Planning Perspectives ISSN: 0266-5433 (Print) 1466-4518 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rppe20 Urban modernization and heritage in the historic centre of Santiago de Chile (1818–1939) Eugenio Garcés Feliú, José Rosas Vera, Elvira Pérez Villalón & Juan Camilo Pardo de Castro To cite this article: Eugenio Garcés Feliú, José Rosas Vera, Elvira Pérez Villalón & Juan Camilo Pardo de Castro (2018): Urban modernization and heritage in the historic centre of Santiago de Chile (1818–1939), Planning Perspectives, DOI: 10.1080/02665433.2018.1512055 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02665433.2018.1512055 Published online: 28 Sep 2018. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 51 View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rppe20 PLANNING PERSPECTIVES https://doi.org/10.1080/02665433.2018.1512055 Urban modernization and heritage in the historic centre of Santiago de Chile (1818–1939) Eugenio Garcés Feliú, José Rosas Vera, Elvira Pérez Villalón and Juan Camilo Pardo de Castro Faculty of Architecture, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Providencia, Santiago, Chile ABSTRACT KEYWORDS Architecture and urban heritage have been decisive in the modernization of the historical centre of Santiago de Chile. As early as the first half of the nineteenth century they added value to this area of the capital. Public authorities, with the support of regulations, identified valuable urban heritage, incorporating it into urban transformations. For various practical or historical reasons, buildings and public spaces were preserved and eventually reused, giving birth to a renewed idea of planning, which took advantage of this existing heritage. The incorporation of new typologies into the colonial urban fabric, together with the conservation of traditional buildings and public spaces, produced memorable places, both in the republican and modern city. They enriched the urban practices and the city landscapes, offering a valuable continuity with the colonial and republican past. The integration of old and new stimulated the emergence of an urbanism of quality. This article focuses on three specific moments of that peculiar modernization process: the consolidation of the original colonial grid (1818–1846), Vicuña Mackenna’s Transformation Plan (1872–1875) and Santiago’s first official Urbanization Plan (1939). Santiago de Chile; modernization processes; heritage; historic centre The concept of modernization is related to a set of mutually reinforcing processes, including structural changes in society, the formation of political powers, the creation of economic capital, the increase of resources and productive forces, the development of urban lifestyles, the sense of a national identity and the secularization of values and standards, amongst other factors.1 In Latin America, modernization has also been indelibly linked with the results ‘of industrialization and urbanization processes that started in European nations with the industrial revolution’.2 In Chile, the multiple processes of national modernization were made possible, in particular through the Bourbon reforms of the second half of the eighteenth century. In fact, the Independence of Chile … forms part of a longer process, with an emancipatory and modernizing character, that is extended from the eighteenth century to this day, considering the change from a traditional society to a modern one … fruit of a combination of factors: the surge and consolidation of a local elite, a new concept of the State and power, and an illustrated cosmovision that we have called the colonial legacy.3 CONTACT Eugenio Garcés Feliú egarcesf@uc.cl 1 Habermas, El discurso filosófico de la modernidad, 12. 2 Almandoz, Modernización urbana en América Latina. 3 Jocelyn-Holt, La Independencia de Chile, 153. © 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group 2 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. The Bourbon reforms stimulated the urban and territorial organization, with the foundation of a number of cities. In Santiago (founded in 1541), the works attempted to contextualize the moment of independence, including a wide range of urban reforms, within a longer-term trajectory. This development was reflected in the projects associated with the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca (1745– 1799), including the construction of infrastructure and building works such as the new Cathedral (1748), the new Cal y Canto Bridge (1780), the Real Casa de Moneda de Chile (1780) and the Nuevos Tajamares (1792). The nation’s independence can be situated within the context of various reforms, which started in the eighteenth century, and led to the economic development of the country. These contributed to the urban improvement, in a process that managed to consolidate and complement the network of streets, the unity of housing block interiors and residence types, religious and civic buildings, over the urban checkerboard form. The latter was considered to be modern in comparison to European medieval streets. The religious buildings, because of their location, size and materiality, constituted reserves of urban ground. Maintaining their importance as ‘primary elements’ in the image of the city,4 they contributed a focus for local identity, and related urban public spaces to the geographic environment situated between the Mapocho River, the La Cañada stream and the Santa Lucía Hill, areas that were exposed to earthquakes, storms and floods. The first process of modernization, referred to here as the consolidation of the checkerboard layout (1818–1846), was developed during the formation of the Republic, when the Constitutions of 1828 and 1833 were drafted. The urban development included the strengthening of the checkerboard layout: dead-end streets were opened up, as were certain city streets that were blocked by convents and other religious buildings. The historic centre was connected to its urban margins via the urbanization of areas such as La Cañada or Alameda de las Delicias on the city’s southern edge. These urban reforms were complementary to the Embankment Promenade or ‘Old Alameda’ built in the late eighteenth century as a solid structure on the northern bank of the Mapocho River. The second phase (1872–1910) took place during a period of economic prosperity generated by mining and agricultural developments in the far northern and southern regions of the country. The Mayor of the city, Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (1831–1886) led the process with his Transformation Plan of Santiago (1872–1875).5 It was supported by the Santiago Transformation and Beautification Act (1874) and by the tracing of streets by the engineer Alejandro Bertrand (1854–1942) for the sewage and potable water project (1890). To contribute to the urban development of the Centennial City, the plan developed a series of proposals with a team led by the engineer Ernesto Ansart (1854–1942). The Centennial City refers to the period when Santiago was the subject of numerous architectural and urban transformations, both public and private, designed to celebrate the centennial of the Declaration of Independence. This phase, which was initiated by Vicuña Mackenna, lasted until 1920. The third phase (1928–1939) began when the new Constitution in 1925 was enacted. This period saw the first Radical party governments and their support of industrialization of the country via the creation of the Production