area, and negligible potential changes. We can now
integrate this equation between two points in the flow and obtain
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
f (x2 − x1 )
γ +1
ln
=
De
2γ
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
M22
1
1
1
γ +1
ln
−
−
−
γ M22
2γ
M12
M12
(9.40)
Note that in performing the integration we have held the friction factor constant.
Some comments will be made on this in a later section. If you have forgotten the
concept of equivalent diameter, you may want to review the last part of Section 3.8
and equation (3.61).
9.5
REFERENCE STATE AND FANNO TABLE
The equations developed in Section 9.4 provide the means of computing the properties at one location in terms of those given at some other location. The key to problem
solution is predicting the Mach number at the new location through the use of equation (9.40). The solution of this equation for the unknown M2 presents a messy task,
as no explicit relation is possible. Thus we turn to a technique similar to that used
with isentropic flow in Chapter 5.
We introduce another ∗ reference state, which is defined in the same manner as
before (i.e., “that thermodynamic state which would exist if the fluid reached a Mach
number of unity by a particular process”). In this case we imagine that we continue
by Fanno flow (i.e., more duct is added) until the velocity reaches Mach 1. Figure 9.5
shows a physical system together with its T –s diagram for a subsonic Fanno flow.
We know that if we continue along the Fanno line (remember that we always move
to the right), we will eventually reach the limiting point where sonic velocity exists.
The dashed lines show a hypothetical duct of sufficient length to enable the flow to
traverse the remaining portion of the upper branch and reach the limit point. This is
the ∗ reference point for Fanno flow.
The isentropic ∗ reference points have also been included on the T –s diagram to
emphasize the fact that the Fanno ∗ reference is a totally different thermodynamic
state. One other fact should be mentioned. If there is any entropy difference between
two points (such as points 1 and 2), their isentropic ∗ reference conditions are not
the same and we have always taken great care to label them separately as 1∗ and 2∗ .
254
FANNO FLOW
Figure 9.5 The ∗ reference for Fanno flow.
However, proceeding from either point 1 or point 2 by Fanno flow will ultimately
lead to the same place when Mach 1 is reached. Thus we do not have to talk of 1∗ or
2∗ but merely ∗ in the case of Fanno flow. Incidentally, why are all three ∗ reference
points shown on the same horizontal line in Figure 9.5? (You may need to review
Section 4.6.)
We now rewrite the working equations in terms of the Fanno flow ∗ reference
condition. Consider first
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
T2
=
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
(9.20)
Let point 2 be an arbitrary point in the flow system and let its Fanno ∗ condition be
point 1. Then
T2 ⇒ T
T1 ⇒ T
M2 ⇒ M
∗
M1 ⇒ 1
(any value)
9.5
REFERENCE STATE AND FANNO TABLE
255
and equation (9.20) becomes
(γ + 1)/2
T
=
= f (M,γ )
T∗
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(9.41)
We see that T /T ∗ = f (M,γ ) and we can easily construct a table giving values of
T /T ∗ versus M for a particular γ . Equation (9.23) can be treated in a similar fashion.
In this case
p2 ⇒ p
M2 ⇒ M
p1 ⇒ p ∗
M1 ⇒ 1
(any value)
and equation (9.23) becomes
p
1
=
p∗
M
(γ + 1)/2
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
1/2
= f (M,γ )
(9.42)
The density ratio can be obtained as a function of Mach number and γ from
equation (9.24). This is particularly useful since it also represents a velocity ratio.
Why?
1/2
ρ
1 1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
V∗
=
=
= f (M,γ )
(9.43)
ρ∗
V
M
(γ + 1)/2
Apply the same techniques to equation (9.28) and show that
pt
1
∗ =
pt
M
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(γ + 1)/2
(γ +1)/2(γ −1)
= f (M,γ )
(9.44)
We now perform the same type of transformation on equation (9.40); that is, let
x2 ⇒ x
x1 ⇒ x
M2 ⇒ M
∗
(any value)
M1 ⇒ 1
with the following result:
f (x − x ∗ )
=
De
γ +1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
ln
2γ
(γ + 1)/2
1
1
γ +1
ln M 2
−1 −
−
2
γ M
2γ
(9.45)
But a glance at the physical diagram in Figure 9.5 shows that (x ∗ − x) will always be
a negative quantity; thus it is more convenient to change all signs in equation (9.45)
and simplify it to
256
FANNO FLOW
f (x ∗ − x)
=
De
[(γ + 1)/2]M 2
γ +1
ln
2γ
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
1
1
+
−
1
= f (M,γ )
γ M2
(9.46)
The quantity (x ∗ − x) represents the amount of duct that would have to be added
to cause the flow to reach the Fanno ∗ reference condition. It can alternatively be
viewed as the maximum duct length that may be added without changing some flow
condition. Thus the expression
f (x ∗ − x)
De
is called
fLmax
De
and is listed in Appendix I along with the other Fanno flow parameters: T /T ∗ , p/p ∗ ,
V /V ∗ , and pt /pt ∗ . In the next section we shall see how this table greatly simplifies
the solution of Fanno flow problems. But first, some words about the determination
of friction factors.
Dimensional analysis of the fluid flow problem shows that the friction factor can
be expressed as
f = f (Re, ε/D)
(9.47)
where Re is the Reynolds number,
Re ≡
ρVD
µgc
(9.48)
and
ε/D ≡ relative roughness
Typical values of ε, the absolute roughness or average height of wall irregularities,
are shown in Table 9.2.
The relationship among f , Re, and ε/D is determined experimentally and plotted
on a chart similar to Figure 9.6, which is called a Moody diagram. A larger working
chart appears in Appendix C. If the flow rate is known together with the duct size and
Table 9.2
Absolute Roughness of Common Materials
Material
Glass, brass, copper, lead
Steel, wrought iron
Galvanized iron
Cast iron
Riveted steel
ε (ft)
smooth < 0.00001
0.00015
0.0005
0.00085
0.03
9.6
APPLICATIONS
257
Figure 9.6 Moody diagram for friction factor in circular ducts. (See Appendix C for working
chart.)
material, the Reynolds number and relative roughness can easily be calculated and
the value of the friction factor is taken from the diagram. The curve in the laminar
flow region can be represented by
f =
64
Re
(9.49)
For noncircular cross sections the equivalent diameter as described in Section 3.8
can be used.
De ≡
4A
P
(3.61)
This equivalent diameter may be used in the determination of relative roughness and
Reynolds number, and hence the friction factor. However, care must be taken to work
with the actual average velocity in all computations. Experience has shown that the
use of an equivalent diameter works quite well in the turbulent zone. In the laminar
flow region this concept is not sufficient and consideration must also be given to the
aspect ratio of the duct.
In some problems the flow rate is not known and thus a trial-and-error solution
results. As long as the duct size is given, the problem is not too difficult; an excellent
approximation to the friction factor can be made by taking the value corresponding
to where the ε/D curve begins to level off. This converges rapidly to the final answer,
as most engineering problems are well into the turbulent range.
9.6
APPLICATIONS
The following steps are recommended to develop good problem-solving technique:
258
FANNO FLOW
1. Sketch the physical situation (including the hypothetical ∗ reference point).
2. Label sections where conditions are known or desired.
3.
4.
5.
6.
List all given information with units.
Compute the equivalent diameter, relative roughness, and Reynolds number.
Find the friction factor from the Moody diagram.
Determine the unknown Mach number.
7. Calculate the additional properties desired.
The procedure above may have to be altered depending on what type of information is given, and occasionally, trial-and-error solutions are required. You should have
no difficulty incorporating these features once the basic straightforward solution has
been mastered. In complicated flow systems that involve more than just Fanno flow,
a T –s diagram is frequently helpful in solving problems.
For the following examples we are dealing with the steady one-dimensional flow
of air (γ = 1.4), which can be treated as a perfect gas. Assume that Q = Ws = 0 and
negligible potential changes. The cross-sectional area of the duct remains constant.
Figure E9.1 is common to Examples 9.1 through 9.3.
Figure E9.1
Example 9.1 Given M1 = 1.80, p1 = 40 psia, and M2 = 1.20, find p2 and f x/D.
Since both Mach numbers are known, we can solve immediately for
p2 p∗
1
p2 = ∗
(40) = 67.9 psia
p1 = (0.8044)
p p1
0.4741
Check Figure E9.1 to see that
fL1 max
fL2 max
f x
=
−
= 0.2419 − 0.0336 = 0.208
D
D
D
Example 9.2 Given M2 = 0.94, T1 = 400 K, and T2 = 350 K, find M1 and p2 /p1 .
To determine conditions at section 1 in Figure E9.1, we must establish the ratio
9.6
T1
T1 T2
=
=
∗
T
T2 T ∗
APPLICATIONS
259
400
(1.0198) = 1.1655
350
From Fanno table at M = 0.94
Given
Look up T /T ∗ = 1.1655 in the Fanno table (Appendix I) and determine that M1 = 0.385.
Thus
1
p2 p∗
p2
= 0.383
= ∗
= (1.0743)
p1
p p1
2.8046
Notice that these examples confirm previous statements concerning static pressure
changes. In subsonic flow the static pressure decreases, whereas in supersonic flow
the static pressure increases. Compute the stagnation pressure ratio and show that the
friction losses cause pt2 /pt1 to decrease in each case.
For Example 9.1:
pt2
=
pt1
(pt2 /pt1 = 0.716)
For Example 9.2:
pt2
=
pt1
(pt2 /pt1 = 0.611)
Example 9.3 Air flows in a 6-in.-diameter, insulated, galvanized iron duct. Initial conditions
are p1 = 20 psia, T1 = 70°F, and V1 = 406 ft/sec. After 70 ft, determine the final Mach
number, temperature, and pressure.
Since the duct is circular we do not have to compute an equivalent diameter. From Table
9.2 the absolute roughness ε is 0.0005. Thus the relative roughness
0.0005
ε
=
= 0.001
D
0.5
We compute the Reynolds number at section 1 (Figure E9.1) since this is the only location
where information is known.
ρ1 =
p1
(20)(144)
= 0.102 lbm/ft3
=
RT1
(53.3)(530)
µ1 = 3.8 × 10−7 lbf-sec/ft2 (from table in Appendix A)
Thus
Re1 =
ρ1 V1 D1
(0.102)(406)(0.5)
= 1.69 × 106
=
µ1 gc
(3.8 × 10−7 )(32.2)
From the Moody diagram (in Appendix C) at Re = 1.69 × 106 and ε/D = 0.001, we
determine that the friction factor is f = 0.0198. To use the Fanno table (or equations), we
need information on Mach numbers.
260
FANNO FLOW
a1 = (γ gc RT1 )1/2 = [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(530)]1/2 = 1128 ft/sec
M1 =
V1
406
= 0.36
=
a1
1128
From the Fanno table (Appendix I) at M1 = 0.36, we find that
p1
= 3.0042
p∗
T1
= 1.1697
T∗
fL1 max
= 3.1801
D
The key to completing the problem is in establishing the Mach number at the outlet, and this
is done through the friction length:
(0.0198)(70)
f x
=
= 2.772
D
0.5
Looking at the physical sketch it is apparent (since f and D are constants) that
fL1 max
f x
fL2 max
=
−
= 3.1801 − 2.772 = 0.408
D
D
D
We enter the Fanno table with this friction length and find that
M2 = 0.623
p2
= 1.6939
p∗
T2
= 1.1136
T∗
Thus
p2 =
p2 p∗
1
(20) = 11.28 psia
p
=
(1.6939)
1
p∗ p1
3.0042
and
T2 =
T2 T ∗
1
(530) = 505°R
T
=
(1.1136)
1
T ∗ T1
1.1697
In the example above, the friction factor was assumed constant. In fact, this assumption was made when equation (9.39) was integrated to obtain (9.40), and with
the introduction of the ∗ reference state, this became equation (9.46), which is listed
in the Fanno table. Is this a reasonable assumption? Friction factors are functions of
Reynolds numbers, which in turn depend on velocity and density—both of which can
change quite rapidly in Fanno flow. Calculate the velocity at the outlet in Example
9.3 and compare it with that at the inlet. (V2 = 686 ft/sec and V1 = 406 ft/sec.)
But don’t despair. From continuity we know that the product of ρV is always a
constant, and thus the only variable in Reynolds number is the viscosity. Extremely
large temperature variations are required to change the viscosity of a gas significantly,
and thus variations in the Reynolds number are small for any given problem. We are
also fortunate in that most engineering problems are well into the turbulent range
where the friction factor is relatively insensitive to Reynolds number. A greater potential error is involved in the estimation of the duct roughness, which has a more
significant effect on the friction factor.
9.7
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
261
Example 9.4 A converging–diverging nozzle with an area ratio of 5.42 connects to an 8-ftlong constant-area rectangular duct (see Figure E9.4). The duct is 8 × 4 in. in cross section
and has a friction factor of f = 0.02. What is the minimum stagnation pressure feeding the
nozzle if the flow is supersonic throughout the entire duct and it exhausts to 14.7 psia?
Figure E9.4
(4)(32)
4A
=
= 5.334 in.
P
24
(0.02)(8)(12)
f x
=
= 0.36
D
5.334
De =
To be supersonic with A3 /A2 = 5.42, M3 = 3.26, p3 /pt3 = 0.0185, p3 /p∗ = 0.1901, and
fL3 max /D = 0.5582,
fL4 max
fL3 max
f x
=
−
= 0.5582 − 0.36 = 0.1982
D
D
D
Thus
M4 = 1.673
and
p4
= 0.5243
p∗
and
pt1 =
1
1
pt1 pt3 p3 p ∗
(0.1901)
(14.7) = 228 psia
p
=
(1)
4
pt3 p3 p∗ p4
0.0185
0.5243
Any pressure above 288 psia will maintain the flow system as specified but with expansion
waves outside the duct. (Recall an underexpanded nozzle.) Can you envision what would
happen if the inlet stagnation pressure fell below 288 psia? (Recall the operation of an overexpanded nozzle.)
9.7
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
As you have progressed through this chapter you may have noticed some similarities
between Fanno flow and normal shocks. Let us summarize some pertinent information.
262
FANNO FLOW
Figure 9.7 Variation of p + ρV 2 /gc in Fanno flow.
The points just before and after a normal shock represent states with the same mass
flow per unit area, the same value of p + ρV 2 /gc , and the same stagnation enthalpy.
These facts are the result of applying the basic concepts of continuity, momentum, and
energy to any arbitrary fluid. This analysis resulted in equations (6.2), (6.3), and (6.9).
A Fanno line represents states with the same mass flow per unit area and the same
stagnation enthalpy. This is confirmed by equations (9.2) and (9.5). To move along
a Fanno line requires friction. At the end of Section 9.3 [see equation (9.17)] it was
pointed out that it is this very friction which causes the value of p + ρV 2 /gc to
change.
The variation of the quantity p + ρV 2 /gc along a Fanno line is quite interesting.
Such a plot is shown in Figure 9.7. You will notice that for every point on the supersonic branch of the Fanno line there is a corresponding point on the subsonic branch
with the same value of p + ρV 2 /gc . Thus these two points satisfy all three conditions
for the end points of a normal shock and could be connected by such a shock.
Now we can imagine a supersonic Fanno flow leading into a normal shock. If this
is followed by additional duct, subsonic Fanno flow would occur. Such a situation is
shown in Figure 9.8a. Note that the shock merely causes the flow to jump from the
supersonic branch to the subsonic branch of the same Fanno line. [See Figure 9.8b.]
Figure 9.8a Combination of Fanno flow and normal shock (physical system).
9.7
Figure 9.8b
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
263
Combination of Fanno flow and normal shock.
Example 9.5 A large chamber contains air at a temperature of 300 K and a pressure of 8
bar abs (Figure E9.5). The air enters a converging–diverging nozzle with an area ratio of 2.4.
A constant-area duct is attached to the nozzle and a normal shock stands at the exit plane.
Receiver pressure is 3 bar abs. Assume the entire system to be adiabatic and neglect friction in
the nozzle. Compute the f x/D for the duct.
Figure E9.5
264
FANNO FLOW
For a shock to occur as specified, the duct flow must be supersonic, which means that
the nozzle is operating at its third critical point. The inlet conditions and nozzle area ratio
fix conditions at location 3. We can then find p∗ at the tip of the Fanno line. Then the ratio
p5 /p ∗ can be computed and the Mach number after the shock is found from the Fanno table.
This solution probably would not have occurred to us had we not drawn the T –s diagram and
recognized that point 5 is on the same Fanno line as 3, 4, and ∗ .
For A3 /A2 = 2.4, M3 = 2.4 and p3 /pt3 = 0.06840. We proceed immediately to compute
p5 /p ∗ :
p5 pt1 pt3 p3
p5
1
3
(1)
(0.3111) = 1.7056
=
=
p∗
pt1 pt3 p3 p∗
8
0.0684
From the Fanno table we find that M5 = 0.619, and then from the shock table, M4 = 1.789.
Returning to the Fanno table, fL3 max /D = 0.4099 and fL4 max /D = 0.2382. Thus
fL3 max
fL4 max
f x
=
−
= 0.4099 − 0.2382 = 0.172
D
D
D
9.8
FRICTION CHOKING
In Chapter 5 we discussed the operation of nozzles that were fed by constant stagnation inlet conditions (see Figures 5.6 and 5.8). We found that as the receiver pressure
was lowered, the flow through the nozzle increased. When the operating pressure
ratio reached a certain value, the section of minimum area developed a Mach number
of unity. The nozzle was then said to be choked. Further reduction in the pressure
ratio did not increase the flow rate. This was an example of area choking.
Figure 9.9 Converging nozzle and constant-area duct combination.
9.8
FRICTION CHOKING
265
Figure 9.10 T –s diagram for nozzle–duct combination.
The subsonic Fanno flow situation is quite similar. Figure 9.9 shows a given length
of duct fed by a large tank and converging nozzle. If the receiver pressure is below
the tank pressure, flow will occur, producing a T –s diagram shown as path 1–2–3 in
Figure 9.10. Note that we have isentropic flow at the entrance to the duct and then we
move along a Fanno line. As the receiver pressure is lowered still more, the flow rate
and exit Mach number continue to increase while the system moves to Fanno lines of
higher mass velocities (shown as path 1–2 –3 ). It is important to recognize that the
receiver pressure (or more properly, the operating pressure ratio) is controlling the
flow. This is because in subsonic flow the pressure at the duct exit must equal that of
the receiver.
Eventually, when a certain pressure ratio is reached, the Mach number at the duct
exit will be unity (shown as path 1–2 –3 ). This is called friction choking and any
further reduction in receiver pressure would not affect the flow conditions inside the
system. What would occur as the flow leaves the duct and enters a region of reduced
pressure?
Let us consider this last case of choked flow with the exit pressure equal to the
receiver pressure. Now suppose that the receiver pressure is maintained at this value
but more duct is added to the system. (Nothing can physically prevent us from doing
this.) What happens? We know that we cannot move around the Fanno line, yet
somehow we must reflect the added friction losses. This is done by moving to a new
Fanno line at a decreased flow rate. The T –s diagram for this is shown as path 1–2 –
3 – 4 in Figure 9.11. Note that pressure equilibrium is still maintained at the exit but
266
FANNO FLOW
Figure 9.11 Addition of more duct when choked.
the system is no longer choked, although the flow rate has decreased. What would
occur if the receiver pressure were now lowered?
In summary, when a subsonic Fanno flow has become friction choked and more
duct is added to the system, the flow rate must decrease. Just how much it decreases
and whether or not the exit velocity remains sonic depends on how much duct is added
and the receiver pressure imposed on the system.
Now suppose that we are dealing with supersonic Fanno flow that is friction
choked. In this case the addition of more duct causes a normal shock to form inside
the duct. The resulting subsonic flow can accommodate the increased duct length at
the same flow rate. For example, Figure 9.12 shows a Mach 2.18 flow that has an
fLmax /D value of 0.356. If a normal shock were to occur at this point, the Mach
number after the shock would be about 0.550, which corresponds to an fLmax /D
9.9. WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
267
Figure 9.12 Influence of shock on maximum duct length.
value of 0.728. Thus, in this case, the appearance of the shock permits over twice the
duct length to the choke point. This difference becomes even greater as higher Mach
numbers are reached.
The shock location is determined by the amount of duct added. As more duct is
added, the shock moves upstream and occurs at a higher Mach number. Eventually,
the shock will move into that portion of the system that precedes the constant-area
duct. (Most likely, a converging–diverging nozzle was used to produce the supersonic
flow.) If sufficient friction length is added, the entire system will become subsonic and
then the flow rate will decrease. Whether or not the exit velocity remains sonic will
again depend on the receiver pressure.
9.9. WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
As indicated earlier, the Fanno flow table in Appendix I is for γ = 1.4. The behavior
of fLmax /D, the friction function, is given in Figure 9.13 for γ = 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67
for Mach numbers up to M = 5. Here we can see that the dependence on γ is rather
noticeable for M ≥ 1.4. Thus, below this Mach number the tabulation in Appendix I
may be used with little error for any γ . This means that for subsonic flows, where most
Fanno flow problems occur, there is little difference between the various gases. The
desired accuracy of results will govern how far you want to carry this approximation
into the supersonic region.
Strictly speaking, these curves are only representative for cases where γ variations
are negligible within the flow. However, they offer hints as to what magnitude of
268
FANNO FLOW
Figure 9.13 Fanno flow fLmax /D versus Mach number for various values of γ .
changes are to be expected in other cases. Flows where γ variations are not negligible
within the flow are treated in Chapter 11.
9.10
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
As pointed out in Chapter 5, one can eliminate a lot of interpolation and get accurate
answers for any ratio of the specific heats γ and/or any Mach number by using a
computer utility such as MAPLE. This utility is useful in the evaluation of equation
(9.46). Example 9.6 is one such application.
Example 9.6 Let us rework Example 9.3 without using the Fanno table. For M1 = 0.36,
calculate the value of fLmax /D. The procedure follows equation (9.46):
1
γ +1
1
[(γ + 1)/2]M 2
f (x ∗ − x)
ln
=
+
−
1
(9.46)
De
2γ
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
γ M2
Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M1 )
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is fLmax /D)
9.11
SUMMARY
269
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > g := 1.4:
X := 0.36:
> Y := ((g + 1)/(2*g))*log(((g + 1)*(X^2)/2)/(1 +
(g - 1)*(X^2) + (1/g)*((1/X^2) - 1);
Y : = 3.180117523
We can proceed to find the Mach number at station 2. The new value of Y is 3.1801 −
2.772 = 0.408. Now we use the same equation (9.46) but solve for M2 as shown below. Note
that since M is implicit in the equation, we are going to utilize “fsolve.” Let
g ≡ γ , a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is M2 )
Y ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is fLmax /D)
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > g2 := 1.4:
Y2 := 0.408:
> fsolve(Y2 = ((g2 + 1)/(2*g2))*log(((g2 + 1)*(X2^2)/2)/(1 +
(g2 - 1)*(X2^2)/2)) + (1/g2)*((1/X2^2) - 1), X2, 0..1);
.6227097475
The answer of M2 = 0.6227 is consistent with that obtained in Example 9.3. We can now
proceed to calculate the required static properties, but this will be left as an exercise for the
reader.
9.11
SUMMARY
We have analyzed flow in a constant-area duct with friction but without heat transfer.
The fluid properties change in a predictable manner dependent on the flow regime as
shown in Table 9.3. The property variations in subsonic Fanno flow follow an intuitive
pattern but we note that the supersonic flow behavior is completely different. The
Table 9.3
Fluid Property Variation for Fanno Flow
Property
Subsonic
Supersonic
Velocity
Mach number
Enthalpya
Stagnation enthalpya
Pressure
Density
Stagnation pressure
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Constant
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Constant
Increases
Increases
Decreases
a
Also temperature if the fluid is a perfect gas.
270
FANNO FLOW
only common occurrence is the decrease in stagnation pressure, which is indicative
of the loss.
Perhaps the most significant equations are those that apply to all fluids:
ρV = G = constant
ht = h +
G2
= constant
ρ 2 2gc
(9.2)
(9.5)
Along with these equations you should keep in mind the appearance of Fanno lines in
the h–v and T –s diagrams (see Figures 9.1 and 9.2). Remember that each Fanno line
represents points with the same mass velocity (G) and stagnation enthalpy (ht ), and
a normal shock can connect two points on opposite branches of a Fanno line which
have the same value of p + ρV 2 /gc . Families of Fanno lines could represent:
1. Different values of G for the same ht (such as those in Figure 9.10), or
2. The same G for different values of ht (see Problem 10.17).
Detailed working equations were developed for perfect gases, and the introduction
of a ∗ reference point enabled the construction of a Fanno table which simplifies
problem solution. The ∗ condition for Fanno flow has no relation to the one used
previously in isentropic flow (except in general definition). All Fanno flows proceed
toward a limiting point of Mach 1. Friction choking of a flow passage is possible in
Fanno flow just as area choking occurs in varying-area isentropic flow. An h–s (or
T –s) diagram is of great help in the analysis of a complicated flow system. Get into
the habit of drawing these diagrams.
PROBLEMS
In the problems that follow you may assume that all systems are completely adiabatic. Also, all
ducts are of constant area unless otherwise indicated. You may neglect friction in the varyingarea sections. You may also assume that the friction factor shown in Appendix C applies
to noncircular cross sections when the equivalent diameter concept is used and the flow is
turbulent.
9.1. Conditions at the entrance to a duct are M1 = 3.0 and p1 = 8 × 104 N/m2 . After a
certain length the flow has reached M2 = 1.5. Determine p2 and f x/D if γ = 1.4.
9.2. A flow of nitrogen is discharged from a duct with M2 = 0.85, T2 = 500°R, and p2 =
28 psia. The temperature at the inlet is 560°R. Compute the pressure at the inlet and
the mass velocity (G).
9.3. Air enters a circular duct with a Mach number of 3.0. The friction factor is 0.01.
(a) How long a duct (measured in diameters) is required to reduce the Mach number
to 2.0?
PROBLEMS
271
(b) What is the percentage change in temperature, pressure, and density?
(c) Determine the entropy increase of the air.
(d) Assume the same length of duct as computed in part (a), but the initial Mach
number is 0.5. Compute the percentage change in temperature, pressure, density,
and the entropy increase for this case. Compare the changes in the same length duct
for subsonic and supersonic flow.
9.4. Oxygen enters a 6-in.-diameter duct with T1 , = 600°R, p1 = 50 psia, and V1 = 600
ft/sec. The friction factor is f = 0.02.
(a) What is the maximum length of duct permitted that will not change any of the
conditions at the inlet?
(b) Determine T2 , p2 , and V2 for the maximum duct length found in part (a).
9.5. Air flows in an 8-cm-inside diameter pipe that is 4 m long. The air enters with a Mach
number of 0.45 and a temperature of 300 K .
(a) What friction factor would cause sonic velocity at the exit?
(b) If the pipe is made of cast iron, estimate the inlet pressure.
9.6. At one section in a constant-area duct the stagnation pressure is 66.8 psia and the Mach
number is 0.80. At another section the pressure is 60 psia and the temperature is 120°F.
(a) Compute the temperature at the first section and the Mach number at the second
section if the fluid is air.
(b) Which way is the air flowing?
(c) What is the friction length (f x/D) of the duct?
9.7. A 50 × 50 cm duct is 10 m in length. Nitrogen enters at M1 = 3.0 and leaves at M2 =
1.7, with T2 = 280 K and p2 = 7 × 104 N/m2 .
(a) Find the static and stagnation conditions at the entrance.
(b) What is the friction factor of the duct?
9.8. A duct of 2 ft × 1 ft cross section is made of riveted steel and is 500 ft long. Air enters
with a velocity of 174 ft/sec, p1 = 50 psia, and T1 = 100°F.
(a) Determine the temperature, pressure, and velocity at the exit.
(b) Compute the pressure drop assuming the flow to be incompressible. Use the entering conditions and equation (3.29). Note that equation (3.64) can easily be integrated to evaluate
T dsi = f
x V 2
De 2gc
(c) How do the results of parts (a) and (b) compare? Did you expect this?
9.9. Air enters a duct with a mass flow rate of 35 lbm/sec at T1 = 520°R and p1 = 20 psia.
The duct is square and has an area of 0.64 ft2. The outlet Mach number is unity.
(a) Compute the temperature and pressure at the outlet.
(b) Find the length of the duct if it is made of steel.
9.10. Consider the flow of a perfect gas along a Fanno line. Show that the pressure at the ∗
reference state is given by the relation
272
FANNO FLOW
1/2
ṁ
2RTt
p =
A γ gc (γ + 1)
∗
9.11. A 10-ft duct 12 in. in diameter contains oxygen flowing at the rate of 80 lbm/sec.
Measurements at the inlet give p1 = 30 psia and T1 = 800°R. The pressure at the
outlet is p2 = 23 psia.
(a) Calculate M1 , M2 , V2 , Tt2 , and pt2 .
(b) Determine the friction factor and estimate the absolute roughness of the duct material.
9.12. At the outlet of a 25-cm-diameter duct, air is traveling at sonic velocity with a temperature of 16°C and a pressure of 1 bar. The duct is very smooth and is 15 m long. There
are two possible conditions that could exist at the entrance to the duct.
(a) Find the static and stagnation temperature and pressure for each entrance condition.
(b) Assuming the surrounding air to be at 1 bar pressure, how much horsepower is
necessary to get ambient air into the duct for each case? (You may assume no
losses in the work process.)
9.13. Ambient air at 60°F and 14.7 psia accelerates isentropically into a 12-in.-diameter duct.
After 100 ft the duct transitions into an 8 × 8 in. square section where the Mach number
is 0.50. Neglect all frictional effects except in the constant-area duct, where f = 0.04.
(a) Determine the Mach number at the duct entrance.
(b) What are the temperature and pressure in the square section?
(c) How much 8 × 8 in. square duct could be added before the flow chokes? (Assume
that f = 0.04 in this duct also.)
9.14. Nitrogen with pt = 7 × 105 N/m2 and Tt = 340 K enters a frictionless converging–
diverging nozzle having an area ratio of 4.0. The nozzle discharges supersonically
into a constant-area duct that has a friction length f x/D = 0.355. Determine the
temperature and pressure at the exit of the duct.
9.15. Conditions before a normal shock are M1 = 2.5, pt1 = 67 psia, and Tt1 = 700°R. This
is followed by a length of Fanno flow and a converging nozzle as shown in Figure P9.15.
The area change is such that the system is choked. It is also known that p4 = pamb =
14.7 psia.
Figure P9.15
PROBLEMS
273
(a) Draw a T –s diagram for the system.
(b) Find M2 and M3 .
(c) What is f x/D for the duct?
9.16. A converging–diverging nozzle (Figure P9.16) has an area ratio of 3.0. The stagnation
conditions of the inlet air are 150 psia and 550°R. A constant-area duct with a length
of 12 diameters is attached to the nozzle outlet. The friction factor in the duct is 0.025.
(a) compute the receiver pressure that would place a shock
(i) in the nozzle throat;
(ii) at the nozzle exit;
(iii) at the duct exit.
(b) What receiver pressure would cause supersonic flow throughout the duct with no
shocks within the system (or after the duct exit)?
(c) Make a sketch similar to Figure 6.3 showing the pressure distribution for the various
operating points of parts (a) and (b).
Figure P9.16
9.17. For a nozzle–duct system similar to that of Problem 9.16, the nozzle is designed to
produce a Mach number of 2.8 with γ = 1.4. The inlet conditions are pt1 = 10 bar and
Tt1 = 370 K. The duct is 8 diameters in length, but the duct friction factor is unknown.
The receiver pressure is fixed at 3 bar and a normal shock has formed at the duct exit.
(a) Sketch a T –s diagram for the system.
(b) Determine the friction factor of the duct.
(c) What is the total change in entropy for the system?
9.18. A large chamber contains air at 65 bar pressure and 400 K. The air passes through a
converging-only nozzle and then into a constant-area duct. The friction length of the
duct is f x/D = 1.067 and the Mach number at the duct exit is 0.96.
(a) Draw a T –s diagram for the system.
(b) Determine conditions at the duct entrance.
(c) What is the pressure in the receiver? (Hint: How is this related to the duct exit
pressure?)
(d) If the length of the duct is doubled and the chamber and receiver conditions remain
unchanged, what are the new Mach numbers at the entrance and exit of the duct?
9.19. A constant-area duct is fed by a converging-only nozzle as shown in Figure P9.19. The
nozzle receives oxygen from a large chamber at p1 = 100 psia and T1 = 1000°R. The
duct has a friction length of 5.3 and it is choked at the exit. The receiver pressure is
exactly the same as the pressure at the duct exit.
274
FANNO FLOW
Figure P9.19
(a) What is the pressure at the end of the duct?
(b) Four-fifths of the duct is removed. (The end of the duct is now at 3.) The chamber
pressure, receiver pressure, and friction factor remain unchanged. Now what is the
pressure at the exit of the duct?
(c) Sketch both of the cases above on the same T –s diagram.
9.20. (a) Plot a Fanno line to scale in the T –s plane for air entering a duct with a Mach
number of 0.20, a static pressure of 100 psia, and a static temperature of 540°R.
Indicate the Mach number at various points along the curve.
(b) On the same diagram, plot another Fanno line for a flow with the same total
enthalpy, the same entering entropy, but double the mass velocity.
9.21. Which, if any, of the ratios tabulated in the Fanno table (T /T ∗ , p/p∗ , pt /pt∗ , etc.)
could also be listed in the Isentropic table with the same numerical values?
9.22. A contractor is to connect an air supply from a compressor to test apparatus 21 ft away.
The exit diameter of the compressor is 2 in. and the entrance to the test equipment
has a 1-in.-diameter pipe. The contractor has the choice of putting a reducer at the
compressor followed by 1-in. tubing or using 2-in. tubing and putting the reducer at the
entrance to the test equipment. Since smaller tubing is cheaper and less obtrusive, the
contractor is leaning toward the first possibility, but just to be sure, he sends the problem
to the engineering personnel. The air coming out of the compressor is at 520°R and the
pressure is 40 psia. The flow rate is 0.7 lbm/sec. Consider that each size of tubing has an
effective f = 0.02. What would be the conditions at the entrance to the test equipment
for each tubing size? (You may assume isentropic flow everywhere but in the 21 ft of
tubing.)
9.23. (Optional) (a) Introduce the ∗ reference condition into equation (9.27) and develop an
expression for (s ∗ − s)/R.
(b) Write a computer program for the expression developed in part (a) and compute a
table of (s ∗ − s)/R versus Mach number. Also include other entries of the Fanno
table. Check your values with those listed in Appendix I.
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
CHECK TEST
275
9.1. Sketch a Fanno line in the h–v plane. Include enough additional information as necessary
to locate the sonic point and then identify the regions of subsonic and supersonic flow.
9.2. Fill in the blanks in Table CT9.2 to indicate whether the quantities increase, decrease, or
remain constant in the case of Fanno flow.
Table CT9.2
Analysis of Fanno Flow
Property
Subsonic Regime
Supersonic Regime
Velocity
Temperature
Pressure
Thrust function
(p + ρV 2 /gc )
9.3. In the system shown in Figure CT9.3, the friction length of the duct is f x/D = 12.40
and the Mach number at the exit is 0.8. A3 = 1.5 in2 and A4 = 1.0 in2. What is the air
pressure in the tank if the receiver is at 15 psia?
Figure CT9.3
9.4. Over what range of receiver pressures will normal shocks occur someplace within the
system shown in Figure CT9.4? The area ratio of the nozzle is A3 /A2 = 2.403 and the
duct f x/D = 0.30.
Figure CT9.4
276
FANNO FLOW
9.5. There is no friction in the system shown in Figure CT9.5 except in the constant-area ducts
from 3 to 4 and from 6 to 7. Sketch the T –s diagram for the entire system.
Figure CT9.5
9.6. Starting with the basic principles of continuity, energy, and so on, derive an expression for
the property ratio p2 /p1 in terms of Mach numbers and the specific heat ratio for Fanno
flow with a perfect gas.
9.7. Work Problem 9.18.
Chapter 10
Rayleigh Flow
10.1
INTRODUCTION
In the chapter we consider the consequences of heat crossing the boundaries of
a system. To isolate the effects of heat transfer from the other major factors we
assume flow in a constant-area duct without friction. At first this may seem to be
an unrealistic situation, but actually it is a good first approximation to many real
problems, as most heat exchangers have constant-area flow passages. It is also a
simple and reasonably equivalent process for a constant-area combustion chamber.
Naturally, in these actual systems, frictional effects are present, and what we really
are saying is the following:
In systems where high rates of heat transfer occur, the entropy change caused by the
heat transfer is much greater than that caused by friction, or
dse dsi
(10.1)
ds ≈ dse
(10.2)
Thus
and the frictional effects may be neglected. There are obviously some flows for which
this assumption is not reasonable and other methods must be used to obtain more
accurate predictions for these systems.
We first examine the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid and will again find that
property variations follow different patterns in the subsonic and supersonic regimes.
The flow of a perfect gas is considered with the now familiar end result of constructing
a table. This category of problem is called Rayleigh flow.
277
278
10.2
RAYLEIGH FLOW
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. State the assumptions made in the analysis of Rayleigh flow.
2. (Optional) Simplify the general equations of continuity, energy, and momentum to obtain basic relations valid for any fluid in Rayleigh flow.
3. Sketch a Rayleigh line in the p–v plane together with lines of constant entropy
and constant temperature (for a typical gas). Indicate directions of increasing
entropy and temperature.
4. Sketch a Rayleigh line in the h–s plane. Also sketch the corresponding stagnation curves. Identify the sonic point and regions of subsonic and supersonic
flow.
5. Describe the variations in fluid properties that occur as flow progresses along a
Rayleigh line for the case of heating and also for cooling. Do for both subsonic
and supersonic flow.
6. (Optional) Starting with basic principles of continuity, energy, and momentum, derive expressions for property ratios such as T2 /T1 , p2 /p1 , and so on,
in terms of Mach number (M) and specific heat ratio (γ ) for Rayleigh flow
with a perfect gas.
7. Describe (include a T –s diagram) how a Rayleigh table is developed with the
aid of a ∗ reference location.
8. Compare similarities and differences between Rayleigh flow and normal
shocks. Sketch an h–s diagram showing a typical Rayleigh line and a normal
shock for the same mass velocity.
9. Explain what is meant by thermal choking.
10. (Optional) Describe some possible consequences of adding more heat in a
choked Rayleigh flow situation (for both subsonic and supersonic flow).
11. Demonstrate the ability to solve typical Rayleigh flow problems by use of the
appropriate tables and equations.
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
We shall first consider the general behavior of an arbitrary fluid. To isolate the effects
of heat transfer we make the following assumptions
Steady one-dimensional flow
Negligible friction
No shaft work
Neglect potential
Constant area
dsi ≈ 0
δws = 0
dz = 0
dA = 0
We proceed by applying the basic concepts of continuity, energy, and momentum.
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
279
Continuity
ṁ = ρAV = const
(2.30)
but since the flow area is constant, this reduces to
ρV = const
(10.3)
From our work in Chapter 9 we know that this constant is G, the mass velocity, and
thus
ρV = G = const
(10.4)
Energy
We start with
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(3.19)
which for no shaft work becomes
ht1 + q = ht2
(10.5)
Warning! This is the first major flow category for which the total enthalpy has not
been constant. By now you have accumulated a store of knowledge—all based on
flows for which ht = constant. Examine carefully any information that you retrieve
from your memory bank!
