Rossi, V., Sammartino, I., Amorosi, A., Sarti, G., De Luca, S., Lena, A., &amp; Morhange, C. (2014). New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and

Despite several studies have focused on the past bio-sedimentary response of the Mediterranean coastal areas to ancient seaport activities, only few geoarchaeological and palaeoecological data are available on strictly lacustrine harbours, to date. At the archaeological site of Magdala/Taricheae (Sea of Galilee, north Israel), an interdisciplinary study, combining ostracod fauna composition and shell chemistry with sedimentology, geochemistry of sediments and archaeological data, was undertaken on the sedimentary succession buried beneath the Roman harbour structures in correspondence of two key-sections. This approach provided detailed information about past environmental changes, otherwise not visible, into a high-resolution pottery-based chronological framework at the transition from a natural (pre-harbour) to anthropogenically influenced (harbour) lacustrine depositional setting. New bio-sedimentary and archaeological (pottery) data document that remarkable hydrodynamic and hydrochemical changes took place during the Hellenistic period (from the 3rde2nd century BC to the first half of the 1st century AD), in response to the construction of the oldest Magdala harbour installations and, possibly, to the following Hasmonean structures. The high VeCr concentrations observed in the harbour sediments, and the substantial increase of ostracod species (Pseudocandona albicans) preferring slow moving waters and fine-grained substrates point to the establishment of a semi-enclosed, shallow, and organic-rich setting. Coupled ostracod-geochemical analyses also testify to an alkali ions (Naþ and Kþ) enrichment within whole-sediment samples, reasonably driven by increasing evaporation in response to the partial isolation of the lake margin. The increase in sodium and potassium concentrations is accompanied by the sudden appearance of Heterocypris salina, a brackish-tolerant species, and by the almost absolute dominance of noded valves of Cyprideis torosa, whose shells are enriched in Na, K and Cl. The positive covariance between Na2O þ K2O values and the frequencies of noded C. torosa seems to confirm the relation between node development and changes in ionic concentration within hypohaline settings.

Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology Veronica Rossi a, *, Irene Sammartino a, Alessandro Amorosi a, Giovanni Sarti b, Stefano De Luca c, Anna Lena d, Christophe Morhange e a Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna Via Zamboni 67, 40126 Bologna, Italy Department of Earth Sciences, University of Pisa Via S Maria 53, 56126 Pisa, Italy Magdala Project, Via della Resistenza 39, 70013 Castellana Grotte, Bari, Italy d Magdala Project, Via G. Da Pozzo 121, 19132 La Spezia, Italy e ^le de l'Arbois, Aix-en-Provence, France CNRS CEREGE Aix Marseille University, IUF, 13535, Europo b c a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: Available online xxx Despite several studies have focused on the past bio-sedimentary response of the Mediterranean coastal areas to ancient seaport activities, only few geoarchaeological and palaeoecological data are available on strictly lacustrine harbours, to date. At the archaeological site of Magdala/Taricheae (Sea of Galilee, north Israel), an interdisciplinary study, combining ostracod fauna composition and shell chemistry with sedimentology, geochemistry of sediments and archaeological data, was undertaken on the sedimentary succession buried beneath the Roman harbour structures in correspondence of two key-sections. This approach provided detailed information about past environmental changes, otherwise not visible, into a high-resolution pottery-based chronological framework at the transition from a natural (pre-harbour) to anthropogenically inﬂuenced (harbour) lacustrine depositional setting. New bio-sedimentary and archaeological (pottery) data document that remarkable hydrodynamic and hydrochemical changes took place during the Hellenistic period (from the 3rde2nd century BC to the ﬁrst half of the 1st century AD), in response to the construction of the oldest Magdala harbour installations and, possibly, to the following Hasmonean structures. The high VeCr concentrations observed in the harbour sediments, and the substantial increase of ostracod species (Pseudocandona albicans) preferring slow moving waters and ﬁne-grained substrates point to the establishment of a semi-enclosed, shallow, and organic-rich setting. Coupled ostracod-geochemical analyses also testify to an alkali ions (Naþ and Kþ) enrichment within whole-sediment samples, reasonably driven by increasing evaporation in response to the partial isolation of the lake margin. The increase in sodium and potassium concentrations is accompanied by the sudden appearance of Heterocypris salina, a brackish-tolerant species, and by the almost absolute dominance of noded valves of Cyprideis torosa, whose shells are enriched in Na, K and Cl. The positive covariance between Na2O þ K2O values and the frequencies of noded C. torosa seems to conﬁrm the relation between node development and changes in ionic concentration within hypohaline settings. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Ostracods Geochemistry Geoarchaeology Ancient harbour Sea of Galilee Cyprideis torosa 1. Introduction * Corresponding author. Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali University of Bologna Via Zamboni 67, 40126 Bologna, Italy. Tel.: þ39 051 2094585; fax: þ39 051 2094522. E-mail addresses: veronica.rossi4@unibo.it, veronicarossi1979@libero.it (V. Rossi), irene.sammartino@gmail.com (I. Sammartino), alessandro.amorosi@ unibo.it (A. Amorosi), sarti@dst.unipi.it (G. Sarti), kefarnahum@gmail.com (S. De Luca), iskenderia@gmail.com (A. Lena), morhange@cerege.fr (C. Morhange). Lacustrine deposits are universally recognized as excellent highresolution terrestrial palaeoarchives, containing non-biological and biological proxies of short-lived palaeoenvironmental/climatic changes (Cohen, 2003; Fritz, 2008; Roberts et al., 2008; Zolitschka et al., 2000). The former mainly include sedimentological and geochemical features, while the latter comprehend pollen, plant macrofossils, diatoms, crustaceans and molluscs. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 0305-4403/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 2 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Ostracods, micro-crustaceans with low-Mg calcite valves, usually represent the most abundant, well-preserved in situ faunal component of freshwater and saline lakes from different regions (Holmes, 2001; Holmes and Chivas, 2002). The well-known high sensitivity of ostracods to changing physico-chemical parameters of the ambient water and the bottom sediments (i.e. solute chemistry, salinity, nutrient availability, dissolved oxygen, temperature, hydrodynamic conditions and mean grain size), along with the abundance of shells within small-sized samples, make them an important tool in high-resolution palaeolimnological studies, aimed to reconstruct past hydrochemical and hydrological changes € rner et al., 2013; Carbonel et al., 1988; Frenzel and Boomer, (Bo 2005; Horne et al., 2012; Marco-Barba et al., 2012, 2013b; ron et al., 2013). Palacios-Fest et al., 2005; Ve Combining ostracod fauna species composition, shell morphology (carapace size and noding development) and chemistry, high-frequency palaeoenvironmental changes induced by natural factors (climate, groundwater interactions, catchment geology, tectonic activity), anthropogenic factors (hydrological modiﬁcations, urban waste discharge and shoreline artiﬁcialization) or both can be detected within the lake sedimentary record. Recently, several geoarchaeological works have documented the primary role of ostracods as sentinels of human-induced environmental changes on lacustrine and alluvial depositional systems characterized by a long history of human occupation n and Gabas, 2009; Bates et al., 2008; Escobar, 2010; (Anado Mischke et al., 2013; Palacios-Fest et al., 1994; Rosenfeld et al., 2004; White et al., 2013). In these studies, the analysis of the ostracod fauna, combined with additional geological, geomorphological and archaeological data, has extensively been used to better understand the evolution of humaneenvironment interactions, focussing on pre-human occupation conditions and human-induced water chemistry changes. In contrast, few integrated geoarchaeological and palaeoecological data are available from the stratigraphic record of ancient lagoon/lacustrine or ﬂuviatile harbours recently discovered in the Mediterranean area (Benvenuti et al., 2006; Flaux et al., 2012; re et al., 2012; Morhange et al., 2000; Stefaniuk et al., 