Development Corporation (CORFO). The latter is connected to the Official Urbanization Plan for the City of Santiago (1939), developed by the architect Roberto Humeres (1903–1978). Humeres was an architect and urban planner who studied at the Urban Planning Institute of Paris. He was Head of the Planning Section at the Municipality of Santiago and was in charge of the Official Urbanization Plan and the Local Building Ordinances for the City of Santiago. That plan was based on urban and architectural works, a regulatory framework developed by 4 5 See ‘primary elements’ in Rossi, The Architecture of the City. Vicuña Mackenna, La transformación de Santiago. PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 3 Karl Brunner (1887–1960) between the years 1929 and 1934, and the Inter-Communal Project (1936) by Luis Muñoz Maluschka (1896–1974). It was approved in 1939 by the Municipality of Santiago. Checkerboard Layout Consolidation (1818–1846) The first process of urban modernization, which started with the colonial administration of the Bourbons, in the second half of the eighteenth century, had a clear momentum from the strengthening of the Independence of Chile (1818), which lasted through the relocation of the government headquarters to La Moneda (1846). The checkerboard plan of Santiago used blocks of 126 m length between the street axes, of 10 m wide, in which its historic centre was consolidated and a number of buildings were constructed. To this day they survive and still occupy the entire block. The checkerboard pattern is an urban planning model that projects a city designing right angled streets, usually creating square housing blocks. Beyond the public buildings and spaces that were assimilated into the city as signs of early modernization, the most significant event was the regularization of the grid and the strengthening of the edges of the grid plan. Once the city was planned, it took possession of the surrounding territory in the name of the highest powers: God and the King. The act of foundation included the selection of correct sites, the delimitation of the public square, the distribution of some urban lots of unique size and form for churches, convents and public buildings, and plots for the houses of the inhabitants. The checkerboard system included the layout of regular streets, named corridor streets, which were containing semi-detached buildings, united behind a single façade, made up of regular sized blocks that are orthogonal to each other; the parcelling of land according to the irrigation system; and the construction of compact urban blocks. This period included the incorporation of public spaces, the first of these was the Square of Arms, also known as the Main Square and the Independence Square. As maps of Santiago demonstrate,6 the morphological and functional characteristics of the checkerboard pattern had a decisive influence on urban growth and on building achievements in the historic centre, which lasted until almost the beginning of the twentieth century. Given the ground conditions and the methods of dividing the land and occupying the blocks, the urban grid established a fair balance between the maintenance of certain rules and the ductility of its morphological pattern that has allowed for successive adaptations over time. Moreover, churches and convents assumed great prominence in the founding urban fabric during the colonial era and up to the nineteenth century. They were part of the public spaces of the city, in sites assigned in blocks of exceptional size and location. Not only did they improve and consolidate the urban structure of the city centre, but they also exalted different places within the urban framework. In some cases, their sites occupied a larger block than the generic one – which caused the discontinuity of some streets of the historic centre. These units represented a reserve of space, allowing significant interventions and architectural and urban reformulations. Urban projects of the newly independent state focused on, among other initiatives, consolidating the checkerboard layout and its edges. In La Cañada, the lower arm of the Mapocho River and the degraded southern edge of the historic centre, a first phase of urbanization was undertaken. It resulted in the current Alameda Avenue, based on the initiative of Bernardo O’Higgins, the Supreme Director of Chile – who is credited with the city plan of the ‘Field of Civic Liberty’ (1818), which was renamed ‘Alameda de las Delicias’ in 1825 – as well as the first poplar tree-planting initiative 6 Martínez, Santiago de Chile. 4 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 1. Sketch of La Cañada by Bernardo O’Higgins, 1818. Including the area from around La Moneda to Santa Lucía Hill. National Historical Archive. In: Rosenblitt, Jaime; SANHUEZA, Carolina (Eds.). Historical Cartography of Chile. (Figure 1). This edge saw the fuller integration of religious buildings such as the Church of San Francisco. Together with its convent, it constituted an imposing structure due to its monumentality, construction system, and urban presence at the edge of the historic centre of Santiago, on the southern side of La Cañada, with its lateral façade on the axis of the current San Antonio Street.7 In addition to this whole, a number of buildings fixed the edge of La Cañada, including the Jesuit Novitiate, the School of San Diego de Alcalá, the San Juan de Dios Hospital and the Carmelite Convent, with its Carmen Alto Church. 7 De Ovalle, Histórica Relación del Reino de Chile, 176. PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 5 These buildings consolidated the southern urban limits of the historic centre of Santiago, gave the façade of La Cañada its present day character and contributed to its transformation into the public space known as ‘Alameda de las Delicias’. Around 1831, according to the map of Claude Gay (1800– 1873), the Alameda stretched eight blocks, extending from the Church of San Francisco to two blocks west of La Moneda. The latter significantly contributed to the consolidation of the ‘Alameda de las Delicias’, when President Manuel Bulnes relocated the presidential residence and other government agencies to that building, in 1846 (Figure 2). Concurrently, the opening of dead-end streets was initiated with the government decree (1817) that ordered the opening of streets obstructed by convents. The order was retaken by the Town Council of Santiago8 (1828) to extend the current Miraflores Street. This affeced the Convent of La Merced.9 In 1830, this convent underwent other modifications, such as the extension of Huérfanos Street up to Santa Lucía Hill. It should be noted that some pieces of religious value turned out to be an obstacle for certain essential actions of urban reform. Thus, they were removed or divided in order to open streets and give continuity to the urban layout or to build emblematic buildings in areas of high centrality. Gay’s map (Figure 3) depicts the persistence of the nineteenth-century city convent framework. The map highlights some important street discontinuities, such as that of the current Moneda Street, which was obstructed at the time by the Convents of San Agustin and Santa Clara; the discontinuity of San Antonio Street, located south of the Alameda, because of the Convent of San Francisco; the obstruction of Rosas Street by the Convent of Santo Domingo; and Miraflores Street, which was obstructed by the Convent of La Merced. The map