Momentum
We now proceed to apply the momentum equation to the control volume shown in Figure 10.1. The x-component of the momentum equation for steady, one-dimensional
flow is
Fx =
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx
gc
(3.46)
From Figure 10.1 we see that this becomes
p1 A − p 2 A =
ρAV
(V2 − V1 )
gc
(10.6)
280
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Figure 10.1 Momentum analysis for Rayleigh flow.
Canceling the area, we have
p1 − p 2 =
ρV
G
(V2 − V1 ) = (V2 − V1 )
gc
gc
(10.7)
Show that this can be written as
p+
GV
= const
gc
(10.8)
Alternative forms of equation (10.8) are
p+
G2
= const
gc ρ
(10.9a)
p+
G2
v = const
gc
(10.9b)
As an aside we might note that this is the same relation that holds across a standing
normal shock. Recall that for the normal shock:
p+ρ
V2
= const
gc
(6.9)
In both cases we are led to equivalent results since both analyses deal with constant
area and assume negligible friction.
If we multiply equation (6.9) or (10.8) by the constant area, we obtain
pA +
(ρAV )V
= const
gc
(10.10)
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
281
or
pA +
ṁV
= const
gc
(10.11)
The constant in equation (10.11) is called the impulse function or thrust function by
various authors. We shall see a reason for these names when we study propulsion
devices in Chapter 12. For now let us merely note that the thrust function remains
constant for Rayleigh flow and across a normal shock.
We return now to equation (10.9b), which will plot as a straight line in the p–v
plane (see Figure 10.2). Such a line is called a Rayleigh line and represents flow
at a particular mass velocity (G). If the fluid is known, one can also plot lines of
constant temperature on the same diagram. Typical isothermals can be obtained easily
by assuming the perfect gas equation of state. Some of these pv = const lines are also
shown in Figure 10.2.
Does the information depicted by this plot make sense? Normally, we would
expect the effects of simple heating to increase the temperature and decrease the
density. This appears to be in agreement with a process from point 1 to point 2 as
marked in Figure 10.2. If we add more heat, we move farther along the Rayleigh line
and the temperature increases more. Soon point 3 is reached where the temperature
is a maximum. Is this a limiting point of some sort? Have we reached some kind of a
choked condition?
To answer these questions, we must turn elsewhere. Recall that the addition of heat
causes the entropy of the fluid to increase since
Figure 10.2 Rayleigh line in p–v plane.
282
RAYLEIGH FLOW
dse =
δq
T
(3.10)
From our basic assumption of negligible friction,
ds ≈ dse
(10.2)
Thus it appears that the real limiting condition involves entropy (as usual). We can
continue to add heat until the fluid reaches a state of maximum entropy. It might
be that this point of maximum entropy is reached before the point of maximum
temperature, in which case we would never be able to reach point 3 (of Figure 10.2).
We must investigate the shape of constant entropy lines in the p–v diagram. This can
easily be done for the case of a perfect gas that will serve to illustrate the general
trend.
For a T = constant line,
pv = RT = const
(10.12)
p dv + v dp = 0
(10.13)
dp
p
=−
dv
v
(10.14)
pv γ = const
(10.15)
v γ dp + pγ v γ −1 dv = 0
(10.16)
p
dp
= −γ
dv
v
(10.17)
Differentiating yields
and
For an S = constant line,
Differentiating yields
and
Comparing equations (10.14) and (10.17) and noting that γ is always greater than
1.0, we see that the isentropic line has the greater negative slope and thus these lines
will plot as shown in Figure 10.3. (Actually, this should come as no great surprise
since they were shown this way in Figure 1.2; but did you really believe it then?)
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
283
Figure 10.3 Rayleigh line in p–v plane.
We now see that not only can we reach the point of maximum temperature, but
more heat can be added to take us beyond this point. If desired, we can move (by
heating) all the way to the maximum entropy point. It may seem odd that in the region
from point 3 to 4, we add heat to the system and its temperature decreases. Let us
reflect further on the phenomenon occurring. In a previous discussion we noted that
the effects of heat addition are normally thought of as causing the fluid density to
decrease. This requires the velocity to increase since ρV = constant by continuity.
This velocity increase automatically boosts the kinetic energy of the fluid by a certain
amount. Thus the chain of events caused by heat addition forces a definite increase
in kinetic energy. Some of the heat that is added to the system is converted into this
increase in kinetic energy of the fluid, with the heat energy in excess of this amount
being available to increase the enthalpy of the fluid.
Noting that kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity, we realize that
as higher velocities are reached, the addition of more heat is accompanied by much
greater increases in kinetic energy. Eventually, we reach a point where all of the heat
energy added is required for the kinetic energy increase. At this point there is no
heat energy left over and the system is at a point of maximum enthalpy (maximum
temperature for a perfect gas). Further addition of heat causes the kinetic energy to
increase by an amount greater than the heat energy being added. Thus, from this point
on, the enthalpy must decrease to provide the proper energy balance.
Perhaps the foregoing discussion would be more clear if the Rayleigh lines were
plotted in the h–s plane. For any given fluid this could easily be done, and the typical
result is shown in Figure 10.4, along with lines of constant pressure. All points on
284
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Figure 10.4 Rayleigh line in h–s plane.
this Rayleigh line represent states with the same mass flow rate per unit area (mass
velocity) and the same impulse (or thrust) function. For heat addition, the entropy
must increase and the flow moves to the right. Thus it appears that the Rayleigh
line, like the Fanno line, is divided into two distinct branches that are separated by a
limiting point of maximum entropy.
We have been discussing a familiar heating process along the upper branch. What
about the lower branch? Mark two points along the lower branch and draw an arrow to indicate the proper movement for a heating process. What is happening to
the enthalpy? The static pressure? The density? The velocity? The stagnation pressure? Use the information available in the figures together with any equations that
have been developed and fill in Table 10.1 with increases, decreases, or remains
constant.
As was the case for Fanno flow, notice that flow along the lower branch of a
Rayleigh line appears to be a regime with which we are not very familiar. The point
of maximum entropy is some sort of a limiting point that separates these two flow
regimes.
Table 10.1
Analysis of Rayleigh Flow for Heating
Property
Enthalpy
Density
Velocity
Pressure (static)
Pressure (stagnation)
Upper Branch
Lower Branch
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
285
Limiting Point
Let’s start with the equation of a Rayleigh line in the form
p+
G2
= const
gc ρ
(10.9a)
Differentiating gives us
dp +
G2
gc
−
dρ
ρ2
=0
(10.18)
Upon introduction of equation (10.4), this becomes
G2
dp
V2
=
=
dρ
gc ρ 2
gc
(10.19)
Thus we have for an arbitrary fluid that
V 2 = gc
dp
dρ
(10.20)
which is valid anyplace along the Rayleigh line. Now for a differential movement at
the limit point of maximum entropy, ds = 0 or s = const. Thus, at this point equation
(10.20) becomes
∂p
(at the limit point)
(10.21)
V 2 = gc
∂ρ s=c
This is immediately recognized as sonic velocity. The upper branch of the Rayleigh
line, where property variations appear reasonable, is seen to be a region of subsonic
flow and the lower branch is for supersonic flow. Once again we notice that occurrences in supersonic flow are frequently contrary to our expectations.
Another interesting fact can be shown to be true at the limit point. From equation
(10.19) we have
dp =
V2
dρ
gc
(10.22)
Differentiating equation (10.4), we can show that
dρ = −ρ
dV
V
Combining equations (10.22) and (10.23), we obtain
(10.23)
286
RAYLEIGH FLOW
dp = −ρ
V
dV
gc
(10.24)
This can be introduced into the property relation
T ds = dh −
dp
ρ
(1.41)
to obtain
T ds = dh +
V dV
gc
(10.25)
At the limit point where M = 1, ds = 0, and (10.25) becomes
0 = dh +
V dV
gc
(at the limit point)
(10.26)
If we neglect potentials, our definition of stagnation enthalpy is
ht = h +
V2
2gc
(3.18)
which when differentiated becomes
dht = dh +
V dV
gc
(10.27)
Therefore, comparing equations (10.26) and (10.27), we see that equation (10.26)
really tells us that
dht = 0
(at the limit point)
(10.28)
and thus the limit point is seen to be a point of maximum stagnation enthalpy. This
is easily confirmed by looking at equation (10.5). The stagnation enthalpy increases
as long as heat can be added. At the point of maximum entropy, no more heat can be
added and thus ht must be a maximum at this location.
We have not talked very much of stagnation enthalpy except to note that it is
changing. Figure 10.5 shows the Rayleigh line (which represents the locus of static
states) together with the corresponding stagnation reference lines. Remember that for
a perfect gas this h–s diagram is equivalent to a T –s diagram. Notice that there are
two stagnation curves, one for subsonic flow and the other for supersonic flow. You
might ask how we know that the supersonic stagnation curve is the top one. We can
show this by starting with the differential form of the energy equation:
δq = δws + dht
(3.20)
10.3
ANALYSIS FOR A GENERAL FLUID
287
Figure 10.5 Rayleigh line in h–s plane (including stagnation curves).
or
δq = dht
(10.29)
Knowing that
δq = T dse
(3.10)
dse ≈ ds
(10.2)
and
we have for Rayleigh flow that
dht = T dse = T ds
(10.30)
dht
=T
ds
(10.31)
or
Note that equation (10.31) gives the slope of the stagnation curve in terms of the static
temperature.
288
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Now draw a constant-entropy line on Figure 10.5. This line will cross the subsonic
branch of the (static) Rayleigh line at a higher temperature than where it crosses the
supersonic branch. Consequently, the slope of the subsonic stagnation reference curve
will be greater than that of the supersonic stagnation curve. Since both stagnation
curves must come together at the point of maximum entropy, this means that the
supersonic stagnation curve is a separate curve lying above the subsonic one. In
Section 10.7 we see another reason why this must be so.
In which direction does a cooling process move along the subsonic branch of
the Rayleigh line? Along the supersonic branch? From Figure 10.5 it would appear
that the stagnation pressure will increase during a cooling process. This can be
substantiated from the stagnation pressure–energy equation:
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) + Tt dsi + δws = 0
ρt
(3.25)
With the assumptions made for Rayleigh flow, this reduces to
dpt
+ dse (Tt − T ) = 0
ρt
(10.32)
Now (Tt − T ) is always positive. Thus, the sign of dpt can be seen to depend only
on dse .
For heating,
dse +;
thus dpt −,
or pt decreases
dse −;
thus dpt +,
or
For cooling,
pt increases
In practice, the latter condition is difficult to achieve because the friction that is
inevitably present introduces a greater drop in stagnation pressure than the rise created
by the cooling process, unless the cooling is done by vaporization of an injected
liquid. (See “The Aerothermopressor: A Device for Improving the Performance of a
Gas Turbine Power Plant” by A. H. Shapiro et al., Transactions of the ASME, April
1956.)
10.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
By this time you should have a good idea of the property changes that are occurring in
both subsonic and supersonic Rayleigh flow. Remember that we can progress along a
Rayleigh line in either direction, depending on whether the heat is being added to or
removed from the system. We now proceed to develop relations between properties
at arbitrary sections. Recall that we want these working equations to be expressed in
10.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
289
terms of Mach numbers and the specific heat ratio. To obtain explicit relations, we
assume the fluid to be a perfect gas.
Momentum
We start with the momentum equation developed in Section 10.3 since this will lead
directly to a pressure ratio:
p+
GV
= const
gc
(10.8)
or from (10.4) this can be written as
p+
ρV 2
= const
gc
(10.33)
Substitute for density from the equation of state:
ρ=
p
RT
(10.34)
and for the velocity from equations (4.9) and (4.11):
V 2 = M 2 a 2 = M 2 γ gc RT
(10.35)
Show that equation (10.33) becomes
p(1 + γ M 2 ) = const
(10.36)
If we apply this between two arbitrary points, we have
p1 (1 + γ M12 ) = p2 (1 + γ M22 )
(10.37)
1 + γ M12
p2
=
p1
1 + γ M22
(10.38)
which can be solved for
Continuity
From Section 10.3 we have
ρV = G = constant
(10.4)
290
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Again, if we introduce the perfect gas equation of state together with the definition
of Mach number and sonic velocity, equation (10.4) can be expressed as
pM
√ = constant
T
(10.39)
Written between two points, this gives us
p1 M 1
p2 M2
= √
√
T1
T2
(10.40)
which can be solved for the temperature ratio:
p 2M 2
T2
= 22 22
T1
p1 M 1
(10.41)
The introduction of the pressure ratio from (10.38) results in the following working
equation for static temperatures:
T2
=
T1
1 + γ M12
1 + γ M22
2
M22
M12
(10.42)
The density relation can easily be obtained from equations (10.38) and (10.42) and
the perfect gas equation of state:
M2
ρ2
= 12
ρ1
M2
1 + γ M22
1 + γ M12
(10.43)
Does this also represent something else besides the density ratio? [See equation
(10.4).]
Stagnation Conditions
This is the first flow that we have examined in which the stagnation enthalpy does
not remain constant. Thus we must seek a stagnation temperature ratio for use with
perfect gases. We know that
Tt = T
1+
γ −1 2
M
2
(4.18)
If we write this for each location and then divide one equation by the other, we will
have
10.4 WORKING EQUATIONS FOR PERFECT GASES
Tt2
T2
=
Tt1
T1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
291
(10.44)
Since we already have solved for the static temperature ratio (10.42), this can immediately be written as
Tt2
=
Tt1
1 + γ M12
1 + γ M22
2
M22
M12
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
(10.45)
Similarly, we can obtain an expression for the stagnation pressure ratio, since we
know that
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
pt = p 1 +
2
(4.21)
which means that
pt2
p2
=
pt1
p1
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
(10.46)
Substitution for the pressure ratio from equation (10.38) yields
1 + γ M12
pt2
=
pt1
1 + γ M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M22
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M12
γ /(γ −1)
(10.47)
Incidentally, is this stagnation pressure ratio related to the entropy change in the
usual manner?
pt2 ? −s/R
= e
pt1
(4.28)
What assumptions were used to develop equation (4.28)? Are these the same
assumptions that were made for Rayleigh flow? If not, how would you go about
determining the entropy change between two points? Would the method used in
Chapter 9 for Fanno flow be applicable here? [See equations (9.25) to (9.27).]
In summary, we have developed the means to solve for all properties at one location
(2) if we know all the properties at some other location (1) and the Mach number
at point (2). Actually, any piece of information about point (2) would suffice. For
example, we might be given the pressure at (2). The Mach number at (2) could then
292
RAYLEIGH FLOW
be found from equation (10.38) and the solution for the other properties could be
carried out in the usual manner.
There are also some types of problems in which nothing is known at the downstream section and our job is to predict the final Mach number given the initial conditions and information on the heat transferred to or from the system. For this we turn
to the fundamental relation that involves heat transfer.
Energy
From Section 10.3 we have
ht1 + q = ht2
(10.5)
For perfect gases we express enthalpy as
h = cp T
(1.48)
which can also be applied to the stagnation conditions
ht = cp Tt
(10.48)
Thus the energy equation can be written as
cp Tt1 + q = cp Tt2
(10.49)
q = cp (Tt2 − Tt1 )
(10.50)
q = cp Tt = cp T
(10.51)
or
Note carefully that
In all of the developments above we have not only introduced the perfect gas
equation of state but have made the usual assumption of constant specific heats.
In some cases where heat transfer rates are extremely high and large temperature
changes result, cp may vary enough to warrant using an average value of cp . If, in
addition, significant variations in γ occur, it will be necessary to return to the basic
equations and derive new working relations by treating γ as a variable. See Chapter 11
on methods to apply to the analysis of such real gases.
10.5
10.5
REFERENCE STATE AND THE RAYLEIGH TABLE
293
REFERENCE STATE AND THE RAYLEIGH TABLE
The equations developed in Section 10.4 provide the means of predicting properties
at one location if sufficient information is known concerning a Rayleigh flow system.
Although the relations are straightforward, their use is frequently cumbersome and
thus we turn to techniques used previously that greatly simplify problem solution.
We introduce still another ∗ reference state defined as before, in that the Mach
number of unity must be reached by some particular process. In this case we imagine
that the Rayleigh flow is continued (i.e., more heat is added) until the velocity reaches
sonic. Figure 10.6 shows a T –s diagram for subsonic Rayleigh flow with heat addition. A sketch of the physical system is also shown. If we imagine that more heat
is added, the entropy continues to increase and we will eventually reach the limiting
point where sonic velocity exists. The dashed lines show a hypothetical duct in which
the additional heat transfer takes place. At the end we reach the ∗ reference point for
Rayleigh flow.
Figure 10.6 The ∗ reference for Rayleigh flow.
294
RAYLEIGH FLOW
The isentropic ∗ reference points have also been included on the T –s diagram to
emphasize the fact that the Rayleigh ∗ reference is a completely different thermodynamic state from those encountered before. Also, we note that proceeding from either
point 1 or point 2 by Rayleigh flow will ultimately lead to the same state when Mach 1
is reached. Thus we do not have to write 1∗ or 2∗ but simply ∗ in the case of Rayleigh
flow. (Recall that this was also true for Fanno flow. You should also realize that the
∗
reference for Rayleigh flow has nothing to do with the ∗ reference used in Fanno
flow.) Notice in Figure 10.6 that the various ∗ locations are not on a horizontal line
as they were for Fanno flow (see Figure 9.5). Why is this so?
In Figure 10.6 an example of subsonic heating was given. Consider a case of cooling in the supersonic regime. Figure 10.7 shows such a physical duct. Locate points
1 and 2 on the accompanying T –s diagram. Also show the hypothetical duct and the
∗
reference point on the physical system. We now rewrite the working equations in
terms of the Rayleigh flow ∗ reference condition. Consider first
1 + γ M12
p2
=
p1
1 + γ M22
(10.38)
Let point 2 be any arbitrary point in the flow system and let its Rayleigh ∗ condition
be point 1. Then
p2 ⇒ p
M2 ⇒ M (any value)
p1 ⇒ p ∗
M1 ⇒ 1
and equation (10.38) becomes
1+γ
p
=
= f (M,γ )
p∗
1 + γ M2
(10.52)
We see that p/p∗ = f (M,γ ), and thus a table can be computed for p/p ∗ versus
M for a particular γ . By now this scheme is quite familiar and you should have no
difficulty in showing that
Figure 10.7 Supersonic cooling in Rayleigh flow.
10.6
APPLICATIONS
295
T
M 2 (1 + γ )2
=
= f (M,γ )
T∗
(1 + γ M 2 )2
(10.53)
ρ
1 + γ M2
=
= f (M,γ )
ρ∗
(1 + γ )M 2
(10.54)
Tt
2(1 + γ )M 2
∗ =
Tt
(1 + γ M 2 )2
pt
1+γ
=
pt ∗
1 + γ M2
1+
γ −1 2
M
2
= f (M,γ )
1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M 2
(γ + 1)/2
(10.55)
γ /(γ −1)
= f (M,γ )
(10.56)
Values for the functions represented in equations (10.52) through (10.56) are listed
in the Rayleigh table in Appendix J. Examples of the use of this table are given in the
next section.
10.6
APPLICATIONS
The procedure for solving Rayleigh flow problems is quite similar to the approach
used for Fanno flow except that the tie between the two locations in Rayleigh flow is
determined by heat transfer considerations rather than by duct friction. The recommended steps are, therefore, as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sketch the physical situation (including the hypothetical ∗ reference point).
Label sections where conditions are known or desired.
List all given information with units.
Determine the unknown Mach number.
Calculate the additional properties desired.
Variations on the procedure above are frequently involved at step 4, depending
on what information is known. For example, the amount of heat transferred may be
given and a prediction of the downstream Mach number might be desired. On the
other hand, one of the downstream properties may be known and we could be asked
to compute the heat transfer. In flow systems that involve a combination of Rayleigh
flow and other phenomena (such as shocks, nozzles, etc.), a T –s diagram is sometimes
a great aid to problem solution.
For the following examples we are dealing with the steady one-dimensional flow
of air (γ = 1.4), which can be treated as a perfect gas. Assume that ws = 0, negligible
friction, constant area, and negligible potential changes. Figure E10.1 is common to
Examples 10.1 and 10.2.
Example 10.1 For Figure E10.1, given M1 = 1.5, p1 = 10 psia, and M2 = 3.0, find p2 and
the direction of heat transfer.
296
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Figure E10.1
Since both Mach numbers are known, we can solve immediately for
p2 =
p2 p∗
1
(10) = 3.05 psia
p
=
(0.1765)
1
p ∗ p1
0.5783
The flow is getting more supersonic, or moving away from the ∗ reference point. A look at
Figure 10.5 should confirm that the entropy is decreasing and thus heat is being removed from
the system. Alternatively, we could compute the ratio Tt2 /Tt1 .
Tt2 T ∗
1
Tt2
= 0.719
= ∗ t = (0.6540)
Tt1
Tt Tt1
0.9093
Since this ratio is less than 1, it indicates a cooling process.
Example 10.2 Given M2 = 0.93, Tt2 = 300°C, and Tt1 = 100°C, find M1 and p2 /p1 .
To determine conditions at section 1 in Figure E10.1 we must establish the ratio
Tt1 Tt2
Tt1
=
=
Tt ∗
Tt2 Tt ∗
273 + 100
(0.9963) = 0.6486
273 + 300
Look up Tt /Tt ∗ = 0.6486 in the Rayleigh table and determine that M1 = 0.472. Thus
p2
1
p2 p∗
= 0.593
= ∗
= (1.0856)
p1
p p1
1.8294
Example 10.3 A constant-area combustion chamber is supplied air at 400°R and 10.0 psia
(Figure E10.3). The air stream has a velocity of 402 ft/sec. Determine the exit conditions if 50
Btu/lbm is added in the combustion process and the chamber handles the maximum amount of
air possible.
For the chamber to handle the maximum amount of air there will be no spillover at the
entrance and conditions at 2 will be the same as those of the free stream.
T2 = T1 = 400°R
p2 = p1 = 10.0 psia
V2 = V1 = 402 ft/sec
a2 = γ gc RT2 = [(1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(400)]1/2 = 980 ft/sec
M2 =
V2
402
= 0.410
=
a2
980
10.6
Tt2 =
Tt2
T2 =
T2
APPLICATIONS
297
1
(400) = 413°R
0.9675
Figure E10.3
From the Rayleigh table at M2 = 0.41, we find that
Tt2
= 0.5465
Tt ∗
T2
= 0.6345
T∗
p2
= 1.9428
p∗
To determine conditions at the end of the chamber, we must work through the heat transfer that
fixes the outlet stagnation temperature:
Tt =
q
50
= 208°R
=
cp
0.24
Thus
Tt3 = Tt2 + Tt = 413 + 208 = 621°R
and
Tt3 Tt2
Tt3
=
=
Tt ∗
Tt2 Tt ∗
621
(0.5465) = 0.8217
413
We enter the Rayleigh table with this value of Tt /Tt ∗ and find that
M3 = 0.603
T3
= 0.9196
T∗
p3
= 1.5904
p∗
Thus
p3 p ∗
1
(10.0) = 8.19 psia
p2 = (1.5904)
p3 = ∗
p p2
1.9428
and
T3 =
T3 T ∗
1
(400) = 580°R
T
=
(0.9196)
2
T ∗ T2
0.6345
298
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Example 10.4 In Example 10.3, let us ask the question: How much more heat (fuel) could be
added without changing conditions at the entrance to the duct? We know that as more heat is
added, we move along the Rayleigh line until the point of maximum entropy is reached. Thus
M3 will now be 1.0 (Figure E10.4).
Figure E10.4
From Example 10.3 we have M2 = 0.41 and Tt2 = 413°R. Then
T ∗
1
Tt3 = Tt ∗ = t Tt2 =
(413) = 756°R
Tt2
0.5465
p∗
1
p3 = p ∗ =
(10.0) = 5.15 psia
p2 =
p2
1.9428
and
q = cp Tt = (0.24)(756 − 413) = 82.3 Btu/lbm
or 32.3 Btu/lbm more than the original 50 Btu/lbm .
In these last two examples it has been assumed that the outlet pressure is maintained at the values calculated. Actually, in Example 10.4 the receiver pressure could
be anywhere below 5.15 psia, since sonic velocity exists at the exit.
10.7
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
At various places in this chapter we have pointed out some similarities between
Rayleigh flow and normal shocks. Let us review these points carefully.
1. The end points before and after a normal shock represent states with the same
mass flow per unit area, the same impulse function, and the same stagnation
enthalpy.
2. A Rayleigh line represents states with the same mass flow per unit area and
the same impulse function. All points on a Rayleigh line do not have the same
stagnation enthalpy because of the heat transfer involved. To move along a
Rayleigh line requires this heat transfer.
10.7
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
299
Figure 10.8 Static and stagnation curves for Rayleigh flow.
Figure 10.9 Combination of Rayleigh flow and normal shock.
For confirmation of the above, compare equations (6.2), (6.3), and (6.9) for a
normal shock with equations (10.4), (10.5), and (10.9) for Rayleigh flow. Now check
Figure 10.8 and you will notice that for every point on the supersonic branch of the
Rayleigh line there is a corresponding point on the subsonic branch with the same
stagnation enthalpy. Thus these two points satisfy all three conditions for the end
points of a normal shock and could be connected by such a shock.
300
RAYLEIGH FLOW
Figure 10.10 Correlation of Fanno flow, Rayleigh flow, and a normal shock for the same
mass velocity.
We can now picture a supersonic Rayleigh flow followed by a normal shock, with
additional heat transfer taking place subsonically. Such a situation is shown in Figure
10.9. Note that the shock merely jumps the flow from the supersonic branch to the
subsonic branch of the same Rayleigh line. This also brings to light another reason
why the supersonic stagnation curve must lie above the subsonic stagnation curve. If
this were not so, a shock would exhibit a decrease in entropy, which is not correct.
If you recall the information from Section 9.7 dealing with the correlation of Fanno
flow and shocks, it should now be apparent that the end points of a normal shock can
represent the intersection of a Fanno line and a Rayleigh line as shown in Figure
10.10. Remember that these Fanno and Rayleigh lines are for the same mass velocity
(mass flow per unit area).
Example 10.5 Air enters a constant-area duct with a Mach number of 1.6, a temperature of
200 K, and a pressure of 0.56 bar (Figure E10.5). After some heat transfer a normal shock
occurs, whereupon the area is reduced as shown. At the exit the Mach number is found to be
1.0 and the pressure is 1.20 bar. Compute the amount and direction of heat transfer.
It is not known whether a heating or cooling process is involved. We construct the T –s
diagram under the assumption that cooling takes place and will find out if this is correct. The
flow from 3 to 4 is isentropic; thus
pt4
1
pt3 = pt4 =
(1.20) = 2.2714 bar
p4 =
p4
0.5283
10.7
CORRELATION WITH SHOCKS
301
Figure E10.5
Note that point 3 is on the same Rayleigh line as point 1 and this permits us to compute M2
through the use of the Rayleigh table. This approach might not have occurred to us had we not
drawn the T –s diagram.
pt3 p1 pt1
pt3
=
=
pt ∗
p1 pt1 pt ∗
2.2714
(0.2353)(1.1756) = 1.1220
0.56
From the Rayleigh table we find M3 = 0.481 and from the shock table, M2 = 2.906.
Now we can compute the stagnation temperatures:
1
(200) = 302 K
0.6614
Tt1 =
Tt1
T1 =
T1
Tt2 =
Tt2 Tt ∗
1
(302) = 226 K
T
=
(0.6629)
t1
Tt ∗ Tt1
0.8842
and the heat transfer:
q = cp (Tt2 − Tt1 ) = (1000)(226 − 302) = −7.6 × 104 J/kg
The minus sign indicates a cooling process that is consistent with the Mach number’s increase
from 1.60 to 2.906.
302
RAYLEIGH FLOW
10.8 THERMAL CHOKING DUE TO HEATING
In Section 5.7 we discussed area choking, and in Section 9.8, friction choking. In
Fanno flow, recall that once sufficient duct was added, or the receiver pressure was
lowered far enough, we reached a Mach number of unity at the end of the duct. Further
reduction of the receiver pressure could not affect conditions in the flow system. The
addition of any more duct caused the flow to move along a new Fanno line at a reduced
flow rate. You might wish to review Figure 9.11, which shows this physical situation
along with the corresponding T –s diagram.
Subsonic Rayleigh flow is quite similar. Figure 10.11 shows a given duct fed by
a large tank and converging nozzle. Once sufficient heat has been added, we reach
Mach 1 at the end of the duct. The T –s diagram for this is shown as path 1–2–3. This
is called thermal choking. It is assumed that the receiver pressure is at p3 or below.
Figure 10.11 Addition of more heat when choked.
10.8 THERMAL CHOKING DUE TO HEATING
303
Reduction of the receiver pressure below p3 would not affect the flow conditions
inside the system. However, the addition of more heat will change these conditions.
Now suppose that we add more heat to the system. This would probably be done
by increasing the heat transfer rate through the walls of the original duct. However,
it is more convenient to indicate the additional heat transfer at the original rate in
an extra piece of duct, as shown in Figure 10.11. The only way that the system can
reflect the required additional entropy change is to move to a new Rayleigh line at a
decreased flow rate. This is shown as path 1–2 –3 – 4 on the T –s diagram. Whether
or not the exit velocity remains sonic depends on how much extra heat is added and
on the receiver pressure imposed on the system.
As a specific example of choked flow we return to the combustion chamber of
Example 10.4, which had the maximum amount of heat addition possible, assuming
that the free-stream air flow entered the chamber with no change in velocity. We now
consider what happens as more fuel (heat) is added.
Example 10.6 Continuing with Example 10.4, let us add sufficient fuel to raise the outlet
stagnation temperature to 3000°R. Assume that the receiver pressure is very low so that sonic
velocity still exists at the exit. The additional entropy generated by the extra fuel can only be
accommodated by moving to a new Rayleigh line at a decreased flow rate which lowers the
inlet Mach number. If the chamber is fed by the same air stream some spillage must occur at
the entrance. This produces a region of external diffusion, as shown in Figure E10.6, which is
isentropic. We would like to know the Mach number at the inlet and the pressure at the exit.
Since it is isentropic from the free stream to the inlet, we know that
Tt2 = Tt1 = 413°R
and since M3 = 1, we know that Tt3 = Tt ∗ .
Thus we can determine conditions at 2 by computing
Tt2 Tt3
Tt2
413
(1) = 0.1377
=
=
Tt ∗
Tt3 Tt ∗
3000
and from the Rayleigh table, M2 = 0.176 and p2 /p∗ = 2.3002.
Figure E10.6
304
RAYLEIGH FLOW
To find the pressure at the outlet we need to use both the isentropic table and the Rayleigh
table.
First
p2 pt2 pt1
1
p2 =
(10.0) = 10.99 psia
p1 = (0.9786)(1)
pt2 pt1 p1
0.8907
then
p3 =
p3 p ∗
1
(10.99) = 4.78 psia
p
=
(1)
2
p∗ p2
2.3002
Note that to maintain sonic velocity at the chamber exit, the pressure in the receiver must be
reduced to at least 4.78 psia.
Suppose that in Example 10.6 we were unable to lower the receiver pressure to 4.78
psia. Assume that as fuel was added to raise the stagnation temperature to 3000°R,
the pressure in the receiver was maintained at its previous value of 5.15 psia. This
would lower the flow rate even further as we move to another Rayleigh line with a
lower mass velocity, and this time the exit velocity would not be quite sonic. Although
both M2 and M3 are unknown, two pieces of information are given at the exit. Two
simultaneous equations could be written, but it is easier to use tables and a trialand-error solution. The important thing to remember is that once a subsonic flow is
thermally choked, the addition of more heat causes the flow rate to decrease. Just how
much it decreases and whether or not the exit remains sonic depends on the pressure
that exists after the exit.
Figure 10.12 Influence of shock on maximum heat transfer.
10.9 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
305
The parallel between choked Rayleigh and Fanno flow does not quite extend into
the supersonic regime. Recall that for choked Fanno flow the addition of more duct
introduced a shock in the duct which permitted considerably more friction length
to the sonic point (see Figure 9.12). Figure 10.12 shows a Mach 3.53 flow that has
Tt /Tt ∗ = 0.6139. For a given total temperature at this section, the value of Tt /Tt ∗
is a direct indication of the amount of heat that can be added to the choke point. If
a normal shock were to occur at this point, the Mach number after the shock would
be 0.450, which also has Tt /Tt ∗ = 0.6139. Thus the heat added after the shock is
exactly the same as it would be without the shock.
The situation above is not surprising since heat transfer is a function of stagnation
temperature, and this does not change across a shock (see Problem 10.11). To do any
good, the shock must occur at some location preceding the Rayleigh flow. Perhaps
this would be in a converging–diverging nozzle which produces the supersonic flow.
Or if this were a situation similar to Example 10.4 (only supersonic), a detached shock
would occur in the free stream ahead of the duct. In either case, the resulting subsonic
flow could accommodate additional heat transfer.
10.9 WHEN γ IS NOT EQUAL TO 1.4
As indicated earlier, the Rayleigh flow table in Appendix J is for γ = 1.4. The
behavior of Tt /Tt ∗ , the dominant heating function, for γ = 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67
is given in Figure 10.13 up to M = 5. Here we can see that the dependence on
γ becomes rather noticeable for M ≥ 1.4. Thus below this Mach number, the
tabulations in Appendix J can be used with little error for any γ . This means that for
subsonic flows, where most Rayleigh flow problems occur, there is little difference
Figure 10.13 Rayleigh flow Tt /Tt ∗ versus Mach number for various values of γ .
306
RAYLEIGH FLOW
between the various gases. The desired accuracy of results will govern how far you
want to carry this approximation into the supersonic region.
Strictly speaking, these curves are only representative for cases where γ variations
are negligible within the flow. However, they offer hints as to what magnitude of
changes are to be expected in other cases. Flows where γ variations are not negligible
within the flow are treated in Chapter 11.
10.10
(OPTIONAL) BEYOND THE TABLES
As illustrated in Chapter 5, one can eliminate a lot of interpolation and get accurate
answers for any ratio of the specific heats γ and/or any Mach number by using a
computer utility such as MAPLE. The calculation of equation (10.55) is well suited
to this section.
Example 10.7 Let us rework some aspects of Example 10.3 without using the Rayleigh table.
For M2 = 0.41, calculate the value of Tt /Tt ∗ . The procedure follows equation (10.55):
2(1 + γ )M 2
Tt
∗ =
Tt
(1 + γ M 2 )2
1+
γ −1 2
M
2
(10.55)
Let
g ≡ γ, a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is M2 )
Y ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is Tt /Tt ∗ )
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
[ > g2 := 1.4:
X2 := 0.41:
> Y2 := (((2*(1 + g2)*X2^2)/(1 + g2*X2^2)^2))*((1 + (g2 1)*(X2^2)/2));
Y 2 := .5465084066
Now we can proceed to find the new Mach number at station 3. The new value of Y is
(621)(0.5465)/(413) = 0.827. Now we use equation (10.55) but solve for M3 as shown below.
Note that since M is implicit in the equation, we are going to utilize “fsolve.” Let
g ≡ γ, a parameter (the ratio of specific heats)
X ≡ the dependent variable (which in this case is M3 )
Y ≡ the independent variable (which in this case is Tt /Tt ∗ )
Listed below are the precise inputs and program that you use in the computer.
10.11
SUMMARY
307
[ > g3 := 1.4:
Y3 := 0.8217:
> fsolve(Y3 = (((2*(1 + g3)*X3^2)/(1 + g3*X3^2)^2))*((1 + (g3 1)*(X3^2)/2)),X3, 0..1);
.6025749883
The answer of M3 = 0.6026 is consistent with that obtained in Example 10.3. We can now
proceed to calculate the required static properties, but this will be left as an exercise for the
reader.
10.11
SUMMARY
We have analyzed steady one-dimensional flow in a constant-area duct with heat
transfer but with negligible friction. Fluid properties can vary in a number of ways,
depending on whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic, plus consideration of the
direction of heat transfer. However, these variations are easily predicted and are
summarized in Table 10.2.
As we might expect, the property variations that occur in subsonic Rayleigh flow
follow an intuitive pattern, but we find that the behavior of a supersonic system is quite
different. Notice that even in the absence of friction, heating causes the stagnation
pressure to drop. On the other hand, a cooling process predicts an increase in pt . This
is difficult to achieve in practice (except by latent cooling), due to frictional effects
that are inevitably present.
Perhaps the most significant equations in this unit are the general ones:
ρV = G
(10.4)
ht1 + q = ht2
p+
Table 10.2
GV
= const
gc
(10.8)
Fluid Property Variation for Rayleigh Flow
Heating
Property
Velocity
Mach number
Enthalpya
Stagnation enthalpya
Pressure
Density
Stagnation pressure
Entropy
a
(10.5)
Cooling
M<1
M>1
M<1
M>1
Increase
Increase
Increase/decrease
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Increase
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Increase/decrease
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Also temperature if the fluid is a perfect gas.
308
RAYLEIGH FLOW
An alternative way of expressing the latter equation is to say that the impulse function
remains constant:
pA +
ṁV
= constant
gc
(10.11)
Along with these equations you should keep in mind the appearance of Rayleigh
lines in the p–v and h–s diagrams (see Figures 10.2 and 10.4) as well as the stagnation
reference curves (see Figure 10.5). Remember that each Rayleigh line represents
points with the same mass velocity and impulse function, and a normal shock can
connect two points on opposite branches of a Rayleigh line which have the same
stagnation enthalpy.
Working equations for perfect gases were developed and then simplified with the
introduction of a ∗ reference point. This permitted the production of tables that help
immeasurably in problem solution. Do not forget that the ∗ condition for Rayleigh
flow is not the same as those used for either isentropic or Fanno flow. Thermal choking
occurs in heat addition problems, and the reaction of a choked system to the addition
of more heat is quite similar to the way that a choked Fanno system reacts to the
addition of more duct. Remember: Drawing a good T –s diagram helps clarify your
thinking on any given problem.
PROBLEMS
In the problems that follow, you may assume that all ducts are of constant area unless specifically indicated otherwise. In these constant-area ducts you may neglect friction when heat
transfer is involved, and you may neglect heat transfer when friction is indicated. You may
neglect both heat transfer and friction in sections of varying area.
10.1. Air enters a constant-area duct with M1 = 2.95 and T1 = 500°R. Heat transfer
decreases the outlet Mach number to M2 = 1.60.
(a) Compute the exit static and stagnation temperatures.
(b) Find the amount and direction of heat transfer.
10.2. At the beginning of a duct the nitrogen pressure is 1.5 bar, the stagnation temperature
is 280 K, and the Mach number is 0.80. After some heat transfer the static pressure is
2.5 bar. Determine the direction and amount of heat transfer.
10.3. Air flows at the rate of 39.0 lbm/sec with a Mach number of 0.30, a pressure of 50
psia, and a temperature of 650°R. The duct has a 0.5-ft2 cross-sectional area. Find
the final Mach number, the stagnation temperature ratio Tt2 /Tt1 , and the density ratio
ρ2 /ρ1 , if heat is added at the rate of 290 Btu/lbm of air.
10.4. In a flow of air p1 = 1.35 × 105 N/m2 , T1 = 500 K, and V1 = 540 m/s. Heat transfer
occurs in a constant-area duct until the ratio Tt2 /Tt1 = 0.639.