2003; Tronche €tt, 2007). In these contexts, the importance of Vecchi et al., 2000; Vo ostracods as bioindicators is further enhanced by the absence of foraminifera, whereas both benthic groups are abundant in most marginal marine environments and widely used to reconstruct the evolution of Mediterranean seaports (Bellotti et al., 2011; Bernasconi and Stanley, 2011; Bini et al., 2012; Di Bella et al., 2011; Goiran et al., 2014; Goodman et al., 2009; Marriner and Morhange, 2007; Marriner et al., 2008, 2012; Mazzini et al., 2011; Morhange et al., 2003; Reinhardt et al., 2006). In the northern part of Israel, along the W coastline of the Sea of Galilee, also known as Lake Tiberias or Lake Kinneret, recent excavations at the ancient city of Magdala/Taricheae (Fig. 1), directed by Stefano De Luca (Magdala Project; http://www.magdalaproject. org/WP/), have unearthed the remains of stonework-landing places active from the Late Hellenistic to the Islamic period (167 BCe800 AD; De Luca, 2010; Lena, 2012). On the basis of a geoarchaeological approach (Marriner and Morhange, 2006), Sarti et al. (2013) recognized two main depositional units buried beneath the Roman harbour structures, corresponding to the pre-harbour foundation phase and the earliest harbour phase, respectively. The latter was dated by radiocarbon ages to the Hellenistic period. Herein, reﬁned ostracod fauna analysis combined with geochemical analysis of sediments are used to obtain new insights on the evolution of Magdala harbour and to detect changes in environmental conditions during the ﬁrst phase of harbour use. Speciﬁc aim of this study is to assess to what extent the synergy among sedimentological, palaeontological and geochemical data, framed into a high-resolution pottery-based chronological framework, can yield valuable information about past environmental parameters at the transition from a natural to an anthropogenicdominated lacustrine setting. 2. Background 2.1. Geological and geomorphological setting The Sea of Galilee, in northern Israel, is a relatively freshwateroligohaline lake (Nishri et al., 1999) located at an average elevation of 210 m below the mean sea level, with a total area of ~166 km2 (21 km maximum length 12 km maximum width) and a maximum depth of ~43 m (Israel Oceanographic and Limnological http://www.ocean.org.il/eng/kineret/lakekineret.asp; Research Kolodny et al., 1999). The lake occupies the northern subsiding pullapart basin of the Jordan-Dead Sea Rift Valley, a long and narrow tectonic depression stretching for about 300 km along the NeS Dead Sea Transform-DST (Abbo et al., 2003; Marco et al., 2003, Fig. 1A). The activity of this left-lateral fault is responsible for the intense seismic history of the area, documented by geological, archaeoseismic data (Belitzky and Ben-Avraham, 2004; Ellenblum et al., 1998; Marco et al., 2000, 2003, 2005; Wechsler et al., 2009) and historical sources (Karcz, 2004; Nur and Burgess, 2008; Russell, 1985). The lake is mainly fed by the Upper Jordan River, which ﬂows from N to S, and by a series of wadis draining the Golan Heights to the E and the Lower Galilee highlands to the NW (Fig. 1B). The catchment area consists predominantly of Neogene-Quaternary volcanic rocks, mainly basalts, and Eocene carbonates (limestone, chalk and chert), bordering the lake along the west and north sides. Miocene continental sedimentary deposits (sandstone, mudstone and conglomerate) crop out along the east side and with patchy exposures along the west side (Fig. 1B; Geological Survey of Israel http://www.gsi.gov.il; Singer et al., 1972). In the southern part, Quaternary sedimentary deposits formed within freshwater to brackish lacustrine and ﬂuvial environments extensively occur (Heimann and Braun, 2000). Small springs situated onshore, along the coastline, and offshore, at the lake bottom, subordinately supply the basin with saline hot waters fed by Pliocene residual brines (Farber et al., 2007; Klein-BenDavid et al., 2005; Kolodny et al., 1999). The mixing between saline and fresh waters determines the higher salinity (total dissolved solids-TDS value of ~700 ± 100 mg/l) and alkaline composition of the basin, relative to the feeder streams (Farber et al., 2007; Nishri et al., 1999; Rimmer and Gal, 2003; Stiller et al., 2009). The lacustrine sedimentation is mainly characterized by the massive production of autochthonous CaCO3 (calcite carbonate phase), which represents more than 50% of the sediment composition (Nishri et al., 1999). Allochthonous deposits are delivered into the lake by strong river ﬂoods, diluting the authigenic calcite content. To date, no deep-lacustrine cores have been recovered, preventing the detailed reconstruction of the late Quaternary evolution of this sedimentary basin. Nevertheless, the widespread occurrence of palaeo-beach deposits and archaeological sites at various stratigraphic levels along the lake coastline reveals waterlevel ﬂuctuations over the course of the past millennia (Hazan et al., 2004, 2005; Robinson et al., 2006). Even though incomplete, the resulting Holocene lakeelevel curve shows highfrequency episodes of relative rises and declines of tens of metres that are simultaneous with the more prominent changes independently recorded in the Dead Sea (Hazan et al., 2004, 2005). Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 3 Fig. 1. A) Tectonic sketch map of the Near East region (from Leroy, 2010). The Sea of Galilee area is highlighted by the black square. DST: Dead Sea Transform Fault; B) Geological sketch map of the area surrounding the Sea of Galilee (slightly modiﬁed from Singer et al., 1972) with position of the Magdala site along the western lakeshore. The dotted lake area corresponds to the marginal zone with water depth <10 m. The arrows show the counter-clockwise circular current (from Pan et al., 2002) affecting the central part of the lake (see Sub-section 2.1.). Black square: position of other ancient cities mentioned in the text. These in-phase Sea of Galilee-Dead Sea water-level oscillations show a good chronological correlation with the high-frequency climate changes occurred in the eastern Mediterranean area under the predominant control of the Mediterranean rain system (Hazan et al., 2005; Robinson et al., 2006). In particular, the late Holocene palaeolimnological and pollen records from the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea consistently indicate a phase of relatively high precipitation rates covering the Hellenistic and Roman periods (ca. 2300e1800 cal yr BP), when the region was heavily populated (Dubowski et al., 2003; Leroy, 2010; Quintana Krupinski et al., 2013). Close to the end of the Byzantine times (ca. 1400 cal yr BP) a regional, drier climatic phase occurred (Dubowski et al., 2003; Leroy, 2010; Orland et al., 2009; Quintana Krupinski et al., 2013). At present, seasonal water-level ﬂuctuations recorded at the Sea of Galilee reﬂect the distinctive alternations between rainy winters and dry summers, typical of the Levantine region (Hambright et al., 2004; Rindsberger et al., 1983). However, the unique topography of the lake (~210 m bsl) induces higher temperatures (average annual temperature above 18 C) and lower annual rainfall (400 mm) with respect to its immediate surroundings (~700 mm), determining a hot semi-arid climate over the Sea of Galilee area (http://www. israelweather.co.il/english/kineret.asp). Consistent with these climatic features, the vegetation shows a mix of trees, shrubs and grasses of the Mediterranean and IranoeTuranian biomes (Zohary, 1973). In particular, around the lake Tamarix sp. trees occur at higher altitudes while thickets of Phragmites australis and Cyperus spp. grasslands and marshland are found approaching the water (Tibor et al., 2012). The Magdala archaeological site is located ~250 m west of the present-day lake shore (Fig. 2A), recorded around 212e213 m bsl during the 2011 ﬁeld campaign. About 50 m from the site, a 2e3 mthick escarpment bank, marked by an eucalyptus tree-line (Fig. 2A), abruptly interrupts the slightly lakeward inclined coastal plain. The eucalyptus trees were planted during the British Mandate Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 4 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Fig. 2. A) Aerial image of the archaeological site of Magdala (property of the Magdala Project Excavation); B) General Plan of the Magdala Project Excavations (2007-2012; courtesy of Stefano De Luca-copyright and A. Ricci). The location of trenches F18, F25 and F27 and the main archaeological remains are shown. Different colours represent distinct archaeological phases: Late Hellenistic (green); Roman (yellow); Byzantine (light blue); Islamic (purple). See also Fig. 4 for architectural details. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this ﬁgure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) (1920e1948 AD) to reclaim the swampy coastal areas facing the lake, suggesting a higher water-level than the present one. On the western side, the archaeological site is bounded by the Lower Galilee hills composed predominantly of limestones and basalts and deeply incised by the Amud, Tzalmon, Arbel and El Amis wadis that have been recently affected by artiﬁcial channelization (Fig. 1B). Through the Wadi Arbel the main daily wind, the westerly Mediterranean Sea Breeze, penetrates strongly and passes over the lake, playing a crucial role in the generation of lake gyres, transient currents and thermocline displacements (Pan et al., 2002). Indeed, the wind curl induced by the passage of the Mediterranean Sea Breeze produces the counter-clockwise surface current that characterizes the central part of the lake (Fig. 1B; Pan et al., 2002). With respect to the direction of this current, the Magdala site is placed in a more protected area compared to the eastern lake coast. 2.2. Archaeological and historical context According to Plinius (Nat. Hist. 5:71) the lake owes its name to the prominent city-port of Taricheae, whose importance and prosperity was mainly linked to the quality of the ﬁsh processing industry and trade, as reﬂected by both its toponym and the account of Strabo: (Geogr. XVI:2,45). The city e known in the Semitic sources also by the name of Migdal/Magdala (Leibner, 2009) e was probably founded, along with the articulated port facilities, during the Late Hellenistic time by the Hasmoneans (cf. 1Macc 5:14e20) as the capital of a Toparchy (administrative district), on the site of an earlier settlement located on the crossroads of important routes directed to the main cities of the region (i.e. Tyre and Akko). During this early stage of city development (3rde1st century BC) the urban layout (De Luca, 2009, 2010, 2011a), identiﬁed through the archaeological excavation, was planned according to a network of orthogonally paved crossing roads and an articulate underground water supply and sewage system, connected to a water tower (A1) built upon a spring (Fig. 2B). A domestic area, identiﬁed in the W portion of the site, several public buildings (e.g. the “stoa-shape fountain” D1) and two impressive harbour structures also occurred (Fig. 2B). These consist in a quadriporticus (Q) and in a tower-port (TP), both facing the lake (Fig. 2B). The latter, due to its architectural features (casemattes) and its strategical location, was probably built for military purposes, as also suggested by some parallels (De Luca, 2010). Indeed, the city was than involved in the Roman military campaigns against the Parthians (Bell. Iud. I:8.9.180; cf. letter of Cassius Longinus to Cicero of 43 BC: Ad Fam 24:11) and in the First Jewish Revolt of 66e70 AD (Bell. Iud. 3:497. 499), when it was conquered by Vespasianus and Titus, as also reported by Svetonius (De Vita Caesarum, Titus 4:3). During the 1st century AD the city, which was assigned by Nero to Herod Agrippa II in 53 AD, underwent many transformations maintaining its remarkable economic role in the region, even after the foundation of Tiberias, built by Herod Antipas (18e20 AD) as the new capital of Galilee. While maintaining its earliest Hellenistic layout, the dwelling quarter was reorganized around the WeE (De Luca, 2008, 2009, 2010; Lena, 2013) and SeN street networks. New productive areas (Zapata-Meza and Sanz Ricon, 2013) and new public buildings, comprising a synagogue (Avshalom-Gorni and Najjar, 2013), were established. A wide thermal bath e with praefurnium, caldarium-tepidarium supplied with hypocaustum, pools and latrinae (De Luca, 2011b; De Luca and Lena, 2014b) e occupied area C, in the northernmost sector, and area E, where it was partially set on the Hasmonean tower-port (Fig. 2B). Moreover, the harbour facilities were totally renovated with the construction of new quays (De Luca, 2010, 2011b, 2013; De Luca and Lena, 2014a; Lena, 2012). The archaeological indicators for the Middle and Late Roman periods attest a continuum of settlement until the half of the 4th century AD. Probably as a result of the earthquake of 363 AD, to which some structural collapses are ascribed (De Luca and Lena, 2014a), Magdala had ceased to exist as an urban settlement. Only in the S sector a fortiﬁed monastery, linked to the cult of Mary Magdalene (Mt 15: 39, 27:61; Mk 8:10, 15:47, 16:1e9; Lk 8:2; Jh 20:1e18) was built to serve the travellers along the pilgrimage routes to the Christian holy places (De Luca, 2012). 2.3. Geoarchaeological background of the Magdala harbour On the basis of an integrated geoarchaeological approach undertaken on three sections (F18, F25 and F27 in Fig. 2B), three thin depositional units were recently distinguished within the late Holocene succession buried beneath the archaeological site (Lena, Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 2012; Sarti et al., 2013). These units, together with the stoneworklanding structures, reveal an articulate sedimentary history characterized by three main evolutionary phases: pre-harbour, harbour and post-harbour (Fig. 3). The pre-harbour foundation phase is recorded by lacustrine beach sands almost barren in archaeological remains. These deposits are abruptly overlain by a thin succession of dark silty sands rich in osteological fragments and potsherds, and characterized by a sharp increase in heavy metals content connected to human activity (average values in pre-harbour samples: 18 mg/kg Cu, 30 mg/ kg Zn, 3 mg/kg Pb; average value in harbour samples: 46 mg/kg Cu, 80 mg/kg Zn, 56 mg/kg Pb; from Sarti et al., 2013). This unit 5 documents the development of a populated semi-protected bay, interpreted as the stratigraphic record of the ﬁrst phase of use of the Magdala harbour basin during the Hellenistic period (Lena, 2012; Sarti et al., 2013). The establishment of an harbour basin implies a sudden, strong anthropogenic control on coastal sedimentation and the development of an anthropogenically forced sheltered basin (sensu Marriner and Morhange, 2007), likely connected to the lakeward construction of harbour structures, such as jetties and quays, active up to the Early-Middle Roman period and no more visible. Sandy and gravelly beach deposits record the following harbour abandonment phase dated to the Middle-Late Roman period transition (Sarti et al., 2013). Fig. 3. Stratigraphic relationships between the lacustrine deposits and the harbour structures identiﬁed in the subsurface of the Magdala site, in front of the quadriporticus (see Fig. 2B for trenches location). The three depositional units, corresponding to the main evolutive phases of Magdala ancient harbour, are also reported (slightly modiﬁed from Sarti et al., 2013). C: clay and silt; S: sand and G: gravel. HFS-harbour foundation surface and HAS-harbour abandonment surface sensu Marriner and Morhange (2006, 2007) are traced. Radiocarbon ages are reported here as calibrated yr BC/AD (slightly modiﬁed from Sarti et al., 2013). Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 6 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Concerning the archaeological phases (Fig. 4), the Hellenistic harbour system (archaeological phase I/2) included the tower-port (TP) and the quadriporticus (Q) (Fig. 2B). The TP, which shows a rectangular plan, is ascribed to the Hasmonean period, by judging the stratigraphic context and the masonry's walls with dressed margins and projecting central bosses. Enclosed in the external wall in the SE corner (E32) a mooring stone was discovered (MS2; Fig. 2B). To the N the TP faced a basin, which was delimited also on its W and N sides (De Luca, 2010, 2013; De Luca and Lena, 2014a; Lena, 2012). Along the E side of Q (Fig. 2B) e which extends over an area of about 33 m per side and faces the great paved street V2 to the W e a mooring stone (MS1) is still preserved in situ. The walls of Q are thicker along the E and S sides as they were both in contact with the lake's surface (De Luca, 2013). During the following Early Roman phase (Phase II in Fig. 4), a thermal bath was based on TP, whilst against the E façade an artiﬁcial platea was built (PL). A mooring stone (MS3), similar to MS2, was found fallen on the E side of PL, suggesting that it was equipped with moorings (De Luca, 2013, Fig. 2B). Also the Hellenistic basin N of TP was artiﬁcially ﬁlled in. The PL was paved with reused stone elements and was limited to the S, E and N by massive walls plastered by hydraulic mortar. The wall (UMS 317) that was built along the original E façade of Q, obliterating MS1, shows that it had the same waterproof treatment. This new dock (UMS 317) conserves in situ four mooring stones (MS4-7; Fig. 2B). A slipway e which extends from the dock foundation toward the Lake forming the bottom of the basin e is still preserved along with the original stone staircase in the S sector (De Luca, 2010). The docks/ports structures were still in use during the Roman conquest of 67 AD. Starting from the second half of the 3rd century AD, at the transition to the Late Roman period (270e350 AD), the port's structures were abandoned and the basin was quickly ﬁlled with beach sands and gravels in response to a bad maintenance, possibly connected to the gradual loss of importance of the city in favour of Tiberias and/or a natural phenomenon (Phase IV in Fig. 4). In this respect, the subsequent level of ruins can be ascribed to the earthquake of 363 AD e evidences of which were uncovered elsewhere in the site. During the following Byzantine/Islamic phases new and more simple landing places were built (Phases V and VI in Fig. 4). 