also highlights urban growth north of the Mapocho River and south of La Cañada. Of further interest is the location of the Old Alameda along the Embankments of the Mapocho River. Built between 1762 and 1809, it was comprised one of the Bourbon public infrastructure and urban sanitation reforms. Gay’s map also shows the planting of trees in the new public space called, in his map, ‘Alameda de La Cañada’. Ultimately, the consolidation of the urban grid involved the regularization and straightening of streets and blocks, which made it possible to transform the ‘city of convents’10 into an historic centre with a reformed urban grid layout, and the construction of public buildings and spaces. Blocks evolved from a closed and compact form to a more complex and open form, whose borders between the façade and the street achieved relative stability only after a long period of adjustment in the property subdivision, the building lines, the layout of roads and the size of buildings. When a state of consolidation was reached, the three-dimensionality of the city expanded in all directions.11 This culminated in a period of urban consolidation called the Republican Canon by Rosas and Parcerisa.12 This phase continued to evolve in the late nineteenth century and highlighted the ‘result of at least three urban processes: expansion, densification, and monumentalization’.13 The Metropolitan Cathedral on the Square of Arms The Metropolitan Cathedral is one of the most representative heritage buildings of this period. It was built when it became necessary to erect a church in the Square of Arms. The structure was built in a 8 León Echaiz, Historia de Santiago, Tomo II, La República, 71. León Echaiz, Historia de Santiago, Tomo I, La Colonia, 28. Rosas and Pérez, “De la ciudad cerrada de los conventos a la ciudad abierta de los espacios públicos,” 97–119. 11 Ibid. 12 Parcerisa and Rosas, El Canon Republicano y la Distancia Cinco Mil. 13 Fernando Pérez, in Parcerisa and Rosas, El Canon Republicano y la Distancia Cinco Mil. 9 10 6 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 2. The Alameda in 1928. Photo by Robert Gerstmann. In: www.enterreno.com/moments/alameda-de-lasdelicias-en-1928. central and strategic point of the Santiago Valley: ‘This location relates to the grid adjustment between the Mapocho River, La Cañada and the Santa Lucía Hill, geographical landmarks that were the limits of the first founding quadrant […] This is a key quadrant, since it determines the nine founding blocks position and establishes a functional gravitating and the symbolic centrality of the Square of Arms and the Cathedral Block’.14 One of the urban characteristics of this church was its north-south orientation, drawn as seen in the plan of Santiago by Frezier (1712), with the main façade facing onto what is now Cathedral Street and its side façade towards the square. After a lengthy phase of reconstruction following the earthquakes of 1647 and 1730, the construction of a new building was decided upon and begun in 1748.15 The main urban decision of the new project was the east-west orientation of the naves, with the main façade opening onto the square. The construction began from the western side of the block and moved east, where the remains of the ‘old’ cathedral were located. As a consequence of this, doors opening on Bandera Street were required. The doors were then added to those of the façade of the square, thus consolidating a church with double access, making it possible to cross the block through the inside of the ‘new’ Cathedral. The new construction was 99.6 m long and 34 m wide, built in two stages, because the old cathedral had to be demolished (Figure 4).16 In 1780, the architect Joaquín Toesca was commissioned to complete the works and design the principal façade. In the late eighteenth century, the Cathedral block perimeters had to be adjusted and its interior growth organized as a compact web of buildings within its boundaries, including the intensive occupancy of open spaces, increased properties, and constant adjustment. Finally, 14 Rosas and Pérez, “La Manzana de la Catedral en el Desarrollo de la Ciudad de Santiago,” 16–21. De Ramón, Obra y fe. La catedral de Santiago 1541–1769. 16 Lizana, Colección de Documentos Históricos recopilados del Archivo Arzobispal de Santiago, 516. 15 PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 7 Figure 3. Map of Santiago by Claudio Gay, 1831. In: www.archivovisual.cl/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/MAP1854-GAY-MCH-00.jpg. ‘the three monumental and emblematic buildings of the block – the Metropolitan Cathedral, El Sagrario Parish and the Archbishop’s Palace – were gradually consolidated, constituting compact, rigid, united bodies in their formal aspect and of a resounding architectural character’.17 In the early twentieth century, these religious buildings contributed to the consolidation of the ecclesiastical façade with a focus on the Cathedral. The so-called ‘ecclesiastical façade’ belongs to the group of buildings associated with the Cathedral, with its façade towards the Square of Arms. In 1830, the construction of the Cathedral was completed, although its towers were yet to be built. The Constitution of 1833 established Catholicism as the official state religion, making it possible for the Vatican to officially acknowledge the independence of Chile in 1840. Pope Gregory XVI gave the Cathedral the status of Metropolitan Cathedral and head of the Archbishopric of Santiago. Subsequently, between 1897 and 1903, the Cathedral underwent modifications with the incorporation of two towers, the construction of a dome over the main altar as well as the Blessed Sacrament chapel and the performance of works in El Sagrario Parish, according to the projects of the architect Ignacio Cremonesi. In 1909, Archbishop Mariano Casanova finally consecrated the temple (Figure 5). 17 Ibarra and Barrientos, “La manzana de la Catedral en Santiago de Chile,” 92. 8 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 4. Block of the Cathedral. To the left, the old Cathedral; to the right, the new Cathedral. In: FONDECYT Project N° 110481. The ecclesiastical façade was complemented by the governmental façade, north of the square, which consisted of the Presidential Palace, built between 1771 and 1785 (currently Chilean Postal Services); the Royal Court Palace, built between 1804 and 1807 (currently the National History Museum); and the Town Council building, initiated in 1783 (currently the Municipality of Santiago). On the other sides of the square, commercial arcades are located: Portal Fernández Concha (1871) to the south and Portal Mac-Clure (1869, demolished in 1929) to the east, replaced by Portal Bulnes (1932). The Cathedral was declared a Historic Monument in 1951; the Square of Arms, the National Congress, and its surroundings were declared one of the protected zones18 of the centre of Santiago in 1986. The Santiago Transformation Plan (1872–1875) The second process of urban modernization was driven by the Mayor of Santiago, Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, with his Santiago Transformation Plan (1872),19 which underpinned the Santiago Transformation and Beautification Act (1874).20 The process carried forth the Centennial City, developing a series of 20 projects, innovatively influenced by urban models from Europe and the United States, imported by important Chilean figures and high degree professionals, invited by the Church and the government.21 The process was led by the engineer Ernesto Ansart, the author of the map of Santiago of 1875 (Figure 6). These projects lasted until the celebrations of the Centenary of the Declaration of Independence (1910). The plan involved changes to street openings and other modifications, complementing the founding checkerboard plan, the transformation of colonial urban blocks, and the construction of public spaces and buildings, amongst other changes, to contribute to the urban progress of the historic centre. The street laying of street paving, and the construction of the sewage system, lighting, the 18 A protected zone, called ‘typical zone’, is the name given by the Council of National Monuments (CMN). Diario Oficial N° 9493, Ley de Transformación de Santiago N° 2203. 