(a) Compute the final conditions M2 , p2 , and T2 .
(b) What is the entropy change for the air?
PROBLEMS
309
10.5. At some point in a flow system of oxygen M1 = 3.0, Tt1 = 800°R, and p1 = 35 psia.
At a section farther along in the duct, the Mach number has been reduced to M2 =
1.5 by heat transfer.
(a) Find the static and stagnation temperatures and pressures at the downstream section.
(b) Determine the direction and amount of heat transfer that took place between these
two sections.
10.6. Show that for a constant-area, frictionless, steady, one-dimensional flow of a perfect
gas, the maximum amount of heat that can be added to the system is given by the
expression
(M12 − 1)2
qmax
=
cp T1
2M12 (γ + 1)
10.7. Starting with equation (10.53), show that the√maximum (static) temperature in Rayleigh flow occurs when the Mach number is 1/γ .
10.8. Air enters a 15-cm-diameter duct with a velocity of 120 m/s. The pressure is 1 atm
and the temperature is 100°C.
(a) How much heat must be added to the flow to create the maximum (static) temperature?
(b) Determine the final temperature and pressure for the conditions of part (a).
10.9. The 12-in.-diameter duct shown in Figure P10.9 has a friction factor of 0.02 and no
heat transfer from section 1 to 2. There is negligible friction from 2 to 3. Sufficient
heat is added in the latter portion to just choke the flow at the exit. The fluid is nitrogen.
Figure P10.9
(a) Draw a T –s diagram for the system, showing the complete Fanno and Rayleigh
lines involved.
(b) Determine the Mach number and stagnation conditions at section 2.
(c) Determine the static and stagnation conditions at section 3.
(d) How much heat was added to the flow?
310
RAYLEIGH FLOW
10.10. Conditions just prior to a standing normal shock in air are M1 = 3.53, with a temperature of 650°R and a pressure of 12 psia.
(a) Compute the conditions that exist just after the shock.
(b) Show that these two points lie on the same Fanno line.
(c) Show that these two points lie on the same Rayleigh line.
10.11. Air enters a duct with a Mach number of 2.0, and the temperature and pressure are 170
K and 0.7 bar, respectively. Heat transfer takes place while the flow proceeds down
the duct. A converging section (A2 /A3 = 1.45) is attached to the outlet as shown in
Figure P10.11, and the exit Mach number is 1.0. Assume that the inlet conditions and
exit Mach number remain fixed. Find the amount and direction of heat transfer:
(a) If there are no shocks in the system.
(b) If there is a normal shock someplace in the duct.
(c) For part (b), does it make any difference where the shock occurs?
Figure P10.11
10.12. In the system shown in Figure P10.12, friction exists only from 2 to 3 and from 5 to
6. Heat is removed between 7 and 8. The Mach number at section 9 is unity. Draw
the T –s diagram for the system, showing both the static and stagnation curves. Are
points 4 and 9 on the same horizontal level?
Figure P10.12
10.13. Oxygen is stored in a large tank where the pressure is 40 psia and the temperature
is 500°R. A DeLaval nozzle with an area ratio of 3.5 is attached to the tank and
PROBLEMS
311
discharges into a constant-area duct where heat is transferred. The pressure at the
duct exit is equal to 15 psia. Determine the amount and direction of heat transfer if a
normal shock stands where the nozzle is attached to the duct.
10.14. Air enters a converging–diverging nozzle with stagnation conditions of 35×105 N/m2
and 450 K. The area ratio of the nozzle is 4.0. After passing through the nozzle, the
flow enters a duct where heat is added. At the end of the duct there is a normal shock,
after which the static temperature is found to be 560 K.
(a) Draw a T –s diagram for the system.
(b) Find the Mach number after the shock.
(c) Determine the amount of heat added in the duct.
10.15. A converging-only nozzle feeds a constant-area duct in a system similar to that shown
in Figure 10.11. Conditions in the nitrogen supply chamber are p1 = 100 psia and
T1 = 600°R. Sufficient heat is added to choke the flow (M3 = 1.0) and the Mach
number at the duct entrance is M2 = 0.50. The pressure at the exit is equal to that of
the receiver.
(a) Compute the receiver pressure.
(b) How much heat is transferred?
(c) Assume that the receiver pressure remains fixed at the value calculated in part
(a) as more heat is added in the duct. The flow rate must decrease and the flow
moves to a new Rayleigh line, as indicated in Figure 10.11. Is the Mach number
at the exit still unity, or is it less than 1? (Hint: Assume any lower Mach number
at section 2. From this you can compute a new p ∗ which should help answer the
question. You can then compute the heat transferred and show this to be greater
than the initial value. A T –s diagram might also help.)
10.16. Draw the stagnation curves for both Rayleigh lines shown in Figure 10.11.
10.17. Recall the expression pt A∗ = const [see equation (5.35)].
(a) State whether the following equations are true or false for the system shown in
Figure P10.17.
(i) pt1 A1∗ = pt3 A3∗
(ii) pt3 A3∗ = pt5 A5∗
(b) Draw a T –s diagram for the system shown in Figure P10.17. Include both static
and stagnation curves. Are the flows from 1 to 2 and from 4 to 5 on the same
Fanno line?
Figure P10.17
312
RAYLEIGH FLOW
10.18. In Figure P10.18, points 1 and 2 represent flows on the same Rayleigh line (same
mass flow rate, same area, same impulse function) and are located such that s1 = s2
as shown. Now imagine that we take the fluid under conditions at 1 and isentropically expand to 3. Further, let’s imagine that the fluid at 2 undergoes an isentropic
compression to 4.
(a) If 3 and 4 are coincident state points (same T and s), prove that A3 is greater than,
equal to, or less than A4 .
(b) Now suppose that points 3 and 4 are not necessarily coincident but it is known
that the Mach number is unity at each point (i.e., 3 ≡ 1s∗ and 4 ≡ 2s∗ ).
(i) Is V3 equal to, greater than, or less than V4 ?
(ii) Is A3 equal to, greater than, or less than A4 ?
Figure P10.18
10.19. (a) Plot a Rayleigh line to scale in the T –s plane for air entering a duct with a Mach
number of 0.25, a static pressure of 100 psia, and a static temperature of 400°R.
Indicate the Mach number at various points along the curve.
(b) Add the stagnation curve to the T –s diagram.
10.20. Shown in Figure P10.20 is a portion of a T –s diagram for a system that has steady,
one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas with no friction. Heat is added to subsonic flow
in the constant-area duct from 1 to 2. Isentropic, variable-area flow occurs from 2 to
Figure P10.20
CHECK TEST
313
3. More heat is added in a constant-area duct from 3 to 4. There are no shocks in the
system.
(a) Complete the diagram of the physical system. (Hint: To do this, you must prove
that A3 is greater than, equal to, or less than A2 .)
(b) Sketch the entire flow system in the p–v plane.
(c) Complete the T –s diagram for the system.
10.21. Consider steady one-dimensional flow of a perfect gas through a horizontal duct of
infinitesimal length (dx) with a constant area (A) and perimeter (P ). The flow is
known to be isothermal and has heat transfer as well as friction. Starting with the
fundamental momentum equation in the form
Fx =
ṁ
Voutx − Vinx
gc
examine the infinitesimal length of the duct and (introducing basic definitions as
required) show that
γ M 2f dx
γ M 2 dV 2
dp
+
+
=0
p
2 De
2 V2
10.22. (a) By the method of approach used in Section 9.4 [see equations (9.25) through
(9.27)], show that the entropy change between two points in Rayleigh flow can
be represented by the following expression if the fluid is a perfect gas:
(γ +1)/(γ −1)
s2 − s1
M2 2γ /(γ −1) 1 + γ M12
= ln
R
M1
1 + γ M22
(b) Introduce the ∗ reference condition and obtain an expression for (s ∗ − s)/R.
(c) (Optional) Program the expression developed in part (b) and compute a table (for
γ = 1.4) of (s ∗ − s)/R versus Mach number. Check your values with those listed
in Appendix J.
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
10.1. A Rayleigh line represents the locus of points that have the same
and
.
10.2. Fill in the blanks in Table CT10.2 to indicate whether the properties increase, decrease,
or remain constant in the case of Rayleigh flow.
Table CT10.2
Fluid Property Variation for Rayleigh Flow
Heating
Property
Mach number
Density
Entropy
Stagnation pressure
M<1
Cooling
M>1
M<1
M>1
314
RAYLEIGH FLOW
10.3. Sketch a Rayleigh line in the p–v plane, together with lines of constant entropy and
constant temperature (for a typical perfect gas). Indicate directions of increasing entropy and temperature. Show regions of subsonic and supersonic flow.
10.4. Air flows in the system shown in Figure CT10.4.
(a) Find the temperature in the large chamber at location 3.
(b) Compute the amount and direction of heat transfer.
Figure CT10.4
10.5. Sketch the T –s diagram for the system shown in Figure CT10.5. Include in the diagram
both the static and stagnation curves.
Figure CT10.5
10.6. Work Problem 10.14.
Chapter 11
Real Gas Effects
11.1
INTRODUCTION
The control-volume equations for steady, one-dimensional flow introduced in previous chapters are summarized below for two arbitrary locations. These equations are
given here in their more general form, before being specialized to perfect gases with
constant specific heats.
We first include relations from the 02 law.
State:
p = ZρRT
du = cv dT
and
dh = cp dT
(1.13 modified)
(1.43, 1.44)
We then write down the equations for mass and energy conservation as well as the
momentum equation.
Continuity:
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
(2.30)
Energy:
ht1 + q1−2 = ht2
(from 3.19)
Momentum:
F=
ṁ
(Vout − Vin )
gc
(3.45)
Note that equation (1.13) has been modified by the introduction of Z, the compressibility factor, which up to now has been implicitly assumed to be 1. The second law
315
316
REAL GAS EFFECTS
is not listed because it often does not appear explicitly: rather, having an effect on the
direction of irreversibile processes.
The set of equations above is the starting point for a study of gas dynamics with real
gas effects. What needs to be done first is to account for any deviations from perfect
gas behavior that may occur. This is often accomplished through a dependence of the
factor Z on temperature and pressure, as discussed in Section 11.5. Moreover, one
needs to find the enthalpies from the integration of equation (1.44) because even for
gases that obey equation (1.13), the specific heats may vary with temperature when
the temperature changes are large enough. This has been done in the development of
gas tables by Keenan and Kay (Ref. 31).
We begin the chapter with a brief description of the microscopic structure of gases,
to explain why monatomic gases have a different γ than diatomic gases (such as
air), and why polyatomic gases have yet a different ratio of specific heats. Next, we
introduce the concept of the nonperfect or real gas and elaborate on why temperature
may govern the behavior of the heat capacities. In this book we restrict ourselves
to situations where there is no dissociation (the breakup of molecules) and where
the flow remains below the hypersonic regime. As a result, the major contribution to
the heat capacity variations will result from the temperature activation of vibrational
internal energies in diatomic and polyatomic molecules. We then discuss how to deal
with the equations presented at the start of this section for nonperfect gases.
11.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. Identify which microscopic properties are responsible for the macroscopic
characteristics of temperature and pressure.
2. Describe three categories of molecular motion that contribute to the heat capacities.
3. List which of these categories of motion are present in monoatomic, diatomic,
and polyatomic molecules.
4. Define
(a) relative pressure and relative volume.
(b) reduced pressure and reduced temperature.
5. Make simple process calculations (such as s = const, p = const, etc.) with the
aid of a gas table for a semi-perfect gas.
6. Compute entropy, enthalpy, and internal energy changes for various processes
with the aid of the gas table.
7. Given the pressure and temperature, determine the volume of a given quantity
of gas by using the generalized compressibility chart.
8. Analyze the supersonic nozzle problem with real gas effects utilizing “Method
I” when all conditions at the plenum are given together with either exit temperature, exit pressure, or exit Mach number.
11.3 WHAT’S REALLY GOING ON
317
9. (Optional) Be able to work the normal shock problem with real gas effects
utilizing “Method I” when all properties upstream of the shock are known.
11.3 WHAT’S REALLY GOING ON
Up to now, we have assumed that the specific heats do not ever change and thus
that γ remains constant during any flow process. This has yielded useful, closedform equations for perfect gases with Z ≈ 1.0. We are now ready to explore what
results from γ -variations within the flow, as these represent more accurately many
practical situations (especially those in a jet engine or a rocket motor). There are
several reasons why γ may change and they may be related to changes in the chemical
composition of the gas (atoms or molecules) as well as to the level of temperature
and to some extent pressure of operation. In addition, the kinetics of how a flow
approaches equilibrium can affect γ changes, and thus the problem can be relatively
complicated. Theoretically, γ can never equal or be less than 1 and can never exceed
5
(see Reference 26). In practice, changes in γ are limited to between about 1.1 and
3
1.7 for nearly all gases of interest. However, this narrow range of values can be very
significant because, as we have seen, γ is often encountered as an exponent.
Microscopic Model of Gases
Up to now we have taken the macroscopic approach (as mentioned in Chapter 1)
dealing with observable and measurable properties. This leads to the axiomatic approach of thermodynamics, which is found in the important thermodynamic laws and
corollaries. But ordinary gases really consist of a myriad of atoms and/or molecules
that are in continuous random motion with respect to one another, in addition to any
mean-mass motion that they may have with respect to a given frame of reference.
The kinetic energy of this random motion forms the basis for the property that we
call the temperature. Thus the random motion makes up the static temperature of the
gas, whereas the kinetic energy of the mean-mass motion is the sole contributor to
the difference between the static and stagnation temperatures. These molecules are
also continuously changing direction as they collide and exchange momentum with
one another. As they collide with a physical surface, the momentum exchange gives
rise to a property that we call the pressure.
Because these energies are distributed among an incredibly large number of constituent particles, we only observe averages, which under equilibrium conditions tend
to be quite predictable. However, the concept of temperature becomes considerably
more complicated under nonequilibrium conditions since the so-called internal degrees of freedom have different relaxation times. We shall speak more about this later.
Molecular Structure
Monatomic gases consist of only one individual atom per molecule. These gases are
well represented by the inert gases (such as helium, neon, and argon) at standard
318
REAL GAS EFFECTS
pressures. They exhibit constant γ over a very wide range of temperatures and normal pressures. (Other gases yield monatomic constituents at sufficiently high temperatures and low enough pressures for dissociation to take place.)
Diatomic gases have a molecule that consists of two atoms. They are the most
common type of gases, with oxygen and nitrogen (the main constituents of air) as the
best examples. Diatomic gases are more complicated than monatomic because they
have an active internal structure and may be internally rotating and even vibrating in
addition to translating. (Reference 27 includes a rigorous discussion of diatomic gas
thermodynamics.)
Polyatomic gases consist of three or more atoms per molecule (e.g., carbon dioxide). These share the same attributes as diatomic gases except for extra vibrational
modes that depend on the number of atoms in each molecule.
Thus, as a minimum, there are three categories of molecular degrees of freedom:
translation, rotation, and vibration. Each contributes to the heat capacities because
each acts as a storage mode of energy for the gas. This is another way of saying that
each degree of freedom contributes to the molecule’s ability to absorb energy, thus
affecting the eventual gas temperature. Figure 11.1 illustrates these internal degrees
of freedom for a diatomic molecule. Single atoms are not subject to vibrational activation, and molecules consisting of three or more atoms have more than one vibrational
degree of freedom. (Additional information is presented in Refs. 28, 29, and 30.)
Nonequilibrium Effects in Gas Dynamics
As the Mach number goes supersonic inside a nozzle, overall temperature and pressure drop significantly and nonequilibrium effects may start to become apparent. We
are referring here to a lag in certain property changes, such as the time delay or inertia
of the specific heat capacities to follow the local temperature changes instantaneously.
This will affect the behavior of property changes in expansions through sufficiently
short nozzles because γ may remain essentially unchanged. In such cases (when γ
remains constant) the analysis is referred to as the frozen-flow limit, which is considerably easier to calculate than equilibrium flow where the properties react instantly according to the local static temperature and pressure profiles. Criteria governing when
to expect frozen flow relate to the activation, relaxation, or reaction times compared
Figure 11.1 Translation, rotation, and vibration for a diatomic molecule.
11.4
SEMIPERFECT GAS BEHAVIOR, DEVELOPMENT OF THE GAS TABLE
319
to travel times through nozzles and other flow devices and are given in the literature
(e.g., Ref. 26).
For example, in rocket propulsion, all preliminary calculations are made using the
frozen-flow limit because of its simplicity. According to Sutton and Biblarz (Ref.
24), this method tends to underestimate the performance of typical rockets by up to
4%. On the other hand, the instantaneous chemical equilibrium limit (also known
as shifting equilibrium), which is a great deal more complex, tends to overestimate
the performance of typical rockets by up to 4%. Since the assumptions of isentropic
flow in ideal systems (i.e., no flow separation, friction, shocks, or major instabilities)
may carry an inherent error of up to ±10%, frozen-flow analysis is the preferred
approach. Noncombustion systems such as electrically heated rockets and hypersonic
wind tunnels behave in ways similar to chemical rockets; because of their high
temperatures, air dissociates and begins to react chemically. Nonequilibrium flows are
sometimes desirable, as in the case of the gas dynamic laser (GDL), and are present
in nearly all hypersonic situations.
Normal shock results from the formulations of Chapter 6 are shown in Figures
6.9 and 6.10. The variability of the pressure ratio with γ for a given Mach number
is considerably less than that of the temperature ratio across the shock. It should
be mentioned, however, that property changes across a shock front are anticipated
to reflect the γ upstream of the shock. Adjustments to temperature changes are not
likely to take place within the shock but in a relaxation region downstream of it. That
is, the flow through the shock front itself is frozen. However, the gas properties will
finally approach their equilibrium values in a small region behind the shock. The
same arguments hold for oblique shocks.
On the other hand, Prandtl–Meyer expansions are much less prone to nonequilibrium because the flow always starts and ends supersonic. This means that the temperature swings are restricted and, more important, the gas is typically cold enough
so that its molecules are not vibrationally activated to begin with.
11.4 SEMIPERFECT GAS BEHAVIOR,
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GAS TABLE
A semiperfect gas is a gas that can be described with the perfect gas equation of
state but with an allowance made for variation of the specific heats with temperature.
These are also called thermally perfect gases or imperfect gases in the literature, and
unfortunately, there is no consistency among the various authors. Figure 11.2 shows
the variation of cp and γ for diatomic and polyatomic semiperfect gases as a function
of temperature. The different plateaus depend on the activation of the rotational and
vibrational modes of energy storage. Vibrational modes are the most critical since
they manifest themselves at the higher temperatures. For example, even below room
temperature, air molecules (which are mostly nitrogen) have fully active translational
and rotational degrees of freedom, but only at temperatures above about 1000 K does
vibration begin to change the value of γ significantly (because of its relatively higher
activation energy).
320
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Figure 11.2 Specific heat at constant pressure and specific heat ratio for 2 common gases.
Diatomic and polyatomic gases may change their molecular structure substantially as both the temperature and pressure decrease, such as in the flow through a
supersonic nozzle. This also happens as a result of chemical reactions in combustion
chambers. Moreover, effects on γ of vibrational excitation and of dissociation (i.e.,
the breakup of molecules) often counteract each other in complicated ways, as shown
in Refs. 29 and 30. Moreover, when flow kinetic effects manifest themselves, as in
high-speed flows, the problem can only be solved with the aid of computers. It has
been found, however, that the introduction of a constant or effective average-γ approach can be very useful, and preliminary analysis of propulsion systems is often
based on such an approach. We shall see more about this in Section 11.6.
Gas Table
The perfect gas equation of state is reasonably accurate and can be used over a
wide range of temperatures. However, the semiperfect gas approach is unavoidable
11.4
SEMIPERFECT GAS BEHAVIOR, DEVELOPMENT OF THE GAS TABLE
321
in combustion-driven propulsion systems. A table in Appendix L (Table 2 in Ref. 31)
shows values of cp and cv for air at low pressures as a function of temperature.
Recall that as long as we can say that p = ρRT , the internal energy and enthalpy
are functions of temperature only. From Chapter 1 we then have
du = cv dT
and
dh = cp dT
(1.43, 1.44)
Arbitrarily assigning u = 0 and h = 0 when T = 0, we can obtain integrals for u
and h:
T
T
u=
cv dT and h =
cp dT
(11.1, 11.2)
0
0
Now, when the temperature changes are sufficiently large, we must obtain the functional relationships between the specific heats and temperature and perform the integration. This has been done for commonly used gases, with the results tabulated in
the Gas Tables (Ref. 31).
Once the table entries have been constructed for a particular gas, we can obtain
values of u and h directly at any desired temperature within the tabulated range. But
how do we compute entropy changes? Consider that for any substance
T ds = dh − v dp
(1.41)
and if the substance obeys the perfect gas law we know that
dh = cp dT
(1.44)
Show that the entropy change can be written as
ds = cp
dp
dT
−R
T
p
We integrate each term:
2
1
ds =
2
cp
1
dT
−
T
2
R
1
dp
p
If we define
φ≡
T
cp
0
dT
T
(11.3)
then
s1−2 = φ2 − φ1 − R ln
p2
p1
(11.4)
322
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Note that since cp is a known function of temperature, the integration indicated above
can be performed once, and the result (being a function of temperature only) added
as a column in our gas table. Tabulations of u, h, and φ versus temperature can be
found in Appendix K.
Example 11.1 Air at 40 psia and 500°F undergoes an irreversible process with heat transfer
to 20 psia and 1000°F. Calculate the entropy change.
From the air table (Appendix K) we obtain
φ1 = 0.7403 Btu/lbm-°R at 500°F
and φ2 = 0.8470 Btu/lbm-°R at 1000°F
Thus
20
53.3
ln
778
40
= 0.1067 + 0.0685 ln 2 = 0.1542 Btu/lbm-°R
s1−2 = 0.8470 − 0.7403 −
s1−2
Let us now consider an isentropic process. Equation (11.4) becomes
s1−2 = 0 = φ2 − φ1 − R ln
p2
p1
or
φ2 − φ1 = R ln
p2
p1
(11.5)
Depending on the information given, many isentropic processes can be solved directly
using equation (11.5). For instance:
1. Given p1 , p2 , and T1 , solve for φ2 and look up T2 .
2. Given T1 , T2 , and p1 , solve directly for p2 .
However, some problems are not this simple. If we knew v1 , v2 , and T1 , solving
for T2 would be a trial-and-error problem. Let’s devise a better method. We establish
a reference point as shown in Figure 11.3. Now, for the isentropic process from 0 to
1, we have from equation (11.5),
φ1 − φ0 = R ln
p1
p0
(11.6)
But, from (11.3),
φ0 =
T0
cp
0
dT
= f (T0 )
T
(11.7)
11.4
SEMIPERFECT GAS BEHAVIOR, DEVELOPMENT OF THE GAS TABLE
323
Figure 11.3 T –s diagram showing reference point.
Once the reference point has been chosen, φ0 is a known constant and equation (11.6)
can be thought of as
φ1 − const = R ln
p1
p0
(11.8)
Since φ1 is a known function of T1 , equation (11.8) is really telling us that the ratio
p1 /p0 is also a function only of temperature T1 for this process. We call this ratio the
relative pressure. In general,
relative pressure ≡ pr ≡
p
p0
(11.9)
These relative pressures can be computed and introduced as another column in the
gas table.
What have we gained with the introduction of the relative pressures? Notice that
p2
p2 /p0
pr
=
= 2
p1
p1 /p0
pr 1
or
pr
p2
= 2
p1
pr 1
(11.10)
Equation (11.10) together with the gas table may now be used for isentropic processes.
324
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Example 11.2 Air undergoes an isentropic compression from 50 psia and 500°R to 150 psia.
Determine the final temperature.
From the air table in Appendix K we have
pr1 = 1.0590 at 500°R
From (11.10),
pr2 = pr1
p2
p1
= (1.0590)
150
50
= 3.177
From the table opposite pr = 3.177, we find that T2 = 684°R.
We can follow a similar chain of reasoning to develop a relative volume, which is
a unique function of temperature only and this can also be tabulated:
relative volume ≡ vr ≡
v
v0
(11.11)
Also note that
v2
vr
= 2
v1
vr1
(11.12)
Relative volumes may be used to solve isentropic processes quickly in exactly the
same manner as with relative pressures.
In summary, we now have a tabulation for the following variables as unique
functions of temperature only: h, u, φ, pr , and vr .
1. h, u, and φ may be used for any process.
2. pr and vr may only be used for isentropic processes.
Complete tables for air and other gases may be found in Gas Tables by Keenan and
Kaye (Ref. 31). An abridged table for air is given in Appendix K. This table shows
the variation of h, pr , u, vr , and φ for air between 200 and 6500°R. The use of such
tables is adequate for air-breathing engines since the composition of the products of
combustion differs little from that of the original air. But certain gas dynamic relations
are lacking in such tables, such as Mach numbers and isentropic area ratios. This topic
is addressed in Section 11.6.
Properties from Equations
Operating from tables and charts is very convenient when working simple problems.
However, when more complicated problems are involved, one frequently employs a
digital computer for solutions. In this case it is nice to have simple equations for the
fluid properties. For instance, a group of polynomials for the most common properties
of air follow:
11.5
325
REAL GAS BEHAVIOR, EQUATIONS OF STATE AND COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS
cp from 180 to 2430°R:
cp = 0.242333 − (2.15256E−5)T + (3.65E−8)T 2 − (8.43996E−12)T 3
cv from 300 to 3600°R:
cv = 0.164435 + (7.69284E−6)T + (1.21419E−8)T 2 − (2.61289E−12)T 3
γ from 198 to 3420°R:
γ = 1.42616 − (4.21505E−5)T − (7.93962E−9)T 2 + (2.40318E−12)T 3
h from 200 to 2400°R:
h = (0.239788)T − (6.71311E−6)T 2 + (9.69339E−9)T 3 − (1.60794E−12)T 4
u from 200 to 2400°R:
u = (0.171225)T − (6.68651E−6)T 2 + (9.67706E−9)T 3 − (1.60477E−12)T 4
φ from 200 to 2400°R:
φ = 0.232404 + (8.56494E−4)T − (4.08016E−7)T 2 + (7.64068E−11)T 3
Exponential notation has been used in the equations above; for example, E-7 means
x 10−7 .
All of the equations above are in English Engineering units, and absolute temperature is used throughout. The equations were obtained from a report by J. R. Andrews
and O. Biblarz, “Gas Properties Computational Procedure Suitable for Electronic
Calculators”, NPS-57Zi740701A, July 1, 1974.
11.5 REAL GAS BEHAVIOR,
EQUATIONS OF STATE AND COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS
Gases can be said to exist in three distinct forms: vapors, perfect gases, and supercritical fluids. This distinction can be made more rigorous as necessary (refer to Figure
11.4, which depicts a pressure–volume diagram with the various phases of a typical
pure substance). Vapors exist close to the condensation or two-phase dome region,
and supercritical fluids inhabit the high-pressure region above the two-phase dome.
Perfect gases are represented by any gas at sufficiently high temperature and sufficiently low pressure to exist away from the previous two regions. Thus, while certainly
substantial, the occurrence of perfect gas operation is not the whole story.
Equations of State
Once we enter regions where the perfect gas equation is no longer valid, we must
resort to other, more complicated relations among properties. One of the earliest
expressions to be used was the van der Waals equation, which was introduced in 1873:
p+
a
(v − b) = RT
v2
(11.13)
326
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Figure 11.4 Two-phase dome for a typical pure substance.
The constants a and b are unique for each gas, and tables giving these values can
be found in many texts (see, e.g., Ref. 6). The term a/v 2 is an attempt to correct
for the attractive forces among molecules. At high pressure the term a/v 2 is small
relative to p and can be neglected. The constant b is an attempt to account for the
volume occupied by the molecules. At low pressures one may omit b from the term
containing the specific volume. The fact that only two new constants are involved
makes the van der Waals equation relatively easy to use. However, as discussed by
Obert, it begins to lose accuracy as the density increases.
Attempts to gain accuracy are found in other forms of the equation of state. Perhaps
the most general of these is the virial equation of state, which is of the form
B
C
D
pv
= 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
RT
v
v
v
(11.14)
Constants B, C, D, and so on, are called virial coefficients, which are postulated to
be functions of temperature alone. What are these virials for a perfect gas? The virial
equation was introduced around 1901 and is quite accurate at densities below the
critical point.
There are many other equations of state, and no attempt is made to cover these.
Our main purpose is to indicate that over restricted regions of the p–v–T surface we
can find expressions accurate enough to satisfy the 02 law. If you are interested in this
subject, Reference 6 has an excellent chapter entitled “The pvT Relationships”.
Compressibility Charts
Is there another way to approach the equation-of-state problem? Can these property
relations be represented in a simple manner? Look at the right side of equation
11.5
REAL GAS BEHAVIOR, EQUATIONS OF STATE AND COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS
327
(11.14). For any given state point (for a given gas) the entire right side represents
some value that has been given the symbol Z and labeled the compressibility factor:
p = ZρRT
(1.13 modified)
Individual plots for various gases are available showing the compressibility factor
as a function of temperature and pressure. However, it is possible to represent all
gases on one plot through the concept of reduced properties with little sacrifice of
accuracy. Let us define
reduced pressure ≡ pr ≡
p
pc
(11.15)
reduced temperature ≡ Tr ≡
T
Tc
(11.16)
where
pc ≡ critical pressure
Tc ≡ critical temperature
Note that the reduced pressure above and the relative pressure from Section 11.4
share the same symbol. This is the way it is usually done and hopefully will cause no
confusion. The compressibility factor can now be plotted against reduced temperature
and reduced pressure, with a result similar to that shown in Figure 11.5. It turns out
that this diagram is so nearly identical for most gases that an average diagram can be
used for all gases.
Figure 11.5 Skeletal generalized compressibility chart. (See Appendix F for working chart.)
328
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Generalized compressibility charts can be found in most engineering thermodynamics texts (see Appendix F). These are least accurate near the critical point, where
the averaging procedure introduces some error, as Z for different gases varies from
0.23 to 0.33 at this point. (It should be pointed out here that for steam and a few
other gases, empirically derived tables are available which are more accurate than
the compressibility chart.) We define the perfect gas region when 0.95 ≤ Z ≤ 1.05.
Does this correspond to what you would expect?
Atmospheric air is a mixture of 79% N2, 20% O2, and other trace gases. Perfect
gas behavior in air (i.e., when Z remains within ±5% of unity) without dissociation
or recombination may be expected up to 4100 psia (279 atm) for temperatures above
20°F (480°R). At temperatures as low as −160°F (300°R), we can expect perfect
gas behavior in air up to about 1000 psia (74 atm). These values of pressure and
temperature vary considerably for other gases, but as can be seen, perfect gas behavior
in air is a very common occurrence.
Example 11.3 Determine the volume of air at 227°R and 9.3 atm. Use the generalized
compressibility chart in Appendix F and compare to the perfect gas calculations. The pseudocritical constants for air are Tc = 239°R and pc = 37.2 atm.
Tr =
227
= 0.95
239
pr =
9.3
= 0.25
37.2
From the compressibility chart, Z = 0.889.
v=
(0.889)(53.3)(227)
ZRT
=
= 0.546 ft3/lbm
p
(9.3)(14.7)(144)
If the perfect gas equation of state is used:
v=
RT
(53.3)(227)
=
= 0.615 ft3/lbm
p
(9.3)(14.7)(144)
The perfect gas equation of state turns out to be accurate for many situations of
interest in gas dynamics. It is fortuitous that in many applications high pressures are
usually associated with relatively high temperatures and low temperatures are usually
associated with relatively low pressures, so that gaseous condensation, for example, is
rare. Also, the gas molecules remain on the average far from each other. Supersonic
nozzles feeding from combustion chambers are in this category. Wind tunnels, jet
engines, and rocket engines can also be analyzed with the semiperfect gas approach,
which uses the perfect gas equation of state augmented by variation of the heat
capacities with temperature and gas composition. Thus, for many practical examples,
deviations from perfect gas behavior can largely be neglected, and we let Z ≈ 1.0.
When Z is not sufficiently close to 1, iterative calculations are performed starting with
11.6 VARIABLE γ —VARIABLE-AREA FLOWS
329
Z = 1 which often converge rather quickly. Here information in tabular or graphical
form is most commonly used. (See Refs. 30 and 32 for additional information.)
11.6 VARIABLE γ —VARIABLE-AREA FLOWS
Isentropic Calculations
Isentropic results from the formulations in Chapter 5 are shown in Figures 5.14 a, b,
c. There we show constant γ results, but the possible effects of γ variations can be
inferred from the spread of the different constant γ curves. For example, the p/pt
curves are relatively insensitive to the values of γ for Mach numbers up to about
2.5 (less than 10% variation for air). This means that for variable γ , calculations
involving pressure (in this range of Mach numbers) are essentially the same as those
assuming constant γ . The temperature ratios, on the other hand, show considerable
variability beyond M = 1.0, so that calculations involving temperature are more
restricted in their independence of γ variations. The density ratio sensitivity falls
between temperature and pressure. The A/A∗ ratios are not strongly dependent on γ
below M = 1.5. Recall that under our assumptions, monoatomic gases do not display
a variable γ because they do not have internal vibrational modes. So only diatomic
and polyatomic gases require the techniques outlined below.
Several methods have been developed to handle variable-γ variable-area problems. The method of choice depends on the information that you are managing and
on the required accuracy of the results. Here we discuss two methods. The first one
is based on rather simple extensions of the material in earlier chapters. The other
method is more rigorous. As presented, neither method allows for deviations from
Z ≈ 1.0.
Method I: Average γ approach. This assumes perfect gas relations throughout but
works with an average γ appropriately inserted in the stagnation enthalpy and
stagnation pressure equations.
Method II: Real gas approach. This assumes a semiperfect gas in that the perfect
gas equation of state is used but property values are taken from the gas table.
(This accounts for variable specific heats.)
Both methods are iterative in nature, but Method I is considerably easier and faster.
It may work sufficiently well for preliminary design purposes, having been verified
with numerous examples in air flowing through supersonic nozzles. It is based on the
following equations:
γR
γ −1
T
γR
h=
cp dT ≈ cp T =
T
γ −1
0
cp =
(4.15)
(11.17)
330
REAL GAS EFFECTS
γ −1 2
M
1+
2
γ − 1 2 γ /(γ −1)
M
pt = p 1 +
2
γ gc
ṁ = pAM
RT
Tt = T
(4.18)
(4.21)
(4.13)
Although these equations are strictly valid only for perfect gases (because of the
constant heat capacities), we introduce a modified/average γ to obtain more accurate
solutions. We pose the following isentropic nozzle problem with section locations
defined in Figure 11.6.
For this problem we assume the following information:
Given: The gas composition, Tt1 ≈ T1 , pt1 ≈ p1 , and p3 .
Find: (a) The temperature and Mach number at the exit (T3 and M3 ).
(b) The required area ratio to produce these conditions (A3 /A2 ).
Solution:
1. Assume T3 from the perfect gas, constant-γ solution.
2. Find γ3 from Appendix L (γ is only a function of the static temperature). As
an alternative, we can bypass this step by assuming a low enough temperature
so that no vibrational modes are activated. For air this means that γ3 ≈ 1.4
(otherwise, at the higher temperatures, γ → 1.3).
3. Compute an average γ at station 3 from
γ̄3 =
γ3 + γ1
2
Figure 11.6 Supersonic nozzle.
(11.18)
11.6 VARIABLE γ —VARIABLE-AREA FLOWS
331
4. Now since ht3 = ht1 from the energy equation,
c̄p3 Tt3 ≈ cp1 Tt1
γ̄3 R
γ1 R
Tt3 ≈
Tt1
γ̄3 − 1
γ1 − 1
γ1 (γ̄3 − 1)
Tt3 ≈ Tt1
γ̄3 (γ1 − 1)
(11.19)
This allows us to find the first estimate of Tt3 .
5. We continue to use the average γ for properties at station 3 as long as they
are not locally based (depending on upstream values). We use equation (4.21)
to get an estimate for M3 . (Remember that the stagnation pressure remains
constant because the expansion is isentropic.)
"
#
#
M3 ≈ $
2
γ̄3 − 1
pt1
p3
(γ̄3 −1)/(γ̄3 )
−1
(11.20)
6. Knowing M3 and Tt3 , we can compute T3 from (4.18).
7. Examine the value of T3 computed in step 6 and see how it compares to the
value assumed in step 1.
8. We can now reevaluate γ3 at the new T3 value and see if it differs appreciably
from the value assumed originally. Notice that γ remains nearly the same as
long as we are in the low-temperature plateau shown in Figure 11.2.
9. If there is a need to improve the value of γ3 , do so and go back to step 3;
otherwise, the calculated value of T3 is acceptable and we may proceed.
Now, for the area ratio, write equation (4.13) at stations 2 and 3. For supersonic
flow at station 3, M2 = 1.0 and in isentropic flow, A1∗ = A2∗ ≈ A3∗ . Also, the
subsonic regions are relatively insensitive to γ changes (as shown in Figures 5.14c).
This means that between stations 1 and 2 we may use values from the isentropic table
for γ = 1.4 without introducing significant errors.
p2
pt2
pt1
p2 =
p1 ≈ (0.52828)p1
pt2
pt1
p1
T2
Tt2
Tt2
T2 =
T1 ≈ (0.83333)T1
Tt2
Tt1
T1
10. Substituting these values into equation (4.13) and rearranging, we get a useful
relation for the nozzle area ratio in these flows:
A3
γ1 T3
A3
0.579 p1
= ∗ ≈
(11.21)
A2
A3
M3
p3
γ3 T1
332
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Example 11.4 Air expands isentropically through a supersonic nozzle from stagnation conditions p1 = 455 psia and T1 = 2400°R to an exit pressure of p3 = 3 psia. Calculate the exit
Mach number, the area ratio of the nozzle, and the exit temperature using the perfect gas results
and Method I, then compare to Method II.
By now the perfect gas solution should be easy for you. We begin with those results.
A3 /A∗3 = 10.72,
M3 = 4,
T3 = 571°R.
and
First, we apply Method I.
1. Assume that T3 = 571°R.
2. From Table 5 in Appendix L (or Figure 11.2), we get γ3 = 1.3995 and γ1 = 1.317.
3. Now
γ̄3 =
4.
Tt3 ≈ Tt1
γ1
γ̄3
1.3995 + 1.317
γ3 + γ1
=
= 1.35825
2
2
γ̄3 − 1
γ1 − 1
= (2400)
1.317
1.35825
1.35825 − 1
1.317 − 1
= (2400)(1.0958) = 2629.93°R
5. The Mach number
"
#
# 2
pt3 (γ3 −1)/γ3
455 0.285459
2
−1 =
− 1 = 3.9983
M3 ≈ $
γ3 − 1
p3
1.3995 − 1
3
Here we use equation (4.21) locally at 3.
6. So that
Tt3
2629.93
=
= 627.16°R
γ3 − 1 2
1.3995 − 1
M3
(3.9983)2
1+
1+
2
2
T3 =
Note that the value of γ3 remains the same (to three significant figures) at this new value of T3 .
A second iteration yields Tt2 = 2627°R, M3 = 3.9965, and T3 = 628.1°R.