3. Methodological approach An interdisciplinary, multi-tool approach, combining sedimentology, geomorphology, geochemistry of sediments, ostracod fauna composition, ostracod shell chemistry and archaeological data, was carried out on the depositional succession buried beneath the Roman slipway at key-sections F18 and F25 (Fig. 2B). This methodology was adopted to obtain a more detailed picture of the bio-sedimentary response to the earliest phases of Magdala harbour activity recently deﬁned by Sarti et al. (2013), focussing on the environment-ostracod fauna relationships at the transition from a natural to an anthropogenic-dominated lacustrine setting. 3.1. Stratigraphic and geochemical analyses of sediments The sedimentological analysis of F18 and F25 and the collection of samples for laboratory analyses were performed during Fig. 4. Archaeological/historical phases of the Magdala site (colours as in Fig. 2B). The link between archaeological remains and geoarchaeological phases is also proposed. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this ﬁgure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 the 2011 ﬁeld surveys. The former was based on visual detailed description of vertical changes in sediment texture and colour, sedimentary structures and accessory materials, mainly including mollusc shells and fragments, and vegetal debris. The occurrence of archaeological remains (see Sub-section 3.3.) was also considered. The thickness of the lithofacies/stratigraphic units discussed in this paper, the sandy beach/pre-harbour unit and the semi-protected bay/harbour unit (Fig. 5), as well as the elevation of the trenches, were benchmarked to the present mean sea level using a total station Leica TCR 305 via the Infrared EDM system with a standard prism GPH1-GPR1 and linked to an 7 absolute altitude with accuracy of 10 mm ± 2 ppm (De Luca, 2010; Sarti et al., 2013). With respect to the previous works (Lena, 2012; Sarti et al., 2013) sedimentary features of the pre-harbour and harbour units were more strictly combined with whole-rock geochemical compositional data (XRF), in order to provide palaeoenvironmental constraints about the sediment-water interactions. XRF analyses were performed on 25 samples (11 samples from F18 and 14 from F25) collected along the 1.50 m-thick successions (Fig. 5). XRF analyses were carried out on powder pellets at the Bologna University laboratories using Philips PW1480 spectrometry with Rh tube. Fig. 5. Stratigraphy of the two studied trenches (F18 and F25) and vertical distribution of the main representative ostracod taxa. Samples containing rare ostracod valves (less than 50 A þ A-1þA-2 valves) are also highlighted. Radiocarbon ages are reported as the highest probability range in calibrated yr BC/AD. See Fig. 3 for the key to particle size and the uppermost portions (harbour abandonment unit) of F18 and F25 trenches. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 8 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Major elements were determined by a full matrix correction procedure (Franzini et al., 1975). The calculation methods of Franzini et al. (1972), Leoni et al. (1982) and Leoni and Saitta (1976) were used to assess trace metal concentrations. 3.2. Palaeontological analysis Palaeontological analyses essentially focused on the ostracod fauna, representing the most abundant and well-preserved biological group constantly recorded along the entire thickness of F18 and F25 successions (Sarti et al., 2013). In this paper, a more detailed picture of ostracod species distribution is reported on the basis of quantitative analyses, which involved rare taxa (<1%) and un-noded versus noded forms of Cyprideis torosa (corresponding to C. torosa forma littoralis and C. torosa forma torosa, respectively), separately counted despite the ecophenotypical origin of the nodes (Athersuch et al., 1989; Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Keyser, 2005; van Harten, 2000). Indeed, upsection variations in rare taxa abundances and in un-noded versus noded C. torosa mutual frequencies can be sensitive proxy of high-frequency palaeoenvironmental changes, especially in hypohaline settings (Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Lord et al., 2012; Slack et al., 2000). Whenever possible for each sample, prepared following the standard procedure (see Sarti et al., 2013), at least 150e200 wellpreserved valves (adult valves-A and late-instar juveniles A-1 and A-2) were identiﬁed to the species level and counted in the size fraction >125 mm. The 63e125 mm size fraction was qualitatively observed to verify the presence in the same sediment sample of both juveniles and adults, and thus assess the in situ accumulation of the ostracod assemblage (Holmes, 1992; Lord et al., 2012). Finally, the percent relative abundance of each taxon was determined. The identiﬁcation of species was based on key literature data (Athersuch et al.,1989; Henderson, 1990; Meisch, 2000) and speciﬁc publications focusing on the Israel ostracod fauna (Martens et al., 2002; Mischke et al., 2010, 2012; Rosenfeld et al., 2004). Given the impossibility to examine speciﬁc diagnostic features (marginal ripplets on the inner lamella; Meisch, 2000) under the binocular microscope, following Mischke et al. (2010) all non-tuberculated Ilyocypris specimens were considered together (Ilyocypris spp.). The palaeoenvironmental interpretation of the ostracod fauna relied upon species autoecological data available from literature (Athersuch et al., 1989; Henderson, 1990; Meisch, 2000) and the spatial distribution patterns of ostracods from the present-day Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) and other Israel freshwater bodies (Mischke et al., 2010, 2012, 2013). To obtain additional data about past lacustrine environmental conditions at Magdala, mainly regarding water solute composition, six well-preserved, clean A-1 specimens of un-noded and noded C. torosa were selected from 4 samples representative of F18 and F25 stratigraphic units and processed for combined SEM-EDS analyses (JSM-5400 scanning microscope-IXRF Systems Iridium EDS system). C. torosa was chosen because of its abundance throughout the sections. The scarcity, within the selected samples, of wellpreserved and adequately clean adult specimens (adult valves-A) implied the use of A-1 valves. X-ray maps with areal intensity spectra were performed on the almost ﬂat central zones of the external carapace. Additional spot spectra were also carried out ad hoc. The valves were cleaned in deionised water, using a ﬁne (0000) paint brush, under a binocular microscope (Method A in Holmes, 1992; Keatings et al., 2006; Marco-Barba et al., 2013a), and carbon coated to increase their conductivity and to allow EDS analysis. 3.3. Archaeological analysis and chronological examination Sedimentological and palaeontological data were also complemented by the archaeological ﬁndings mainly recovered within the harbour unit. These data consist of pottery fragments and osteological remains (animal bones), accompanied by sporadic fragments of glass vessels, bronze nails, coins and charcoal. The archaeological assemblages can furnish key information about the relative chronology of the harbour phases and changes in the buildings use (Lena, 2012). The pottery was described and catalogued following the criteria used by Loffreda (2008a, b, c) for the nearby archaeological site of Capernaum (Fig. 1B). These criteria mainly include the shape identiﬁcation and the description of fabric, inclusions (size and type), colour (Munsell colour chart), surface treatment and ﬁring (as illustrated in Table 1). Chronological interpretation of the pottery assemblages was inferred by comparison with the typologies studied from other sites of the region (for references see Table 1). The high-resolution (century-scale) pottery-based chronology, associated with the coin ﬁndings (research in progress by Prof. Bruno Callegher), strongly supports and reﬁnes the temporal framework derived from absolute radiocarbon dates published in Sarti et al. (2013), to which the reader is referred for more detailed information. In this paper, all ages are reported as calibrated yr BC/ AD (2-sigma highest probability range). 