20 Vicuña Mackenna. La transformación de Santiago. 21 Pérez and Rosas, “Cities Within the City.” 19 PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 9 Figure 5. Square of Arms (Plaza de la Independencia). Engraving by Claudio Gay, 1854. In: www.archivovisual.cl/ plaza-de-la-independencia-santiago-2. provision of potable water, and the organization of transport were also undertaken. Moreover, as a continuation of the process of opening streets, Vicuña Mackenna suggested the opening of 16 streets, nine of which were connected to convent lots.22 One example is the intersection of Rosas Street and Esmeralda Street at the expense of the Dominican Convent. Regarding the construction of public buildings, one interesting case is that of the National Library, built on the site of the Poor Clares at the end of the nineteenth century. Another is the National Congress, inaugurated in 1876 on the site where the Colegio Máximo de San Miguel was located, in addition to the Church of the Jesuits, which was destroyed by fire in 1863. During this process, some pieces of heritage value were also either partially or completely lost. Among the first measures that Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna took when he assumed the role of Mayor was the transformation of Santa Lucía Hill, which went from being a rarely frequented hill to one of the main European-style public spaces in the city. As a complement to this, Vicuña Mackenna presented a canalization project of the Mapocho River (1873), led by Ansart. This initiative was the direct antecedent of the creation of Forest Park (Parque Forestal). Ansart’s map included both the urban plan of Santiago and construction projects. He incorporated political and administrative divisions and the opening of roads; railways; urban tramways; training, charity, and religious institutions; public works and buildings, in addition to the Mapocho River’s canalization project; the beltway, and others. These operations of urban modernization 22 Ignacia Valdés, “¿Obstáculo o factor de desarrollo?” 10 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 6. Map of Santiago by Ernesto Ansart, 1876. In: www.archivovisual.cl/category/autor/a/ernesto-ansart. that appear on the map were crucial to the assignation of value to various outstanding architectural works and urban spaces that, over the years, became heritage buildings. They were functional in the Transformation Plan and contributed to the recognition of these buildings by city inhabitants. They were consolidated with patrimonial appropriation initiatives in the twentieth century. In addition, Ansart’s map played an important guiding role in the construction process of the Centennial City. Nevertheless, the street drawings made by Alejandro Bertrand (1889) articulated two different urban realities: on the one hand, that of the pre-modern and pre-urbanized city, and on the other, that of the modern and urbanized city.23 Meanwhile the importance of hygiene and public health in urban projects triggered the construction of sewage works at the end of the nineteenth 23 Strabucchi et al., “El plano detallado de Santiago de Alejandro Bertrand (1889–1890).” PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 11 century.24 In this context, public and private transformation initiatives emerged after 1910, including those of Carvajal (1912), the Central Association of Architects (1912), Ricardo Larraín Bravo et al. (1914), and Ismael Valdés (1915), all of which incorporated the variable of mobility between the different areas of the city and its surroundings. Simultaneously, large blocks underwent modifications such as the construction of new public and private buildings. This was in the case of the convent of the Agustinians where the Stock Exchange Financial District was built (1912), and the Convent of San Francisco, part of which was transformed into the Paris-London neighbourhood (1913). Santa Lucía Hill and Forest Park in the context of the Mapocho River Santa Lucía Hill and Forest Park are public spaces that highlight the gradual adaptation of the urban development of Santiago to its geographical context through the consolidation of the city edges formed by the Mapocho River, the Cañada (the current Alameda), and Huelén Hill (the current Santa Lucía). In this context, Vicuña Mackenna resumed earlier initiatives dating back to the colonial era, in which the surroundings of the hill had been modified to connect the Embankment Promenade with La Cañada, thus linking these three geographical features. During the nineteenth century, they became the three most representative public spaces of the city that are relevant to this study: the Alameda de las Delicias, Santa Lucía Hill, and Forest Park. Santa Lucía Hill had featured on all the maps of Santiago since the sixteenth century. It set the natural boundary to the east, which favoured the expansion of the city toward the western, southern, and northern areas. Although it was not intensively frequented during the colonial period, some buildings, including a chapel and two mills, on its slopes enabled it to be used. The last governor of Chile, Casimiro Marcó Del Pont, used this hill for military purposes and built the Marcó Del Pont (González Castle) and Santa Lucía defence batteries (Hidalgo Fortress) in 1816. Vicuña Mackenna appointed the engineer Ansart to direct the construction project on the hill. Ansart subsequently introduced trails, squares, a lagoon, and a theatre. Several monuments and decorative statues were erected, in addition to water fountains, vases, and gas lanterns, brought from Europe, located in strategic places such as on sculptures, on the edge of trails or above of stone or brick columns. The renewed public space was inaugurated in 1872. On its southern side, the works of the hill included the construction of a monumental entrance through the Alameda, resulting from the project of the municipal architect Victor de Villeneuve, which was inaugurated in 1902. On its northern side, an avenue was created (the current José Miguel de la Barra Street) that reached the river after passing the front of the National Museum of Fine Arts (1910), a work by the architect Emile Jecquier (1866–1949), managed by Enrique Cousiño (1815–1906), Mayor of Santiago (1900–1906). The works of the hill helped expand the boundaries of the city to the small eastern triangle of the hill, the present-day Lastarria neighbourhood. With regard to this work, in 1874, Vicuña Mackenna published a book entitled Album of Santa Lucía: A Collection of the Main Sights, Monuments, Gardens, Statues, and Works.25 In 1983, Santa Lucía Hill was declared a Historic Monument (Figure 7). Vicuña Mackenna presented a canalization project of the Mapocho River, designed by Ansart (1873). The project planned to straighten the canal, thereby freeing up a larger surface on the south bank as property there was of greater value than that on the north bank. The project habilitated a total of approximately 15 ha, an area in which the Municipality could create a promenade in the 24 Ibarra, “Hygiene and Public Health in Santiago de Chile’s Urban Agenda.” Vicuña Mackenna, Álbum del Santa Lucía. 