Next, we work Method II, for which we utilize the air table from Appendix K as in Example
11.2. We calculate (from 11.10),
p3
3
= 2.424
= (367.6)
pr3 = pr1
p1
455
which yields T3 = 635.5°R. We still have to calculate A3 /A∗3 , but the air table is not helpful
here. So we proceed with step 10 of Method I and obtain
A3
A3
0.579 p1
= ∗ ≈
A2
A3
M3 p3
≈ 10.904
γ1 T3
=
γ3 T1
0.579
3.9965
455
3
(1.317)(628.1)
(1.3995)(2400)
11.6 VARIABLE γ —VARIABLE-AREA FLOWS
333
We now compare the results. The static temperature calculation at station 3 compares well
between Methods I and II (within 2%) but not so well between the perfect gas result and Method
II (within 10%). Since Method II is based on the air table, its results are the most exact and we
see why the perfect gas results would need improvement.
When the pressure ratio across the nozzle is not known, but rather the exit temperature (T3 ) or exit Mach number (M3 ), or when the nozzle area ratio (A3 /A2 ) is
given, the technique above is still applicable. For instance, we might have:
Given: The gas composition, Tt1 = T1 , pt1 = p1 , and T3 .
Find: (a) The pressure and Mach number at the exit (p3 and M3 ).
(b) The required area ratio to produce these conditions (A3 /A2 ).
Since T3 is given, there is no requirement to iterate because γ3 is obtainable
directly. We may proceed from step 2 of method I. After finding Tt3 from step 4,
we may calculate M3 from equation (4.18):
Tt3
2
−1
(4.18)
M3 ≈
γ 3 − 1 T3
Now the static pressure can be calculated from the same equation as step 5, equation (11.20), but using the average γ because we relate the stagnation pressures at
station 1:
γ̄3 − 1 2 γ̄3 /(γ̄3 −1)
M3
pt1 ≈ p3 1 +
2
Finally, the area ratio may be estimated from the equation of step 10 in Method I. The
technique is basically the same but without the initial uncertainty of the value of the
ratio of specific heats at station 3.
The other type of problem is:
Given: The gas composition, Tt1 = T1 , pt1 = p1 , and M3 .
Find: (a) The pressure and temperature at the exit (p3 and T3 ).
(b) The required area ratio to produce these conditions (A3 /A2 ).
This type of problem calls for an iterative technique because of the unknown
temperature at the nozzle exit. We shall use Method I and compared it with Method II,
which is worked in detail in an example from Zucrow and Hoffman (pp. 183–187 of
Ref. 20). The problem is to deliver air at Mach 6 in an isentropic, blow-down wind
tunnel with plenum conditions of 2000 K and 3.5 MPa.
Example 11.5 We work here with the example from Zucrow and Hoffman. In Figure E11.5,
assume that the air properties are related by the perfect gas equation of state but have variable
specific heats. Determine conditions at the throat and at the exit, including the area ratio.
334
REAL GAS EFFECTS
Figure E11.5
The procedure begins with the usual calculation for the perfect gas. For Method I we start
at step 1 and proceed to obtain Tt3 from step 4. Now step 5 differs because we use equation
(4.18) to solve for T3 since M3 is known. The exit pressure p3 may be calculated from either
equation (4.19) or (4.21). There is a great deal of detail in this example that is not reproduced
here. In particular, calculations for the values at the throat (station 2) will not be shown because
we assume that they are well represented by the perfect gas calculations at γ2 ≈ γ1 = 1.30.
1. Assume that T3 = 243.9 K, the perfect gas value.
2. For air we can surmise the ratio of specific heats to be γ3 = 1.401, γ1 = 1.298.
3. The average
γ̄3 =
1.401 + 1.298
= 1.3495
2
4. Now the value of Tt3 can be estimated:
γ1 γ̄3 − 1
1.298
1.3495 − 1
= (2000)
= 2256.123 K
Tt3 ≈ Tt1
γ̄3 γ1 − 1
1.3495
1.298 − 1
5. With M3 and pt3 we calculate p3 :
pt1
p3 ≈
1+
γ̄3 − 1 2
M3
2
γ̄3 /(γ̄3 −1) =
1+
3.5 × 106
3.8612
1.3495 − 1
(6)2
2
= 1.63173 × 103 N/m2
6. With M3 and Tt3 we may proceed to find T3 :
T3 =
Tt3
2256.123
=
= 274.53 K
γ3 − 1 2
1.401 − 1
M3
1+
(6)2
1+
2
2
The guess for γ3 is sufficiently accurate, so we may proceed with the area ratio calculation.
11.6 VARIABLE γ —VARIABLE-AREA FLOWS
335
10. Here we use the area ratio equation that has been developed:
3.5 × 106
0.579
(1.298)(274.53)
A3
0.579 p1 γ1 T3
A3
= 73.815
= ∗ =
=
A2
A3
M3 p3 γ3 T1
6
1.63173 × 103
(1.401)(2400)
Table 11.1 gives results from Zucrow and Hoffman for these calculations along
with the perfect gas or constant specific heats solution and Method I as described
above. Interested readers can view many of the details of the Method II calculations
by consulting Ref. 20.
A close look at the results in Table 11.1 leads to the following conclusions for this
type of problem:
1. In the convergent section of the nozzle (where the flow is subsonic), the perfect
gas solution is quite adequate.
2. In the diverging section of the nozzle (where the flow is supersonic), semiperfect gas effects must be considered.
3. Method I produces quick and excellent results for the pressure and temperature
at the exit but is slightly off for the area ratio.
The last case, when A3 /A2 is given, follows the various cases presented above. It
is not detailed here, but you can do this on your own by working Problem 11.13.
In reviewing Examples 11.4 and 11.5 you will notice that when we apply the
equation that relates static to stagnation pressure we sometimes use the average γ
(i.e., equation 11.20) and sometimes the local γ (i.e., equation 4.21). The reasoning
is simply that whenever we have available local values at station 3 we use γ3 as in the
case in Example 11.4. In example 11.5 we need to calculate the exit pressure given
the exit Mach number and the upstream pressure (nonlocal). This may seem rather
artificial, but remember that this is an empirical method which has been developed
Table 11.1
Property
Summary of Calculations for Example Problem 11.5
Perfect Gas
p2
T2
ρ2
V2
G2
MPa
K
kg/m3
m/s
kg/s-m2
1.9101
1739.1
3.8263
805.57
3082.4
1.92
1720
3.83
806
3090
1.9073
1738.3
3.8225
806.52
3082.9
p3
T3
ρ3
V3
G3
N/m2
K
kg/m3
m/s
kg/s-m2
2216.8
243.9
0.031664
1878.4
59.478
1631.73
274.53
0.02068
1992.64
41.29
1696.4
273.23
0.02163
1989.0
43.022
75.21
71.659
A3 /A2
53.18
Method I
Method II
(Ref. 20)
Units
336
REAL GAS EFFECTS
to better account for γ variations on the temperature and the pressure. Note the
consistent use of γ3 in calculating T3 with local values.
It should be recalled that at sufficiently high Mach numbers, kinetic lag effects
may become more and more apparent, so that eventually the flow may be treated
as if it were frozen in composition. Knowing the plenum properties accurately in a
combustion chamber and using frozen-flow analysis, one can obtain good engineering
estimates for adiabatic nozzle flows. The only difference here is that the value of γ
will be that of the hot gases, which for air is lower than the usual value of 1.4.
11.7 VARIABLE γ —CONSTANT-AREA FLOWS
Shocks
For shocks, both normal and oblique, we specialize the set of equations given in Section 11.1 for adiabatic flow, with constant area and no friction. These are really the
equations first assembled in Chapter 6 [i.e., equations (6.2), (6.4), and (6.9)] together
with the modified equation of state (1.13m). The shock problem becomes considerably more complicated when Z depends on T and p according to the compressibility
charts and when cp may vary with temperature (see, e.g., Ref. 32). In air without
dissociation and below Mach 5, the perfect gas calculations fall within about 10% of
the real gas values and may be used as an estimate.
As shown in Figure 6.10, the pressure ratio across the shock is the least sensitive to
variations of γ , and perfect gas calculations turn out to be reasonable for determining
the pressure. Now to improve calculations for the temperature, we can resort to the
average γ concept introduced earlier. A useful technique involves introduction of the
mass velocity G = ρV = const, and equation (11.17) into equations (6.2), (6.4), and
(6.9), to arrive at
1
G2
1
(11.22)
h2 = h1 +
−
2gc ρ12
ρ22
and
T2 =
γ1
1
γ̄2 − 1
G2
1
T1 +
−
γ̄2
γ1 − 1
2Rgc ρ12
ρ22
(11.23)
A simple scheme when all conditions at location 1 are known is, then:
Obtain ρ2 and T2 from the perfect gas solution.
Find γ1 and γ2 (from Appendix L) and calculate γ̄2 similar to equation (1.18).
Compute G from the information given at 1.
From equation (11.23), obtain T2 using γ̄2 . This new value of T2 should be more
accurate than the perfect gas result.
5. If desired, now calculate an improved estimate of ρ2 using the new T2 in the
perfect gas law. Assume that p2 remains as found from the perfect gas shock
results.
1.
2.
3.
4.
11.7 VARIABLE γ —CONSTANT-AREA FLOWS
337
Example 11.6 Let us apply the technique outlined above to Example 7.7 in Zucrow and
Hoffman (pp. 353–356 of Ref. 20). Air flows at M1 = 6.2691 and undergoes a normal
shock. The other upstream static properties are T1 = 216.65 K and p1 = 12,112 N/m2.
Find the properties downstream of the shock assuming no dissociation. Because of the low
temperatures, γ1 = 1.402.
The perfect gas results are T2 = 1859.6 K, p2 = 0.5534 MPa, ρ2 = 1.0366 kg/m3, and
V2 = 347.57 m/s. Next, we estimate γ2 as 1.301, based on the perfect gas temperature.
γ̄2 =
1.301 + 1.402
= 1.3515
2
Now the mass flow rate
G = ρ1 V1 = p1 M1
γ1
1.402
= (12,112)(6.2691)
RT1
(287)(216)
= 361 kg/s · m3
The new value of the temperature can now be calculated from equation (11.23) as
γ̄2 − 1
G2
1
γ1
1
T1 +
T2 =
−
γ̄2
γ1 − 1
2Rgc ρ12
ρ22
(360)2
1.36 − 1
1.4
T1 +
(26.2 − 0.925) = 1710 K
=
1.36
1.4 − 1
(2)(287)
This result is within 1% of the answer from Ref. 20 (T2 = 1701 K), so that further refinements
are not needed. To calculate the improved estimate of the density, we have
ρ2 =
p2
5.51 × 105
= 1.12 kg/m3
=
RT2
(287)(1710)
which compares within 4% of the value from Ref. 20 (ρ2 = 1.1614 kg/m3).
When real gas effects are significant, the calculations become considerably more
complicated, as information from compressibility charts or from tables will be necessary. In such cases the reader should consult Ref. 20 or 32 for details.
Fanno Flows
For Fanno flow we specialize the set of equations given in Section 11.1 for adiabatic
flow in constant-area ducts with friction as shown in Figure 9.4. Fanno flow curves
for various γ values show little variability in the subsonic range, which is typically
the most common range for constant-area flows with friction.
Rayleigh Flows
For Rayleigh flow we specialize the set of equations given in Section 11.1 for constantarea flow without friction but with heat transfer. Rayleigh flow in current combustors
is typically constant-area at subsonic Mach numbers. Note that property variations are
338
REAL GAS EFFECTS
very much a function of the chemical reactions taking place. As the flow equilibrates
in the burner, gas composition reaches a given unique equilibrium value which then
yields the gas properties. Rayleigh flow curves for various γ values, such as those
shown in Figure 10.13, indicate a negligible dependence of the stagnation temperature
on γ variations in the subsonic regime.
We can conclude that for Fanno and Rayleigh flows, the constant-γ approach
is satisfactory as long as these flows remain subsonic. Fortunately, most present
applications of these flows operate in that region. What remains to be done is to
establish the appropriate value of γ that should be used.
11.8
SUMMARY
We must appreciate the fact that microscopic behavior and molecular structure have a
significant effect on gas dynamics. As the temperature of operation of gases such as air
rises much above room temperature, we see that their microscopic behavior becomes
more complicated because of the activation of the vibrational mode. In monatomic
gases, the equations arrived at in previous chapters remain applicable, but they must
be modified for diatomic and polyatomic gases. In addition, subtle nonequilibrium
effects may come into play as the Mach number increases in the supersonic regime.
Semiperfect gases follow the perfect gas law but have variable specific heats.
Remember that as long as p = ρRT is valid, the enthalpy and internal energy are
functions of temperature only. We arbitrarily assign u = 0 and h = 0 at T = 0, so
that
T
T
u=
cv dT and h =
cp dT
(11.1, 11.2)
0
0
Entropy changes can be computed by
s1−2 = φ2 − φ1 − R ln
where
φ≡
T
cp
0
p2
p1
dT
T
(11.4)
(11.3)
Isentropic problems are more easily solved with the aid of
relative pressure ≡ pr ≡
p
p0
(11.9)
relative volume ≡ vr ≡
v
v0
(11.11)
All these functions, being unique functions of temperature, can be computed in
advance and tabulated (see Appendix K). Remember:
11.8
SUMMARY
339
1. h, u, and φ may be used for any process.
2. pr and vr may only be used for isentropic processes.
Many other equations of state have been developed for use when the perfect gas
law is not accurate enough. In general, the more complicated expressions have a larger
region of validity. But most lose accuracy near the critical point.
A useful means of handling the problem of deviations from perfect gas behavior
involves use of the compressibility factor:
p = ZρRT
(1.13 modified)
Unless extreme accuracy is desired near the critical point, a single generalized compressibility chart may be used for all gases. In that case, Z is a function of
reduced pressure ≡ pr ≡
p
pc
(11.15)
reduced temperature ≡ Tr ≡
T
Tc
(11.16)
(What are pc and Tc ?)
Complicated equations of state can be handled readily with computer solutions. At
the same time, simple polynomials are available for nearly all properties of common
gases for restricted temperature ranges. When available, use of the property tables
(such as the steam table) is recommended because being largely experimental, they
are more accurate in the vapor and supercritical fluid regimes.
The traditional isentropic nozzle problem gets modified as γ variations become
significant. The most important modification is that of the stagnation and static pressures and temperatures, and here one can either use the Gas Tables (Ref. 31) or the
equations of Method I. At the nozzle exit, station 3,
Tt3 ≈ Tt1
γ1 γ̄3 − 1
γ̄3 γ1 − 1
(11.19)
where
γ̄3 =
γ3 + γ1
2
(11.18)
together with other equations from Method I, such as
"
#
#
M3 ≈ $
and
2
γ̄3 − 1
pt1
p3
(γ̄3 −1)/γ̄3
−1
(11.20)
340
REAL GAS EFFECTS
A3
0.579 p1
≈
A2
M3 p3
γ 1 T3
γ 3 T1
(11.21)
Normal shocks are also treatable using Method I, but here the accuracy of perfect
gas calculations is satisfactory. Fanno and Rayleigh flows are mostly subsonic and
quite amenable to the perfect gas treatment of Chapters 9 and 10 with an appropriate
value of γ .
PROBLEMS
11.1. Beginning at a temperature of 60°F and a volume of 10 ft3, 2 lbm of air undergoes a
constant-pressure process. The air is then heated to a temperature of 1000°F and there
is no shaft work. Using the air table, find the work, the change of internal energy and
of enthalpy, and the entropy change for this process.
11.2. In a two-step set of processes, a quantity of air is heated reversibly at constant pressure
until the volume is doubled, and then it is heated reversibly at constant volume until
the pressure is doubled. If the air is initially at 70°F, find the total work, total heat
transfer, and total entropy change to the end state. Use the air table.
11.3. Compute the values of cp , cv , h, and u for air at 2000°R using the equations in Section
11.4. Check your values of specific heats and the enthalpy and internal energy values
with the air table in Appendix K.
11.4. Air at 2500°R and 150 psia is expanded through an isentropic turbine to a pressure
of 20 psia. Determine the final temperature and the change of enthalpy. (Use the air
table.)
11.5. Air at 1000°R and 100 psia undergoes a heat addition process to 1500°R and 80 psia.
Compute the entropy change. If no work is done, also compute the heat added. (Use
the air table.)
11.6. Compute γ for air at 300°R by use of the equation on page 325.
11.7. For a gas that follows the perfect gas equation of state but has variable specific heats,
the equation
2
dT
s2 − s1 =
cp
T
1
applies to which of the following?
(a) Any reversible process.
(b) Any constant-pressure process.
(c) An irreversible process only.
(d) Any constant-volume process.
(e) The equation is never correct.
11.8. Find the density of air at 360°R and 1000 psia using the compressibility chart. (The
pseudo-critical point for air is taken to be 238.7°R and 37.2 atm.)
CHECK TEST
341
11.9. Oxygen exists at 100 atm and 150°R. Compute its specific volume by use of the
compressibility chart and by the perfect gas law.
11.10. The chemical formula for propane gas is C3H8, which corresponds to a molecular mass
of 44.094. Determine the specific volume of propane at 1200 psia and 280°F using the
generalized compressibility chart and compare to the result for a perfect gas. Propane
has a critical temperature of 665.9°R and a critical pressure of 42 atm.
11.11. Calculate p3 in Example 11.4 when pt1 = 455 psia, Tt1 = 2400°R, and T3 is given as
640°R.
11.12. Calculate p3 in Example 11.4 when pt1 = 455 psia, Tt1 = 2400°R, and M3 is given
as 3.91.
11.13. Calculate p3 in Example 11.4 when pt1 = 455 psia, Tt1 = 2400°R, and A3 /A2 is
given as 11.17.
11.14. Work out Example 11.4 in its entirety for argon instead of air with pt1 = 3.0 MPa,
Tt1 = 1500 K, and p3 = 0.02 MPa.
11.15. Consider the nozzle in Example 11.5 operating at the second critical point (i.e., there
is a normal shock at the exit). Calculate the properties after the shock when M1 = 6.0,
T1 = 272 K, and p1 = 1696 N/m2.
CHECK TEST
11.1. What internal degree of freedom in diatomic and polyatomic gases is responsible for
the variation in heat capacities with temperature and thus for semiperfect gas behavior
(under the assumptions made in this chapter)?
11.2. State the three distinct gaseous forms of matter and describe the possible microscopic
reasons for real gas behavior (i.e., when Z is not equal to 1).
11.3. Calculate the enthalpy change for air when it is heated from 460°R to 3000°R at
constant pressure. Use both the gas table and the perfect gas relations. What is the
nature of the discrepancy, if any?
11.4. True or False: The concepts of the relative pressure (pr ) and the relative specific volume
(vr ) are valid for any semiperfect gas undergoing any process whatsoever.
11.5. Find the density of water vapor at 500°F and 500 psia using the compressibilty chart
and perfect gas relations. The steam tables answer is 1.008 lbm/ft3; how does it compare
to your answer?
11.6. Work out the subsonic portion of Example 11.4 for both argon and carbon dioxide and
compare all answers.
11.7. (Optional) Work Problem 11.12.
Chapter 12
Propulsion Systems
12.1
INTRODUCTION
All craft that move through a fluid medium must operate by some form of propulsion
system. We will not attempt to discuss all types of such systems but will concentrate on those used for aircraft or missile propulsion and popularly thought of as jet
propulsion devices. Working with these systems permits a natural application of your
knowledge in the field of gas dynamics. These engines can be classified as either
air-breathers (such as the turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, ramjet, and pulsejet) or non–
air-breathers, which are called rockets. Many schemes for rocket propulsion have
been proposed, but we discuss only the chemical rocket.
Many air-breathing engines operate on the same basic thermodynamic cycle. Thus
we first examine the Brayton cycle to discover its pertinent features. Each of the
propulsion systems is described briefly and some of their operating characteristics
discussed. We then apply momentum principles to an arbitrary propulsive device to
develop a general relationship for net propulsive thrust. Other significant performance
parameters, such as power and efficiency criteria, are also defined and discussed. The
chapter closes with an interesting analysis of fixed-geometry supersonic air inlets.
12.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter successfully, you should be able to:
1. Make a schematic of the Brayton cycle and draw h–s diagrams for both ideal
and real power plants.
2. Analyze both the ideal and real Brayton cycles. Compute all work and heat
quantities as well as cycle efficiency.
3. State the distinguishing feature of the Brayton cycle that makes it ideally
suited for turbomachinery. Explain why machine efficiencies are so critical
in this cycle.
343
344
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
4. Discuss the difference between an open and a closed cycle.
5. Draw a schematic and an h–s diagram (where appropriate) and describe the
operation of the following propulsion systems: turbojet, turbofan, turboprop,
ramjet, pulsejet, and rocket.
6. Compute all state points in a turbojet or ramjet cycle when given appropriate
operating parameters, component efficiencies, and so on.
7. State the normal operating regimes for various types of propulsion systems.
8. (Optional) Develop the expression for the net propulsive thrust of an arbitrary
propulsion system.
9. (Optional) Define or give expressions for input power, propulsive power,
thrust power, thermal efficiency, propulsive efficiency, overall efficiency, and
specific fuel consumption.
10. Compute the significant performance parameters for an air-breathing propulsion system when given appropriate velocities, areas, pressures, and so on.
11. (Optional) Derive an expression for the ideal propulsive efficiency of an airbreathing engine in terms of the speed ratio ν.
12. Define or give expressions for the effective exhaust velocity and the specific
impulse.
13. Compute the significant performance parameters for a rocket when given
appropriate velocities, areas, pressures, and so on.
14. (Optional) Derive an expression for the ideal propulsive efficiency of a rocket
engine in terms of its speed ratio ν.
15. Explain why fixed-geometry converging–diverging diffusers are not used for
air inlets on supersonic aircraft.
12.3
BRAYTON CYCLE
Basic Closed Cycle
Many small power plants and most air-breathing jet propulsion systems operate on a
cycle that was developed about 100 years ago by George B. Brayton. Although his
first model was a reciprocating engine, this cycle had certain features that destined it
to become the basic cycle for all gas turbine plants. We first consider the basic ideal
closed cycle in order to develop some of the characteristic operating parameters. A
schematic of this cycle is shown in Figure 12.1 and includes a compression process
from 1 to 2 with work input designated as wc , a constant pressure heat addition from
2 to 3 with the heat added denoted by qa , an expansion process from 3 to 4 with the
work output designated as wt , and a constant pressure heat rejection from 4 to 1 with
the heat rejected denoted by qr .
For our initial analysis we shall assume no pressure drops in the heat exchangers,
no heat loss in the compressor or turbine, and all reversible processes. Our cycle then
consists of
12.3
BRAYTON CYCLE
345
Figure 12.1 Schematic of a basic Brayton cycle.
1. two reversible adiabatic processes and
2. two reversible constant-pressure processes.
An h–s diagram for this cycle is shown in Figure 12.2. Keep in mind that the working
medium for this cycle is in a gaseous form and thus this h–s diagram is similar to
a T –s diagram. In fact, for perfect gases the diagrams are identical except for the
vertical scale.
[Image not available in this electronic edition.]
Figure 12.2 h–s diagram for ideal Brayton cycle.
346
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
We shall proceed to make a steady flow analysis of each portion of the cycle.
Turbine:
ht3 + q = ht4 + ws
(12.1)
wt ≡ ws = ht3 − ht4
(12.2)
ht1 + q = ht2 + ws
(12.3)
Thus
Compressor:
Designating wc as the (positive) quantity of work that the compressor puts into the
system, we have
wc ≡ −ws = ht2 − ht1
(12.4)
wn ≡ wt − wc = (ht3 − ht4 ) − (ht2 − ht1 )
(12.5)
ht2 + q = ht3 + ws
(12.6)
qa ≡ q = ht3 − ht2
(12.7)
ht4 + q = ht1 + ws
(12.8)
The net work output is
Heat Added:
Thus
Heat Rejected:
Denoting qr as the (positive) quantity of heat that is rejected from the system, we
have
qr ≡ −q = ht4 − ht1
(12.9)
12.3
BRAYTON CYCLE
347
The net heat added is
qn ≡ qa − qr = (ht3 − ht2 ) − (ht4 − ht1 )
(12.10)
The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is defined as
ηth ≡
wn
net work output
=
heat input
qa
(12.11)
For the Brayton cycle this becomes
ηth =
(ht3 − ht4 ) − (ht2 − ht1 )
(ht3 − ht2 ) − (ht4 − ht1 )
=
ht3 − ht2
ht3 − ht2
ηth = 1 −
ht4 − ht1
qr
=1−
ht3 − ht2
qa
(12.12)
Notice that the efficiency can be expressed solely in terms of the heat quantities. The
latter result can be arrived at much quicker by noting that for any cycle,
wn = qn
(1.27)
and the cycle efficiency can be written as
ηth =
wn
qn
qa − qr
qr
=
=
=1−
qa
qa
qa
qa
(12.13)
If the working medium is assumed to be a perfect gas, additional relationships can
be brought into play. For instance, all of the heat and work quantities above can be
expressed in terms of temperature differences since
h = cp T
(1.46)
and similarly,
ht = cp Tt
(12.14)
Equation (12.12) can thus be written as
ηth = 1 −
cp (Tt4 − Tt1 )
Tt4 − Tt1
=1−
cp (Tt3 − Tt2 )
Tt3 − Tt2
(12.15)
With a little manipulation this can be put into an extremely simple and significant
form. Let us digress for a moment to show how this can be done.
348
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Looking at Figure 12.2, we notice that the entropy change calculated between
points 2 and 3 will be the same as that calculated between points 1 and 4. Now the
entropy change between any two points, say A and B, can be computed by
sA−B = cp ln
TB
pb
− R ln
TA
pA
(1.53)
If we are dealing with a constant-pressure process, the last term is zero and the
resulting simple expression is applicable between 2 and 3 as well as between 1 and
4. Thus
s2−3 = s1−4
cp ln
Tt3
Tt4
= cp ln
Tt2
Tt1
(12.16)
(12.17)
and if cp is considered constant [which it was to derive equation (1.53)],
Tt3
Tt4
=
Tt2
Tt1
(12.18)
Show that under the condition expressed by (12.18), we can write
Tt4 − Tt1
Tt1
=
Tt3 − Tt2
Tt2
(12.19)
and the cycle efficiency (12.15) can be expressed as
ηth = 1 −
Tt1
Tt2
(12.20)
Now since the compression process between 1 and 2 is isentropic, the temperature
ratio can be related to a pressure ratio. If we designate the pressure ratio of the
compression process as rp ,
rp ≡
pt2
pt1
(12.21)
the ideal Brayton cycle efficiency for a perfect gas becomes [by (1.57)]
ηth = 1 −
1
rp
(γ −1)/γ
(12.22)
Remember that this relation is valid only for an ideal cycle and when the working
medium may be considered a perfect gas. Equation (12.22) is plotted in Figure 12.3
12.3
BRAYTON CYCLE
349
Figure 12.3 Thermodynamic efficiency of ideal Brayton cycle (γ = 1.4).
and shows the influence of the compressor pressure ratio on cycle efficiency. Even for
real power plants, the pressure ratio remains as the most significant basic parameter.
Normally in closed cycles, all velocities in the flow ducts (stations 1, 2, 3, and
4) are relatively small and may be neglected. Thus all enthalpies, temperatures, and
pressures in the equations above represent static as well as stagnation quantities.
However, this is not true for open cycles, which are used for propulsion systems. The
modifications required for the analysis of various propulsion engines are discussed
in Section 12.4.
Example 12.1 Air enters the compressor at 15 psia and 550°R. The pressure ratio is 10. The
maximum allowable cycle temperature is 2000°R (Figure E12.1). Consider an ideal cycle with
negligible velocities and treat the air as a perfect gas with constant specific heats. Determine
the turbine and compressor work and cycle efficiency. Since velocities are negligible, we use
static conditions in all equations.
Figure E12.1
Thus
T2 = (1.931)(550) = 1062°R
and similarly,
T4 =
2000
= 1036°R
1.931
350
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
wt = cp (T3 − T4 ) = (0.24)(2000 − 1036) = 231 Btu/lbm
wc = cp (T2 − T1 ) = (0.24)(1062 − 550) = 123 Btu/lbm
wn = wt − wc = 231 − 123 = 108 Btu/lbm
qa = cp (T3 − T2 ) = (0.24)(2000 − 1062) = 225 Btu/lbm
ηth =
wn
108
= 48%
=
qa
225
Notice that even in an ideal cycle, the net work is a rather small proportion of the turbine
work. By comparison, in the Rankine cycle (which is used for steam power plants), over 95%
of the turbine work remains as useful work. This radical difference is accounted for by the fact
that in the Rankine cycle the working medium is compressed as a liquid and in the Brayton
cycle the fluid is always a gas.
This large proportion of back work accounts for the basic characteristics of the
Brayton cycle.
1. Large volumes of gas must be handled to obtain reasonable work capacities.
For this reason, the cycle is particularly suitable for use with turbomachinery.
2. Machine efficiencies are extremely critical to economical operation. In fact,
efficiencies that could be tolerated in other cycles would reduce the net output
of a Brayton cycle to zero. (See Example 2.2.)
The latter point highlights the stumbling block which for years prevented exploitation of this cycle, particularly for purposes of aircraft and missile propulsion. Efficient, lightweight, high-pressure ratio compressors were not available until about
1950. Another problem concerns the temperature limitation where the gas enters the
turbine. The turbine blading must be able to continuously withstand this temperature
while operating under high-stress conditions.
Cycle Improvements
The basic cycle performance can be improved by several techniques. If the turbine
outlet temperature T4 is significantly higher than the compressor outlet temperature
T2 , some of the heat that would normally be rejected can be used to furnish part
of the heat added. This is called regeneration and reduces the heat that must be
supplied externally. The net result is a considerable improvement in efficiency. Could
a regenerator be used in Example 12.1?
The compression process can be done in stages with intercooling (heat removal
between each stage). This reduces the amount of compressor work. Similarly, the
expansion can take place in stages with reheat, (heat addition between stages). This
increases the amount of turbine work. Unfortunately, this type of staging slightly
decreases the cycle efficiency, but this can be tolerated to increase the net work
produced per unit mass of fluid flowing. This parameter is called specific output and
12.3
BRAYTON CYCLE
351
is an indication of the size of unit required to produce a given amount of power.
The techniques of regeneration and staging with intercooling or reheating are only of
use in stationary power plants and thus are not discussed further. Those interested in
more details on these topics may wish to consult a text on gas turbine power plants
or Volume II of Zucrow (Ref. 25).
Real Cycles
The thermodynamic efficiency of 48% calculated in Example 12.1 is quite high
because the cycle was assumed to be ideal. To obtain more meaningful results, we
must consider the flow losses. We have already touched on the importance of having
high machine efficiencies. Relatively speaking, this is not too difficult to accomplish
in the turbine, where an expansion process takes place, but it is quite a task to build
an efficient compressor. In addition, pressure drops will be involved in all ducts
and heat exchangers (burners, intercoolers, reheaters, regenerators, etc.). An h–s
diagram for a real Brayton cycle is given in Figure 12.4, which shows the effects
of machine efficiencies and pressure drops. Note that the irreversible effects cause
entropy increases in both the compressor and turbine.
Turbine efficiency, assuming negligible heat loss, becomes
ηt ≡
ht3 − ht4
actual work output
=
ideal work output
ht3 − ht4s
Figure 12.4 h–s diagram for real Brayton cycle.
(12.23)
352
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
For a perfect gas with constant specific heats, this can also be represented in terms of
temperatures:
ηt ≡
cp (Tt3 − Tt4 )
Tt3 − Tt4
=
cp (Tt3 − Tt4s )
Tt3 − Tt4s
(12.24)
Note that the actual and ideal turbines operate between the same pressures.
The compressor efficiency similarly becomes
ηc ≡
ht2s − ht1
ideal work input
=
actual work input
ht2 − ht1
(12.25)
ηc =
Tt2s − Tt1
Tt2 − Tt1
(12.26)
Again, note that the actual and ideal machines operate between the same pressures
(see Figure 12.4).
Example 12.2 Assume the same information as given in Example 12.1 except that the compressor and turbine efficiencies are both 80%. Neglect any pressure drops in the heat exchangers. Thus the results will show the effect of low machine efficiencies on the Brayton cycle. We
take the ideal values that were calculated in Example 12.1.
T1 = 550°R
T3 = 2000°R
T2s = 1062°R
T4s = 1036°R
ηt = ηc = 0.8
wt = (0.8)(0.24)(2000 − 1036) = 185.1 Btu/lbm
wc =
(0.24)(1062 − 550)
= 153.6 Btu/lbm
0.8
wn = 185.1 − 153.6 = 31.5 Btu/lbm
T2 = 550 +
153.6
= 1190°R
0.24
qa = (0.24)(2000 − 1190) = 194.4 Btu/lbm
ηth =
wn
31.5
= 16.2%
=
qa
194.4
Note that the introduction of 80% machine efficiencies drastically reduces the net work and
cycle efficiency, to about 29% and 34% of their respective ideal values. What would the net
work and cycle efficiency be if the machine efficiencies were 75%?
Open Brayton Cycle for Propulsion Systems
Most stationary gas turbine power plants operate on the closed cycle illustrated in
Figure 12.1. Gas turbine engines used for aircraft and missile propulsion operate
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
353
on an open cycle; that is, the process of heat rejection (from the turbine exit to the
compressor inlet) does not physically take place within the engine, but occurs in the
atmosphere. Thermodynamically speaking, the open and closed cycles are identical,
but there are a number of significant differences in actual hardware.
1. The air enters the system at high velocity and thus must be diffused before being
allowed to pass into the compressor. A significant portion of the compression
occurs in this diffuser. If flight speeds are supersonic, pressure increases also
occur across the shock system at the front of the inlet.
2. The heat addition is carried out by an internal combustion process within a
burner or combustion chamber. Thus the products of combustion pass through
the remainder of the system.
3. After passing through the turbine, the air leaves the system by further expanding
through a nozzle. This increases the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, which
aids in producing thrust.
4. Although the compression and expansion processes generally occur in stages
(most particularly with axial compressors), no intercooling is involved. Thrust
augmentation with an afterburner could be considered as a form of reheat
between the last turbine stage and the nozzle expansion. The use of regenerators
is considered impractical for flight propulsion systems.
The division of the compression process between the diffuser and compressor and
amount of expansion that takes place within the turbine and the exit nozzle vary
greatly depending on the type of propulsion system involved. This is discussed in
greater detail in the next section, where we describe a number of common propulsion
engines.
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
Turbojet
Although the first patent for a jet engine was issued in 1922, the building of practical
turbojets did not take place until the next decade. Development work was started
in both England and Germany in 1930, with the British obtaining the first operable
engine in 1937. However, it was not used to power an airplane until 1941. The thrust
of this engine was about 850 lbf. The Germans managed to achieve the first actual
flight of a turbojet plane in 1939, with an engine of 1100 lbf thrust. (Historical notes
on various engines were obtained from Reference 25.)
Figure 12.5 shows a cutaway picture of a typical turbojet. Although this looks
rather formidable, the schematic shown in Figure 12.6 will help identify the basic
parts. Figure 12.6 also shows the important section locations necessary for engine
analysis. Air enters the diffuser and is somewhat compressed as its velocity is decreased. The amount of compression that takes place in the diffuser depends on the
354
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
[Image not available in this electronic edition.]
Figure 12.5 Cutaway view of a turbojet engine. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft.)
Figure 12.6 Basic parts of a turbojet engine.
flight speed of the vehicle. The greater the flight speed, the greater the pressure rise
within the diffuser.
After passing through the diffuser, the air enters an adiabatic compressor, where
the remainder of the pressure rise occurs. The early turbojets used centrifugal compressors, as these were the most efficient type available. Since that time a great deal
more has been learned about aerodynamics and this has enabled the rapid development of efficient axial-flow compressors which are now widely used in jet engines.
A portion of the air then enters the combustion chamber for the heat addition by
internal combustion, which is ideally carried out at constant pressure. Combustion
chambers come in several configurations; some are annular chambers, but most consist of a number of small chambers surrounding the central shaft. The remainder of the
air is used to cool the chamber, and eventually, all excess air is mixed with the products
of combustion to cool them before entering the turbine. This is the most critical temperature in the entire engine since the turbine blading has reduced strength at elevated
temperatures and operates at high stress levels. As better materials are developed, the
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
355
maximum allowable turbine inlet temperature can be raised, which will result in more
efficient engines. Also, methods of blade cooling have helped alleviate this problem.
The gas is not expanded back to atmospheric pressure within the turbine. It is
only expanded enough to produce sufficient shaft work to run the compressor plus
the engine auxiliaries. This expansion is essentially adiabatic. In most jet engines the
gases are then exhausted to the atmosphere through a nozzle. Here, the expansion
permits conversion of enthalpy into kinetic energy and the resulting high velocities
produce thrust. Normally, converging-only nozzles are used and they operate in a
choked condition.
Many jet engines used for military aircraft have a section between the turbine and
the exhaust nozzle which includes an afterburner. Since the gases contain a large
amount of excess air, additional fuel can be added in this section. The temperature
can be raised quite high since the surrounding material operates at a low stress level.
The use of an afterburner enables much greater exhaust velocities to be obtained from
the nozzle with higher resultant thrusts. However, this increase in thrust is obtained
at the expense of an extremely high rate of fuel consumption.
An h–s diagram for a turbojet is shown in Figure 12.7, which for the sake of
simplicity indicates all processes as ideal. The station numbers refer to those marked
in the schematic of Figure 12.6. The diagram represents static values. The free stream
exists at state 0 and has a high velocity (relative to the engine). These same conditions
may or may not exist at the actual inlet to the engine. An external diffusion with
spillage or an external shock system would cause the thermodynamic state at 1 to
differ from that of the free stream. Notice that point 1 does not even appear on the
h–s diagram. This is because the performance of an air inlet is usually given with
respect to the free-stream conditions, enabling one immediately to compute properties
at section 2.
Figure 12.7 h–s diagram for ideal turbojet. (For schematic see Figure 12.6.)
356
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Operation both with and without an afterburner is shown on Figure 12.7, the
process from 5 to 5 indicating the use of an afterburner, with 5 to 6 representing
subsequent flow through the exhaust nozzle. In this case a nozzle with a variable exit
area is required to accommodate the flow when in the afterburning mode. Since the
converging nozzle is usually choked, we have indicated point 6 (and 6 ) at a pressure
greater than atmospheric. High velocities exist at the inlet and outlet (0, 1, and 6 or
6 ), and relatively low velocities exist at all other sections. Thus points 2 through 5
(and 5 ) also represent approximate stagnation values. (These internal velocities may
not always be negligible, especially in the afterburner region.) A detailed analysis of
a turbojet is identical with that of the primary air passing through a turbofan engine.
A problem related to this case is worked out in Example 12.3.
A turbojet engine has a high fuel consumption because it creates thrust by accelerating a relatively small amount of air through a large velocity differential. In a later
section we shall see that this creates a low propulsion efficiency unless the flight velocity is very high. Thus the profitable application of the turbojet is in the speed range
from M0 = 1.0 up to about M0 = 2.5 or 3.0. At flight speeds above approximately
M0 = 3.0, the ramjet appears to be more desirable. In the subsonic speed range, other
variations of the turbojet are more economical, and these will be discussed next.
Turbofan
The concept here is to move a great deal more air through a smaller velocity differential, thus increasing the propulsion efficiency at low flight speeds. This is accomplished by adding a large shrouded fan to the engine. Figure 12.8 shows a cutaway
picture of a typical turbofan engine. The schematic in Figure 12.9 will help to identify
the basic parts and indicate the important section locations necessary for the engine
analysis.