4. Results In the following sections, the bio-sedimentary and archaeological record of the Magdala coastal succession, buried beneath the Roman harbour slipway along the waterfront side of the quadriporticus (Fig. 2B), is fully explained to shed new light on the palaeoenvironmental features and dynamics of the study site. 4.1. Ostracod fauna, lithofacies and archaeological data A mixture of well-preserved adult and juvenile ostracods, mainly found as single valves, characterizes the entire sedimentary succession at both trenches. Variable amounts of reworked ostracods, mainly poorly-preserved, black-coloured valves of C. torosa, and foraminifers, including benthic and planktonic taxa, are also encountered. Approximately 5500 ostracod valves, representing seven species and one group (Ilyocypris spp.), were identiﬁed within the studied samples (Appendix A). In the context of the lithofacies/stratigraphic units presented in Sarti et al. (2013), the detailed description of ostracod fauna characteristics is combined with unpublished archaeological data mainly concerning the pottery assemblages, essential for a highresolution chronological framework of the studied succession (Fig. 6 and Table 1). The results are reported below. 4.1.1. Pre-harbour beach sands 4.1.1.1. Description. This sandy unit, located at the bottom of the exposed sections, is characterized by the occurrence of several mollusc shells, mainly Melanopsis, and centimetric-thick pebble layers rich in bioclasts. An abundant oligotypic ostracod fauna occurs throughout the succession, with the exception of 6 samples showing a sparse ostracod assemblage almost entirely composed of juvenile specimens (Fig. 5). All samples are strongly dominated by the euryhaline species C. torosa, whose relative abundance percentages range between 95% and 100%. This almost monospeciﬁc assemblage shows a stable proportion (~1:1 or 1:2) of un-noded and noded valves of C. torosa. Unique exception is the uppermost F18 sample, collected few centimeters below the boundary with the overlying lithofacies and characterized by an abrupt increase of noded C. torosa percentage (Fig. 5). The remaining faunal elements are represented by just two hypohaline taxa, Pseudocandona albicans and Ilyocypris gr. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 Fig. 6 number Catalogue number Family shape 1 PT 17427 Amphora 2 PT 17444 3 Fabric Inclusions Colour Firing References 5YR 4 4 Mid 7.5YR 8 3 7.5YR 5 5 Hard (strong) 5YR 6 6 5YR 6 6 5YR 4 1 Hard Calcareous 5YR 5 6 5YR 5 6 5YR 4 1 Hard Fine to Medium Calcareous, Black 5YR 6 6 7.5YR 6 3 5YR 6 4 Medium Fine Calcareous, Black 7.5YR 3 1 7.5YR 3 1 7.5YR 3 2 Medium Amphora Medium Fine to Medium Calcareous, Black 2.5YR 6 8 2.5YR 6 8 2.5YR 6 8 Hard PT 14025 Amphora Fine Very ﬁne Calcareous, Black 10YR 8 3 10YR 8 3 10YR 8 3 Hard 9 PT 12340 Amphora Fine Fine to Medium Calcareous, Black 7.5YR 6 4 7.5YR 6 4 7.5YR 5 1 Hard 10 PT 17442 Jug Very ﬁne Fine Black, Ferrous 2.5YR 7 2 2.5YR 7 2 7.5YR 5 4 Hard 11 PT 17448 Jug Very ﬁne Very ﬁne Calcareous, Micaceous 2.5YR 7 2 2.5YR 7 2 7.5YR 5 4 Traces of slip Hard 12 PT 18985 ESA Lagynos Depurate 10R 4 6 7.5YR 7 4 7.5YR 7 6 Slip Ware Hard 13 PT 14039 Amphora Very ﬁne Fine to Medium Calcareous, Siliceous, Ferrous 5YR 6 6 5YR 6 6 5YR 5 1 Hard 14 PT 17424 Casserole Very ﬁne Fine Calcareous, Black 2.5YR 4 6 2.5YR 4 6 2.5YR 4 2 Hard 15 PT 19108 Casserole Very ﬁne Fine to Medium Calcareous, Black 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 4 3 16 PT 14034 Very ﬁne Very ﬁne Calcareous Black 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 Hard 17 PT 17431 “Orlo biﬁdo” Pan Cup Very ﬁne Very ﬁne Calcareous 5YR 5 6 5YR 5 6 5YR 5 6 Hard 18 PT 17446 Cup Very ﬁne Very ﬁne Calcareous 7.5YR 5 1 7.5YR 5 1 7.5YR 5 1 Hard 19 PT 17463 Cooking Pot Fine Medium Calcareous 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 10R 4 4 Loffreda, 2008b: 66 (Anf2); RolleTal 1999: Fig. 5.15 and 6; Młynarczyk 2011: 244 n. 32; Lena, 2012: Tav. 1,3. Loffreda, 2008b: 66,13 (Anf3); RolleTal 1999: Fig. 5.15 and 6; Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 2.36 and 10; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,1. Loffreda, 2008a: 126e127 (Anf13); Lena, 2012: Tav. 2,6. Loffreda, 2008a: 120e121 (Anf4); Bar-Nathan 2002: JSJ 4a2; Lena, 2012: Tav. 6,2. Loffreda, 2008a: 119e120 (Anf3); Getzov et al., 2006: Fig. 5.13 and 1; RolleTal 1999: Fig. 5.15 and 10; Regev 2010: 124e125, Fig. 3; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,2. Loffreda, 2008a: 119e120 (Anf3); Lena, 2012: Tav. 1,1. Loffreda, 2008a: 119e120 (Anf3); RolleTal 1999: Fig. 5.15,6e10; Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 6.36 and 12; Lena, 2012: Tav. 1,2. Loffreda, 2008a: 119 (Anf2); Getzov et al., 2006: 148, Fig. 5.13,1; Guz-Zilberstein 1995: 311; Regev 2010: Fig. 3 and 14; Balouka 2013: 63, Pl. 3,5; Lena, 2012: Tav. 6,1. Loffreda, 2008b: 66 (Anf13); Regev 2010: Fig. 3 and 12; Lena, 2012: Tav. 2,2. Guz-Zilberstein 1995: 309, Fig. 6.31,9e10; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,13. Hartal 2002: Fig. 22,10e12; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,14. Hayes et al., 1985: 42e43 (Form 101), Tav. IX,2; Crowfoot et al., 1957: 340, Fig. 82.1; Herbert 1997: 230, FW 289, Pl. 25; BerlinePilacinski 2004: Fig. 6 and 115; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,22. Berlin 2006: 109, n.10; Bar-Nathan 2002: Pl. 6,39; Avissar 2005: 96, Fig. X.6,6; Lena, 2012: Tav. 6,3. Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Type CP5; Lena, 2012: Tav. 1,9. Młynarczyk 2011: 246 n. 78; Lena, 2012: Tav. 8,19. Warner-Slane 1986: Fig. 15 and 90; Lena, 2012: Tav. 6,12. Bar-Nathan 2002: Pl. 14,208 (Type J-BL3A3); RolleTal 1999: Fig. 5.12,12e15; Balouka 2013: Pl. 1,13; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,24. Bar-Nathan 2002: Pl. 14,207; Balouka 2013: Pl. 1,31; Lena, 2012: Tav. 3,23. Loffreda, 2008a: 181 (Pent5); Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 6.17 and 3; Lena, 2012: Tav. 4,27. Size Type External Interior Core Medium Medium Calcareous 5YR 6 6 5YR 6 6 Amphora Medium Fine to Medium Calcareous, Siliceous, Black 7.5YR 6 1 PT 11970 Amphora Fine Fine Calcareous, Black 4 PT 14040 Amphora Very ﬁne Fine 5 PT 17441 Amphora Fine 6 PT 17426 Amphora 7 PT 17422 8 Surface treatment Slip (Internal) Traces of painting Traces of slip Hard Hard Metallic V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 Table 1 Pottery Catalogue. Description of the pottery assemblage illustrated in Fig. 6 by S. De Luca and A. Lena, updated from Lena (2012). (continued on next page) 9 10 References Slip Davidson-Weinberg 1970: Proﬁle 17e18; Dussart 1998: AII 11.7; Lena, 2012: Tav. 36,1. Davidson-Weinberg 1970: 21, Proﬁle 34; Dussart 1998: AIII 3; Davidson-Weinberg 1973: Fig. 3 and 26; Lena, 2012: Tav. 36,2. Internal horizontal grooves Internal horizontal grooves/ribbed Decoration Colour Technique Catalog number GL 1168 GL 802 Fig. 6 number 23 24 Shape Transparent/clear greenish Yellowish/brownish Hard 5YR 7 6 5YR 7 6 2.5YR 4 6 Calcareous Fine to Medium Fine Oil lamp PT 17451 22 Cast Cast Hard 7.5YR 6 4 7.5YR 6 4 7.5YR 3 1 Clcareous, Micaceous, Siliceous Medium PT 14888 21 Baking dish PT 17455 Bowl Bowl Metallic 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 2.5YR 5 6 Calcareous Fine to Medium Fine External 20 Cooking Pot Colour Size Catalogue number Fig. 6 number Table 1 (continued ) Family shape Fabric Type Inclusions Interior Core Surface treatment Firing References Loffreda, 2008a: 181 (Pent5); Młynarczyk 2011: 245 n. 61; Lena, 2012: Tav. 4,28. Herbert 1997: Tav. 34 (“backing dish”); Getzov et al., 2006: Tav. 5.10,6: Lena, 2012: Tav. 14,24. Guz-Zilberstein 1995: Fig. 5.16 (see caption Fig. 5.17); Loffreda 1996: Fig. 49, 1e16 (Group 74); HerberteBerlin 2003: Fig. 8 and 7; Lena, 2012: Tav. 1,5. V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 (Meisch, 2000), which sporadically occur with very low percentages (0e3%; Fig. 5). At both trenches, a slightly increase upsection of P. albicans percentages (up to 2e3%) is recorded and accompanied by an abrupt colour change of sands, from yellow to dark-grey, and the sudden occurrence of sparse osteological remains and pottery, among which few body sherds of presumably Early Hellenistic shapes (Fig. 5). 