25 12 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 7. View of the Santa Lucia Hill from the Alameda, with the Poor Clares Convent in the foreground. In: www. laderasur.clwp-contentuploads201508Imagen-6_Cerro-Santa-Luc.jpg. style of a forested park. In addition, the construction of six new bridges was proposed. A consequence of this was the demolition of a number of bridges, including the Cal y Canto Bridge. The engineers Coo and Martínez were in charge of the canalization works that began in 1888 and covered the area between Vivaceta Street and Baquedano Square. They were completed in 1891 (Figure 8). Mayor Cousiño drove the Forest Park project, for which he hired the French architect and landscape gardener Georges Dubois. The works began in 1899. The park and the paving of the side avenues of the river were implemented in 1903. By 1905 the park was 1100 m long by 170 m wide, with approximately 8000 trees from various greenhouses of the central region. In 1902 an artificial lake was built, in front of the Loreto and Purísima bridges, as a solution to the issue of ground that was uneven up to 7 m in this area. Thus, Forest Park regained what had been the Embankment Promenade and the Old Alameda, along the river’s edge. On the south side it was adjusted to the construction defined by the north-south streets of the central checkerboard street plan, integrating public buildings such as the Palace of Fine Arts and the Mapocho Station. This phase was completed in April 1920. In 1998 Forest Park, the Santa Lucía neighbourhood, and Mulato Gil de Castro were declared a Protected Zone. The Official Urbanization Plan of the City of Santiago (1929–1939) The third phase of urban modernization, shaped by the arrival of Karl Brunner in Chile (1929), lasted until the publication of the Official Urbanization Plan of the City of Santiago and the Local Building PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 13 Figure 8. Canalization Project of the Mapocho River by Ansart, 1873. In: ARQ N° 72, Santiago, agosto 2009. Ordinances for the City of Santiago (1939) by the architect Roberto Humeres, Head of the Urban Planning Section of the Municipality of Santiago. Karl Brunner was a Viennese architect and urban planner, who arrived in Santiago in 1929, and remained until 1932. He returned in 1934 for several months in order to boost the First National Architecture and Urban Planning Congress of Chile. The 1939 Official Plan consists of a cartographic series with a general map at scale 1:5000, and 59 detail sheets at scale 1:1000.26 The plan developed urban and architectural designs and a regulatory frame of reference that provided legal support. It corresponded to a projection of the growth and organization of the city according to modern criteria, on the basis of a population of one million inhabitants. As background, it is worth noting various projects intended to transform Santiago, including the 1932 publication by Karl Brunner entitled Santiago, Modern City. Its Current State and Future Development; the Draft Regulatory Bill for the City of Santiago by Brunner himself (1934); and the First Congress of Architecture and Urbanism in Chile (1934), during which Muñoz Maluschka presented his concept of the territorial plan, and the Project for a Greater Santiago (1936) in which he integrated Brunner’s draft. Cartographical contributions included a topographical survey conducted by the Military Geographical Institute (IGM) (1902–1929), and the land registry of the city of Santiago (1939), which includes the parcelling and the footprint of the city contained in the Plan. Karl Brunner related the process of modernization of Santiago with aspects such as the consideration of the historic plans of the city and the detailed and individual study of all the constituting parts; the maintenance of important buildings and characteristics of the neighbourhoods within the fabric; the understanding of the project of a ‘modern city’ from the adjustment of the existing urban fabric; and the strong conviction that the changes should not stem from the presentation of a new ideal project.27 He also proposed a policy destined to emphasize the monuments of architectural value. Among others, it highlighted the Courts of Justice, La Moneda Palace (Civic District), the churches of Santo Domingo, El Salvador, the Dominican Recoleta and Santa Ana, and the Santa Lucía Hill, contributing through this policy, with the Decree of 1925, to the Conservation of Public Monuments and to their proper integration into the modernization of a city that ‘gives the impression of a Western social and cultural centre’.28 The proposals in the Official Plan included the merging of lots, the layout of new roads and passageways, new building lines and street widths, and relationships with key architectural features supporting 26 Rosas et al., “The Official Urbanization Plan for the City of Santiago from 1939.” Brunner, Santiago de Chile. 28 Brunner, Santiago de Chile, 7. 27 14 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. these projects, which relied on a detailed study of the morphological conditions and the urban fabric of the historic centre and its logics of zoning and construction. In this regard, the Official Plan formulated a modernization project in which the logics of land organization and the presence of buildings of historic interest could balance and qualify the Plan while reinforcing the civic identity of the urban programme as a method of strengthening and enhancing the character of the historic centre – a strategy that is still in place today (2016) to preserve the heritage of the central area. The drawings that correspond to the Official City Plan and the Draft Plan show their most representative ideas, including the zoning of the city from a gradient between the historic centre – a dense and compact district designed by Brunner as the City (Figure 9).29 The ‘City’ is the name given by Brunner to the central area of Santiago, between Alameda southward, Santo Domingo Street northward, Teatinos Street westward and San Antonio Street eastward. And peri-urban areas and adjacent suburbs stretching at low density to rural lands; the intervention made on colonial neighbourhoods through soil decomposition; the introduction of new streets and passages; and a road and green areas project that would transform the block-composed city into a radial-concentric city. In the so-called City, the main objective was to promote the densification of the area for core activities under a pragmatic, rational and modern matrix. It included significant urban planning with emblematic buildings of the historic centre, and the expansion of the centre to the south of the Alameda was proposed, thus avoiding the widening of the downtown streets. La Moneda Palace in the Civic District La Moneda Palace and the Civic District are the most representative urban projects of this process. Agustín de Jáuregui, the governor of Chile during the Bourbon dynasty, proposed