[Image not available in this electronic edition.]
Figure 12.8
Engines.)
Cutaway view of a turbofan engine. (Courtesy of General Electric Aircraft
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
357
Figure 12.9 Basic parts of a turbofan engine.
The flow through the central portion, or basic gas generator (0–1–2–3–4–5–6),
is identical to that discussed previously for the pure jet (without an afterburner).
Additional air, often called secondary or bypass air, is drawn in through a diffuser
and passed to the fan section, where it is compressed through a relatively low pressure
ratio. It is then exhausted through a nozzle to the atmosphere. Many variations of this
configuration are found. Some fans are located near the rear with their own inlet and
diffuser. In some models the bypass air from the fan is mixed with the main air from
the turbine, and the total air flow exits through a common nozzle.
The bypass ratio is defined as
β≡
ṁa
ṁa
(12.27)
where
ṁa ≡ mass flow rate of primary air (through compressor)
ṁa ≡ mass flow rate of secondary air (through fan)
An h–s diagram for the primary air is shown in Figure 12.10 and for the secondary
air in Figure 12.11. In these diagrams both the actual and ideal processes are shown
so that a more accurate picture of the losses can be obtained. These diagrams are for
the configuration shown in Figure 12.9, in which a common diffuser is used for all
entering air and separate nozzles are used for the fan and turbine exhaust.
The analysis of a fanjet is identical to that of a pure jet, with the exception of
sizing the turbine. In the fanjet the turbine must produce enough work to run both the
compressor and the fan:
turbine work = compressor work + fan work
ṁa (ht4 − ht5 ) = ṁa (ht3 − ht2 ) + ṁa (ht3 − ht2 )
(12.28)
358
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.10 h–s diagram for primary air of turbofan. (For schematic see Figure 12.9.)
Figure 12.11 h–s diagram for secondary air of turbofan. (For schematic see Figure 12.9.)
If we divide by ṁa and introduce the bypass ratio β [see equation (12.27)], this
becomes
(ht4 − ht5 ) = (ht3 − ht2 ) + β(ht3 − ht2 )
(12.29)
Note that the mass of the fuel has been neglected in computing the turbine work.
This is quite realistic since air bled from the compressor for cabin pressurization and
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
359
air-conditioning plus operation of auxiliary power amounts to approximately the mass
of fuel that is added in the burner.
The following example will serve to illustrate the method of analysis for turbojet
and turbofan engines. Some simplification is made in that the working medium is
treated as a perfect gas with constant specific heats. These assumptions would actually
yield fairly satisfactory results if two values of cp (and γ ) were used: one for the cold
section (diffuser, compressor, fan, and fan nozzle) and another one for the hot section
(turbine and turbine nozzle). For the sake of simplicity we shall use only one value
of cp (and γ ) in the example that follows. If more accurate results were desired, we
could resort to gas tables, which give precise enthalpy versus temperature relations
not only for the entering air but also for the particular products of combustion that
pass through the turbine and other parts. (see Ref. 31.)
Example 12.3 A turbofan engine is operating at Mach 0.9 at an altitude of 33,000 ft, where
the temperature and pressure are 400°R and 546 psfa. The engine has a bypass ratio of 3.0
and the primary air flow is 50 lbm/sec. Exit nozzles for both the main and bypass flow are
converging-only. Propulsion workers generally use the stagnation-pressure recovery factor
versus efficiency for calculating component performance, but in this example we will use the
following efficiencies:
ηc = 0.88
ηf = 0.90
ηb = 0.96
ηt = 0.94
ηn = 0.95
The total-pressure recovery factor of the diffuser (related to the free stream) is ηr = 0.98, the
compressor total-pressure ratio is 15, the fan total-pressure ratio is 2.5, the maximum allowable
turbine inlet temperature is 2500°R, the total-pressure loss in the combustor is 3%, and the
heating value of the fuel is 18,900 Btu/lbm. Assume the working medium to be air and treat
it as a perfect gas with constant specific heats. Compute the properties at each section (see
Figure 12.9 for section numbers). Later, the air will be treated as a real gas and the results will
be compared.
Diffuser:
T0 = 400°R
p0 = 546 psfa
M0 = 0.9
a0 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(400) = 980 ft/sec
V0 = M0 a0 = (0.9)(980) = 882 ft/sec
pt0
1
(546) = 923 psfa
p0 =
pt0 =
p0
0.5913
Tt0
1
Tt0 =
(400) = 465°R = Tt2
T0 =
T0
0.8606
It is common practice to base the performance of an air inlet on the free-stream conditions.
pt2 = ηr pt0 = (0.98)(923) = 905 psfa
360
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Compressor:
pt3 = 15pt2 = (15)(905) = 13,575 psfa
Tt3s
=
Tt2
pt3
pt2
(γ −1)/γ
= (15)0.286 = 2.170
Tt3s = (2.17)(465) = 1009°R
ηc =
ht3s − ht2
Tt3s − Tt2
=
ht3 − ht2
Tt3 − Tt2
Thus
Tt3 − Tt2 =
1009 − 465
= 618°R
0.88
and
Tt3 = Tt2 + 618 = 465 + 618 = 1083°R
Fan:
pt3 = 2.5pt2 = (2.5)(905) = 2263 psfa
Tt3s
=
Tt2
pt3
pt2
(γ −1)/γ
= (2.5)0.286 = 1.300
Tt3s = (1.3)(465) = 604°R
Tt3 − Tt2 =
Tt3s − Tt2
604 − 465
= 154.4°R
=
ηf
0.90
and
Tt3 = Tt2 + 154.4 = 465 + 154.4 = 619°R
Burner:
pt4 = 0.97pt3 = (0.97)(13, 575) = 13,168 psfa
Tt4 = 2500°R (max. allowable)
An energy analysis of the burner reveals
(ṁf + ṁa )ht3 + ηb (HV)ṁf = (ṁf + ṁa )ht4
(12.30)
where
HV ≡ heating value of the fuel
ηb ≡ combustion efficiency
Let f ≡ ṁf /ṁa denote the fuel–air ratio. Then
ηb (HV)f = (1 + f )cp (Tt4 − Tt3 )
(12.31)
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
361
or
f =
1
ηb (HV)
−1
cp (Tt4 − Tt3 )
=
1
(0.96)(18,900)
−1
(0.24)(2500 − 1083)
= 0.0191
Turbine: If we neglect the mass of fuel added, we have from equation (12.29) (for constant
specific heats):
(Tt4 − Tt5 ) = (Tt3 − Tt2 ) + β(Tt3 − Tt2 )
Tt4 − Tt5 = (1083 − 465) + (3)(619 − 465) = 1080°R
and
Tt5 = Tt4 − 1080 = 2500 − 1080 = 1420°R
and
ηt =
Tt4 − Tt5s =
ht4 − ht5
Tt4 − Tt5
=
ht4 − ht5s
Tt4 − Tt5s
1080
= 1149°R
0.94
and
Tt5s = Tt4 − 1149 = 2500 − 1149 = 1351°R
pt4
=
pt5
pt5 =
Tt4
Tt5s
γ /(γ −1)
=
2500
1351
3.5
= 8.62
13,168
pt4
=
= 1528 psfa
8.62
8.62
Turbine nozzle: The operating pressure ratio for the nozzle will be
546
p0
= 0.357 < 0.528
=
pt5
1528
which means that the nozzle is choked and has sonic velocity at the exit.
Tt6 = Tt5 = 1420°R
M6 = 1
and thus
T6
= 0.8333
Tt6
T6 = (0.8333)(1420) = 1183°R
V6 = a6 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(1183) = 1686 ft/sec
ηn =
ht5 − h6
Tt5 − T6
=
ht5 − h6s
Tt5 − T6s
Thus
Tt5 − T6s =
237
1420 − 1183
=
= 249°R
0.95
0.95
362
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
and
T6s = Tt5 − 249 = 1420 − 249 = 1171°R
pt5
=
p6s
Tt5
T6s
γ /(γ −1)
p6 = p6s =
=
1420
1171
3.5
= 1.964
1528
pt5
=
= 778 psfa
1.964
1.964
Fan nozzle:
546
p0
= 0.241 < 0.528
=
pt3
2263
(nozzle is choked)
Tt4 = Tt3 = 619°R
T4 = (0.8333)(619) = 516°R
M4 = 1
V4 = a4 = (1.4)(32.2)(53.3)(516) = 1113 ft/sec
Tt3 − T4s =
Tt3 − T4
619 − 516
= 108°R
=
ηn
0.95
T4s = 619 − 108 = 511°R
pt3
=
p4s
Tt3
T4s
γ /(γ −1)
p4 = p4s =
=
619
511
3.5
= 1.956
2263
= 1157 psfa
1.956
In a later section we shall continue this example to determine the thrust and other
performance parameters of the engine.
Turboprop
Figure 12.12 shows a cutaway picture of a typical tuboprop engine. The schematic
in Figure 12.13 will help identify the basic parts and indicates the important section
locations. It is quite similar to the turbofan engine except for the following:
1. As much power as possible is developed in the turbine, and thus more power
is available to operate the propeller. In essence, the engine is operating as a
stationary power plant—but on an open cycle.
2. The propeller operates through reduction gears at a relatively low rpm value
(compared with a fan).
As a result of extracting so much power from the turbine, very little expansion can
take place in the nozzle, and consequently, the exit velocity is relatively low. Thus
little thrust (about 10 to 20% of the total) is obtained from the jet.
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
363
Figure 12.12 Cutaway view of a turboprop engine. (Courtesy of General Electric Aircraft
Engines.)
Figure 12.13 Basic parts of a turboprop engine.
On the other hand, the propeller accelerates very large quantities of air (compared
to the turbofan and turbojet) through a very small velocity differential. This makes an
extremely efficient propulsion device for the lower subsonic flight regime. Another
operating characteristic of a propeller-driven aircraft is that of high thrust and power
available for takeoff. The turboprop engine is both considerably smaller in diameter
and lighter in weight than a reciprocating engine of comparable power output.
Ramjet
The ramjet cycle is basically the same as that of the turbojet. Air enters the diffuser
and most of its kinetic energy is converted into a pressure rise. If the flight speed is
supersonic, part of this compression actually occurs across a shock system that precedes the inlet (see Figure 7.15). When flight speeds are high, sufficient compression
can be attained at the inlet and in the diffusing section, and thus a compressor is not
needed. Once the compressor is eliminated, the turbine is no longer required and it
364
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.14 Basic parts of a ramjet engine.
can also be omitted. The result is a ramjet engine, which is shown schematically in
Figure 12.14.
The combustion region in a ramjet is generally a large single chamber, similar to
an afterburner. Since the cross-sectional area is relatively small, velocities are much
higher in the combustion zone than are experienced in a turbojet. Thus flame holders
(similar to those used in afterburners) must be introduced to stabilize the flame and
prevent blowouts. Experimental work is presently being carried out with solid-fuel
ramjets. Supersonic combustion would simplify the diffuser (and eliminate much
loss), but results to date have not been fruitful.
Although a ramjet engine can operate at speeds as low as M0 = 0.2, the fuel
consumption is horrendous at these low velocities. The operation of a ramjet does
not become competitive with that of a turbojet until speeds of about M0 = 2.5 or
above are reached. Another disadvantage of a ramjet is that it cannot operate at zero
flight speed and thus requires some auxiliary means of starting; it may be dropped
from a plane or launched by rocket assist. Development work is currently under way
on combination turbojet and ramjet engines for high-speed piloted craft. This would
solve the launch problem as well as the inefficient operation at low speeds.
The ramjet was invented in 1913 by a Frenchman named Lorin. Various other
patents were obtained in England and Germany in the 1920s. The first plane to be
powered by a ramjet was designed in France by Leduc in 1938, but its construction
was delayed by World War II and it did not fly until 1949. Ramjets are very simple and
lightweight and thus are ideally suited as expendable engines for high-speed target
drones or guided missiles.
Example 12.4 A ramjet has a flight speed of M0 = 1.8 at an altitude of 13,000 m, where the
temperature is 218 K and the pressure is 1.7 × 104 N/m2. Assume a two-dimensional inlet with a
deflection angle of 10° (Figure E12.4). Neglect frictional losses in the diffuser and combustion
chamber. The inlet area is A1 = 0.2 m2; sufficient fuel is added to increase the total temperature
to 2225 K. The heating value of the fuel is 4.42 × 107 J/kg with ηb = 0.98. The nozzle
expands to atmospheric pressure for maximum thrust with ηn = 0.96. The velocity entering
the combustion chamber is to be kept as large as possible but not greater than M2 = 0.25.
Assume the fluid to be air and treat it as a perfect gas with γ = 1.4. Compute significant
properties at each section, mass flow rate, fuel–air ratio, and diffuser total-pressure recovery factor.
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
365
Figure E12.4
Oblique shock: For M0 = 1.8, δ = 10°, and θ = 44°:
M0n = M0 sin θ = 1.8 sin 44° = 1.250
M1n = 0.8126
M1 =
p1
= 1.6562
p0
T1
= 1.1594
T0
0.8126
M1n
=
= 1.453
sin(θ − δ)
sin(44 − 10)
Normal shock: For M1 = 1.453:
M1 = 0.7184
p1
= 2.2964
p1
T1
= 1.2892
T1
p1 p1
p0 = (2.2964)(1.6562)p0 = 3.803p0
p1 p0
Tt0
1
= 359.3 K
Tt2 = Tt0 = T0
= (218)
t0
0.6068
p 1 =
Rayleigh flow: If M2 = 0.25:
Tt
∗
Tt ∗
1
= 1399 K
= Tt2
= (359.3)
Tt2
0.2568
Thus, adding fuel to make Tt3 = 2225 K means that the flow will be choked (M3 = 1.0) and
M2 < 0.25. We proceed to find M2 .
Tt2 Tt3
Tt2
359.3
(1) = 0.1615
=
=
Tt ∗
Tt3 Tt ∗
2225
M2 = 0.192
Diffuser:
p2 =
1
p2 pt2 pt1
(3.803p0 ) = 5.227p0
p1 = (0.9746)(1)
pt2 pt1 p1
0.7091
T2 =
T2
Tt2 = (0.9927)(359.3) = 356.7 K
Tt2
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PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Combustion chamber:
p3 = p ∗ =
T3 = Tt3
p∗
p2 =
p2
1
(5.227p0 ) = 2.29p0
2.2822
T3
= (2225)(0.8333) = 1854 K
Tt3
Nozzle: Since M3 = 1.0, the nozzle diverges immediately.
p3 (1−γ )/γ
2.29p0 (1−1.4)/1.4
= (1854)
= 1463 K
T5s = T3
p5s
p0
T5 = T3 − ηn (T3 − T5s ) = 1854 − (0.96)(1854 − 1463) = 1479 K
1479
T5
= 0.6647
=
Tt5
2225
and M5 = 1.588
Flow rate:
p1 =
p1
p0 = (1.6562)(1.7 × 104 ) = 2.816 × 104 N/m2
p0
T1 =
T1
T0 = (1.1594)(218) = 253 K
T0
ρ1 =
p1
2.816 × 104
= 0.388 kg/m3
=
RT1
(287)(253)
V1 = M1 a1 = (1.453)[(1.4)(1)(287)(253)]1/2 = 463 m/s
ṁ = ρ1 A1 V1 = (0.388)(0.2)(463) = 35.9 kg/s
Fuel–air ratio:
f =
1
ηb (HV)
−1
cp (Tt3 − Tt2 )
=
1
(0.98)(4.42 × 107 )
−1
(1000)(2225 − 359.3)
= 0.0450
Total-pressure recovery factor:
ηr =
pt2
pt2 p2 p0
=
=
pt0
p2 p0 pt0
1
0.9746
5.227p0
p0
(0.17404) = 0.933
In a later section we continue with this example to determine the thrust and other
performance parameters.
Pulsejet
The turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, and ramjet all operate on variations of the Brayton
cycle. The pulsejet is a totally different device and is shown in Figure 12.15.
A key feature in the design of the pulsejet is a bank of spring-loaded check valves
that forms the wall between the diffuser and the combustion chamber. These valves
12.4
PROPULSION ENGINES
367
Figure 12.15 Basic parts of a pulsejet engine.
are normally closed, but if a predetermined pressure differential exists, they will open
to permit high-pressure air from the diffusing section to pass into the combustion
chamber. They never permit flow from the chamber back into the diffuser. A spark
plug initiates combustion, which occurs at something approaching a constant-volume
process. The resultant high temperature and pressure cause the gases to flow out the
tail pipe at high velocity. The inertia of the exhaust gases creates a slight vacuum in
the combustion chamber. This vacuum combined with the ram pressure developed in
the diffuser causes sufficient pressure differential to open the check valves. A new
charge of air enters the chamber and the cycle repeats. The frequency of the cycle
above depends on the size of the engine, and the dynamic characteristics of the valves
must be matched carefully to this frequency. Small engines operate as high as 300 to
400 cycles per second, and large engines have been built that operate as low as 40
cycles per second.
The idea of a pulsejet originated in France in 1906, but the modern configuration
was not developed until the early 1930s in Germany. Perhaps the most famous pulsejet
was the V-1 engine that powered the German “buzz bombs” of World War II. The
speed range of pulsejets is limited to the subsonic regime since the large frontal area
required (because the air is admitted intermittently) causes high drag. Its extreme
noise and vibration levels render it useless for piloted craft. However, its ability to
develop thrust at zero speed gives it a distinct advantage over the ramjet.
Rocket
All the propulsion systems discussed so far belong to the category of air-breathing
engines. As such, their application is limited to altitudes of about 100,000 ft or
less. On the other hand, rockets carry oxidizer on board as well as fuel and thus
can function within and outside the atmosphere. Schematics of rocket engines are
shown in Figure 12.16. Chemical rocket propellants are either solid or liquid. In
a liquid system the fuel and oxidizer are separately stored and are sprayed under
high pressure (300 to 800 psia) into the combustion chamber, where burning takes
place. When solid propellants are used, both fuel and oxidizer are contained in the
propellant grain and the burning takes place on the surface of the propellant. Thus
368
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.16 Basic parts of a rocket engine: (a) Solid-propellant rocket. (b) Liquid-propellant rocket.
the combustion chamber continually increases in volume. Some solid propellants are
internal burning, as shown in Figure 12.16a, whereas others are end burning (like a
cigarette). Solid propellants develop chamber pressures of from 500 to 3000 psia.
Figure 12.17 shows the most common thrust profiles that can be provided with
internal burning. Neutral burning is based on a constant-burning area which is accomplished with specific propellant geometries. Similarly, progressive and regressive burning depend on the propellant cross section. All these burning profiles affect
the acceleration of the rocket, and thus the ultimate mission must be designed into
Figure 12.17 Typical thrust profiles and corresponding cross sections for solid propellants.
12.5
GENERAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS, THRUST, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY
369
the propellant grain configuration. The combustion products are exhausted through a
converging–diverging nozzle with exit velocities ranging from 5000 to 10,000 ft/sec.
The extremely high temperatures reached during the combustion process plus the
high rate of fuel consumption limit the use of a rocket engine to short times (on the
order of seconds or minutes).
Liquid propellants can be throttled, and this is of great importance to certain missions, particularly manned missions. Liquids significantly outperform solids and can
range in thrust from micropounds to megapounds. They tend to be very complex
but can be fully checked out prior to operation and their exhaust gases can be nontoxic. Solids, on the other hand, are considerably less expensive than liquids and
are preferred in throwaway missions such as sounding rockets and military rockets.
Although some thrust variation is possible with solids, this must always be preprogrammed, and in general, once the solid is started, accidentally or otherwise, it cannot
be shut off. Solids have been designed successfully to last several years in storage,
and this gives them a great advantage over cryogenic liquid propellants. All solid
propulsion systems can be packaged very compactly for less drag and can be activated
quickly if necessary.
The invention of the rocket is generally attributed to the Chinese around the year
1200, although there is some evidence that rockets may have been used by the Greeks
as much as 500 years previous to that time. The father of modern rockets is generally
considered to be an American named Robert Goddard. His experiments started in
1915 and extended well into the 1930s. Some of the first successful American rockets
were the JATO (jet-assisted take-off) units used during the war (solid in 1941 and
liquid in 1942). Also famous was the V-2 rocket developed by Wernher von Braun in
Germany. This first flew in 1942 and had a liquid propulsion system that developed
56,000 pounds of thrust. The first rocket-propelled aircraft was the German ME-163.
12.5 GENERAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS,
THRUST, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY
In this section we examine propulsion systems and obtain a general expression for
their net propulsive thrust. We then continue to develop some significant performance
parameters, such as power and efficiency.
Thrust Considerations
Consider an airplane or missile that is traveling to the left at a constant velocity V0 as
shown in Figure 12.18. The thrust force is the result of interaction between the fluid
Figure 12.18 Direction of flight and net propulsive force.
370
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
and the propulsive device. The fluid pushes on the propulsive device and provides
thrust to the left, or in the direction of motion, whereas the propulsive device pushes
on the fluid opposite to the direction of flight.
Analysis of Fluid
We start by analyzing the fluid as it passes through the propulsive device. We define
a control volume that surrounds all the fluid inside the propulsion system (see Figure
12.19). Velocities are shown relative to the device, which is used as a frame of
reference in order to make a steady-flow picture. The x-component of the momentum
equation for steady flow is [from equation (3.42)]
ρVx
Fx =
(V · n̂) dA
(12.32)
cs gc
and for one-dimensional flow this becomes
Fx =
ṁ2 V2x
ṁ1 V1x
−
gc
gc
(12.33)
We define an enclosure force as the vector sum of the friction forces and the
pressure forces of the wall on the fluid within the control volume. We shall designate
Fenc as the x-component of this enclosure force on the fluid inside the control volume.
Then
(12.34)
Fx = Fenc + p1 A1 − p2 A2
and
p1 A1 − p2 A2 + Fenc =
or
ṁ2 V2
ṁ1 V1
−
gc
gc
ṁ2 V2
ṁ1 V1
− p 1 A1 +
Fenc = p2 A2 +
gc
gc
Figure 12.19 Forces on the fluid inside the propulsion system.
(12.35)
(12.36)
12.5
GENERAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS, THRUST, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY
371
Notice that the enclosure force, which is an extremely complicated summation of
internal pressure and friction forces, can be expressed easily in terms of known
quantities at the inlet and exit. This shows the great power of the momentum equation.
You may recall from Chapter 10 [see equation (10.11)] that the combination of
variables found in equation (12.36) is called the thrust function. Perhaps now you
can see a reason for this name.
Analysis of Enclosure
We now analyze the forces on the enclosure or the propulsive device. If the enclosure
is pushing on the fluid with a force of magnitude Fenc to the right, the fluid must
be pushing on the enclosure with a force of equal magnitude to the left. This is the
internal reaction of the fluid and is shown in Figure 12.20 as Fint :
Fint ≡ positive thrust on enclosure from internal forces
|Fint | = |Fenc |
(12.37)
In Figure 12.20 we have indicated the external forces as being ambient pressure over
the entire enclosure. At first you might say that this is incorrect since the pressure is
not constant over the external surface. Furthermore, we have not shown any friction
forces over the external surface. The answer is that these differences are accounted
for when the drag forces are computed, since the drag force includes an integration of
the shear stresses along the surface and also a pressure drag term, which is normally
put in the following form:
pressure drag =
2
(p − p0 ) dAx
(12.38)
1
In equation (12.38) the integration is carried out over the entire external surface of
the device and dAx represents the projection of the increment of area on a plane
perpendicular to the x-axis.
Figure 12.20 Forces on the propulsion device.
372
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
We define Fext as the positive thrust that arises from the external forces pushing
on the enclosure:
Fext ≡ positive thrust on enclosure from external forces
Since this has been represented as a constant pressure, the integration of these forces
is quite simple:
Fext = p0 (A0 − A2 ) − p0 (A0 − A1 ) = p0 (A1 − A2 )
(12.39)
The first term in this expression represents positive thrust from the pressure forces
over the rear portion of the propulsive device. The second term represents negative
thrust from the pressure forces acting over the forward portion.
The net positive thrust on the propulsive device will be the sum of the internal and
external forces:
Fnet
= Fint + Fext
Show that the net positive thrust can be expressed as
ṁ2 V2
ṁ1 V1
Fnet = p2 A2 +
− p1 A1 +
+ p0 (A1 − A2 )
gc
gc
(12.40)
(12.41)
or
Fnet
=
ṁ2 V2
ṁ1 V1
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 ) − A1 (p1 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.42)
Notice that equation (12.42) has been left in a general form and as such can apply to
all cases (i.e., ṁ2 can be different from ṁ1 if it is desired to account for the fuel added,
p2 may be different than p0 for the case of sonic or supersonic exhausts, and p1 may
not be the same as p0 ). If p1 = p0 , then V1 = V0 . An example of this is shown
for subsonic flight in Figure 12.21. Here the flow system is choked and an external
diffusion with flow spill-over occurs. The fluid that actually enters the engine is said
to be contained within the pre-entry streamtube.
It is customary in the field of propulsion to work with the free-stream conditions
(p0 and V0 ) that exist far ahead of the actual inlet. Thus, by applying equation (12.42)
between sections 0 and 2 (versus between 1 and 2), we obtain a simpler expression
which is much more convenient to use. We call this the net propulsive thrust:
Fnet =
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.43)
12.5
373
GENERAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS, THRUST, POWER, AND EFFICIENCY
Figure 12.21 External diffusion prior to inlet.
It should be clearly noted that equations (12.42) and (12.43) are not equal since
the last one, in effect, considers the region from zero to 1 as a part of the propulsive
device. Thus this equation includes the pre-entry thrust, or the propulsive force that
the internal fluid exerts on the boundary of the pre-entry streamtube. This error will
be compensated for when the drag is computed since the pressure drag must now be
integrated from 0 to 2 as follows:
1
pressure drag =
2
(p − p0 ) dAx +
0
(p − p0 ) dAx
(12.44)
1
The integral from 0 to 1, called the pre-entry drag or additive drag, exactly balances
the pre-entry thrust if the flow is as pictured in Figure 12.21.
Power Considerations
There are three different measures of power connected with propulsion systems:
1. Input power
2. Propulsive power
3. Thrust power
Consideration of these power quantities enables us to separate the performance of the
thermodynamic cycle from that of the propulsion element. The general relationship
among these various power quantities is shown in Figure 12.22. The thermodynamic
cycle is concerned with input power and propulsive power, whereas the propulsive
device is the link between the propulsive power and the thrust power.
The power input to the working fluid, designated as PI is the rate at which heat
or chemical energy is supplied to the system. This energy is the input to the thermodynamic cycle:
PI = ṁf (HV )
(12.45)
374
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.22 Power quantities of a propulsion system.
The output of the cycle is the input to the propulsion element and is designated as P
and called propulsive power. In the case of propeller-driven systems, the propulsive
power is easily visualized, as it is the shaft power supplied to the propeller. For other
systems the propulsive power can be viewed as the change in kinetic energy rate of
the working medium as it passes through the system:
˙ =
P = KE
ṁ0 V0 2
ṁ2 V2 2
−
2gc
2gc
(12.46)
The thrust power output of the propulsive device is the actual rate of doing useful
propulsion work and is designated as PT :
PT = Fn V0
(12.47)
It is generally easier to compute the propulsive power by noting that the difference
between the propulsive power and the thrust power is the lost power, PL , or
P = PT + PL
(12.48)
The major loss is the absolute kinetic energy of the exit jet, and this is an unavoidable
loss, even for a perfect propulsion system. In addition to this, other energy may be
12.6
AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
375
unavailable for thrust purposes. For instance, the exhaust jet may not all be directed
axially, or it may have a swirl component. In any event, the minimum power loss can
be computed as follows:
V2 − V0 = absolute velocity of exit jet
PL min =
ṁ2
(V2 − V0 )2
2gc
(12.49)
Efficiency Considerations
The identification of the power quantities PI , P , and PT permits various efficiency
factors to be defined. These are also indicated in Figure 12.22.
Thermal efficiency:
P
PI
(12.50)
PT
PT
=
P
PT + P L
(12.51)
PT
= ηth ηp
PI
(12.52)
ηth =
Propulsive efficiency:
ηp =
Overall efficiency:
η0 =
The thermal efficiency indicates how well the thermodynamic cycle converts the
chemical energy of the fuel into work that is available for propulsion. The propulsive
efficiency indicates how well this work is actually utilized by the thrust device to
propel the vehicle. An alternative form of propulsive efficiency is shown in terms of
the lost power. The overall efficiency is a performance index for the entire propulsion
system. Be careful to use consistent units when computing any of these efficiency
factors.
12.6 AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
We start with the basic thrust equation
Fnet =
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.43)
376
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
For purposes of examining the characteristics of air-breathing jet engines, we can
make two simplifying assumptions:
1. Most operate at low fuel–air ratios, and some of the high-pressure air is bled
off to run the auxiliaries. Thus we can assume that the flow rates ṁ2 and ṁ0
are approximately equal.
2. For most systems, the pressure thrust term A2 (p2 − p0 ) is a small portion of
the overall net thrust and may be dropped.
Under these assumptions the net thrust becomes
Fnet =
ṁ
(V2 − V0 )
gc
(12.53)
This form of the thrust equation reveals an interesting characteristic of all airbreathing propulsion systems. As their flight speed approaches the exhaust velocity,
the thrust goes to zero. Even long before reaching this point, the thrust drops below
the drag force (which is increasing rapidly with flight speed). Because of this, no
air-breathing propulsion system can ever fly faster than its exit jet.
This equation also helps explain the natural operating speed range of various
engines. Recall that the turboprop provides a small velocity change to a very large
mass of air. Thus its exit jet has quite a low velocity, which limits the system to lowspeed operation. At the other end of the spectrum we have the turbojet (or pure jet),
which provides a large velocity increment to a relatively small mass of air. Therefore,
this device operates at much higher flight speeds.
We return to the basic thrust equation [see equation (12.43)]. The thrust power is
[by (12.47)]
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 ) V0
(12.54)
PT = Fn V0 =
gc
gc
Let us examine an ideal jet-propulsion system, one in which there are no unavoidable losses. As before, we neglect the difference between ṁ0 and ṁ2 and drop the
pressure contribution to the thrust. Equation (12.54) then becomes
PT =
ṁ0 V0
(V2 − V0 )
gc
(12.55)
Looking at equation (12.55), we can see that the thrust power of an air-breather is
zero when the flight speed is either zero or equal to V2 . In the former case we have a
high thrust but no motion, thus no thrust power. In the latter case the thrust is reduced
to zero.
12.6
377
AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Somewhere between these extremes there must be a point of maximum thrust
power. To find this condition, we differentiate equation (12.55) with respect to V0 ,
keeping V2 constant. Setting this equal to zero, reveals that maximum thrust power
results when
V2 = 2V0
From equations (12.51), (12.49), and (12.47), the propulsive efficiency becomes
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 ) V0
PT
gc
gc
ηp =
=
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
ṁ2
PT + P L
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 ) V0 +
(V2 − V0 )2
gc
gc
2gc
(12.56)
We again neglect the difference between ṁ0 and ṁ2 and drop the pressure term. With
these assumptions the propulsive efficiency becomes
ηp =
V0 +
V0
1
(V2
2
− V0 )
(12.57)
This relation can be further simplified with the introduction of the speed ratio:
ν≡
V0
V2
(12.58)
Show that under these conditions equation (12.57) can be written as
ηp =
2ν
1+ν
(12.59)
This shows that the propulsive efficiency for air-breathers continually increases with
flight speed, reaching a maximum when ν = 1 (or when V0 = V2 ). This is quite
reasonable since under this condition the absolute velocity of the exit jet is zero and
there is no exit loss [see equation (12.49)].
At this point you can begin to see some of the problems involved in optimizing
air-breathing jet propulsion systems. We showed previously that maximum thrust
power is attained when V2 = 2V0 . Now we see that maximum propulsive efficiency
is attained when V2 = V0 , but unfortunately, for the latter case the thrust is zero.
Remember that the relations in this section apply only to air-breathing propulsion
systems. Equation (12.59) further confirms the natural operating speed range of the
various turbojet engines. Recall that a pure jet provides a large velocity change to a
378
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
relatively small mass of air. Thus, as stated earlier, to have a high propulsive efficiency
(ν → 1) it must fly at high speeds. The fanjet provides a moderate velocity increment
to a larger mass of air. Thus it will be more efficient at medium flight speeds. By
providing a small velocity increment to a very large mass of air, the turboprop is well
suited to low-speed operation.
Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific fuel consumption is a good overall performance indicator for air-breathing
engines. For a propeller-driven engine it is based on shaft power and is called brake
specific fuel consumption (bsfc):
bsfc ≡
lbm fuel per hour
lbm
=
shaft horsepower
hp-hr
(12.60)
For other air-breathers it is based on thrust and is called thrust specific fuel consumption (tsfc).
tsfc ≡
lbm
lbm fuel per hour
=
lbf thrust
lbf-hr
(12.61)
ṁf (3600)
Fn
(12.62)
or
tsfc =
By comparing equation (12.62) with (12.52) and (12.45) we see that the thrust specific
fuel consumption also can be written as
tsfc =
V0 (3600)
η0 (HV)
(12.63)
and is a direct indication of the overall efficiency. Thus it is not surprising to find
that tsfc is the primary economic parameter for any air-breathing propulsion system.
Equation (12.63) also shows that as we increase flight speeds, we must develop more
efficient propulsion schemes or the fuel consumption will become unbearable.
Example 12.5 We continue with Example 12.3 and compute the thrust and other performance
parameters of the turbofan engine. The following pertinent information is repeated here for
convenience:
ṁa = 50 lbm/sec
f = 0.0191
ṁa − 150 lbm/sec
HV = 18,900 Btu/lbm
V0 = 882 ft/sec
p0 = 546 psfa
T0 = 400°R
V4 = 1113 ft/sec
p4 = 1157 psfa
T4 = 516°R
V6 = 1686 ft/sec
p6 = 778 psfa
T6 = 1183°R
12.6
AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
379
We now compute the exit densities and areas.
ρ4 =
p4
1157
= 0.0421 lbm/ft3
=
RT4
(53.3)(516)
A4 =
ṁa
150
= 3.20 ft2
=
ρ4 − V4
(0.0421)(1113)
ρ6 =
p6
778
= 0.01234 lbm/ft3
=
RT6
(53.3)(1183)
A6 =
ṁa
50
= 2.40 ft2
=
ρ6 V6
(0.01234)(1686)
Note that to calculate the net propulsive thrust, we must include contributions from both the
primary jet and the fan.
Fnet =
=
ṁa V6
ṁ V4
V0
+ A6 (p6 − p0 ) + a
+ A4 (p4 − p0 ) − (ṁa + ṁa )
gc
gc
gc
(150)(1113)
882
(50)(1686)
+(2.40)(778 − 546)+
+(3.20)(1157 − 546)−(50+150)
32.2
32.2
32.2
Fnet = 4840 lbf
The thrust horsepower is [by (12.47)]
PT = Fn V0 =
(4840)(882)
= 7760 hp
550
The input horsepower is [by (12.45)]
PI = ṁf (HV) = ṁa (f )(HV) =
(50)(0.0191)(18,900)(778)
= 25,530 hp
550
The overall efficiency is [by (12.52)]
η0 =
PT
7760
= 30.4%
=
PI
25,530
Thrust specific fuel consumption is [by (12.62)]
tsfc =
ṁf (3600)
lbm
(50)(0.0191)(3600)
= 0.71
=
Fn
4840
lbf-hr
This specific fuel consumption is slightly low, even for a fanjet engine. Had we changed
to a higher value of specific heat in the hot sections (turbine and turbine nozzle), two effects
would be noted:
1. The fuel–air ratio would increase because the enthalpy entering the turbine would
increase.
2. The thrust would rise due to an increased exhaust velocity and exit pressure.
380
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
The increase in thrust would be small compared to the increase in fuel–air ratio, and the net
effect would be to raise the tsfc to about 0.8.
Example 12.6 We continue and compute the performance parameters for the ramjet of Example 12.4. The following pertinent information is repeated here for convenience:
ṁa = 35.9 kg/s
M0 = 1.8
f = 0.0450
T0 = 218 K
HV = 4.42 × 107 J/kg
M5 = 1.588
V0 = M0 a0 = (1.8) [(1.4)(1)(287)(218)]
1/2
T5 = 1479 K
= 533 m/s
V5 = M5 a5 = (1.588) [(1.4)(1)(287)(1479)]1/2 = 1224 m/s
If we neglect the mass of fuel added together with the pressure term, the net propulsive
thrust is
ṁ
35.9
(1224 − 533) = 24,800 N
Fnet = (V5 − V0 ) =
gc
1
The thrust specific fuel consumption is
tsfc =
ṁf (3600)
kg
(0.0450)(35.9)(3600)
= 0.235
=
Fn
24,800
N·h
This is equivalent to tsfc = 2.3 lbm/lbf-hr, which is quite high in comparison to the fanjet of
Example 12.5. This illustrates the uneconomical operation of ramjets at low flight speeds.
12.7 AIR-BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEMS
INCORPORATING REAL GAS EFFECTS
A computer program called Gas Turb is available from Gas Turbine Performance Calculation Programs, PC Software, based in Europe and © copyright 1996 by J. Kurzke.
This program (presently up to version 8) uses to advantage the capabilities of modern
desktop computers to calculate the performance of turbojets, turboprops, turbofans,
and ramjets. The calculations assume that the specific heats are a function of temperature but not of pressure. This is the same assumption that we presented in Section
11.4 with respect to the high-temperature γ behavior of a semiperfect gas. Extensive
use is made of polynomial fits for the temperature dependencies.
The program is quite elaborate and will not be described here but we will report
on the calculations for the turbofan engine used in Examples 12.3 and 12.5. One
difficulty is that in the example we specify the flow rates (50 lbm/sec for the primary
air and 150 lbm/sec for the by-pass air) but in Gas Turb, this is not a direct input. In our
example the result is a net thrust of 4840 lbf and the program outputs 5460 lbf, but bear
in mind that the latter are real-gas machine calculations. This and other comparisons
are indicated in Table 12.1, where it can be seen that the perfect gas results compare
quite reasonably, within about 11%. From these results we may conclude that in the
cold regions, calculations with γ = 1.4 are satisfactory. However, in the hot regions
12.8
Table 12.1
381
ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Perfect Gas versus Real Gas for Turbofan
Location
Variable (units)
Perfect Gas
Examples 12.3 and 12.5
Real Gas
Gas Turb Program
Diffuser exit
Tt2 (°R)
pt2 (psia)
Tt3 (°R)
pt3 (psia)
Flow (lbm/sec)
Tt3 (°R)
pt3 (psia)
Flow (lbm/sec)
Tt4 (°R)
pt4 (psia)
Tt5 (°R)
pt5 (psia)
T6 (°R)
p6 (psia)
V6 (ft/sec)
Fnet (lbf)
lbm/lbf-hr
465
6.29
1083
94.3
50
619
15.71
150
2500
91.4
1420
10.6
1183
5.4
1686
4840
0.71
466
6.30
1082
94.5
50.2
621
15.75
150.6
2500
91.6
1614
12.76
1400
5.0
Compressor exit
Fan exit
Combustion chamber exit
Turbine exit
Nozzle exit
Net thrust
SFC
5460
0.75
(and at high Mach numbers), results deviate noticeably from Gas Turb, particularly
at the nozzle exit.