4.1.1.2. Interpretation. The dominance of the polythermophilic, euryhaline, opportunistic C. torosa, able to resist wave scouring (Meisch, 2000), and the co-occurrence of un-noded and noded forms (Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Pint et al., 2012) point to a shallow, hypohaline (up to oligohaline) setting with high-energy, coarse-grained bottom corresponding to the lake-shore area. A similar oligotypic ostracod fauna was found at ~5 m of water depth in the present-day Sea of Galilee (Mischke et al., 2010) and the speciﬁc preference of C. torosa for Naþ and Cl -dominated waters (Mischke et al., 2012) is consistent with the natural chemical composition of the basin (Sub-section 2.1.). The upward slightly increasing trend of P. albicans and the abrupt transition to dark-grey sands likely reﬂect the establishment of slightly more organic-rich, stagnant conditions (Henderson, 1990), possibly connected to the earliest historical stages of human frequentation at Magdala, and dated fairly before the beginning of the 2nd century BC. During this period, human settlements were probably installed further westward along the slopes of Mt. Arbel (De Luca, 2010; Sarti et al., 2013). 4.1.2. Harbour bay silty sands 4.1.2.1. Description. This unit, marked at the base by a cm-thick pebble layer, consists of dark, ﬁne-very ﬁne sands with high clayesilt content and numerous mollusc shells, seeds, charcoal and other vegetal debris, and osteological remains (sheep, cattles, microvertebrates, ﬁsh teeth and plates). The ostracod fauna is abundant and shows a higher interspeciﬁc diversity compared to the pre-harbour beach sands. A total of four ostracod taxa (P. albicans; Ilyocypris spp.; Ilyocypris hartmanni and Heterocypris salina) commonly accompanies the dominant species C. torosa, which accounts for the 85e95% of the entire assemblage (Fig. 5). Among the secondary taxa, P. albicans is the most represented, ranging between 2% and 7%. Ilyocypris gr. varies between 1% and 8%, while H. salina displays very low values (0.3e1.2%; Fig. 5). Other three species, Heterocypris incongruens, Humphcypris subterranea and Psychrodromus sp., are only sporadically found as few valves. Another diagnostic feature of the ostracod assemblage is the dominance of noded forms of C. torosa relative to the un-noded ones. The former can reach up to 88% of the entire assemblage and never falls below 75% (Fig. 5). Within this unit a rich assemblage of human artifacts, including potsherds, fragments of glass vessels and bronze nails belonging to the ship's carpentry, was also found (De Luca, 2010; Lena, 2012). Concerning the pottery, several fragments of locally made amphorae of the type Anf2 (Fig. 6:8), Anf3 (Fig. 6:2.5e7), Anf4 (Fig. 6:4), Anf7, Anf10 and Anf13 (Fig. 6:3.9) and some imported amphorae (Fig. 6:13) occur. Among the cooking ware a few samples of the Late Hellenistic type of Pent4 and rims, resembling the type Pent5 (Fig. 6:19e20), are encountered along with fragments of orlo biﬁdo pan, well attested through the Mediterranean area from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD and beyond (Fig. 6:16). The type of casserole with everted rim Teg12 (Fig. 6: 14e15) shows differences in fabric, surface treatment and rim inclination with respect to the well-known type of Kefar Hananiah ware ascribed to the Early Roman period. Moreover, several fragments of Galilean Coarse Ware-GCW pithoi are recorded. Regarding the glass fragments, forms dating from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 Fig. 6. Specimen of the pottery and glass assemblages from the Magdala Project Excavation of the Harbor. Courtesy of S. De Luca and A. Lena, the Magdala Project, from Lena (2012). Draws: F. Pollastri and S. De Luca; Layout and Table: S. De Luca. See text and Table 1 for more details. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 12 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 (Fig. 6: 23e24) are found. For a detailed description of the archaeological ﬁndings, the reader is referred to the Table 1. 4.1.2.2. Interpretation. The in-depth analysis of the ostracod fauna furnishes new palaeoenvironmental information about the depositional setting of this unit, interpreted by Sarti et al. (2013) as a semi-protected bay formed in response to the earliest Late Hellenistic phases of the Magdala harbour management. Throughout the unit the remarkable abundance of P. albicans, a species preferring shallow, slow moving waters (Meisch, 2000), is indicative of relatively stagnant conditions, in accordance with the dark sediments colour and the high amount of well-preserved seeds and other vegetal remains. The abundance of osteological fragments (mainly meal remains) and human artifacts attests the harbour basin being use also as a waste dump by the oldest citizens of Magdala, according to the thesis formulated by Marriner and Morhange (2007) for seaport contexts. According to the available radiocarbon dates, as a whole the archaeological assemblage, characterized by a clear predominance of the oldest forms, refers to a chronology between the 2nd century BC and the ﬁrst half of the 1st century AD, when the Roman slipway was built (Fig. 5). The occurrence of brackish-tolerant species commonly found in shallow waters with slightly saline character as H. salina and P. albicans itself (Meisch, 2000), along with the absence of taxa restricted to extremely low salinity-still waters indicate remarkable solute concentrations. Moreover, the dominance of noded C. torosa suggests a stressed environment possibly affected by unstable ionic composition. Indeed, recent studies have stated that noding development under low salinity/oligohaline conditions should be considered such as a morphological response driven by osmoregulation difﬁculties (Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Keyser, 2005). Although the actual mechanism responsible for noding during molting stages is still largely unknown, water chemistry (ionic composition) changes have been recently indicated as an important factor in driving noding development within inland waters (Frenzel et al., 2012; Mischke et al., 2010; Pint et al., 2012). 4.2. SEM-EDS analysis of C. torosa shells Particular attention was paid to the morphological and geochemical features of C. torosa shells (molt stage A-1), selected from the pre-harbour and harbour units of the studied trenches (Sub-section 3.2.) and observed under the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Irrespective of the stratigraphic units from which they were collected, the un-noded and noded valves show speciﬁc ornamentation features. The carapace of un-noded C. torosa is characterized by ﬁne to large pits, the latter being less numerous (Fig. 7). In contrast, a heavy ornamentation with larger depressions (fossae) separated by walls (muri) occurs on the external surface of the noded valves, forming a dense and pronounced pattern of reticulation (Fig. 7). Three well-developed nodes are clearly identiﬁed on all the observed valves, forming the typical “basic triangle” in the carapace central zone (Athersuch et al., 1989); other nodes or proto-nodes of variable size and shape are rarely observed close to the dorsal and ventral edges. The nodal structures, characterized by stretching signs along the margins, are commonly rounded, but less frequently they show a more elongate shape (Fig. 7). Although EDS technique can furnish only presence/absence information about major and trace elements, a different chemical composition of C. torosa shells was detected for the reticulated noded specimens relative to the punctuated un-noded ones, suggesting different water chemistry conditions during valves calciﬁcation. At each molting stage the new carapace is precipitated from ions in solution at thermalechemical equilibrium with the surrounding waters (Chivas et al., 1983; Holmes, 1996; Ito and Forester, 2009; Mischke and Holmes, 2008; Smith and Horne, 2002). All the EDS intensity spectra show the two main peaks of calcium (Ca-Ka and Ca-Kb) and the main peaks of carbon (C-Ka) and oxygen (O-Ka), accompanied by minor peaks of magnesium (Mg-Ka) and strontium (Sr-La). These data reﬂect the low-Mg calcite composition of the ostracod shells, where strontium occurs as vicariant element of calcium (Fig. 7). Less pronounced peaks that can be attributed to Fe and S are also evaluated. A suite of additional trace elements is detected by pronounced EDS intensity peaks within the reticulated noded valves. In this regard, a signiﬁcant amount of sodium, potassium, chloride, and terrigenous elements (Si, Al, and Rb) is recorded (Fig. 7). About the potential inﬂuence of contaminants, mainly adhering aluminosilicates within shell depressions, spot spectra performed on the clean walls of the carapace reticulation support the presence of terrigenous elements within the carbonate structure of noded C. torosa. 4.3. XRF analysis of sediments X-ray ﬂuorescence (XRF) analysis of sediment samples was performed as a complement to the stratigraphic and palaeontological data previously described. To this purpose, the Fig. 7. Representative SEM images of un-noded (right valve) and noded (left valve) C. torosa and relative EDS intensity spectra. The valves were extracted from the pre-harbour beach sands at F18 trench. The EDS spectra show the major (C; O; Ca) and minor (Na; Mg; Sr; Cl; K) peaks discussed in the text. The white scale bars correspond to 200 micron. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 geochemical properties of the pre-harbour hosting deposits were plotted against their harbour counterparts, and we selected two scatterplot diagrams (Fig. 8) as the most representative of changing environmental conditions at the basin ﬂoor through time. In the Na2OeK2O diagram (Fig. 8), a major distinction can be observed between the pre-harbour deposits, which show relatively low Na and K contents compared to the overlying harbour deposits. The same stratigraphic trend, which suggests onwards increasing solute concentrations at the transition from a natural beach environment (pre-harbour sediments) to a relatively restricted humanforced bay (harbour sediments), is documented from both trenches, F18 and F25. Moreover, the intermediate values of Na and K recorded in correspondence of the lower and upper boundaries of the harbour unit (Fig. 9) reveal a strict relationship between the NaeK concentrations and the evolutionary pathway of the Hellenistic harbour basin. Finally, changing oxygenation conditions at the lake ﬂoor were evaluated through the determination of trace metal enrichments in sediments (Fig. 8). It is widely accepted that high V and Cr concentrations can reﬂect reducing environments (Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Schaller et al., 1997). The concentration of V in the water column of relatively anoxic basins is commonly lower than in oxic water because of precipitation and uptake into sediments. The clear-cut separation, in terms of Cr and V distribution, between pre-harbour and harbour deposits, with sharp increase of these two metals in the latter (Fig. 8), can be taken as evidence of decreased bottom water oxygen during harbour construction and development. In this diagram, high Cr and V contents may also Fig. 8. Scatterplots of Na2O vs K2O content and V vs Cr from F18 and F25 sediment samples. Sample groups are differentiated according to their stratigraphic position at each trench. Open symbols (diamonds): pre-harbour samples; ﬁlled symbols (circles): harbour samples. 13 reﬂect ﬁne-grained lithologies (i.e., high metal values in two preharbour samples in Fig. 9), thus emphasizing relatively lowenergy conditions, where slow moving waters may occur. 5. Discussion On the basis of multiple lines of evidence (sedimentology, geochemistry, ostracod fauna and archaeological data), a detailed picture of palaeoenvironmental conditions is reconstructed at the transition from a nature-dominated to a human-dominated depositional context in the Magdala coastal area. Beneath the Roman harbour structures, ~250 m west of the modern coastline, the vertical stacking pattern of lithofacies, ostracod assemblages and geochemical features framed into a highresolution pottery-based chronology (Fig. 9) reveal the occurrence of remarkable hydrodynamic and hydrochemical changes within the Magdala coastal succession. Around 211 m bsl, an eastwarddipping centimetre-thick layer, containing numerous mollusc shells, pebbles and small-sized, sharp-edged stones of ambiguous (anthropogenic?) origin, marks the boundary between the lake beach deposits, formed under natural conditions, and the overlying harbour succession (Fig. 9; Sarti et al., 2013). This layer, characterized by the same biological content and geochemical features of the harbour unit (Fig. 9), may represent the base of a rudimentary harbour system that should comprise, at distal locations, an accumulation of stones, stacked to facilitate ships landing and repair in the Magdala area. At trench F18, one radiocarbon date chronologically constrains its formation to the Hellenistic period around 205e50 cal yr BC (Figs. 5 and 9). Integrated radiocarbon ages (ca. 170 cal yr BCe20 cal yr AD) and potsherds furnish a consistent age for the overlying harbour ﬁne-grained unit, formed during a chronological interval ranging between the 2nd century BC and the ﬁrst half of the 1st century AD (Fig. 5; Sub-section 4.1.2.). This chronological framework and the complex lateral-vertical relationships between the harbour unit and the Hasmonean harbour structures (Lena, 2012) document the continued existence and exploitation of an “artiﬁcial” shallow basin during the entire Late Hellenistic period, at least. Consistent with this interpretation, across the archaeological site a dm-thick dark silty interval containing several Hellenistic potsherds was recovered in a stratigraphic position correlative to the harbour unit at F18 and F25 (Lena, 2012). These archaeological evidences, referable to a period comprised between the 3rd century BC and the beginning of the 1st century AD, show a remarkable presence of the earliest forms, among which Hellenistic amphorae derived from Persian type (Fig. 6:1), red slip Hellenistic lagynoi (Fig. 6:12), casseroles with inclined everted rim with pointed internal apex (Fig. 6:14e15), juglets sometimes with traces of slip (Fig. 6:10e11), very ﬁne saucers/cups (Fig. 6:17e18), radial oil lamps (Fig. 6:22) and several fragments of GCW pithoi. The local waning wave energy and the resulting development of a semi-protected bay environment, serving as harbour basin (Sarti et al., 2013), do not represent the only environmental changes connectable to the construction of Hellenistic harbour installations at Magdala. As revealed by integrated ostracod fauna and geochemical data, the changes in water circulation patterns, in turn, altered the ﬂoor conditions and the water chemistry of the basin. The concomitant substantial increase in the sediments of both VeCr concentrations and ostracod species preferring slow moving waters and ﬁnegrained substrates (P. albicans) points to the establishment of a shallow, stagnant organic-rich basin with relatively low-oxygen levels at the bottom, in contrast with the oxic pre-harbour nearshore depositional setting (Fig. 9). The oxygen-depleted organicrich ﬂoor conditions, tolerated by the dominant opportunistic Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 14 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Fig. 9. Vertical proﬁles of selected geochemical elements discussed in the text, relative proportions (percentages) of un-noded C. torosa (light grey) vs noded C. torosa (dark grey) and distribution trend of P. albicans along the studied trenches. Asterisks indicate samples containing rare ostracod valves (<50). Palaeoenvironmental interpretation is also shown. species C. torosa (Meisch, 2000) and also documented by the widespread occurrence of well-preserved vegetal and osteological remains, testify to the reduced water exchange of the embayed environment with the forward lake system (semi-enclosed conﬁned setting). This abrupt human-forced shift towards a higher degree of protection resembles the typical depositional evolution of the Mediterranean ancient harbours, where the reduced water exchange with the open sea translates in an increase in organic matter and a decrease of salinity (Marriner and Morhange, 2006, 2007). Nevertheless, in lacustrine hypohaline settings the “artiﬁcial” conﬁnement of selected coastal portions may turn into more complex water body changes that involve the total dissolved ion content (salinity) and the ionic composition, following the evolutionary pathways principally driven by local climate conditions. The XRF analysis highlights an enrichment in Na and K within the Magdala harbour sediments with respect to the underlying preharbour beach sands (Figs. 8 and 9). In the context of the Sea of Galilee basin, characterized by dominant autochthonous carbonate sedimentation and semi-arid climate, the local enrichment of alkali free-ions already present in the water (Nishri et al., 1999) may reﬂect modiﬁcations of the precipitation/evaporation ratios. Since palaeoclimatic records document relatively high precipitation rates during the Hellenistic-Roman periods (Sub-section 2.1.), an increase in surface water's evaporation is feasible and connectable to the partial isolation of a marginal sector of the basin. At the same time, changing proportions between freshwater (Jordan River and inﬂowing streams) and solute water inﬂows (onshore saline springs; Sub-section 2.1.) to the Magdala area, likely connected to the development of the harbour basin, cannot be excluded a priori. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 However, since the harbour structures are aimed to protect a portion of the coast, they would decrease, rather than increase, the inﬂows of lacustrine waters within the basin. Besides the relatively high degree of protection, other factors linked to the Hellenistic harbour structures might have contributed to the alkaline enrichment of the Magdala basin, including ordinary port operations as ships trafﬁc and cargo handling-storage. In particular the trade of salt, possibly also from the Dead Sea, essential for the ﬁsh processing industry and documented by archaeological data and historical sources (Clamer, 1997, 1999; Hirshfeld, 2006), may have partially contributed to Na, K and Cl enrichment in the harbour area. Signiﬁcant changes in the chemistry of the sediment-water system are also recorded by the ostracod fauna composition at the boundary with the harbour unit (Fig. 5). The sudden appearance of Heterocypris salina, a species tolerant to elevated conductivity levels and variable solute composition (Meisch, 2000; Mischke et al., 2012), points to a general increase of cations and anions concentration within the basin. In this regard, the almost absolute dominance of noded valves of C. torosa, whose shells are enriched in Na, K and Cl with respect to the un-noded ones (Fig. 7; Sub-section 4.2.), suggests major availability of these elements, as free-ions, to be uptaken for shell calciﬁcation. Moreover, a good relationship is detected by comparing Na þ K sediment values with noded C. torosa frequencies (Fig. 10), suggesting a positive relationship between noding development and increasing alkali accumulation in the Magdala basin. Indeed, the hydrochemical features of the host water rather than salinity in itself seem to play a key-role in noding development, especially within oligohaline settings and inland waters (Frenzel and Boomer, 2005; Frenzel et al., 2012; Keyser, 2005; Pint et al., 2012; van Harten, 2000). Since Keyser (2005), noding is interpreted as an osmotic-controlled phenomenon that develops in response to high-stressed multifactorial environments, characterized by low salinity (usually less than 7 psu) and changing water ionic composition. In this respect, several hypotheses have been formulated, including low Ca2þ availability (Frenzel et al., 2012) and/or increasing barium and magnesium concentrations (Bodergat, 1983). Moreover, Mischke et al. (2010) suggested an afﬁnity between low K concentrations in the host waters and the occurrence of noded shells of C. torosa collected from several present-day water bodies in Israel. This hypothesis is apparently in contrast with the concomitant remarkable increase of Na þ K values and noded C. torosa frequencies recorded within the Magdala harbour basin (Figs. 9 and 10). Therefore, all these studies Fig. 10. Scatterplot of Na2O þ K2O vs noded C. torosa abundances. Samples from the studied trenches (F18 and F25) are grouped according to their stratigraphic position. Open symbols (diamonds): pre-harbour samples; ﬁlled symbols (circles): harbour samples. 15 clearly reveal that the complex mechanism favouring the development of nodosities during C. torosa molting is still largely unknown. In the next future, experiments are needed to shed new light on the relationships between different water chemical compositions and morphology of C. torosa shells under oligohaline conditions (Frenzel et al., 2012; Pint et al., 2012). Finally, although all available data point to a strong anthropogenic impact on Magdala coast in concomitance with the oldest (Late Hellenistic) harbour installations, there is evidence that human activity in the study area began in earlier times, with the formation of the lacustrine beach grey sands containing scattered potsherds. The ostracod fauna, especially the one encountered within the uppermost sample of the grey sandy succession (Fig. 5), is consistent with the establishment of stressed, less oxic conditions likely reﬂecting a transitional proto-harbour zone developed during the earliest phases of Hellenistic harbour construction. However, it is clear that additional stratigraphic, palaeontological and geochemical data from other trenches and cores across the archaeological site are necessary to conﬁrm this hypothesis. 6. Conclusions The multi-proxy (sedimentological, ostracod and geochemical) study of the bio-sedimentary record buried beneath the Roman harbour slipway at the ancient city of Magdala (Sea of Galilee, Israel) gives new insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of the archaeological site. The dynamics of the complex relationship between lacustrine sedimentation and human activity are framed into a high-resolution temporal framework, mainly based on pottery assemblages tied to radiocarbon ages. This approach also furnishes new data about the degree of protection and degradation of the Hellenistic harbour basin, highlighting the key-role exerted by the ostracod fauna (assemblage composition and chemical features of C. torosa valves) to decipher subtle environmental changes in the lacustrine anthropogenic-forced context. The major outcomes of this work are as follows: 1. The pre-Roman succession beneath the archaeological site exhibits a vertical stacking pattern of lithofacies, ostracod assemblages and geochemical features indicative of remarkable hydrodynamic and hydrochemical changes occurred around the 2nd century BC, at the onset of the harbour system. These environmental changes strongly support the hypothesis (Lena, 2012; Sarti et al., 2013) of waterfront construction of manmade structures partially protecting the coastal area in front of the ancient city of Magdala; 2. Concomitant changes in VeCr sediment concentration and ostracod fauna composition point to the sudden development of a semi-protected shallow bay with high-organic and relatively low-oxygen levels along the Magdala coast. This embayment worked as a harbour basin during almost the entire Hellenistic period, as testiﬁed by scattered archaeological evidences; 3. The alkali enrichment recorded in the Hellenistic harbour basin by both sediments and the ostracod fauna documents local changes in the lake water character that well match a protected marginal lacustrine area in a hot, semi-arid climate region; 4. In the Magdala depositional record a close relationship is detected between Na þ K sediment concentrations and relative frequencies of noded C. torosa, whose valves are themselves enriched in alkali, thus conﬁrming the important role exerted by the oligohaline water chemistry in nodosities formation; 5. Our data conﬁrm that hypohaline ostracods are excellent bioindicators of the surrounding physico-chemical conditions, even at the transition from a nature e to a human-inﬂuenced depositional context. Please cite this article in press as: Rossi, V., et al., New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology, Journal of Archaeological Science (2014), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.010 16 V. Rossi et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2014) 1e18 Acknowledgements The authors thank the ENVIMED MISTRALS GEOISRAEL program and IUF, the LABEX OT MED and the Magdala Project team for their support to this study. This is a contribution to MISTRALS/PALEOMEX and to the Labex OT-Med (ANR-11-LABEX-0061) funded by the Investissements d'Avenir, French Government program of the French National Research Agency (ANR) through the A*Midex project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02). We are strongly indebted to Dr. Steffen Mischke and an anonymous reviewer for their invaluable suggestions and comments to the paper. We are also grateful to A. Rimmer and A. Sandler for the bibliographical help, Giorgio Gasparotto for the technical help with the EDS-SEM analysis and Federico Fanti for the useful discussion about vertebrate remains. Appendix A Taxonomic Reference List. This list includes genus and species of the ostracods cited in the paper. Ilyocypris e Ilyocypris Brady and Norman, 1889; p. 106. Psychrodromus e Psychrodromus Danielopol and McKenzie, 1977. Cyprideis torosa e Candona torosa Jones, 1850; p. 27, pl. 3 ﬁgs. 6aee. Heterocypris incongruens e Cypris incongruens Ramdohr, 1808. Heterocypris salina e Cypris salina Brady, 1868; pl. 26 ﬁgs. 8e13. Humphcypris subterranea e Abditacythere subterranea Hartmann, 1964. Ilyocypris hartmanni e Ilyocypris hartmanni Lerner-Seggev, 1968. Pseudocandona albicans e Candona albicans Brady, 1864; p. 61, pl. 4 ﬁgs. 6e10. References Abbo, H., Shavita, U., Markelb, D., Rimmer, A., 2003. 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Rossi, V., Sammartino, I., Amorosi, A., Sarti, G., De Luca, S., Lena, A., & Morhange, C. (2014). New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology. Journal of Archaeological Science.

Rossi, V., Sammartino, I., Amorosi, A., Sarti, G., De Luca, S., Lena, A., & Morhange, C. (2014). New insights into the palaeoenvironmental evolution of Magdala ancient harbour (Sea of Galilee, Israel) from ostracod assemblages, geochemistry and sedimentology. Journal of Archaeological Science.

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