the construction of a new industrial building to house the Royal Mint of Chile (1780), for which he hired the architect Joaquín Toesca. The neighbourhood of Beaterío de Teatinos – a former property of the Jesuits located next to La Cañada – was chosen. The military engineer Agustín Cavallero continued the works after Toesca passed away (Figure 10). The urban scale of La Moneda was noted in 1792 by Governor Ambrosio O’Higgins: It is the most magnificent work that will be carried out in America; those who have seen it claim that it will be the best of all of its kind. Not even its counterparts in Mexico, Lima, or Potosi could compete with this great creation, a true synthesis of knowledge, professional skills, and style.30 According to Guarda, this building introduced the neoclassical style, previously only used in temples and palaces, to an industrial building. Governor Muñoz de Guzmán inaugurated the building in 1805.31 A significant event occurred in 1846, when President Manuel Bulnes decided to move the presidential residence, the ministries, and the seat of government from the Presidential Palace on the Square of Arms to La Moneda, which subsequently was renamed La Moneda Palace. Their relocation in the building established a new urban centrality, complementing that of the Cathedral. It also resulted in a positive urban tension with the church of San Francisco that consolidated the urbanization of La Cañada and strengthened the urban north-south axis, linked from the colonial period by the Camino de Chile, to the north, and the Royal Road to the Frontier, to the south. In 1850, the opening of Moneda Street to the east was achieved. This street acquired significance, given that the 29 Brunner, Santiago de Chile, 16–17. Guarda, El arquitecto de la Moneda, Joaquín Toesca, 1752–1799, 196. 31 Guarda, El arquitecto de la Moneda, Joaquín Toesca, 1752–1799, 198. 30 PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 15 Figure 9. Study on the Master Plan of the Centre of Santiago, 1932. The darker area of the plan is referred to by Brunner as the City. (A) Exterior residential area; (B) Inner residential area; (C) Downtown or City. In: Brunner von Lehenstein, Karl H. Santiago de Chile: su estado actual y futura formación. Santiago: Imprenta La Tracción, 1932. main façade of the building opened onto this street. Alejandro Bertrand (1892) proposed a northsouth Avenue along the axes of Bandera – San Diego and Mac-Iver – Manuel Rodriguez streets. Subsequently, in 1890, Bertrand suggested the opening of a street perpendicular to the building to highlight the building through an axial perspective. In 1915, Mayor Valdés drafted a project for the development of an axis south of the Palace. It was incorporated into the proposal of the Civic District by Karl Brunner and designed in 1937 by the architects Smith Solar and Smith Miller. The Civic District is an urban complex of public spaces and buildings, most of them government offices, around La Moneda Palace.32 Brunner supported 32 Rosas and Silva, Una nueva escala en el orden urbano de la ciudad de cuadras. 16 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 10. Plans of La Moneda by Agustín Cavallero, 1800. In: www.memoriachilena.cl/602/w3-article-74702.html. its construction, convinced of the important role it would play the urban axis, with its architectural and monumental structure. In 1934, the northern square was expanded so as to cover the entire block to create the Constitution Square, designed by the architect Eugenio Freitag (1898–1980) (Figure 11). The Civic District ‘tries to materialize in a project every intention of creating an urban ensemble representative of the strength of the state apparatus and national identity around La Moneda Palace’.33 For this reason, Brunner proposed establishing formal rules and height regulations for buildings to consolidate La Moneda Palace as the focus of the composition. The Civic District is composed of a set of buildings in which numerous governmental agencies are located along a north-south axis that includes Constitution Square, La Moneda Palace, Citizenship Square and Bulnes Promenade, ending at Almagro Park (Figure 12). The palace was bombed and partly destroyed during the Coup d’État of 11 September 1973. It was restored by the architects Márquez de la Plata, Swinburn, and Rodríguez (1981). In 1951 la Moneda Palace was declared a Historic Monument; and the Civic District, the Bulnes axis, and Almagro Park were declared a protected zone in 2008. When analysing maps of Santiago drafted during the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, it is interesting to note the continuity of ‘significant buildings’ drawn and remaining throughout the history of the city and now regarded as indisputable features of the urban landscape, among others, the Santiago’s Maps by Frezier, Sobreviela, Gay and Ansart. A prime example of this ongoing presence is that of religious buildings, which, due to their size and location in the urban fabric and the quality of their constructions, many of which resisted various earthquakes, shaped parish and neighbourhood identities. Their presence as large structures in the urban morphology and as elements of order and hierarchy in the urban fabric endured until the late nineteenth century. They stimulated their own patrimonial appropriation during the twentieth century and contributed to urban processes in the 33 Gurovic, “La solitaria estrella.” PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 17 Figure 11. Photo of La Moneda Palace, 1958. In: www.enterreno.com/moments/palacio-de-la-moneda-en-1958#. historic centre of Santiago. The city maps of Amadeo Frezier (1712), those in the British Museum (1793, attributed to Manuel de Sobreviela), Claudio Gay34 (1831) and Ernesto Ansart35 (1875) incorporated the main buildings that are currently Historic Monuments. In his plan, Frezier registered 23 religious buildings, 2 public spaces, and 2 public buildings; the British Museum, 30 religious buildings and 14 public buildings; Gay, 26 religious buildings and 17 public buildings; and Ansart, approximately 31 religious buildings and 25 public buildings. The list of buildings, according to Frezier, Sobreviela, Gay and Ansart maps, includes a set of buildings that are now historical monuments (HM) in the Santiago historic centre. The Metropolitan Cathedral (1748–1906, HM 1951), Santo Domingo church (from 1747 to 1796, HM 1951), Santa Ana church (from 1806 to 1854, HM 1970), San Francisco church and convent (1586–1618 church and convent 1628, HM 1951), San Agustin church and convent (from 1665 to 1860, HM 1981), La Merced church and convent (from 1760 to 1799, HM 1977) the Archbishop’s Palace (1870, HM 1975), the Presidents Palace (1712–1908, HM 1976), the Royal Court building (1807, HM 1969), the Town Council building (from 1785 to 1881, HM 1976) La Moneda Palace (1784–1805, HM 1951), Santa Lucía Hill (from 1872 to 1902, HM 1983), University of Chile (1872, HM 1974). The Square of Arms (1541) meanwhile was declared a protected zone in 1986, in conjunction with the National Congress and its surroundings. The old Cañada, which appears on the four maps, was renamed Alameda de las Delicias when it was transformed into a public promenade (1818–1820), and as yet has no form of protection. 34 Gay, Atlas de la Historia Física y Política de Chile. Ernesto Ansart, 1875. Colecciones Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. (www.archivovisual.cl). 