12.8 ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Start with the basic thrust equation
Fnet =
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.43)
This may be applied to rockets simply by noting that for this case there is no inlet.
Thus, any term involving inflow may be dropped from the equation. Therefore,
Fnet =
ṁ2 V2
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
(12.64)
Note that the propulsive thrust is independent of the flight speed and thus a rocket
can easily fly faster than its exit jet.
Effective Exhaust Velocity
In rocket propulsion systems the exit pressure (p2 ) may be much greater than ambient
(p0 ) and the pressure term in equation (12.64) cannot be ignored, as it can represent
382
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
considerable positive thrust. If we omit this pressure thrust term, we would need
a somewhat higher exhaust velocity to produce the same net thrust. This fictitious
velocity is called the effective exhaust velocity (also called the equivalent exhaust
velocity) and is given the symbol Ve :
ṁ2 V2
ṁ2 Ve
≡
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.65)
Introducing this concept permits writing the thrust equation in a simpler form:
Fnet =
ṁVe
gc
(12.66)
and the thrust power [by equation (12.47)] becomes
PT = Fn V0 =
ṁ
Ve V0
gc
(12.67)
Here, no maximum is reached, as the power increases continually with flight speed.
The propulsive efficiency of a rocket can be found by substituting equations
(12.49) and (12.67) into (12.51):
ηp =
ṁ
Ve V0
gc
ṁ
ṁ
Ve V0 +
(V2 − V0 )2
gc
2gc
(12.68)
To gain greater insight into the propulsion efficiency of a rocket, we make the
same assumption that was made in the case of the air breather (i.e., that no significant
thrust is obtained from the pressure term; hence Ve = V2 ). Making this substitution
and introducing the speed ratio ν [from equation (12.58)], equation (12.68) becomes
ηp =
2ν
1 + ν2
(12.69)
Like the equation for the air-breather, this expression is also maximum when ν = 1,
except that in the case of a rocket the condition is actually attainable.
Specific Impulse
Since the thrust of an engine is dependent on its size, the use of thrust alone as a
performance criterion is meaningless. What is significant is the net thrust per unit
12.8
ROCKET PROPULSION SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
383
mass flow rate, which is called specific thrust or specific impulse and is given the
symbol Isp :
Isp ≡
Fn gc
thrust
=
mass flow rate
ṁg0
(12.70)
where g0 is the value of gravity at the Earth’s surface.
The use of the multiplier gc /g0 is purely arbitrary to change the units of Isp to
“seconds”. This definition is independent of the rocket’s location in the gravity field.
Introducing Fnet from equation (12.66) yields
Isp =
ṁVe 1 gc
gc ṁ g0
or
Isp =
Ve
g0
(12.71)
Some European countries prefer to use the effective exhaust velocity itself as the
significant performance criterion for rockets since it is related to the specific impulse
by an arbitrary constant [as shown by (12.71)]. For typical rocket propulsion systems,
representative values of specific impulse are shown in Table 12.2.
Calculations of rocket performance are usually based on the ideal, frozen-flow
analysis that we developed in the first 10 chapters. However, an effective ratio of the
specific heats is introduced as in Chapter 11 to reflect the high temperatures of operation (see, e.g., Ref. 24). All rocket nozzles are supersonic, and except for very brief
startup and shutdown transients, their operation is well represented by steady-state
conditions without internal shocks. Tactical missiles operate within the atmosphere
with generally constant back pressure, but launch rocket propulsion systems operate
with decreasing back pressure and are typically designed for midaltitude operation.
The design condition reflects the matching of the exhaust pressure to the back pressure at design altitude and also represents optimum thrust because then there is no
pressure thrust. Maximum thrust is obtained when the back pressure is negligible, as
in the outer layers of the atmosphere.
Table 12.2
Performance of Rockets
Type of Rocket
Monopropellant
Liquid
Bipropellant
Solid
Electromagnetic
Specific Impulse
180–220 sec
240–410 sec
150–250 sec
700–5000 sec
384
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Example 12.7 A liquid rocket has a pressure and temperature of 400 psia and 5000°R,
respectively, in the combustion chamber and is operating at an altitude where the ambient
pressure is 200 psfa. The gases exit through an isentropic converging–diverging nozzle which
produces a Mach number of 4.0. Approximate the exhaust gases by taking γ = 1.4 and a
molecular weight of 20, but assume perfect gas behavior. Determine the specific impulse and
the effective exhaust velocity. We denote the nozzle exit as section 2.
For
M2 = 4.0
p
= 0.00659
pt
T
= 0.2381
Tt
p2 =
p
pt = (0.00659)(400)(144) = 380 psfa
pt
T2 =
T
Tt = (0.2381)(5000) = 1190°R
Tt
ρ2 =
p2
(380)(20)
= 0.00413 lbm/ft3
=
RT2
(1545)(1190)
1/2
1545
(1190)
V2 = M2 a2 = 4.0 (1.4)(32.2)
= 8143 ft/sec
20
ρ2 A2 V2 2
ṁV2
+ A2 (p2 − p0 ) =
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
Fn gc
p2 − p0 gc
gc
Fn
V2
=
=
+
Isp =
ṁg0
ρ2 A2 V2 g0
gc
ρ2 V2
g0
Fnet =
Isp =
380 − 200
8143
+
= 258.2 seconds
32.2
(0.00413)(8143)
Ve = Isp g0 = (258.2)(32.2) = 8314 ft/sec
12.9
SUPERSONIC DIFFUSERS
The deceleration of an air stream in the inlet of a propulsion system causes special
problems at supersonic flight speeds. If a subsonic diffuser is used (diverging section),
a normal shock will occur at the inlet with an associated loss in stagnation pressure.
This loss is small if flight speeds are low, say M0 < 1.4. At speeds between 1.4 <
M0 < 2.0, an oblique-shock inlet is required (similar to the one used on the ramjet in
Example 12.4). Above M0 = 2.0, two oblique shocks, as shown in Figure 7.15, are
necessary.
The requirement to be met in each case is to keep the total-pressure recovery factor
as high as possible. A value of ηr = 0.95 is considered satisfactory at low supersonic
speeds, but this becomes increasingly critical as flight speeds increase. Two oblique
shocks plus one normal shock are inadequate at speeds above approximately M0 =
2.5. See Zucrow (pp. 421–427 of Vol. I of Ref. 25) for the effects of multiple conical
12.9
SUPERSONIC DIFFUSERS
385
shocks. From our studies of varying-area flow, we might assume that a converging–
diverging section would make a good supersonic diffuser—and indeed it would.
Recall that this configuration was used for the exhaust section of a supersonic wind
tunnel in Chapter 6. However, there are some practical operating difficulties involved
in using a fixed-geometry converging–diverging section for a supersonic air inlet.
Suppose that we design the inlet diffuser for an airplane that will fly at about
M = 1.86. From the isentropic table we see that the area ratio corresponding to
this Mach number is 1.507. For simplicity, we construct the diffuser with an area
ratio (inlet area to throat area) of 1.50. The design operation of this diffuser is shown
in Figure 12.23. In the discussion below, we follow the operation of this diffuser as
the aircraft takes off and accelerates to its design speed.
Note that as the flight speed reaches approximately M0 = 0.43, the diffuser
becomes choked with M = 1.0 in the throat. (Check the subsonic portion of the
isentropic table for the above area ratio.) This condition is shown in Figure 12.24a.
Now increase the flight speed to, say, M0 = 0.6. Spillage or external diffusion occurs,
as indicated in Figure 12.24b. As M0 is increased to 1.0, there is a further decrease
in the capture area (area of the flow at the free-stream Mach number that actually
enters the diffuser; see Figure 12.24c).
As we increase M0 to supersonic speeds, a detached shock wave forms in front
of the inlet. Spillage still occurs as shown in Figure 12.24d. Note that at higher flight
speeds, less external diffusion is necessary to produce the required M = 0.43 at the
inlet. Thus the shock moves closer to the inlet as speeds increase (see Figure 12.24e).
Also note that it is necessary to fly at approximately M0 = 4.19 in order for the
shock to become attached to the inlet. (Check the shock table to substantiate this.)
This condition, indicated in Figure 12.24f, is far above the design flight speed.
If we now increase M0 to 4.2, the shock moves very rapidly into the diffuser and
locates itself in the divergent section downstream of the throat. This is referred to as
swallowing the shock and the diffuser is said to be started (see Figure 12.24g). Under
these conditions we no longer have Mach 1.0 in the throat. (What Mach number
does exist in the throat?) We can now slowly decrease the flight speed to the design
condition of M = 1.86 and the shock will move to a position just downstream of the
throat and occur at the Mach number of just slightly greater than 1.0. Thus we have
a very weak shock and negligible losses, as shown in Figure 12.24h.
Two comments can now be made on the performance described above.
Figure 12.23 Desired operation of converging–diverging diffuser.
386
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.24 Starting a fixed-geometry supersonic diffuser (area ratio = 1.5).
1. To start the diffuser, which was designed for M0 = 1.86, it is necessary to
overspeed the vehicle to a Mach number of 4.2.
2. If the vehicle slows down just slightly below its design speed (or perhaps minor
air disturbances might cause M0 to drop below 1.86), the shock will pop out in
front of the inlet and the diffuser must be started all over again.
12.10
SUMMARY
387
Figure 12.25 Performance of fixed-geometry supersonic diffusers.
The behavior of fixed-geometry supersonic diffusers can be summarized conveniently in a chart similar to Figure 12.25.
It should be obvious that the operation described above could not be tolerated, and
for this reason one does not see fixed-geometry converging–diverging diffusers used
for air inlets. At flight speeds above M0 ≈ 2.0, a combination of oblique shocks and
a variable-geometry converging–diverging diffuser is required for efficient pressure
recovery.
12.10
SUMMARY
An analysis of the ideal Brayton cycle revealed that its thermodynamic efficiency is
a function of the pressure ratio as
ηth = 1 −
1
rp
(γ −1)/γ
(12.22)
Perhaps the most significant feature of this cycle is that the work input is a large
percentage of the work output. Because of this, machine efficiencies are most critical
in any power plant operating on the Brayton cycle. Also, to produce a reasonable
quantity of net work, large amounts of air must be handled, which makes this cycle
particularly suitable for turbomachinery.
In discussing the various types of jet propulsion systems, it was noted that pure
jets move a relatively small amount of air through a large velocity change. On the
388
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
other hand, propeller systems move a relatively large amount of air through a small
velocity increment. Fanjets occupy a middle ground on both criteria.
The net thrust of any propulsive device was found to be
Fnet =
ṁ2 V2
ṁ0 V0
−
+ A2 (p2 − p0 )
gc
gc
(12.43)
You should learn this equation, as it is probably the most important relation in this
chapter. Also, you should not overlook the various power and efficiency parameters
discussed in Section 12.5. Perhaps the most interesting of these is the propulsive
efficiency, since this is a measure of what the propulsive device is accomplishing,
exclusive of the energy producer.
For air-breathers, in terms of the speed ratio ν = V0 /V2 ,
ηp =
2ν
1+ν
(12.59)
Equation (12.59) explains why pure jets operate more efficiently at high speeds,
whereas fanjets and propjets fare better at progressively lower speeds. We also see
that for air-breathers, maximum efficiency occurs at minimum thrust.
Rockets are not subject to this dilemma and their propulsive efficiency is
ηp =
2ν
1 + ν2
(12.69)
Other important performance indicators are,
for air-breathers:
tsfc =
ṁf (3600)
lbm fuel per hr
=
lbf thrust
Fnet
(12.61, 12.62)
Ve
thrust
=
mass flow rate
g0
(12.70, 12.71)
for rockets,
Isp =
Air inlets for supersonic vehicles should have total-pressure recovery factors of
0.95 or above. At lower speeds one uses a subsonic diffuser preceded by ramps
or a spike to induce one or more oblique shocks before the normal shock. At high
supersonic flight speeds, variable-geometry features are also required.
PROBLEMS
In the problems that follow you may assume perfect gas behavior and constant specific heats
unless otherwise specified, even though the temperature range may be rather large in some
cases. Also, neglect any effects of dissociation and assume that all propellants have the properties of air.
PROBLEMS
389
12.1. Conditions entering the compressor of an ideal Brayton cycle are 520°R and 5 psia.
The compressor pressure ratio is 12 and the maximum allowable cycle temperature is
2400°R. Assume that air has negligible velocities in the ducting.
(a) Determine wt , wc , wn , qa , and ηth .
(b) What flow rate is required for a net output of 5000 hp?
12.2. Rework Problem 12.1 with a compressor efficiency of 89% and a turbine efficiency
of 92%.
12.3. A stationary power plant produces 1 × 107 W output when operating under the
following conditions: Compressor inlet is 0°C and 1 bar abs, turbine inlet is 1250 K,
cycle pressure ratio is 10, and fluid is air with negligible velocities. The turbine and
compressor efficiencies are both 90%. Determine the cycle efficiency and the mass
flow rate.
12.4. Assume that all data given in Problem 12.3 remain the same except that the turbine
and compressor are 80% efficient.
(a) Determine the cycle efficiency.
(b) Compare the net work output and cycle efficiency with that of Problem 12.3.
(c) What value of machine efficiency (assuming that ηt = ηc ) will cause zero net
work output from this cycle?
12.5. Consider an ideal Brayton cycle as shown in Figure 12.2. Let
Tt3
Tt1
pt2 (γ −1)/γ
θ=
pt1
α=
the cycle temperature ratio
the cycle pressure ratio parameter
(a) Show that the net work output can be expressed as
wn = cp Tt1
θ −1
(α − θ )
θ
√
(b) Show that for a given α the maximum net work occurs when θ = α.
(c) On the same T –s diagram, sketch cycles for a given temperature ratio but for
different pressure ratios. Which one is most efficient? Which produces the most
net work?
12.6. An airplane is traveling at 550 mph at an altitude where the ambient pressure is 6.5
psia. The exit area of the jet engine is 1.65 ft2 and the exit jet has a relative velocity of
1500 ft/sec. The pressure at the exit plane is found to be 10 psia. Air flow is measured
at 175 lbm/sec. You may neglect the weight of fuel added. What is the net propulsive
thrust of this engine?
12.7. The air flow through a jet engine is 30 kg/s and the fuel flow is 1 kg/s. The exhaust
gases leave with a relative velocity of 610 m/s. Pressure equilibrium exists over the
exit plane. Compute the velocity of the airplane if the thrust power is 1.12 × 106 W.
12.8. A twin-engine jet aircraft requires a total net propulsive thrust of 6000 lbf. Each engine
consumes air at the rate of 120 lbm/sec when traveling at 650 ft/sec. Fuel is added in
390
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
each engine at the rate of 3.0 lbm/sec. Assume that pressure equilibrium exists across
the exit plane and compute the velocity of the exhaust gases relative to the plane.
12.9. A boat is propelled by an hydraulic jet. The inlet scoop has an area of 0.5 ft2 and
the area of the exit duct is 0.20 ft2. Since the exit velocity will always be subsonic,
pressure equilibrium exists over the exit plane. No spillage occurs at the inlet when
the boat is moving through fresh water at 50 mph.
(a) Compute the net propulsive force being developed.
(b) What is the propulsive efficiency?
(c) How much energy is added to the water as it passes through the device? (Assume
no losses.)
12.10. It is proposed to power a monorail car by a pulsejet. A net propulsive thrust of 5350
N is required when traveling at a speed of 210 km/h. The gases leave the engine with
an average velocity of 350 m/s. Assume that pressure equilibrium exists at the outlet
plane and neglect the weight of fuel added.
(a) Compute the mass flow rate required.
(b) What inlet area is necessary, assuming that no spillage occurs? (Assume 16oC and
1 atm.)
(c) What is the thrust power?
(d) What is the propulsive efficiency?
(e) How much energy is added to the air as it passes through the engine if the outlet
temperature is 980°C?
12.11. A ramjet flies at M0 = 4.0 at 30,000 ft altitude where T0 = 411°R and p0 = 628 psfa.
The exhaust nozzle exit diameter is 18 in. The exhaust jet has a velocity of 5000 ft/sec
relative to the missile and is at 1800°R and 850 psfa. Neglect the fuel added.
(a) Determine the net propulsive thrust.
(b) How much thrust power is developed?
12.12. An example of a fanjet engine analysis was given in Sections 12.4 and 12.6. Remove
the fan from this engine. Readjust the turbine expansion to produce the appropriate
compressor work. Assume that all component efficiencies remain unchanged. Compute the net propulsive thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption for the pure jet
engine and compare to that of the fanjet.
12.13. It has been suggested that an afterburner be added to the fanjet engine used in the
examples in Sections 12.4 and 12.6. Assume that the gas leaves the turbine with a
velocity of 400 ft/sec. Enough fuel is added in the afterburner to raise the stagnation
temperature to 3500°R with a combustion efficiency of ηab = 0.85. Determine the
cross-sectional area of the afterburner, the conditions at the exit of the afterburner
(assume Raleigh flow), the new conditions at the nozzle exit, the required exit area,
and the resultant effect on the performance parameters of the engine. (Neglect the
mass of the fuel.)
12.14. A ramjet is designed to operate at M0 = 3.0 at an altitude of 40,000 ft where the
temperature and pressure are 390°R and 400 psfa. The total-pressure recovery factor
for the inlet is ηr = pt2 /pt0 = 0.85. The velocity is reduced to 300 ft/sec before
entering the combustion chamber, where the total temperature is raised to 4000°R.
Combustion efficiency is ηb = 0.96 and the heating value of the fuel is 18,500
PROBLEMS
391
Btu/lbm. The exit nozzle has an efficiency of ηn = 0.95 and expands the flow through
a converging–diverging section to the same area as the combustion chamber (similar
to that shown in Figure 12.14). Compute the net propulsive thrust per unit area and
the thrust specific fuel consumption. (You may neglect the mass of fuel added.)
12.15. A rocket sled used for test purposes requires a thrust of 20,000 lbf. The specific
impulse is 240 sec.
(a) What is the flow rate?
(b) Compute the exhaust velocity if the nozzle expands the gases to ambient pressure.
12.16. The German V-2 had a sea-level thrust of 249,000 N, a propellant flow rate of 125 kg/s,
and exhaust velocity of 1995 m/s, and the nozzle outlet size was 74 cm in diameter.
(a) Compute the specific impulse.
(b) Calculate the pressure at the nozzle outlet.
12.17. An ideal rocket nozzle was originally designed to expand the exhaust gases to ambient
pressure when at sea level and operating with a combustion chamber pressure of 400
psia and a temperature of 5000°R. The rocket is now used to propel a missile fired
from an airplane at 38,000 ft, where the pressure is 3.27 psia.
(a) Determine the exit area required to produce a thrust of 1000 lbf at 38,000 ft.
(b) Compute the exit velocity, effective exhaust velocity, and specific impulse.
12.18. The combustion chamber of a rocket has stagnation conditions of 22 bar and 2500
K. Assume that the nozzle is ideal and expands the flow to the ambient pressure of
0.25 bar.
(a) Determine the nozzle area ratio and exit velocity.
(b) What is the specific impulse?
12.19. A rocket nozzle is designed to operate supersonically with a constant chamber pressure of 500 psia exhausting to 14.7 psia. Find the ratio of the thrust at sea level to the
thrust in space (0 psia). Assume that the chamber temperature is 2500°R, that γ =
1.4, and that R = 20 ft-lbf/lbm-°R.
12.20. It turns out that for a given pressure ratio across the nozzle, the ideal thrust from
a rocket does not depend on temperature. Show this by taking the thrust equation
(12.64) for a rocket at the design condition (pressure equilibrium at the exit) and
manipulating the parameters. On what actual physical entities does the ideal thrust
depend (e.g., areas, pressures, specific heat ratio)?
12.21. Compare the total-pressure recovery factors for the air inlets described in Problem
7.13.
12.22. Sketch a supersonic inlet that has one oblique shock followed by a normal shock
attached to the entrance of a subsonic diffuser. Draw streamlines and identify the
capture area (that portion of the free stream that actually enters the diffuser). Now
vary the wedge angle and cause the oblique shock to form at a different angle. Again,
determine the capture area. Show that maximum flow enters the inlet when the oblique
shock just touches the outer lip of the diffuser.
12.23. Figure 12.25 illustrates the peculiar operating conditions associated with fixed-geometry supersonic diffusers. Unfortunately, this figure was not drawn to scale and therefore cannot be used as a working plot.
392
PROPULSION SYSTEMS
(a) Construct an accurate version of Figure 12.25.
(b) If the design flight speed is M0 = 1.5, to what velocity must the vehicle be
overspeeded in order to start the diffuser?
(c) Suppose the design speed is M0 = 2.0. How fast must the vehicle go to start the
diffuser?
12.24. A converging–diverging supersonic inlet is to be designed with a variable area. The
idea is to swallow the shock when the vehicle has just reached its design flight speed.
Then the diffuser area ratio will be changed to operate properly without any shock.
Thus the inlet does not have to be overspeeded to start. Calculate the maximum and
minimum area ratios that would be required to operate in the manner described above
if the flight speed is M0 = 2.80.
CHECK TEST
You should be able to complete this test without reference to material in the chapter.
12.1. We wish to build an electric generator for use at a ski lodge. To keep this small and
lightweight, we have decided to use an open Brayton cycle as shown in Figure CT12.1.
Write an expression (in terms of properties at 1, 2, 3, and 4) that will represent for each
pound mass flowing:
(a) The compressor work input.
(b) The turbine work output.
(c) The cycle thermodynamic efficiency.
Figure CT12.1
12.2. If the machine efficiencies are not fairly high, the thermodynamic efficiency of a
Brayton cycle will be extremely poor. What basic characteristic of the Brayton cycle
accounts for this fact?
12.3. The conditions entering a turbine are Tt = 1060°C and pt = 6.5 bar. The turbine
efficiency is ηt = 90% and the mass flow rate is 45 kg/s. Compute the turbine outlet
stagnation conditions if the turbine produces 2.08 × 107 W of work. Neglect any heat
transfer.
CHECK TEST
393
12.4. Draw an h–s diagram for the secondary (fan) air of a turbofan engine (a real engine—
not an ideal one).
(a) Indicate static and stagnation points if they are significantly different.
(b) Indicate pertinent velocities, work quantities, and so on.
12.5. State whether each of the following statements is true or false.
(a) Thrust power output can be viewed as the change in kinetic energy of the working
medium.
(b) If the exhaust gases leave a rocket at a speed of 7000 ft/sec relative to the rocket,
it would be impossible for the rocket to be traveling at 8000 ft/sec relative to the
ground.
(c) It is possible to operate a ramjet at 100% propulsive efficiency and develop thrust.
(d) One would expect that a turbofan engine will have a higher tsfc than a ramjet
engine.
12.6. A rocket is traveling at 4500 ft/sec at an altitude of 20,000 ft, where the temperature
and pressure are 447°R and 972 psfa, respectively. The exit diameter of the nozzle is
24 in. and the exhaust jet has the following characteristics: T = 1500°R, p = 1200
psfa, and V = 6600 ft/sec (relative to the rocket).
(a) Compute the flow rate and net propulsive thrust.
(b) What is the effective exhaust velocity?
(c) Compute the specific impulse and thrust power.
12.7. A fixed-geometry converging–diverging supersonic diffuser is contemplated for a vehicle having a design Mach number of M0 = 1.65. How fast must the plane fly to start
this diffuser?
Appendixes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Summary of the English Engineering (EE) System of Units
Summary of the International System (SI) of Units
Friction-Factor Chart
Oblique-Shock Charts (γ = 1.4) (Two-Dimensional)
Conical-Shock Charts (γ = 1.4) (Three-Dimensional)
Generalized Compressibility Factor Chart
Isentropic Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4) (including Prandtl–Meyer Function)
Normal-Shock Parameters (γ = 1.4)
Fanno Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4)
Rayleigh Flow Parameters (γ = 1.4)
Properties of Air at Low Pressures
Specific Heats of Air at Low Pressures
395
APPENDIX A
Summary of the
English Engineering (EE)
System of Units
396
SUMMARY OF THE ENGLISH ENGINEERING (EE) SYSTEM OF UNITS
Force
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
pound force
pound mass
foot
second
Rankine
lbf
lbm
ft
sec
°R
NEVER say pound, as this is ambiguous! It is either
a pound force (lbf) or a pound mass (lbm).
A 1-pound force will give a 1-pound mass
an acceleration of 32.174 feet/second2.
F =
1(lbf) =
ma
gc
1 (lbm) · 32.174 (ft/sec2 )
gc
Thus
gc = 32.174 lbm-ft/lbf-sec2
Temperature
Gas constant
Pressure
Heat to work
Power
Standard gravity
* M.M., molecular mass.
T (°R)
R
1 atm
1 Btu
1 hp
g0
=
=
=
=
=
=
T (°F) + 459.67
1545/M.M.* ft-lbf/1bm-°R
2116.2 lbf/ft2
778.2 ft-lbf
550 ft-lbf/sec
32.174 ft/sec2
397
398
APPENDIX A
Useful Conversion Factors
To convert from:
To:
Multiply by:
meter
meter
newton
kilogram
K
joule
kWh
joule
watt
m/s
m/s
km/h
N/m2
N/m2
N/m2
kg/m3
N · s/m2
m2/s
J/kg · K
N · m/kg · K
foot
inch
lbf
lbm
°R
Btu
Btu
ft-lbf
horsepower
ft/sec
mph
mph
atmosphere
lbf/in2
lbf/ft2
lbm/ft3
lbf-sec/ft2
ft2/sec
Btu/lbm-°R
ft-lbf/lbm-°R
3.281
3.937 × 10
2.248 × 10−1
2.205
1.800
9.479 × 10−4
3.413 × 103
7.375 × 10−1
1.341 × 10−3
3.281
2.237
6.215 × 10−1
9.872 × 10−6
1.450 × 10−4
2.089 × 10−2
6.242 × 10−2
2.089 × 10−2
1.076 × 10
2.388 × 10−4
1.858 × 10−1
(q)
(q)
(w)
(V )
(V )
(V )
(p)
(p)
(p)
(ρ)
(µ)
(ν)
(cp )
(R)
Source: “The International System of Units,” NASA SP-7012, 1973.
399
a
39.94
Ar
CO2
CO
He
H2
CH4
N2
O2
H2O
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Helium
Hydrogen
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Water vapor
1.33
1.40
1.40
1.32
1.41
1.67
1.40
1.29
1.67
1.40
cp
γ =
cv
85.7
48.3
55.1
96.4
766
386
55.2
35.1
38.7
53.3
Gas Constant
R
ft-lbf/lbm-°R
Values for γ , R, cp , cv , and µ are for normal room temperature and pressure.
18.02
32.00
28.02
16.04
2.02
4.00
28.01
44.01
28.97
Symbol
Air
Gas
Molecular
Mass
Properties of Gases—English Engineering (EE) System a
0.445
0.218
0.248
0.532
3.42
1.25
0.248
0.203
0.124
0.240
0.335
0.156
0.177
0.403
2.43
0.750
0.177
0.157
0.074
0.171
Specific Heats
Btu/lbm-°R
cp
cv
240
3.7 × 10−7
278.6
4.2 × 10−7
1165.3
227.1
3.6 × 10−7
2.2 × 10
343.9
2.3 × 10−7
−7
59.9
1.9 × 10−7
9.5
547.5
3.1 × 10−7
4.2 × 10
272
4.7 × 10−7
−7
239
3.8 × 10−7
3204
736
492
673
188.1
33.2
507
1071
705
546
Critical Point
Tc
pc
°R
psia
Viscosity
µ
lbf-sec/ft2
APPENDIX B
Summary of the
International System (SI)
of Units
400
SUMMARY OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) OF UNITS
Force
Mass
Length
Time
Temperature
newton
kilogram
meter
second
kelvin
N
kg
m
s
K
A 1-Newton force will give a 1-kilogram mass
an acceleration of 1 meter/second2.
F =
1(N) =
ma
gc
1 (kg) · 1 (m/s2 )
gc
Thus
gc = 1 kg · m/N · s2
Temperature
Gas constant
Pressure
Heat to work
Power
Standard gravity
* M.M., molecular mass.
T (K)
R
1 atm
1 pascal (Pa)
1 bar (bar)
1 MPa
1 joule (J)
1 watt (W)
g0
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
T (°C) + 273.15
8314/M.M.* N · m/kg · K
1.013 × 105 N/m2
1 N/m2
1 × 105 N/m2
1 × 106 N/m2
1N·m
1 J/s
9.81 m/s2
401
402
APPENDIX B
Useful Conversion Factors
To convert from:
To:
Multiply by:
foot
inch
lbf
lbm
°R
Btu
Btu
ft-lbf
horsepower
ft/sec
mph
mph
atmosphere
lbf/in2
lbf/ft2
lbm/ft3
lbf-sec/ft2
ft2/sec
Btu/lbm-°R
ft-lbf/lbm-°R
meter
meter
newton
kilogram
K
joule
kWh
joule
watt
m/s
m/s
km/h
N/m2
N/m2
N/m2
kg/m3
N · s/m2
m2/s
J/kg · K
N · m/kg · K
3.048 × 10−1
2.54 × 10−2
4.448
4.536 × 10−1
5.555 × 10−1
1.055 × 103
2.930 × 10−4
1.356
7.457 × 102
3.048 × 10−1
4.470 × 10−1
1.609
1.013 × 105
6.895 × 103
4.788 × 10
1.602 × 10
4.788 × 10
9.290 × 10−2
4.187 × 103
5.381
(q)
(q)
(w)
(V )
(V )
(V )
(p)
(p)
(p)
(ρ)
(µ)
(ν)
(cp )
(R)
Source: “The International System of Units,” NASA SP-7012, 1973.
403
a
39.94
Ar
CO2
CO
He
H2
CH4
N2
O2
H2O
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Helium
Hydrogen
Methane
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Water vapor
1.33
1.40
1.40
1.32
1.41
1.67
1.40
1.29
1.67
1.40
cp
γ =
cv
461
260
296
519
4,120
2,080
297
189
208
287
Gas Constant
R
N · m/kg · K
Values for γ , R, cp , cv , and µ are for normal room temperature and pressure.
18.02
32.00
28.02
16.04
2.02
4.00
28.01
44.01
28.97
Symbol
Air
Gas
Molecular
Mass
Properties of Gases—International System (SI) a
1,860
913
1,040
2,230
14,300
5,230
1,040
850
519
1,000
1,400
653
741
1,690
10,200
3,140
741
657
310
716
Specific Heats
J/kg · K
cp
cv
133.3
1.8 × 10−5
154.8
2.0 × 10−5
647.3
126.2
1.7 × 10−5
1.1 × 10
191.0
1.1 × 10−5
−5
33.3
9.1 × 10−5
5.28
304.1
1.5 × 10−5
2.0 × 10
151.1
2.3 × 10−5
−5
132.8
22.09
5.07
3.39
4.64
1.30
0.229
3.49
7.38
4.86
3.76
Critical Point
Tc
pc
K
MPa
1.8 × 10−5
Viscosity
µ
N · s/m2
APPENDIX C
Friction-Factor
Chart
404
405
Figure AC.1 Moody diagram for determination of friction factor. (Adapted with permission from L. F. Moody, Friction factors for pipe
flow, Transactions of ASME, Vol. 66, 1944.)
APPENDIX D
Oblique-Shock
Charts (γ = 1.4)
(Two-Dimensional)
406
OBLIQUE-SHOCK CHARTS (γ = 1.4)
407
Figure AD.1 Shock-wave angle θ as a function of the initial Mach number M1 for different
values of the flow deflection angle δ for γ = 1.4. (Adapted with permission from M. J. Zucrow
and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I, copyright 1976, John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
408
APPENDIX D
Figure AD.2 Mach number downstream M2 for an oblique-shock wave as a function of the
initial Mach number M1 for different values of the flow deflection angle δ for γ = 1.4.
(Adapted with permission from M. J. Zucrow and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I,
copyright 1976, John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
OBLIQUE-SHOCK CHARTS (γ = 1.4)
409
Figure AD.3 Static pressure ratio p2 /p1 across an oblique-shock wave as a function of the
initial Mach number M1 for different values of the flow deflection angle δ for γ = 1.40.
(Adapted with permission from M. J. Zucrow and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I,
copyright 1976, John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
APPENDIX E
Conical-Shock
Charts (γ = 1.4)
(Three-Dimensional)
at
410
CONICAL-SHOCK CHARTS (γ = 1.4)
411
c
c
Figure AE.1 Shock wave angle θc for a conical-shock wave as a function of the initial Mach
number M1 for different values of the cone angle δc for γ = 1.40. (Adapted with permission
from M. J. Zucrow and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I, copyright 1976, John Wiley &
Sons, New York.)
412
APPENDIX E
c
Figure AE.2 Surface Mach number Ms for a conical-shock wave as a function of the initial
Mach number M1 for different values of the cone angle δc for γ = 1.40. (Adapted with
permission from M. J. Zucrow and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I, copyright 1976,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
CONICAL-SHOCK CHARTS (γ = 1.4)
413
c
Figure AE.3 Surface static pressure ratio ps /p1 for a conical-shock wave as a function of
the initial Mach number M1 for different values of the cone angle δc for γ = 1.40. (Adapted
with permission from M. J. Zucrow and J. D. Hoffman, Gas Dynamics, Vol. I, copyright 1976,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
APPENDIX F
Generalized Compressibility
Factor Chart
414
GENERALIZED COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR CHART
415
Figure AF.1 Generalized compressibility factors (Zc = 0.27). (With permission from R. E. Sontag,
C. Borgnakke, and C. J. Van Wylen, Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 5th ed., copyright 1997, John
Wiley & Sons, New York.)
APPENDIX G
Isentropic Flow
Parameters (γ = 1.4)
(including Prandtl–Meyer
Function)
416
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
417
µ
418
M
APPENDIX G
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
µ
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
419
µ
420
M
APPENDIX G
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
µ
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
421
µ
422
M
APPENDIX G
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
µ
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
423
µ
424
M
APPENDIX G
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
µ
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
425
µ
426
M
APPENDIX G
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
µ
ISENTROPIC FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4) (INCLUDING PRANDTL–MEYER FUNCTION)
M
p/pt
T /Tt
A/A∗
pA/pt A∗
ν
427
µ
APPENDIX H
Normal-Shock
Parameters (γ = 1.4)
428
NORMAL-SHOCK PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M1
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
429
pt2 /p1
430
M1
APPENDIX H
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
pt2 /p1
NORMAL-SHOCK PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M1
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
431
pt2 /p1
432
M1
APPENDIX H
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
pt2 /p1
NORMAL-SHOCK PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M1
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
433
pt2 /p1
434
M1
APPENDIX H
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
pt2 /p1
NORMAL-SHOCK PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M1
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
435
pt2 /p1
436
M1
APPENDIX H
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
pt2 /p1
NORMAL-SHOCK PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M1
M2
p2 /p1
T2 /T1
V /a1
pt2 /pt1
437
pt2 /p1
APPENDIX I
Fanno Flow
Parameters (γ = 1.4)
438
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
439
Smax /R
440
M
APPENDIX I
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
Smax /R
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
441
Smax /R
442
M
APPENDIX I
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
Smax /R
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
443
Smax /R
444
M
APPENDIX I
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
Smax /R
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
445
Smax /R
446
M
APPENDIX I
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
Smax /R
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
447
Smax /R
448
M
APPENDIX I
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
Smax /R
FANNO FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
T /T ∗
p/p ∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
f Lmax /D
449
Smax /R
APPENDIX J
Rayleigh Flow
Parameters (γ = 1.4)
450
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
451
Smax /R
452
APPENDIX J
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
Smax /R
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
453
Smax /R
454
APPENDIX J
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
Smax /R
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
455
Smax /R
456
APPENDIX J
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
Smax /R
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
457
Smax /R
458
APPENDIX J
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
Smax /R
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
459
Smax /R
460
APPENDIX J
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
Smax /R
RAYLEIGH FLOW PARAMETERS (γ = 1.4)
M
Tt /Tt∗
T /T ∗
p/p∗
pt /pt∗
V /V ∗
461
Smax /R
APPENDIX K
Properties of Air
at Low Pressures
462
PROPERTIES OF AIR AT LOW PRESSURES
463
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures
This information is presented in English Engineering (EE) units
T is in °R,
φ is in Btu/lbm-°R.
t is in °F,
h and u are in Btu/lbm.
pr and vr are relative pressure and relative volume.