35 18 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Figure 12. Aerial view of Santiago in 1967, with La Moneda and the Civic District. In: www.enterreno.com/ moments/vista-aerea-de-santiago-en-1967#. In addition to these maps, those by Nicanor Boloña36 (1895) and the map of Santiago in 191037 are of interest, as they date from a period during which a large number of monumental buildings and public spaces were built to commemorate the Centenary of the Republic of Chile. 36 Boloña, Álbum de planos de las principales ciudades y puertos de Chile. FONDECYT project N° 1085253. “Santiago 1910.” 37 PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 19 The notion of heritage that these historical monuments represented and the natural feature such as the Santa Lucía Hill, arose from their value as primary elements of the city. These elements acquired sense when they were accepted socially and culturally and they came to form part of the collective memory.38 Their incorporation into the city generated a dynamic that made it possible to physically integrate past and present, thus enhancing the city’s cultural identity. In parallel with the above, in 1910 the Minister of Public Instruction, Emiliano Figueroa (1866– 1931), presented a Preservation of Historic Monuments project, which highlighted the need to enact a law ‘to protect historic buildings and monuments and to preserve the heritage left by those who preceded us for future generations’.39 The Fifth Conference of the Pan American Union (Chile, 1923) was a ‘determining factor for Chile to enact its first legislation in the field of heritage … concrete resolutions were adopted on the preservation and conservation of historical and archaeological remains in American countries, recommending the enactment of laws on this matter’.40 The progress made during that conference enabled the enactment of Decree No. 651 on the Conservation of Public Monuments (1925) and the creation in the same year of the National Monuments Council (CMN), a state agency responsible for protecting Chile’s heritage. This agency performed the extensive task of identifying, assessing, and protecting buildings and areas with heritage value throughout the twentieth century. In 1926, a number of emblematic constructions located in regions of Chile were officially declared Historic Monuments. In 1951, it was strengthened in the historic centre of Santiago with the nomination of its first Historic Monuments: La Moneda Palace, the Metropolitan Cathedral, the Church and Convent of San Francisco, and the Church of Santo Domingo. In this line, the Official Urbanization Plan for the City of Santiago included a rule for some sectors subject to special regulations that today have heritage protection, whether on a national level or a local level. For each of them, were issued height regulations associated with emblematic buildings. For example, in the case of The Square of Arms, new buildings cannot exceed the height of Portal Bulnes. Architectural and aesthetic standards were also proposed. This first action was consolidated in the 1980s with the declaration of the first protected zones, a legal provision enabling the protection of urban areas. In 1970, the enactment of the new National Monuments Law caused a fundamental shift in heritage protection in Chile. Through the creation of the concept of protected zones, small urban areas, which for the first time were, included within the protection categories, involving natural landscapes, historic monuments and groups of buildings of architectural and urban value worthy of preservation. On a local level, the protection and regulation of architectural and urban heritage were incorporated for the first time into a Territorial Planning Instrument. The Intercommunal Regulation Plan of Santiago (1990) was pioneering given that it included both buildings and urban areas, called Historic Conservation Buildings and Historic Conservation Areas respectively, in addition to the identification of Historic Monuments and protected zones. As such, ‘heritage … provides urban sustainability resulting from its contribution to the cultural dimension of sustainability’.41 In this regard, one of the main achievements of the twenty-first century has been the development of the New National Urban Development Policy in 2014.42 Its main objectives include the management of urban heritage as part of sustainable development. Indeed, it adds value to this development 38 Schoonjans and Van Sande: “Observing the Materiality,” 17. Figueroa, Mensaje presentado al H. Consejo de Estado sobre conservación de monumentos históricos. De la Cerda, “Diagnóstico y proceso de modificación de la Ley 17.288 de Monumentos Nacionales de Chile.” 41 Ettinger and Iracheta, Hacia la sustentabilidad en barrios y centros históricos. 42 Giménez and Ugarte, Hacia una Nueva Política Urbana para Chile. 39 40 20 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. by expanding opportunities for the society using and inhabiting it. The policy also results in the recognition of heritage as a strategic move for the design of public policies by setting guidelines for the development of cities and towns in Chile. In this respect, the Catholic University is conducting a study entitled ‘System of Indicators and Standards of Urban Development in Chile’.43 Conclusion The various processes of modernization of the historical centre of Santiago de Chile managed to consolidate and transform the urban form of the city, the network of streets and the unity of the block’s interior, as well as conserve numerous buildings of historical importance that played a prominent role as significant urban elements in the renovation of its diverse environments. These actions were carried out in the context of the structural changes experienced by the Chilean society including political, economic, social and cultural progress, developments in urban lifestyles and the conscience of a national identity stemming from the independence from Spanish rule. In this way its development related to the rising of public initiatives for urban development, such as decisions from the government of an independent country in which the Church, the Cabildo, the Intendancy and the Municipality of Santiago participated. The intrinsic rationality of the checkerboard plan was replicated in the urban planning network used in new towns founded in this period (Los Andes, Curicó). This was also the case with numerous urban expansions and cities founded in the nineteenth century. This paper proposes that the processes of modernization on the foundational checkerboard plan should be seen as a form of pragmatism for a society that conserved a consolidated and regular network, highlighted certain significant and economically appreciated buildings and valued an urban tradition dating from its colonial past, that were maintained during its republican phase. The checkerboard plan expressed the evolution of the country as the urban development of Santiago (even throughout the twentieth century), in a historical centre that registered episodes of the past that remain and have been transformed, without recurring to radical changes in the order of the foundational checkerboard plan, managing to renovate it through consolidating buildings and substituting others, managing to increase its density and height, enriching it with a network of pedestrian throughways in the interior of blocks and including new city concepts that strengthened the centrality and hierarchy of this key sector of the city. The Checkerboard Layout Consolidation was strongly linked with the architectural and urban heritage of the historic centre in key aspects such as the opening of streets, the strengthening of its southern edge with the creation of a public space such as the Alameda, and the completion of the works of the Cathedral. This building strengthened the historic, urban, and symbolic centrality of the founding centre, making the ecclesiastical, political, and civic powers coexist on the Square of Arms. The Santiago Transformation Plan raised a strategy of continuity and articulation between buildings, public spaces, and natural features of heritage value based on operations of road infrastructure and service networks that added value to the urban structure of Santiago. It highlighted the urbanization of natural heritage features, such as Santa Lucía Hill and the Mapocho River, showing that urban sustainability is achieved when connections between urbanity, landscape, and geography are translated into a virtuous relationship between the city and the natural features of its surroundings. The Official Urbanization Plan of the City of Santiago made an important contribution to architectural and urban heritage in the modernization of its historical centre, which was 43 Vicuña, Construcción de Sistema de Indicadores y Estándares del Desarrollo Urbano en Chile. PLANNING PERSPECTIVES 21 decisive for certain sectors of the so-called City, giving an urban identity that contributed to the modern transformation of the city around its most characteristic monuments. La Moneda Palace and the Civic District established a new central urban focus that strengthened the institutional character of the building and had a decisive influence on its environment, contributing to the consolidation of the Alameda as the most important urban axis of Santiago. The process of heritage modernization enhanced the identity and quality of the historic centre of Santiago. The array of important urban structures, such as churches and convents, public buildings and urban spaces, is highlighted, as is their function as primary elements, enhancing the image of the historical centre. Urban elements in the historic centre which were built to resolve the needs of various generations, and the history that they incarnate, for their condition as monuments that have been culturally valued throughout time, for the continuity in their uses, their adaptation to new activities and the consolidation of permanencies that have determined to guarantee lasting development, are strengthened and valorized by heritage initiatives. They have improved the quality of life, the identity and the collective memory of its inhabitants through their value as referents for the population. Additionally, as sustainable developments they help to ensure the formal continuity and identity of the historical centre of Santiago upon the heritage of the checkerboard layout for the present and future generations. In this case study urban modernization is justified. It suggests that urban projects can consolidate their urban identities by promoting the development of specialized urban functions, through new building operations articulated with pre-existing primary, natural or built elements. In this way, functions and modern forms, in their relationship with heritage elements, can be seen as central to the configuration of the urban spaces. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Funding The authors acknowledge the support provided by: Centre for Sustainable Urban Development (CEDEUS), funded by CONICYT. FONDAP Project N° 15110020; Fondo de Financiamiento de Centros de Investigación en Áreas Prioritarias (FONDAP) Project N° 110481: One city, two cathedrals. Changes in the cathedral of Santiago and the process of urban modernization of the late colonial period: 1730–1800; and FONDECYT Project N° 1141084: Santiago 1939. The idea of ‘modern city’ in Karl Brunner and the Official Plan of Construction of Santiago in its 50 years of existence. Notes on contributors Eugenio Garcés Feliú is an architect from Universidad de Chile (1973), he obtained Doctor of Architecture from Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Barcelona (1987). He is professor at the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urban Studies, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (UC). He is also Scientific Director for the project M2020, to celebrate the 500 years of the discovery of the Magellan Strait, in 2020. In 2014, he was the Project Director for DESE UC, of the ‘Strategic Urban Plans for Towns of Puerto Williams, Puerto Eden and Pampa Guanaco, Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica’, convened by the United Nations Development Programme, UNDP. He was Project Director for CORFO INNOVA UC: ‘Special Interest Tourism Development. Cultural Routes in Tierra del Fuego’, 2009–2011. José Rosas Vera obtained hisarchitect and Master in Urban and Regional Planning from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (UC). He obtained his Doctor of Architecture from Escuela Técnica Superior de 22 E. GARCÉS FELIÚ ET AL. Arquitectura, Barcelona (1986). He is head of the School of Architecture UC (1997–2000) and Head of the School of Architecture ‘Carlos Raúl Villanueva’, Universidad Central de Venezuela (2000–2002). He also served as Chair of the Master in Architecture of the UCV, Director in External Projects in Faculty of Architecture, UC. Partner of Makowski & Rosas architecture office. Dean of the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urban Studies 2005–2012, Director of Heritage Center UC, 2013–2016. Recently he has been designated as the Chair of the PhD in Architecture and Urban Studies, UC. Elvira Pérez Villalón is architect from Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (UC) 2003. She studied Diploma in Arts, mention Photography, UC 2004. Obtained her Master Architettura from Storia Progetto, Universitá degli Studi Roma Tre 2009. She also has a Diploma in Documentation and Management of Chilean Heritage, Heritage Centre, UC 2009 and doctor in Architecture and Urban Studies, UC 2016. She was Assistant Director of the School of Architecture 2003–2005 and Coordinator of Academic Affairs of the Faculty of Architecture UC 2005–2009. She has worked as an academic at the School of Architecture UC since 2007. She is also Chair of the Master in Cultural Heritage UC. Juan Camilo Pardo de Castro is Architect from Universidad Piloto de Colombia and Master in Urban Development from the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (UC). He was adjunct assistant professor at the School of Architecture at the same university. He worked for 10 years as vice principal and coordinator of the Cultural Heritage Center UC and he was a representative member of the UC in the Commission of Architectural and Urban Heritage at the National Monuments Council as Expert Advisor, and Latin American coordinator of the International Red Alvar. Bibliography Almandoz, Arturo. Modernización urbana en América Latina. De las grandes aldeas a metrópolis masificadas. Santiago: Instituto de Estudios Urbanos y Territoriales, 2013. Boloña, Nicanor. Álbum de planos de las principales ciudades y puertos de Chile. Santiago: Dirección General de Obras Públicas, Oficina de Geografía y Minas, 1896. Brunner, Karl. Santiago de Chile. Su estado actual y futura formación. 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