T
t
h
200
210
220
230
240
−259.7
−249.7
−239.7
−229.7
−219.7
47.67
50.07
52.46
54.85
57.25
250
260
270
280
290
−209.7
−199.7
−189.7
−179.7
−169.7
300
310
320
330
340
u
vr
φ
T
t
h
0.04320
0.05122
0.06026
0.07037
0.08165
33.96
35.67
37.38
39.08
40.80
1714.9
1518.6
1352.5
1210.7
1088.8
0.36303
0.37470
0.38584
0.39648
0.40666
600
610
620
630
640
140.3
150.3
160.3
170.3
180.3
143.47
145.88
148.28
150.68
153.09
2.005
2.124
2.249
2.379
2.514
102.34 110.88 0.62607
104.06 106.38 0.63005
105.78 102.12 0.63395
107.50 98.11 0.63781
109.21 94.30 0.64159
59.64
62.03
64.43
66.82
69.21
0.94150
0.10797
0.12318
0.13986
0.15808
42.50
44.21
45.92
47.63
49.33
983.6
892.0
812.0
741.6
679.5
0.41643
0.42582
0.43485
0.44356
0.45196
650
660
670
680
690
190.3
200.3
210.3
220.3
230.3
155.50
157.92
160.33
162.73
165.15
2.655
2.801
2.953
3.111
3.276
110.94
112.67
114.40
116.12
117.85
90.69
87.27
84.03
80.96
78.03
0.64533
0.64902
0.65263
0.65621
0.65973
−159.7
−149.7
−139.7
−129.7
−119.7
71.61
74.00
76.40
78.78
81.18
0.17795
0.19952
0.22290
0.24819
0.27545
51.04
52.75
54.46
56.16
57.87
624.5
575.6
531.8
492.6
457.2
0.46007
0.46791
0.47550
0.48287
0.49002
700
710
720
730
740
240.3
250.3
260.3
270.3
280.3
167.56
169.98
172.39
174.82
177.23
3.446
3.623
3.806
3.996
4.193
119.58
121.32
123.04
124.78
126.51
75.25
72.60
70.07
67.67
65.38
0.66321
0.66664
0.67002
0.67335
0.67665
350
360
370
380
390
−109.7
−99.7
−89.7
−79.7
−69.7
83.57
85.97
88.35
90.75
93.13
0.3048
0.3363
0.3700
0.4061
0.4447
59.58
61.29
62.99
64.70
66.40
425.4
396.6
370.4
346.6
324.9
0.49695
0.50369
0.51024
0.51663
0.52284
750
760
770
780
790
290.3
300.3
310.3
320.3
330.3
179.66
182.08
184.51
186.94
189.38
4.396
4.607
4.826
5.051
5.285
128.25
129.99
131.73
133.47
135.22
63.20
61.10
59.11
57.20
55.38
0.67991
0.68312
0.68629
0.68942
0.69251
400
410
420
430
440
−59.7
−49.7
−39.7
−29.7
−19.7
95.53
97.93
100.32
102.71
105.11
0.4858
0.5295
0.5760
0.6253
0.6776
68.11
69.82
71.52
73.23
74.93
305.0
286.8
207.1
254.7
240.6
0.52890
0.53481
0.54058
0.54621
0.55172
800
810
820
830
840
340.3
350.3
360.3
370.3
380.3
191.81
194.25
196.69
199.12
201.56
5.526
5.775
6.033
6.299
6.573
136.97
138.72
140.47
142.22
143.98
53.63
51.96
50.35
48.81
47.34
0.69558
0.69860
0.70160
0.70455
0.70747
0.3
10.3
20.3
30.3
107.50
109.90
112.30
114.69
117.08
0.7329
0.7913
0.8531
0.9182
0.9868
76.65
78.36
80.07
81.77
83.49
227.45
215.33
204.08
193.65
183.94
0.55710
0.56235
0.56751
0.56751
0.57749
850
860
870
880
890
390.3
400.3
410.3
420.3
430.3
204.01
206.46
208.90
211.35
213.80
6.856
7.149
7.450
7.761
8.081
145.74
147.50
149.27
151.02
152.80
45.92
44.57
43.26
42.01
40.80
0.71037
0.71323
0.71606
0.71886
0.72163
500
510
520
530
540
40.3
50.3
60.3
70.3
80.3
119.48
121.87
124.27
126.66
129.06
1.0590
1.1349
1.2147
1.2983
1.3860
85.20
86.92
88.62
90.34
92.04
147.90
166.46
158.58
151.22
144.32
0.58233
0.58707
0.59173
0.59630
0.60078
900
910
920
930
940
440.3
450.3
460.3
470.3
480.3
216.26
218.72
221.18
223.64
226.11
8.411
8.752
9.102
9.463
9.834
154.57
156.34
158.12
159.89
161.68
39.64
38.52
37.44
36.41
35.41
0.72438
0.72710
0.72979
0.73245
0.73509
550
560
570
580
590
90.3
100.3
110.3
120.3
130.3
131.46
133.86
136.26
138.66
141.06
1.4779 93.76
1.5742 95.47
1.6748 97.19
1.7800 98.90
1.8899 100.62
137.85
131.78
126.08
120.70
115.65
0.60518
0.60950
0.61376
0.61793
0.62204
950
960
970
980
990
490.3
500.3
510.3
520.3
530.3
228.58
231.06
233.53
236.02
238.50
6.216
7.610
7.014
7.430
8.858
163.46
165.26
167.05
168.83
170.63
34.45
33.52
32.63
31.76
30.92
0.73771
0.74030
0.74287
0.74540
0.74792
450
460
470
480
490
−9.7
pr
pr
u
vr
φ
464
APPENDIX K
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
540.3
550.3
560.3
570.3
580.3
240.98
243.48
245.97
248.45
250.95
12.298
12.751
13.215
13.692
14.182
172.43
174.24
176.04
177.84
179.66
30.12
29.34
28.59
27.87
27.17
0.75042
0.75290
0.75536
0.75778
0.76019
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1040.3
1050.3
1060.3
1070.3
1080.3
369.17
371.82
374.47
377.11
379.77
55.86
57.30
58.78
60.29
61.83
266.34
268.30
270.26
272.23
274.20
9.948
9.761
9.578
9.400
9.226
0.85416
0.85592
0.85767
0.85940
0.86113
1050
1060
1070
1080
1090
590.3
600.3
610.3
620.3
630.3
253.45
255.96
258.47
260.97
263.48
14.686
15.203
15.734
16.278
16.838
181.47
183.29
185.10
186.93
188.75
26.48
25.82
25.19
24.58
23.98
0.76259
0.76496
0.76732
0.76964
0.77196
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1090.3
1100.3
1110.3
1120.3
1130.3
382.42
385.08
387.74
390.40
393.07
63.40
65.00
66.63
68.30
70.00
276.17
278.13
280.11
282.09
284.08
9.056
8.890
8.728
8.569
8.414
0.86285
0.86456
0.86626
0.86794
0.86962
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
640.3
650.3
660.3
670.3
680.3
265.99
268.52
271.03
273.56
276.08
17.413
18.000
18.604
19.223
19.858
190.58
192.41
194.25
196.09
197.94
23.40
22.84
22.30
21.78
21.27
0.77426
0.77654
0.77880
0.78104
0.78326
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1140.3
1150.3
1160.3
1170.3
1180.3
395.74
398.42
401.09
403.77
406.45
71.73
73.49
75.29
77.12
78.99
286.06
288.05
290.04
292.03
294.03
8.263
8.115
7.971
7.829
7.691
0.87130
0.87297
0.87462
0.87627
0.87791
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
690.3
700.3
710.3
720.3
730.3
278.61
281.14
283.68
286.21
288.76
20.51
21.18
21.86
22.56
23.28
199.78
201.63
203.49
205.33
207.19
20.771
20.293
19.828
19.377
18.940
0.78548
0.78767
0.78985
0.79201
0.79415
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1190.3
1200.3
1210.3
1220.3
1230.3
409.13
411.82
414.51
417.20
419.89
80.89
82.83
84.80
86.82
88.87
296.03
298.02
300.03
302.04
304.04
7.556
7.424
7.295
7.168
7.045
0.87954
0.88116
0.88278
0.88439
0.88599
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
740.3
750.3
760.3
770.3
780.3
291.30
293.86
296.41
298.96
301.52
24.01
24.76
25.53
26.32
27.13
209.05
210.92
212.78
214.65
216.53
18.514
18.102
17.700
17.311
16.932
0.79628
0.79840
0.80050
0.80258
0.80466
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1240.3
1250.3
1260.3
1270.3
1280.3
422.59
425.29
428.00
430.69
433.41
90.95
93.08
95.24
97.45
99.69
306.06
308.07
310.09
312.10
314.13
6.924
6.805
6.690
6.576
6.465
0.88758
0.88916
0.89074
0.89230
0.89387
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
790.3
800.3
810.3
820.3
830.3
304.08
306.65
309.22
311.79
314.36
27.96
28.80
29.67
30.55
31.46
218.40
220.28
222.16
224.05
225.93
16.563
16.205
15.857
15.518
15.189
0.80672
0.80876
0.81079
0.81280
0.81481
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1290.3
1300.3
1310.3
1320.3
1330.3
436.12
438.83
441.55
444.26
446.99
101.98
104.30
106.67
109.08
111.54
316.16
318.18
320.22
322.24
324.29
6.357
6.251
6.147
6.045
5.945
0.89542
0.89697
0.89850
0.90003
0.90155
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
840.3
850.3
860.3
870.3
880.3
316.94
319.53
322.11
324.69
327.29
32.39
33.34
34.31
35.30
36.31
227.83
229.73
231.63
233.52
235.43
14.868
14.557
14.253
13.958
13.670
0.81680
0.81878
0.82075
0.82270
0.82464
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1340.3
1350.3
1360.3
1370.3
1380.3
449.71
452.44
455.17
457.90
460.63
114.03
116.57
119.16
121.79
124.47
326.32
328.37
330.40
332.45
334.50
5.847
5.752
5.658
5.566
5.476
0.90308
0.90458
0.90609
0.90759
0.90908
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
890.3
900.3
910.3
920.3
930.3
329.88
332.48
335.09
337.68
340.29
37.35
38.41
39.49
40.59
41.73
237.34
239.25
241.17
243.08
245.00
13.391
13.118
12.851
12.593
12.340
0.82658
0.82848
0.83039
0.83229
0.83417
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1390.3
1400.3
1410.3
1420.3
1430.3
463.37
466.12
468.86
471.60
474.35
127.18
129.95
132.77
135.64
138.55
336.55
338.61
340.66
342.73
344.78
5.388
5.302
5.217
5.134
5.053
0.91056
0.91203
0.91350
0.91497
0.91643
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
940.3
950.3
960.3
970.3
980.3
342.90
345.52
348.14
350.75
353.37
42.88
44.06
45.26
46.49
47.75
246.93
248.86
250.79
252.72
254.66
12.095
11.855
11.622
11.394
11.172
0.83604
0.83790
0.83975
0.84158
0.84341
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1440.3
1450.3
1460.3
1470.3
1480.3
477.09
479.85
482.60
485.36
488.12
141.51
144.53
147.59
150.70
153.87
346.85
348.91
350.98
353.05
355.12
4.974
4.896
4.819
4.744
4.670
0.91788
0.91932
0.92076
0.92220
0.92362
1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
990.3
1000.3
1010.3
1020.3
1030.3
356.00
358.63
361.27
363.89
366.53
49.03
50.34
51.68
53.04
54.43
256.60
258.54
260.49
262.44
264.38
10.954
10.743
10.537
10.336
10.140
0.84523
0.84704
0.84884
0.85062
0.85239
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
1490.3
1500.3
1510.3
1520.3
1530.3
490.88
493.64
496.40
499.17
501.94
157.10
160.37
163.69
167.07
170.50
357.20
359.28
361.36
363.43
365.53
4.598
4.527
4.458
4.390
4.323
0.92504
0.92645
0.92786
0.92926
0.93066
PROPERTIES OF AIR AT LOW PRESSURES
465
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
1540.3
1550.3
1560.3
1570.3
1580.3
504.71
507.49
510.26
513.04
515.82
174.00
177.55
181.16
184.81
188.54
367.61
369.71
371.79
373.88
375.98
4.258
4.194
4.130
4.069
4.008
0.93205
0.93343
0.93481
0.93618
0.93756
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
2040.3
2050.3
2060.3
2070.3
2080.3
645.78
648.65
651.51
654.38
657.25
435.7
443.0
450.5
458.0
465.6
474.40
476.58
478.77
480.94
483.13
2.125
2.099
2.072
2.046
2.021
0.99497
0.99611
0.99725
0.99838
0.99952
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
1590.3
1600.3
1610.3
1620.3
1630.3
518.61
521.39
524.18
526.97
529.75
192.31
196.16
200.06
204.02
208.06
378.08
380.18
382.28
384.39
386.48
3.949
3.890
3.833
3.777
3.721
0.93891
0.94026
0.94161
0.94296
0.74430
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2090.3
2100.3
2110.3
2120.3
2130.3
660.12
662.99
665.86
668.74
671.61
473.3
481.1
489.1
497.1
505.3
485.31
487.51
489.69
491.88
494.07
1.9956
1.9709
1.9465
1.9225
1.8989
1.00064
1.00176
1.00288
1.00400
1.00511
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
1640.3
1650.3
1660.3
1670.3
1680.3
532.55
535.35
538.15
540.94
543.74
212.1
216.3
220.5
224.8
229.1
388.60
390.71
392.83
394.93
397.05
3.667
3.614
3.561
3.510
3.460
0.94564
0.94696
0.94829
0.94960
0.95092
2600
2610
2620
2630
2640
2140.3
2150.3
2160.3
2170.3
2180.3
674.49
677.37
680.25
683.13
686.01
513.5
521.8
530.3
538.9
547.5
496.26
498.46
500.65
502.85
505.05
1.8756
1.8527
1.8302
1.8079
1.7861
1.00623
1.00733
1.00843
1.00953
1.01063
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
1690.3
1700.3
1710.3
1720.3
1730.3
546.54
549.35
552.16
554.97
557.78
233.5
238.0
242.6
247.2
251.9
399.17
401.29
403.41
405.53
407.66
3.410
3.362
3.314
3.267
3.221
0.95222
0.95352
0.95482
0.95611
0.95740
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2190.3
2200.3
2210.3
2220.3
2230.3
688.90
691.79
694.68
697.56
700.45
556.3
565.2
574.2
583.3
592.5
507.25
509.44
511.65
513.86
516.05
1.7646
1.7434
1.7225
1.7019
1.6817
1.01172
1.01281
1.01389
1.01497
1.01605
2200
2210
2220
2230
2240
1740.3
1750.3
1760.3
1770.3
1780.3
560.59
563.41
566.23
569.04
571.86
256.6
261.4
266.3
271.3
276.3
409.78
411.92
414.05
416.18
418.31
3.176
3.131
3.088
3.045
3.003
0.95868
0.95996
0.96123
0.96250
0.96376
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2240.3
2250.3
2260.3
2270.3
2280.3
703.35
706.24
709.13
712.03
714.93
601.9
611.3
620.9
630.7
640.5
518.26
520.47
522.68
524.88
527.10
1.6617
1.6420
1.6226
1.6035
1.5847
1.01712
1.01819
1.01926
1.02032
1.02138
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
1790.3
1800.3
1810.3
1820.3
1830.3
574.69
577.51
580.34
583.16
585.99
281.4
286.6
291.9
297.2
302.7
420.46
422.59
424.74
426.87
429.01
2.961
2.921
2.881
2.841
2.803
0.96501
0.96626
0.96751
0.96876
0.96999
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2290.3
2300.3
2310.3
2320.3
2330.3
717.83
720.72
723.62
726.53
729.42
650.4
660.5
670.7
681.0
691.4
529.31
531.53
533.74
535.96
538.17
1.5662
1.5480
1.5299
1.5122
1.4948
1.02244
1.02348
1.02453
1.02558
1.02662
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
1840.3
1850.3
1860.3
1870.3
1880.3
588.82
591.66
594.49
597.32
600.16
308.1
313.7
319.4
325.1
330.9
431.16
433.31
435.46
437.60
439.76
2.765
2.728
2.691
2.655
2.619
0.97123
0.97246
0.97369
0.97489
0.97611
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2340.3
2350.3
2360.3
2370.3
2380.3
732.33
735.24
738.15
741.05
743.96
702.0
712.7
723.5
734.4
745.5
540.40
542.62
544.85
547.06
549.29
1.4775
1.4606
1.4439
1.4274
1.4112
1.02767
1.02870
1.02974
1.03076
1.03179
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
1890.3
1900.3
1910.3
1920.3
1930.3
603.00
605.84
608.68
611.53
614.37
336.8
342.8
348.9
355.0
361.3
441.91
444.07
446.22
448.38
450.54
2.585
2.550
2.517
2.483
2.451
0.97732
0.97853
0.97973
0.98092
0.98212
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
2390.3
2400.3
2410.3
2420.3
2430.3
746.88
749.79
752.71
755.61
758.53
756.7
768.1
779.6
791.2
802.9
551.52
553.74
555.98
558.19
560.43
1.3951
1.3764
1.3638
1.3485
1.3333
1.03282
1.03383
1.03484
1.03586
1.03687
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
1940.3
1950.3
1960.3
1970.3
1980.3
617.22
620.07
622.92
625.77
628.62
367.6
374.0
380.5
387.0
393.7
452.70
454.87
457.02
459.20
461.36
2.419
2.387
2.356
2.326
2.296
0.98331
0.98449
0.98567
0.98685
0.98802
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
2440.3
2450.3
2460.3
2470.3
2480.3
761.45
764.37
767.29
770.21
773.13
814.8
826.8
839.0
851.3
863.8
562.66
564.90
567.13
569.37
571.60
1.3184
1.3037
1.2892
1.2749
1.2608
1.03788
1.03889
1.03989
1.04089
1.04188
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
1990.3
2000.3
2010.3
2020.3
2030.3
631.48
634.34
637.20
640.05
642.91
400.5
407.3
414.3
421.3
428.5
463.54
465.70
467.88
470.05
472.22
2.266
2.237
2.209
2.180
2.153
0.98919
0.99035
0.99151
0.99266
0.99381
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
2490.3
2500.3
2510.3
2520.3
2530.3
776.05
778.97
781.90
784.83
787.75
876.4
889.1
902.0
915.0
928.2
573.84
576.07
578.32
580.56
582.79
1.2469
1.2332
1.2197
1.2064
1.1932
1.04288
1.04386
1.04484
1.04583
1.04681
466
APPENDIX K
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
T
t
h
u
vr
φ
h
pr
u
vr
φ
585.04
587.29
589.53
591.78
594.03
1.1803
1.1675
1.1549
1.1425
1.1302
1.04779
1.04877
1.04974
1.05071
1.05168
3500 3040.3
3510
3520
3530
3540
938.40
941.38
944.36
947.34
950.32
1829.3
1852.1
1875.2
1898.6
1922.1
698.48
700.78
703.07
705.36
707.65
0.7087
0.7020
0.6954
0.6888
0.6823
1.09332
1.09417
1.09502
1.09587
1.09671
3050 2590.3 805.34 1010.5 596.28 1.1181
3060
808.28 1024.8 598.52 1.1061
3070
811.22 1039.2 600.77 1.0943
3080
814.15 1053.8 603.02 1.0827
3090
817.09 1068.5 605.27 1.0713
1.05264
1.05359
1.05455
1.05551
1.05646
3550 3090.3
3560
3570
3580
3590
953.30
956.28
959.26
962.25
965.23
1945.8
1969.8
1993.9
2018.3
2043.0
709.95
712.24
714.54
716.84
719.14
0.6759
0.6695
0.6632
0.6571
0.6510
1.09755
1.09838
1.09922
1.10005
1.10089
3100 2640.3 820.03 1083.4 607.53 1.0600
3110
822.97 1098.5 609.79 1.0488
3120
825.91 1113.7 612.05 1.0378
3130
828.86 1129.1 614.30 1.0269
3140
831.80 1144.7 616.56 1.0162
1.05741
1.05836
1.05930
1.06025
1.06119
3600 3140.3
3610
3620
3630
3640
968.21
971.20
974.18
977.17
980.16
2067.9
2093.0
2118.4
2114.0
2169.9
721.44
723.74
726.04
728.34
730.64
0.6449
0.6389
0.6330
0.6272
0.6214
1.10172
1.10255
1.10337
1.10420
1.10502
3150 2690.3 834.75 1160.5 618.82 1.0056
3160
837.69 1176.4 621.08 0.9951
3170
840.64 1192.5 623.35 0.9848
3180
843.59 1208.7 625.60 0.9746
3190
846.53 1225.1 627.86 0.9646
1.06212
1.06305
1.06398
1.06491
1.06584
3650 3190.3
3660
3670
3680
3690
983.15
986.14
989.13
992.12
995.11
2196.0
2222.4
2249.0
2275.8
2302.9
732.95
735.26
737.57
739.87
742.17
0.6157
0.6101
0.6045
0.5990
0.5936
1.10584
1.10665
1.10747
1.10828
1.10910
3200 2740.3 849.48 1241.7 630.12 0.9546
3210
852.43 1258.5 632.39 0.9448
3220
855.38 1275.5 634.65 0.9352
3230
858.33 1292.7 636.92 0.9256
3240
861.28 1310.0 639.19 0.9162
1.06676
1.06768
1.06860
1.06952
1.07043
3700 3240.3 998.11 2330.3 744.48 0.5882
3710
1001.11 2358.0 746.79 0.5829
3720
1004.10 2385.9 749.10 0.5776
3730
1007.10 2414.0 751.41 0.5724
3740
1010.09 2442.4 753.73 0.5672
1.10991
1.11071
1.11152
1.11223
1.11313
3250 2790.3 864.24 1327.5 641.46 0.9069
3260
867.19 1345.2 643.73 0.8977
3270
870.15 1363.1 646.00 0.8886
3280
873.11 1381.2 648.27 0.8797
3290
876.06 1399.5 650.54 0.8708
1.07134
1.07224
1.07315
1.07405
1.07495
3750 3290.3 1013.09 2471.1 756.04 0.5621
3760
1016.09 2500.0 758.35 0.5571
3770
1019.09 2529.2 760.66 0.5522
3780
1022.09 2558.7 762.98 0.5473
3790
1025.09 2588.4 765.29 0.4424
1.11393
1.11473
1.11553
1.11633
1.11712
3300 2840.3 879.02 1418.0 652.81 0.8621
3310
881.98 1436.6 655.09 0.8535
3320
884.94 1455.4 657.37 0.8450
3330
887.90 1474.5 659.64 0.8366
3340
890.86 1493.7 661.92 0.8238
1.07585
1.07675
1.07764
1.07853
1.07942
3800 3340.3 1028.09 2618.4 767.60 0.5376
3810
1031.09 2648.9 769.92 0.5328
3820
1034.09 2679.5 772.23 0.5281
3830
1037.10 2710.3 774.55 0.5235
3840
1040.10 2741.5 776.87 0.5189
1.11791
1.11870
1.11948
1.12027
1.12105
3350 2890.3 893.83 1513.0 664.20 0.8202
3360
896.80 1532.6 666.48 0.8121
3370
899.77 1552.5 668.76 0.8041
3380
902.73 1572.6 671.04 0.7962
3390
905.69 1592.8 673.32 0.7884
1.08031
1.08119
1.08207
1.08295
1.08383
3850 3390.3 1043.11 2772.9 779.19 0.5143
3860
1046.11 2804.6 781.51 0.5098
3870
1049.12 2836.6 783.83 0.5054
3880
1052.13 2869.0 786.16 0.5010
3890
1055.13 2901.6 788.48 0.4966
1.12183
1.12261
1.12339
1.12416
1.12494
3400 2940.3 908.66 1613.2 675.60 0.7807
3410
911.64 1633.9 677.89 0.7732
3420
914.61 1654.8 680.17 0.7657
3430
917.58 1675.9 682.46 0.7582
3440
920.55 1697.2 684.75 0.7508
1.08470
1.08558
1.08645
1.08732
1.08818
3900 3440.3 1058.14 2934.4 790.80 0.4923
3910
1061.15 2967.6 793.12 0.4881
3920
1064.16 3001.1 795.44 0.4839
3930
1067.17 3034.9 797.77 0.4797
3940
1070.18 3069.0 800.10 0.4756
1.12571
1.12648
1.12725
1.12802
1.12879
3450 2990.3 923.52 1718.7 687.04 0.7436
3460
926.50 1740.4 689.32 0.7365
3470
929.48 1762.3 691.61 0.7294
3480
932.45 1784.5 693.90 0.7224
3490
935.42 1806.8 696.19 0.7155
1.08904
1.08990
1.09076
1.09162
1.09247
3950 3490.3 1073.19 3103.4 802.43 0.4715
3960
1076.20 3138.1 804.75 0.4675
3970
1079.22 3173.0 807.08 0.4635
3980
1082.23 3208.3 809.41 0.4595
3990
1085.24 3243.8 811.73 0.4556
1.12955
1.13031
1.13107
1.13183
1.13259
3000 2540.3 790.68
3010
793.61
3020
796.54
3030
799.47
3040
802.41
pr
941.4
955.0
968.7
982.4
994.5
T
t
PROPERTIES OF AIR AT LOW PRESSURES
467
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
4000 3540.3 1088.26 3280 814.06 0.4518
4010
1091.28 3316 816.39 0.4480
4020
1094.30 3352 818.72 0.4442
4030
1097.32 3389 821.06 0.4404
4040
1000.34 3427 823.39 0.4367
1.13334
1.13410
1.13485
1.13560
1.13635
4500 4040.3 1239.86 5521
4510
1242.91 5576
4520
1245.96 5632
4530
1249.00 5687
4540
1252.05 5743
931.39
933.76
936.12
938.48
940.84
0.3019
0.2996
0.2973
0.2951
0.2928
1.16905
1.16972
1.17040
1.17107
1.17174
4050 3590.3 1103.36 3464 825.72 0.4331
4060
1106.37 3502 828.05 0.4295
4070
1109.39 3540 830.39 0.4259
4080
1112.42 3579 832.73 0.4223
4090
1115.44 3617 835.06 0.4188
1.13709
1.13783
1.13857
1.13932
1.14006
4550 4090.3 1255.10 5800
4560
1258.16 5857
4570
1261.21 5914
4580
1264.26 5972
4590
1267.31 6030
943.21
945.58
947.94
950.30
952.67
0.2906
0.2884
0.2862
0.2841
0.2820
1.17241
1.17308
1.17375
1.17442
1.17509
4100 3640.3 1118.46 3656 837.40 0.4154
4110
1121.49 3696 839.74 0.4119
4120
1124.51 3736 842.08 0.4085
4130
1127.54 3776 844.41 0.4052
4140
1130.56 3817 846.75 0.4018
1.14079
1.14153
1.14227
1.14300
1.14373
4600 4140.3 1270.36 6089
4610
1273.42 6148
4620
1276.47 6208
4630
1279.52 6268
4640
1282.58 6328
955.04
957.41
959.77
962.14
964.51
0.2799
0.2778
0.2757
0.2736
0.2716
1.17575
1.17642
1.17708
1.17774
1.17840
4150 3690.3 1133.59 3858 849.09 0.3985
4160
1136.61 3899 851.44 0.3953
4170
1139.64 3940 853.78 0.3920
4180
1142.67 3982 856.12 0.3888
4190
1145.69 4024 858.46 0.3857
1.14446
1.14519
1.14592
1.14665
1.14737
4650 4190.3 1285.63 6389
4660
1288.69 6451
4670
1291.75 6513
4680
1294.80 6575
4690
1297.86 6638
966.88
969.25
971.62
973.99
976.36
0.2696
0.2676
0.2656
0.2637
0.2617
1.17905
1.17970
1.18036
1.18101
1.18167
4200 3740.3 1148.72 4067 860.81 0.3826
4210
1151.75 4110 863.15 0.3795
4220
1154.78 4153 865.50 0.3764
4230
1157.81 4197 867.84 0.3734
4240
1160.84 4241 870.18 0.3704
1.14809
1.14881
1.14953
1.15025
1.15097
4700 4240.3 1300.92 6701
4710
1303.98 6765
4720
1307.03 6830
4730
1310.09 6895
4740
1313.15 6960
978.73
981.10
983.47
985.85
988.23
0.2598
0.2579
0.2560
0.2541
0.2523
1.18232
1.18297
1.18362
1.18427
1.18491
4250 3790.3 1163.87 4285 872.53 0.3674
4260
1166.90 4330 874.88 0.3644
4270
1169.94 4375 877.23 0.3615
4280
1172.97 4421 879.58 0.3586
4290
1176.00 4467 881.93 0.3558
1.15168
1.15239
1.15310
1.15381
1.15452
4750 4290.3 1316.21 7026 990.60
4760
1319.27 7092 992.97
4770
1322.33 7159 995.35
4780
1325.39 7226 997.73
4790
1328.45 7294 1000.10
0.2505
0.2486
0.2468
0.2451
0.2433
1.18556
1.18620
1.18684
1.18749
1.18813
4300 3840.3 1179.04 4513 884.28 0.3529
4310
1182.08 4560 886.63 0.3501
4320
1185.08 4607 888.98 0.3474
4330
1188.15 4654 891.33 0.3446
4340
1191.19 4702 893.69 0.3419
1.15522
1.15593
1.15663
1.15734
1.15804
4800 4340.3 1331.51 7362 1002.48 0.2415
4810
1334.57 7431 1004.86 0.2398
4820
1337.64 7500 1007.24 0.2381
4830
1340.70 7570 1009.61 0.2364
4840
1343.76 7640 1011.99 0.2347
1.18876
1.18940
1.19004
1.19068
1.19131
4350 3890.3 1194.23 4750 896.04 0.3392
4360
1197.26 4799 898.39 0.3366
4370
1200.30 4848 900.75 0.3339
4380
1203.34 4897 903.10 0.3313
4390
1206.38 4947 905.45 0.3287
1.15874
1.15943
1.16012
1.16082
1.16151
4850 4390.3 1346.83 7711 1014.37 0.2330
4860
1349.90 7782 1016.76 0.2313
4870
1352.97 7854 1019.14 0.2297
4880
1356.03 7926 1021.52 0.2281
4890
1359.10 7999 1023.90 0.2264
1.19194
1.19257
1.19320
1.19383
1.19445
4400 3940.3 1209.42 4997 907.81 0.3262
4410
1212.46 5048 910.17 0.3236
4420
1215.50 5099 912.52 0.3211
4430
1218.55 5150 914.88 0.3186
4440
1221.59 5202 917.24 0.3162
1.16221
1.16290
1.16359
1.16427
1.16496
4900 4440.3 1362.17 8073 1026.28 0.2248
4910
1365.24 8147 1028.66 0.2233
4920
1368.30 8221 1031.04 0.2217
4930
1371.37 8296 1033.43 0.2201
4940
1374.44 8372 1035.81 0.2186
1.19508
1.19571
1.19633
1.19696
1.19758
4450 3990.3 1224.64 5254 919.60 0.3137
4460
1227.68 5307 921.95 0.3113
4470
1230.72 5360 924.31 0.3089
4480
1233.77 5413 926.67 0.3066
4490
1236.81 5467 929.03 0.3042
1.16565
1.16633
1.16701
1.16769
1.16837
4950 4490.3 1377.51 8448 1038.20 0.2170
4960
1380.58 8525 1040.58 0.2155
4970
1383.65 8602 1042.97 0.2140
4980
1386.72 8680 1045.36 0.2125
4990
1389.79 8758 1047.74 0.2111
1.19820
1.19982
1.19944
1.20006
1.20067
468
APPENDIX K
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
u
vr
φ
5000 4540.3 1392.87
5010
1395.94
5020
1399.01
5030
1402.08
5040
1405.16
T
t
h
8837
8917
8997
9078
9159
pr
1050.12
1052.51
1054.90
1057.29
1059.68
0.20959
0.20814
0.20670
0.20527
0.20385
1.20129
1.20190
1.20252
1.20313
1.20374
5500 5040.3 1547.07 13568 1170.04 0.15016
5510
1550.17 13680 1172.45 0.14921
5520
1553.26 13793 1174.87 0.14826
5530
1556.36 13906 1177.28 0.14732
5540
1559.45 14020 1179.69 0.14638
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
1.23068
1.23124
1.23180
1.23236
1.23292
φ
5050 4590.3 1408.24
5060
1411.32
5070
1414.39
5080
1417.46
5090
1420.54
9241
9323
9406
9489
9573
1062.07
1064.45
1066.84
1069.23
1071.62
0.20245
0.20106
0.19968
0.19831
0.19696
1.20435
1.20496
1.20557
1.20617
1.20678
5550 5090.3 1562.55 14135 1182.10 0.14545
5560
1565.65 14250 1184.52 0.14453
5570
1568.74 14366 1186.93 0.14362
5580
1571.84 14483 1189.34 0.14272
5590
1574.93 14601 1191.75 0.14182
1.23348
1.23404
1.23459
1.23515
1.23570
5100 4640.3 1423.62 9653
5110
1426.70 9743
5120
1429.77 9829
5130
1432.85 9916
5140
1435.94 10003
1074.02
1076.41
1078.80
1081.19
1083.59
0.09561
0.19428
0.19296
0.19165
0.19035
1.2
1.20799
1.20859
1.20919
1.20979
5600 5140.3 1578.03 14719 1194.16 0.14093
5610
1581.13 14838 1196.58 0.14005
5620
1584.23 14958 1198.99 0.13918
5630
1587.33 15079 1201.40 0.13831
5640
1590.43 15201 1203.82 0.13745
1.23626
1.23681
1.23736
1.23791
1.23847
5150 4690.3 1439.02 10091 1085.98 0.18906
5160
1442.09 10179 1088.37 0.18778
5170
1445.17 10268 1090.77 0.18651
5180
1448.26 10358 1093.17 0.18525
5190
1451.33 10448 1095.56 0.18401
1.21038
1.21097
1.21157
1.21217
1.21276
5650 5190.3 1593.53 15323 1206.24 0.13659
5660
1596.63 15446 1208.65 0.13574
5670
1599.74 15569 1211.07 0.13491
5680
1602.84 15694 1213.48 0.13407
5690
1605.94 15820 1215.89 0.13324
1.23902
1.23956
1.24010
1.24065
1.24120
5200 4740.3 1454.41 10539 1097.96 0.18279
5210
1457.50 10630 1100.36 0.18156
5220
1460.58 10722 1102.76 0.18
5230
1463.66 10815 1105.15 0.17914
5240
1466.75 10908 1107.55 0.17795
1.21336
1.21395
1.21454
1.21513
1.21572
5700 5240.3 1609.04 15946 1218.31 0.13242
5710
1612.15 16072 1220.73 0.13161
5720
1615.25 16200 1223.15 0.13080
5730
1680.35 16329 1225.57 0.12999
5740
1621.46 16458 1227.99 0.12919
1.24174
1.24229
1.24283
1.24337
1.24391
5250 4790.3 1469.83 11002 1109.95 0.17677
5260
1472.92 11097 1112.35 0.17560
5270
1476.01 11192 1114.75 0.17443
5280
1479.09 11288 1117.15 0.17328
5290
1482.17 11384 1119.55 0.17214
1.21631
1.21689
1.21747
1.21806
1.21864
5750 5290.3 1624.57 16588 1230.41 0.12840
5760
1627.67 16720 1232.82 0.12762
5770
1630.77 16852 1235.24 0.16848
5780
1633.88 16984 1237.67 0.12607
5790
1636.98 17117 1240.08 0.12530
1.24445
1.24498
1.24552
1.24606
1.24660
5300 4840.3 1485.26 11481 1121.95 0.17101
5310
1488.35 11579 1124.35 0.16988
5320
1491.43 11678 1126.75 0.16876
5330
1494.52 11777 1129.15 0.16765
5340
1497.61 11877 1131.56 0.16655
1.21923
1.21981
1.22039
1.22097
1.22155
5800 5340.3 1640.09 17250 1242.50 0.12454
5810
1643.20 17388 1244.93 0.12378
5820
1646.30 17524 1247.35 0.12303
5830
1649.41 17661 1249.77 0.12229
5840
1652.52 17799 1252.19 0.12155
1.24714
1.24767
1.24821
1.24874
1.24927
5350 4890.3 1500.70 11978 1133.96 0.16547
5360
1503.79 12079 1136.36 0.16439
5370
1506.88 12181 1138.77 0.16332
5380
1509.97 12283 1141.17 0.16226
5390
1513.05 12386 1143.57 0.16120
1.22213
1.22270
1.22327
1.22385
1.22442
5850 5390.3 1655.63 17937 1254.62 0.12082
5860
1658.73 18076 1257.04 0.12009
5870
1661.84 18216 1259.46 0.11937
5880
1664.95 18357 1261.88 0.11865
5890
1668.06 18500 1264.30 0.11794
1.24981
1.25034
1.25087
1.25140
1.25193
5400 4940.3 1516.14 12490 1145.98 0.16015
5410
1519.24 12595 1148.38 0.15911
5420
1522.33 12700 1150.78 0.15809
5430
1525.42 12806 1153.19 0.15707
5440
1528.51 12913 1155.60 0.15606
1.22500
1.22557
1.22614
1.22671
1.22728
5900 5440.3 1671.17 18643 1266.73 0.11723
5910
1674.28 18787 1269.15 0.11653
5920
1677.39 18931 1271.58 0.11584
5930
1680.50 19078 1274.00 0.11515
5940
1683.61 19224 1276.43 0.11447
1.25246
1.25298
1.25351
1.25403
1.25456
5450 4990.3 1531.60 13021 1158.01 0.15506
5460
1534.70 13129 1160.41 0.15407
5470
1537.79 13238 1162.82 0.15308
5480
1540.88 13348 1165.23 0.15209
5490
1543.98 13458 1167.63 0.15112
1.22785
1.22841
1.22898
1.22954
1.23011
5950 5490.3 1686.73 19371 1278.86 0.11379
5960
1689.84 19519 1281.29 0.11312
5970
1692.96 19668 1283.72 0.11244
5980
1696.07 19818 1286.14 0.11178
5990
1699.18 19968 1288.57 0.11112
1.25508
1.25560
1.25613
1.25665
1.25717
PROPERTIES OF AIR AT LOW PRESSURES
469
Thermodynamic Properties of Air at Low Pressures (cont.)
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
T
t
h
pr
u
vr
φ
6000 5540.3 1702.29 20120 1291.00 0.11047
6010
1705.41 20274 1293.43 0.10981
6020
1708.52 20427 1295.86 0.10917
6030
1711.64 20582 1298.29 0.10853
6040
1714.76 20738 1300.72 0.10789
1.25769
1.25821
1.25872
1.25924
1.25976
6300 5840.3 1795.88 25123 1364.02 0.09289
6310
1799.01 25306 1366.46 0.09237
6320
1802.13 25489 1368.90 0.09185
6330
1805.26 25674 1371.35 0.09133
6340
1808.39 25860 1373.79 0.09082
1.27291
1.27341
1.27390
1.27440
1.27489
6050 5590.3 1717.88 20894 1303.15 0.10726
6060
1720.99 21051 1305.58 0.10664
6070
1724.10 21210 1308.01 0.10602
6080
1727.22 21369 1310.44 0.10540
6090
1730.33 21529 1312.87 0.10479
1.26028
1.26079
1.26130
1.26182
1.26233
6350 5890.3 1811.51 26046 1376.23 0.09031
6360
1814.63 26233 1378.66 0.08981
6370
1817.76 26422 1381.10 0.08931
6380
1820.89 26611 1383.54 0.08881
6390
1824.01 26802 1385.98 0.08832
1.27538
1.27587
1.27636
1.27685
1.27734
6100 5640.3 1733.45 21691 1315.30 0.10418
6110
1736.57 21853 1317.73 0.10357
6120
1739.69 22016 1320.16 0.10297
6130
1742.81 22180 1322.60 0.10238
6140
1745.93 22345 1325.04 0.10179
1.26284
1.26335
1.26386
1.26437
1.26488
6400 5940.3 1827.14 26994 1388.43 0.08783
6410
1830.27 27187 1390.88 0.08734
6420
1833.40 27381 1393.32 0.08685
6430
1836.53 27577 1395.76 0.08637
6440
1839.66 27773 1398.21 0.08590
1.27783
1.27832
1.27881
1.27929
1.27978
6150 5690.3 1749.05 22512 1327.47 0.10120
6160
1752.17 22678 1329.90 0.10062
6170
1755.29 22846 1332.34 0.10004
6180
1758.41 23016 1334.77 0.09946
6190
1761.53 23186 1337.20 0.09889
1.26539
1.26589
1.26639
1.26690
1.26741
6450 5990.3 1842.79 27970 1400.65 0.08542
6460
1845.92 28169 1403.09 0.08495
6470
1849.05 28369 1405.53 0.08448
6480
1852.18 28569 1407.98 0.08402
6490
1855.31 28772 1410.42 0.08356
1.28026
1.28074
1.28123
1.28171
1.28219
6200 5740.3 1764.65 23357 1339.64 0.09833
6210
1767.77 23529 1342.08 0.09777
6220
1770.89 23703 1344.52 0.09721
6230
1774.02 23877 1346.95 0.09666
6240
1777.14 24052 1349.39 0.09611
1.26791
1.26841
1.26892
1.26942
1.26992
6500 6040.3 1858.44 28974 1412.87 0.8310
1.28268
6250 5790.3 1780.27 24228 1351.83 0.09556
6260
1783.39 24405 1354.27 0.09502
6270
1786.51 24583 1356.71 0.09448
6280
1789.63 24762 1359.14 0.09395
6290
1792.75 24942 1361.58 0.09342
1.27042
1.27092
1.27142
1.27192
1.27241
Source: Condensed with permission from Table 1 of J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, copyright 1948,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
APPENDIX L
Specific Heats of Air
at Low Pressures
470
SPECIFIC HEATS OF AIR AT LOW PRESSURES
471
Specific Heats of Air at Low Pressures
This information is presented in English Engineering (EE) units.
T
T is in °R,
cp is in Btu/lbm-°R.
t is in °F,
cv is in Btu/lbm-°R.
a is in ft/sec,
γ = cp /cv .
t
cp
cv
γ
a
T
t
cp
cv
γ
a
−359.7
−309.7
−259.7
−209.7
−159.7
0.2392
0.2392
0.2392
0.2392
0.2392
0.1707
0.1707
0.1707
0.1707
0.1707
1.402
1.402
1.402
1.402
1.402
490.5
600.7
693.6
775.4
849.4
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
1440.3
1540.3
1640.3
1740.3
1840.3
0.2750
0.2773
0.2794
0.2813
0.2831
0.2064
0.2088
0.2109
0.2128
0.2146
1.332
1.328
1.325
1.322
1.319
2084
2135
2185
2234
2282
40.3
90.3
0.2393
0.2393
0.2394
0.2396
0.2399
0.1707
0.1707
0.1708
0.1710
0.1713
1.402
1.402
1.401
1.401
1.400
917.5
980.9
1040.3
1096.4
1149.6
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
1940.3
2140.3
2340.3
2540.3
2740.3
0.2848
0.2878
0.2905
0.2929
0.2950
0.2162
0.2192
0.2219
0.2243
0.2264
1.317
1.313
1.309
1.306
1.303
2329
2420
2508
2593
2675
600
650
700
750
800
140.3
190.3
240.3
290.3
340.3
0.2403
0.2409
0.2416
0.2424
0.2434
0.1718
0.1723
0.1730
0.1739
0.1748
1.399
1.398
1.396
1.394
1.392
1200.3
1248.7
1295.1
1339.6
1382.5
3400
3600
3800
4000
4200
2940.3
3140.3
3340.3
3540.3
3740.3
0.2969
0.2986
0.3001
0.3015
0.3029
0.2283
0.2300
0.2316
0.2329
0.2343
1.300
1.298
1.296
1.294
1.292
2755
2832
2907
2981
3052
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
440.3
540.3
640.3
740.3
840.3
0.2458
0.2486
0.2516
0.2547
0.2579
0.1772
0.1800
0.1830
0.1862
0.1894
1.387
1.381
1.374
1.368
1.362
1463.6
1539.4
1610.8
1678.6
1743.2
4400
4600
4800
5000
5200
3940.3
4140.3
4340.3
4540.3
4740.3
0.3041
0.3052
0.3063
0.3072
0.3081
0.2355
0.2367
0.2377
0.2387
0.2396
1.291
1.290
1.288
1.287
1.286
3122
3191
3258
3323
3388
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
940.3
1040.3
1140.3
1240.3
1340.3
0.2611
0.2642
0.2671
0.2698
0.2725
0.1926
0.1956
0.1985
0.2013
0.2039
1.356
1.350
1.345
1.340
1.336
1805.0
1864.5
1922.0
1977.6
2032
5400
5600
5800
6000
6200
4940.3
5140.3
5340.3
5540.3
5740.3
0.3090
0.3098
0.3106
0.3114
0.3121
0.2405
0.2413
0.2420
0.2428
0.2435
1.285
1.284
1.283
1.282
1.282
3451
3513
3574
3634
3693
6400
5940.3
0.3128
0.2442
1.281
3751
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
−109.7
−59.7
−9.7
Source: Adapted with permission from Table 2 of J. H. Keenan and J. Kaye, Gas Tables, copyright 1948,
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Selected References
473
474
SELECTED REFERENCES
Reference numbers referred to in the text correspond to those listed below:
Calculus
1. Stewart, J., Calculus, 4th ed., Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA, 1999.
2. Finney, R. L., and Thomas, G. B., Calculus, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA,
1999.
Thermodynamics
3. Moran, M. J., and Shapiro, H. N., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1999.
4. Mooney, D. A., Mechanical Engineering Thermodynamics, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1953.
5. Reynolds, W. C., and Perkins, H. C., Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1977.
6. Obert, E. F., Concepts of Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
7. Sonntag, R. E., Borgnakke, C., and Van Wylen, C. J., Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, 5th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
8. Dittman, R. H., and Zemansky, M. W., Heat and Thermodynamics, 7th ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1996.
Fluid Mechanics
9. Pao, R. H. F., Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1961.
10. Shames, I. H., Mechanics of Fluids, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
11. Streeter, V. L., and Wylie, E. B., Fluid Mechanics, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1985.
12. Street, R. L., Walters, G. Z., and Vennard, J. K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 7th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1995.
Gas Dynamics
13. Cambel, A. B., and Jennings, B. H., Gas Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.
14. Anderson, J. D., Modern Compressible Flow, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990.
15. Hall, N. A., Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1951.
16. John, J. E. A., Gas Dynamics, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1997.
17. Liepmann, H. W., and Roshko, A., Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1957.
18. Saad, M. A., Compressible Fluid Flow, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1985.
19. Shapiro, A. H., The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol.
I, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953.
20. Zucrow, M. J., and Hoffman J. D., Gas Dynamics, Vol. I, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1976.
SELECTED REFERENCES
475
Propulsion
21. Archer, R. D., and Saarlas, M., An Introduction to Aerospace Propulsion, Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996.
22. Oates, G. C., Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion, 3rd ed.,
AIAA Education Series, Reston, VA, 1997.
23. Hill, P. G., and Peterson C. R., Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion, 2nd
ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1992.
24. Sutton, G. P., and Biblarz, O., Rocket Propulsion Elements, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 2001.
25. Zucrow, M. J., Aircraft and Missile Propulsion, Vols. I and II, John Wiley & Sons, New
York 1958.
Real Gases
26. Pierce, F. J., Microscopic Thermodynamics, International Textbook Co., Scranton, PA,
1968.
27. Incropera, F. P., Molecular Structure and Thermodynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1974.
28. Thompson, P. A., Compressible Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
29. Anderson, J. D., Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1989 (presently available as an AIAA textbook).
30. Owczarek, J. A., Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics, International Textbook Co., Scranton, PA, 1964.
Tables and Charts
31. Keenan, J. H., and Kaye, J., Gas Tables, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1948.
32. Ames Research Staff, Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow, NACA
Report 1135, 1953.
33. Sims, J. L., Tables for Supersonic Flow around Right Circular Cones at Zero-Angleof-Attack, NASA Report SP-3004, 1964.
Answers to Problems
477
478
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Answers have been computed by interpolation from tabular entries and have been
rounded off to three significant figures at the end (except for answers beginning with
1, where four significant figures have been retained). This procedure yields values
consistent with standard engineering practice.
Chapter 1
1.1. Pretty close.
1.2. (a) Yes; (b) vertical lines.
1.3. (a) 2; (b) −52.0 Btu/lbm, −52.0 Btu/lbm.
1.4. 0, 0.24 × 106 N · m, 0, 0.24 × 106 N · m, 0.
1.5. (a) 393 T J/kg; (b) no.
Chapter 2
2.2. (a) Um /2; (b) Um /3; (c) 2Um /3.
2.3. 13/2.
2.4. ρAEm Um /3.
2.5. (a) 38.9 ft/sec.; (b) 1400/D 2 ft/sec.
2.6. 44.4 ft/sec.
2.7. 19,010 hp.
2.8. 111.2 hp.
2.9. (a) 1906 m/s; (b) 5.07 kg/s.
2.10. −0.0147 Btu/lbm.
2.11. (a) 78.1 m/s; (b) 4.18.
2.12. (a) 2880 ft/sec, (b) 1.15.
2.13. (a) 661 m/s; (b) 0.0625 bar abs.
2.14. (a) 382 Btu/sec; (b) 0.03%.
2.15. 4.34 × 105 J/kg.
Check Test:
2.3. 7ρABm Um /30.
2.5. ṁ2 β2 + ṁ3 β3 − ṁ1 β1 .
Chapter 3
3.4. 246 ft/sec.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
479
3.5. (a) −450 J/kg; (b) 0.11 K.
3.6. (a) 2260 ft/sec; (b) 732°F; (c) 103.1 psia.
3.7. Shaft work input.
3.9. (a) 7.51 ft-lbf/lbm; (b) 2.87 psig.
3.10. 54.4 m.
3.11. (a) 46.6 ft-lbf/lbm; (b) flow from 2 to 1.
3.12. 14.82 cm.
3.13. (b) 35 ft.
3.14. Case B.
3.16. (a) 7200A lbf; (b) 1.50 lbf/ft2 .
3.17. (a) 1.50 bar abs; (b) 7810 N; (c) −56,800 J/kg.
3.18. (a) 80 ft/sec, 6.37 psig; (b) 3600 lbf.
3.19. (a) 32.1 ft/sec; (b) 174.9 lbm/sec; (c) 151 lbf.
3.20. 5000 N.
3.21. 4.36 ft2 .
3.22. 180°.
Check Test:
3.4. 2.
3.5. (a) q = ws = 0, yes; (b) no losses.
3.6. (a) s.
Chapter 4
4.1. 1128 ft/sec, 4290 ft/sec, 4880 ft/sec, 4680 ft/sec.
4.2. 278 K, 189 K, 33.3 K.
4.4. (a) 295 ft/sec; (b) 298 ft/sec; (c) 1291 ft/sec, 1492 ft/sec; (d) at low Mach
numbers.
4.5. 0.564.
4.6. (a) 286 m/s, 0.700; (b) 2.8 kg/m3 .
4.7. 2.1, 402 psia.
4.8. 1266 m/s.
4.9. 524°R, 1779 psfa.
480
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
4.10. 1.28 × 105 N/m2 , 330 K, 491 m/s.
4.11. M = ∞.
4.12. Flows toward 50 psia, 0.0204 Btu/lbm-°R.
4.13. (a) 457 K, 448 m/s; (b) 9.65 bar abs.; (c) 0.370.
4.14. (a) 451°R, 20.95 psia; (b) 0.0254 Btu/lbm-°R; (c) 1571 lbf.
4.15. (a) 156.8 m/s; (b) 32.5 J/kg·K; (c) 0.763.
4.16. (a) 85.8 lbm/sec; (b) 1.91, 578°R, 2140 ft/sec, 0.0758 lbm/ft3 , 0.528 ft2 ;
(c) −6960 lbf.
Check Test:
4.2. (a) Into; (b) M2 < M1 .
4.3. (a) True; (b) false; (c) false; (d) true; (e) true.
Chapter 5
5.1. (a) 0.18, 94.9 psia; (b) 2.94, 320°R.
5.2. 2.20, 1.64.
5.3. (a) 0.50, 35.6 psia, 788°R; (b) nozzle; (c) 0.67, 26.3 psia, 723°R.
5.4. 239 K.
5.5. (a) 0.607, 685 ft/sec, 23.1 psia; (b) 0.342, 395 ft/sec, 30.4 psia; (c) 0.855.
5.7. (a) 0.00797 Btu/lbm-°R; (b) 0.1502.
5.8. (a) 52.3 J/kg·K; (b) 16.43 cm.
5.10. (a) 26.5 lbm/sec; (b) no change; (c) 53.0 lbm/sec.
5.11. (a) 320 m/s; (b) 0.808 kg/s; (c) 0.844 kg/s.
5.12. 671°R, 0.768, 975 ft/sec.
5.13. (a) 77.9 psia; (b) 3.77 psia; (c) 0.0406 lbm/ft3 , 2050 ft/sec.
5.14. (a) 38.6 cm2 ; (b) 9.14 kg/s.
5.15. 430 ft/sec.
5.16. (a) 140.4 lbm/sec; (b) 0.491 ft2 ; (c) 0.787 ft2 .
5.17. (b) 3.53 cm2 ; (c) 4.09 cm2 .
5.18. (a) 1.71; (b) 91.9%; (c) 0.01152 Btu/lbm-°R.
5.19. (a) 163.9 K, 1.10 bar abs, 8.61 bar abs.; (b) 2.10; (c) 0.1276 m2 ; (d) 300 kg/s.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
481
5.20. (a) 23.7 psia; (b) 97.4%; (c) 4.14.
5.23. (a) 3.5, 436 lbm/sec-ft2 ; (b) prec ≤ 6.63 psia; (c) same.
Check Test:
5.3. T2∗ > T1∗ .
5.6. (a) 132.1 psia; (b) 0.514 lbm/ft3 , 1001 ft/sec; (c) 0.43.
Chapter 6
6.1. (b) 0.01421 Btu/lbm-°R; (c) 0.0646 Btu/lbm-°R, 0.1237 Btu/lbm-°R.
6.2. 84.0 psia.
6.3. (a) [(γ − 1)/2γ ]1/2 ; (b) ρ2 /ρ1 = (γ + 1)/(γ − 1).
6.4. 2.47, 3.35.
6.5. (a) 2.88; (b) 1.529.
6.6. 0.69, 2.45.
6.7. (a) 0.965, 0.417, 0.0585; (b) 144.8 psia, 62.6 psia, 8.78 psia; (c) 15.54 psia,
36.0 psia, 256 psia.
6.8. (a) 19.30 cm2 ; (b) 10.52 × 105 N/m2 ; (c) 18.65 × 105 N/m2 .
6.9. 1.30 ft2 .
6.10. (a) 0.119, 0.623; (b) 0.0287 Btu/lbm-°R.
6.11. 0.498.
6.12. (a) 4.6 in2 ; (b) 5.35 in2 ; (c) 79 psia; (d) 6.58 in2 ; (e) 1.79.
6.13. (a) 3.56; (b) 0.475.
6.14. 0.67 or 1.405.
6.15. (a) 0.973, 0.375, 0.0471; (b) 0.43; (c) 2.64, 2.50.
6.16. (a) 0.271; (b) 0.0455 Btu/lbm-°R; (c) 2.48; (d) 0.281.
6.17. (a) 0.985p1 , 0.296p1 , 0.0298p1 ; (b) (i) no flow, (ii) subsonic throughout,
(iii) shock in diverging portion, (iv) almost design.
6.19. (a) 54.6 in2 ; (b) 18.39 lbm/sec; (c) 109.4 in2 ; (d) 7.34 psia; (e) 9.24 psia;
(f) 742 hp.
Check Test:
6.2. (a) Increases; (b) decreases; (c) decreases; (d) increases.
6.3. 0.973, 0.376, 0.0473.
482
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
6.5. (a) 1.625; (b) from 2 to 1.
6.6. (a) 0.380, 450 ft/sec; (b) 0.0282 Btu/lbm-°R.
Chapter 7
7.1. (a) 725°R, 42.0 psia, 922 ft/sec; (b) 0.00787 Btu/lbm-°R.
7.2. 1.024 × 106 K, 1.756 × 106 K, 20,500 bar, 135,000 bar.
7.3. 531°R, 19.75 psia, 348 ft/sec.
7.4. (a) 957 ft/sec; (b) 658°R, 34.5 psia.
7.5. (a) 310 K, 1.219 × 104 N/m2 , 50.3 m/s; (b) 328 K, 1.48 × 104 N/m2 , 340 m/s.
7.6. (a) 1453 ft/sec, 2520 ft/sec, 959 ft/sec, 2520 ft/sec; (b) 619°R, 18.05 psia;
(c) 9.1°.
7.7. (a) 1.68, 25.6°; (b) 560 K, 6.10 bar; (c) weak.
7.8. (a) 52°, 77°; (b) 1013°R, 32.7 psia, 1198°R, 51.3 psia.
7.9. (a) 2.06; (b) all M > 2.06 cause attached shock.
7.10. (a) 1.8; (b) for M > 1.57.
7.11. (a) 1928 ft/sec; (b) 1045 ft/sec.
7.13. (a) 821°R, 2340 psfa, 0.0220 Btu/lbm-°R; (c) 826°R, 2470 psfa,
0.0200 Btu/ lbm-°R.
7.14. (a) 2.27, 166.3 K, 5.6°; (b) 5.6°; (c) 2.01, 184.5 K, 1.43 bar.
7.15. (a) 1.453, 696°R, 24.8 psia; (b) oblique shock with δ = 10°; (c) 1.031, 816°R,
42.7 psia; (d) 0.704, 906°R, 52.3 psia.
7.16. (a) 0.783, 58°; (b) 6.72, 0.837.
7.17. 1.032, 15.92, 2.61, 40°.
7.18. (a) 949 m/s; (b) 706 K; (c) 48°.
7.19. 2990 psfa, 0.0225 Btu/lbm-°R.
Check Test:
7.1. (a) p1 = p1 ; (b) Tt1 < Tt2 ; (c) none; (d) u2 > u1 , u2 = u2 .
7.2. (a) Greater than; (b) (i) decreases, (ii) decreases.
7.6. 1667 ft/sec.
7.7. (a) 53.1°, 20°; (b) 625°R, 14.1 psia, 1.23.
Chapter 8
8.1. 2.60, 398°R, 936°R, 5.78 psia, 115 psia.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
483
8.2. (a) 1.65, 3.04; (b) 34.2°, 52.3°.
8.3. (a) 174.5 K, 8.76 × 103 N/m2 .
8.4. 1.39.
8.5. 12.1°.
8.6. (a) 2.36, 1.986, 11.03; (b) 1.813, 2.51, 9.33; (d) no.
8.7. (a) 6.00 psia, 16.59 psia; (b) 12,020 lbf, 2120 lbf.
8.8. (c) 6.851 psia, 19.09 psia, 3.35 psia, 10.483 psia, L = 8.15 × 103 lbf/ft of span,
D = 1.996 × 103 lbf/ft of span.
8.10. (a) 2.44, 392°R; (b) ν = 14.2°.
8.11. (b) 241 K, 1.0 bar, 609 m/s.
8.12. (c) 1.86, 20°, 2.67, 40.5° from centerline.
8.13. (a) 15.05°; (b) 1.691, 4.14 pamb ; (c) expansion; (d) 2.61, pamb , 0.865T1 ,
39.1° from original flow.
8.14. (a) 1.0 bar, 1.766, 6.55°, 1.4 bar, 1.536, 0°, 1.0 bar, 1.761, 6.6°.
8.15. (b) ∞; (c) 130.5°, 104.1°, 53.5°, 28.1°; (d) 3600 ft/sec.
γ − 1 2 (γ +1)/2(γ −1)
L2
1 γ + 1 (γ +1)/2(1−γ )
M2
1+
8.16. (a)
=
; (b) 1.343.
L1
M2
2
2
8.17. (a) 8.67°; (b) −10.03°; (c) no.
8.18. (a) 27.2°; (b) 1.95.
Check Test:
8.4. 5.74°.
8.5. 845 lbf/ft2 .
Chapter 9
9.1. 2.22 × 105 N/m2 , 0.386.
9.2. 76.1 psia, 138.6 lbm/ft2 -sec.
9.3. (a) 21.7D; (b) 55.6%, 87.1%, 20.3%; (c) 0.0630 Btu/lbm-°R; (d) −0.59%,
−5.9%, −5.4%, 0.00279 Btu/lbm-°R.
9.4. (a) 22.1 ft; (b) 528°R, 24.6 psia, 1072 ft/sec.
9.5. (a) 0.0313; (b) 2730 N/m2 .
9.6. (a) 551°R, 0.60; (b) from 2 to 1; (c) 0.423.
484
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
9.7. (a) 157.8 K, 2.98 × 104 N/m2 , 442 K, 10.95 × 105 N/m2 ; (b) 0.0157.
9.8. (a) 556°R, 30.4 psia, 284 ft/sec; (b) 15.06 psia.
9.9. (a) 453°R, 8.79 psia; (b) 77.3 ft.
9.11. (a) 0.690, 0.877, 1128 ft/sec, 876°R, 38.0 psia; (b) 0.0205, 0.0012 ft.
9.12. (a) 324 K, 1.792 bar, 347 K, 2.27 bar; 121.8 K, 0.214 bar, 347 K, 8.33 bar;
(b) 1959 hp, 4260 hp.
9.13. (a) 0.216; (b) 495°R, 10.65 psia; (c) 17.82 ft.
9.14. 229 K, 5.33 × 104 N/m2 .
9.15. (b) 0.513, 0.699; (c) 0.758.
9.16. (a) (i) 144.4 psia, (ii) 51.7 psia, (iii) 40.8 psia; (b) 15.2 psia.
9.17. (b) 0.0133; (c) 289.4 J/kg·K.
9.18. (b) M = 0.50; (c) 26.87 bar; (d) 0.407, 0.825.
9.19. (a) 26.0 psia; (b) 39.5 psia.
9.22. 24 psia with 2-in. tubing; choked with 1-in. tubing.
Check Test:
9.3. 43.5 psia.
9.4. 94.3 to 31.4 psia.
Chapter 10
10.1. (a) 1217°R, 1839°R; (b) 112.6 Btu/lbm added.
10.2. 1.792 × 105 J/kg removed.
10.3. 0.848, 2.83, 0.223.
10.4. (a) 3.37, 2.43 × 104 N/m2 , 126.3 K; (b) −890 J/kg·K.
10.5. (a) 767°R, 114.7 psia, 1112°R, 421 psia; (b) 68.1 Btu/lbm added.
10.8. (a) 6.39 × 105 J/kg; (b) 892 K, 0.567 atm.
10.9. (b) 2.00, 600°R, 59.8 psia; (c) 630°R, 21.0 psia, 756°R, 39.8 psia;
(d) 38.7 Btu/lbm.
10.10. (a) 2180°R, 172.5 psia.
10.11. (a) 1.57 × 104 J/kg added; (b) 6.97 × 104 J/kg removed; (c) no.
10.13. 36.5 Btu/lbm removed.
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
10.14. (b) 0.686; (c) 1.628 × 105 J/kg.
10.15. (a) 47.4 psia; (b) 66.4 Btu/lbm added; (c) less than 1, 279 Btu/lbm for
M2 = 0.3.
10.17. (a) (i) True, (ii) false.
10.18. (a) A3 > A4 ; (b) V3 < V4 , A3 > A4 .
10.20. (a) A3 > A2 .
Check Test:
10.4. (a) 746°R; (b) 53.1 Btu/lbm added.
Chapter 11
11.1. 128.8 Btu, 340 Btu, 469 Btu, 0.511 Btu/°R.
11.2. 36.3 Btu/lbm, 339 Btu/lbm, 0.352 Btu/lbm-°R.
11.3. 0.278 Btu/lbm-°R, 0.207 Btu/lbm-°R, 505 Btu/lbm, 367 Btu/lbm.
11.4. 1515°R, −273 Btu/lbm.
11.5. 0.1190 Btu/lbm-°R, 93.9 Btu/lbm.
11.6. 1.413.
11.7. (a) False; (b) true; (c) false; (d) false; (e) false.
11.8. 8.63 lbm/ft3 .
11.9. 0.0118 ft3 /lbm, 0.0342 ft3 /lbm by perfect gas law.
11.10. 0.0638 ft3 /lbm, 0.150 ft3 /lbm by perfect gas law.
11.11. 3.01 psia, 640°R.
11.12. 3.06 psia, 650°R.
11.13. 3.48 psia, 656°R.
11.14. 0.02 MPa, 201 K, M3 = 4.39.
11.15. 7.09 × 104 N/m2 , 1970 K.
Check Test:
11.3. 681 Btu/lbm, 610 Btu/lbm perfect gas.
11.4. False.
11.5. 1.018 lbm/ft3 , 0.875 lbm/ft3 perfect gas.
11.6. at M = 1.0 (air) 240 psia and 2000°R, (argon) 221 psia and 1800°R
(carbon dioxide) 249 psia and 2100°R.
485
486
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
Chapter 12
12.1. (a) 293 Btu/lbm, 129 Btu/lbm, 163.8 Btu/lbm, 322 Btu/lbm, 50.8%;
(b) 21.6 lbm/sec.
12.2. (a) 269 Btu/lbm, 145 Btu/lbm, 124.4 Btu/lbm, 306 Btu/lbm, 40.6%;
(b) 28.4 lbm/sec.
12.3. 37.4%, 38.5 kg/s.
12.4. (a) 24.9%; (c) 64.9%.
12.6. 4600 lbf.
12.7. 564 m/s.
12.8. 1419 ft/sec.
12.9. (a) 7820 lbf; (b) 57.1%; (c) 438 ft-lbf/lbm.
12.10. (a) 18.34 kg/s; (b) 0.257 m2 ; (c) 3.12 × 105 W; (d) 28.6%;
(e) 10.24 × 105 J/kg.
12.11. (a) 2880 lbf; (b) 20,800 hp.
12.12. 3290 lbf, 1.046 lbm of fuel/lbf-hr.
12.13. 6.34 ft2 , M = 0.382, 1309 psfa, 3400°R; 742 psfa, 2920°R, 3.96 ft2 ;
6550 lbf, 1.41 lbm of fuel/lbf-hr.
12.14. 4240 lbf/ft2 , 2.20 lbm of fuel/lbf-hr.
12.15. (a) 83.3 lbm/sec; (b) 7730 ft/sec.
12.16. (a) 203 sec; (b) (po − 872) N/m2 .
12.17. (a) 0.0402 ft2 ; (b) 6060 ft/sec, 6490 ft/sec, 201 sec.
12.18. (a) 7.46, 1904 m/s; (b) 194.1 sec.
12.19. 0.924.
12.20. Need to know p1 , p3 , A2 , and γ .
12.21. (a) 0.725; (b) 0.747.
12.23. (b) M0 = 1.83; (c) cannot be started.
12.24. 3.5 to 1.36.
Check Test:
12.3. 871 K, 1.184 bar.
12.5. (a) False; (b) false; (c) false; (d) false.
12.6. (a) 311 lbm/sec, 64,500 lbf; (b) 6670 ft/sec; (c) 207 sec, 5.28 × 105 hp.
12.7. M0 = 2.36.
Index
A
Absolute temperature scale, 5
Acoustic wave, 84–89
Action, zone of, 91
Additive drag, see Pre-entry drag
Adiabatic flow, see also Isentropic flow
constant area, see Fanno flow
varying area, 105–139
general, 106–111
of perfect gas
with losses, 111–115
without losses, 118–124
Adiabatic process, definition, 11
Afterburner, 354–356
Air tables
specific heat variation, 470–471
thermodynamic properties, 462–469
Airfoils
aerodynamic center, 227
drag, 230
lift, 228
subsonic, 226
supersonic, 226–230
Area change, flow with, see Adiabatic flow
Area ratio, for isentropic flow, 127–129
Average gamma method; see Real gases
Average velocity, 26
B
Bernoulli’s equation, 63–64
Beyond the tables, see particular flows (e.g.,
Fanno flow)
Body forces, 71
Boundary of system, 10
Brayton cycle, 344–353
basic ideal cycle, 344–350
efficiency, 347–349
open cycle, 352–353
real cycles, 351–352
British thermal unit, 398, 402
Bulk modulus of elasticity, 87
By-pass ratio, 357
C
Capture area, 385–386
Celsius temperature, 5
Center of pressure, of airfoils, 227
Centered expansion fan, 213–214, 219–220,
see also Prandtl–Meyer flow
Choking
due to area change, 127–129
due to friction, 264–267
due to heat addition, 302–305
Clausius’ inequality, 53–54
Closed system, 10
Coefficient
of discharge, 133
of friction, 74, 256–257
of velocity, 133
Combustion chamber
efficiency, 360
heat balance, 360
Compressibility, 88
Compression shock, see Shock
487
488
INDEX
Compressor
efficiency, 352
work done by, 346
Conical shocks, 195–198
charts, 410–413
Conservation
of energy, 12, 35–44
of mass, 32–35
Constant area adiabatic flow, see Fanno
flow
Continuity equation, 32–35
Control mass, 10
Control surface, 10
Control volume, 10
Converging nozzle, see also Nozzle
with varying pressure ratio, 124–127
Converging–diverging nozzle, see also
Nozzle
isentropic operation, 127–131
with expansion waves outside, 223-225
with normal shocks inside, 159–164
with oblique shocks outside, 193–195,
221–224
Corner flow, see Prandtl–Meyer flow
Critical points
first critical point, 130
second critical point, 159
third critical point, 129
Critical pressure, 126
Curved wall, supersonic flow past, 213–214,
220–221
Cycle, definition, 11, see also First Law
D
Density, 4
Detached shock, 190–192
Diabatic flow, see Rayleigh flow
DeLaval nozzle, see Converging–diverging
nozzle
Diffuser, 111, 354, 357, 363, 364, 367
efficiency, 134
performance, 133–134
supersonic
oblique shock, 192
starting of fixed geometry, 385–387
in wind tunnels, 164–166
Dimensions, 2
Discharge coefficient, 133
Displacement work, 37–38
Disturbances, propagation of, 89–91
Drag
of airfoils, 230
pressure, 371–373
Duct flow
with friction, see Fanno flow
with heat transfer, see Rayleigh flow
E
Effective exhaust velocity, 381–382, 384
Efficiency
combustion chamber, 360
compressor, 352
diffuser, 133–134
nozzle, 131–132
overall, 375
propulsive, 375
thermodynamic, 375
turbine, 351
Energy
internal, 13
for a perfect gas, 16
kinetic, 13
potential, 13
total, 13
Energy equation, 35–44
pressure–energy equation, 54–55, 61
stagnation pressure–energy equation,
59–61, 94–96
Engine, see Jet propulsion systems
English Engineering system, see Units
Enthalpy, definition, 13
for a perfect gas, 16
stagnation, 55–57, 92–93
Entropy change
definition of, 14
evaluation of, 17
external (from heat transfer), 52–54
internal (from irreversibilities), 52–54
Equation of
continuity, 32–35
energy, 35–44
motion, 66–75
state, 6
Equivalent diameter, 74, 257
Expansion fan, 213–214
Expansion wave, 213–214
INDEX
Explosion, 176
External entropy change, 52–54
Euler’s equation, 54–55
F
Fanjet, see Turbofan
Fanno flow, 241–270
beyond the tables, 268–269
choking effects, 264–267
limiting duct length, 245, 256
relation to shocks, 261–264
*
reference, 253–256
when γ = 1.4, 267–268
working equations, 248–253
tables, 253–256, 438–449
Fahrenheit temperature, 5
First critical, 130
First Law of thermodynamics
for a cycle, 12
for process
control mass, 12–13, 35
control volume, 35–39
Flame holders, 364
Flow dimensionality, 24–27
Flow
with area change, see Adiabatic flow
with friction, see Fanno flow
with heat transfer, see Rayleigh flow
Flow work, 37–38
Fluid, definition, 5
Flux
of energy, 36
of mass, 33
of momentum, 67
Force, units of, 2
Forces
body, 71
surface, 71
Friction flow, see Fanno flow
Friction coefficient, see Friction factor
Friction factor
Darcy–Weisbach, 74
Fanning, 74, see also Moody
diagram
Fuel–air ratio, 361, 366
G
Gas, perfect, see Perfect gas
489
Gas constant
individual, 6, 339, 403
universal, 6
Gas properties, tables of, 339, 403
Gas tables
Fanno flow, 438–449
isentropic flow, 416–427
normal shock, 428–437
Rayleigh flow, 450–461
H
Heat, definition, 12
specific, 14
Heat transfer, see also Rayleigh flow
general, 12
Heat exchanger, 345
Hydraulic diameter, see equivalent diameter
I
Impulse function, see Thrust Function
Incompressible flow, 61–66
Inlet, see Diffuser
Intercooling, 350–351
Internal energy, 13
for a perfect gas, 16
Internal entropy change, 52–54
International System, see Units
Irreversibility, 14
relation to entropy, 52–54
Isentropic flow, 105–139, see also Adiabatic
flow; Diffuser; Nozzle
area choking, 126–130
beyond the tables, 135–138
*
reference, 115–118
tables, 118–124, 416–427
when γ = 1.4, 135–136
working equations, 111–115
Isentropic process
definition, 11
equations for perfect gas, 17–18
Isentropic stagnation state, 55–59
Isothermal process, 11
J
Jet, see also Coefficient
overexpanded, 221–224
underexpanded, 223–225
490
INDEX
Jet propulsion systems, see also Pulsejet;
Ramjet; Rocket; Turbofan; Turbojet;
Turboprop
description of, 353–369
efficiency parameters, 374–375
power parameters, 373–375
real gas computer code, 380–381
thrust analysis, 369–373
Joule, 398, 401, 402
K
Kelvin temperature, 5, 401
Kilogram mass, 3, 401
Kinetic energy, 13
Kinematic viscosity, 6
L
Laminar flow, 25–26, 257
Length, units of, 2
Lift, 228, see also Airfoils
Limiting expansion angle, 237
Liquid, see Incompressible flow
Losses, see Internal entropy change
M
Mach angle, 90–91
Mach cone, 90–91
Mach line, see Mach wave
Mach number, 89
Mach wave, 90–91, see also Prandtl–Meyer
flow
MAPLE code, see beyond the tables in
particular flows (e.g., Fanno flow).
Mass, units of, 2, see also Conservation of
mass; Continuity equation
Mass flow rate, 26, 34, 92
Mass velocity, 242, 279
Momentum flux, 67
Momentum equation, 66–75
Moody diagram, 257, 404–405
Motion, see Equation of motion
Moving shock waves, 176–179
N
Net propulsive thrust, 369–373
Newton force, 3, 401
Newton’s Second Law, 2, 66–67
Normal shock, 147–170
beyond the tables, 168–169
entropy change, 156–157, 208–210
impossibility of expansion shock, 157
in ducts, 261–264, 266–267, 298–301,
304–305
in nozzles, 159–164
in wind tunnel, 164–166
moving shocks, 176–179
tables, 154–158, 428–437
velocity change across, 158
weak shocks, 210–211
when γ = 1.4, 166–168
working equations, 151–154
Normal stress, see Work
Nozzle, 111, 354, 357, 363–364, 368,
see also Converging nozzle;
Converging–diverging nozzle;
Isentropic flow
discharge coefficient, 133
efficiency, 131–133
in wind tunnel, 164–166
operating characteristics, 124–131
overexpanded, 221–224
underexpanded, 223–225
velocity coefficient, 133
O
Oblique shock, 179–200
at nozzle outlet, 193–195, 221–223
beyond the tables, 198–199
charts, 187–189, 406–409
deflection angle, 180–184
detached, 190–192
equations for, 185–186
reflection from boundaries, 225–226
shock angle, 180–184
transformation from normal shock,
179–184
weak, 187–188, 210–212
One-dimesional flow
definition, 24
with area change, see Isentropic flow
with friction, see Fanno flow
with heat transfer, see Rayleigh flow
Open system, 10
Overexpanded nozzle, 221–224
INDEX
P
Perfect gas
defintion of, 6, 16
enthalpy of, 16
entropy of, 17
equation of state, 6
internal energy of, 16
isentropic process, 18
polytropic process, 17–18
sonic velocity in, 88
Pipe flow, see Duct flow
Pitot tube, supersonic, 190–192
Polytropic process, 17–18
Potential energy, 13
Pound force, 2, 397
Pound mass, 2, 397
Power, 373–375
input, 373–375
propulsive, 373–375
thrust, 373–375
Prandtl–Meyer flow, 214–218, see also
Isentropic flow
Prandtl–Meyer function, 218–221,
416–427
Pre-entry drag, 373
Pre-entry thrust, 373
Pressure, units, 4
absolute, 4
gage, 4
stagnation, 58–59, 65–66, 94
static, 55–56
Pressure drag, 371–373
Pressure–energy equation, 54–55, 61
Process, 11
Properties, 10
extensive, 10
intensive, 10
of gases, 399, 403
Propulsion systems, see Jet propulsion
systems
Propjet, see Turboprop
Pulsejet, 366–367
R
Ramjet, 363–366
Ram pressure ratio, see Total-pressure
recovery factor
Rankine temperature, 5
491
Rayleigh flow, 277–308
beyond the tables, 306–307
choking effects, 302–305
limiting heat transfer, 285, 298
relation to shocks, 298–301
*
reference, 293–295
tables, 294–295, 450–461
when γ = 1.4, 305–306
working equations, 288–292
Real gases, 315–339
compressibility factor, 326–328
equilibrium flow, 318–319
equations of state, 325–326
frozen flow, 318–319
gas tables, 320–324, see also Air
tables
microscopic structure, 317
types of molecules, 317–318
types of motion, 317–318
properties from equations, 325
variable gamma method, 329–338
constant area, 336–338
variable area, 329–336
Reflection of waves
from free boundary, 225–226
from physical boundary, 225–226
Regenerator, 350, 353
Reheat, 350, 353
Reversible, 14
Reynolds number, 256
Reynolds transport theorem, 32
derivation of, 27–32
Rocket, 367–369
Roughness, pipe or wall
absolute, 256–257
relative, 256–257
S
Second critical, 159
Second Law of thermodynamics, 14
Shaft work, 37
Shear stress, see Work, done by
Shock, see Normal shock; Oblique shock;
conical shock
SI, see Units
Silence, zone of, 90–91
Slug mass, 3
492
INDEX
Sonic velocity
in any substance, 87
in perfect gas, 88
Specific fuel consumption, 378, 380
Specific heats, 14
Specific impulse, 382–384
Speed of sound, see Sonic velocity
Spillage, 303, 373, 385
Stagnation reference state, 55–59
Stagnation enthalpy, 55–57, 92–93
Stagnation pressure, 66, 94
Stagnation pressure–energy equation,
59–61, 94–97
Stagnation temperature, 65, 93
Static conditions, 55–56
State, 11
perfect gas equation of, 6
Steady flow, 25
Streamline, 27
Streamtube, 27
Stress, work done by, see Work
Subsonic flow, 89–90
Supersonic flow, 89, 91
compared with subsonic, 97–99
Supersonic inlet, see Diffuser
Supersonic nozzle, see Nozzle
Supersonic wind tunnel, 164–166
Surface forces, 71
Swallowed shock, 385–387
System
control mass, 10
control volume, 10
T
Tables, see Gas tables, Air tables
Temperature
scales, 5
stagnation, 65, 93
static, 55–56
Thermal efficiency of cycles, 347
Thermodynamic properties, see Properties
Thermodynamics
First Law for cycle, 12
for process, 12, 35
for control volume, 36, 39
Second Law, 14
Zeroth Law, 11
Third critical, 129
Three-dimensional flow, 24
Thrust function, 281, 371
Thrust of propulsive device, 369–373
Time, units of, 2
Total enthalpy, 55–57, 92–93
Total pressure, 58–59, 65–66, 94
Total-pressure recovery factor, 133, 359,
364–366
Total temperature, 58–59, 65, 93
Two-dimensional flow, 24
Turbine
efficiency, 351
work done by, 346
Tunnel, see Supersonic wind tunnel
Turbofan, 356–362
Turbojet, 353–356
Turboprop, 362–363
Turbulent flow, 25, 257
U
Underexpanded nozzle, 223–225
Units
conversion factors, 398, 402
English Engineering, 2, 396–399
International System (SI), 3, 400–403
Universal gas constant, 6–7
V
Variable gamma method, see Real gases
Varying-area adiabatic flow, see Adiabatic
flow
Velocity coefficient, 133
Velocity, sonic, 84–88
effective exhaust, 381–382, 384
Venturi, 130
Viscosity, 6
of gases, 399, 403
W
Wall
flow past curved, 211–214, 220
friction force, 247
reflection of waves from, 225–226
Wave, see Acoustic waves; Mach wave;
Prandtl–Meyer flow; Reflection of
waves; Shock
Weak shocks, 210–214
INDEX
Wedge, supersonic flow past, 189–195,
228–230, see also Airfoils; Oblique
shock
When γ = 1.4, see particular flow (e.g.,
Fanno flow)
Wind tunnel, supersonic, 164–166
Wings, see Airfoils
Work
definition of, 12
done by normal stresses, 37–38
done by shear stresses, 37–38
shaft, 37–38
Z
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics, 12
Zone of action, 90–91
Zone of silence, 90–91
493