Research Paper Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society 9 (4) November 2021 Farmers' perceptions on climate change and adaptation strategies in Yendi Municipality, Ghana Sel ase Kofi Adanu1*, Theophilus Abole2, Shine Francis Gbedemah3 1Ho Technical University, P.O. Box HP 217, Ho. 2Abole Farms, P.O. Box 50, Bolga, Ghana. 3 Department of Geography & Earth Science, University of Environment & Sustainable Development, PMB, Somanya, Ghana * Corresponding author: sadanu@hotmail.com Data of the article First received : 25 December 2020 | Last revision received : 16 September 2021 Accepted : 27 September 2021| Published online :29 November 2021 DOI : 10.17170/kobra-202110144892 Keywords Climate, perception, adaptation strategies, farm practices, Ghana. It is common to hear and read about climate change in the literature, media, and interpersonal discussions among farmers and environmental groups. Farmers' understanding of climate change differs amid these discussions because of individual experiences and perceptions after many years of farming. Rainfall is declining, and the temperature is rising are the common perceptions farmers hold on climate change which they see as adversely affecting agriculture. In moments of such adversity, farmers think about what adaptation measures to implement. The objectives of this study were to find out what farmers perceive as climate change, what they consider as the causes of the change, and how they adapt to climate change. Methods used for collecting data were administering questionnaires to farmers in six towns in the Yendi Municipality, obtaining information through focused group discussions, and talking to agricultural extension officers. Data analysis was done using Excel software. The results show farmers are aware that the climate is changing. The changes are perceived as a result of bad farming practices, including cutting down trees, the influence of supernatural forces in preventing rainfall, and changes in wind direction which deprive communities of rainfall. Adaptation measures to cope with climate change mentioned by the farmers include crop diversification to plant drought-resistant crops and diversify from high grass consuming ruminants to low grass consuming ones. The paper concludes that the government should assist farmers to adapt fully to climate change, otherwise, food security will be hampered. 1. Introduction Climate change refers to changes in the statistical properties of climate systems persisting for decades and could last for about 30 years resulting in climate variability and extreme weather events (Australian Academy of Science, Undated). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has argued that total human Green House Gas (GHG) emissions 1 continued to rise from 1970 to 2010, with the highest emissions occurring from 2000 to 2010 (IPCC, 2014). Recent climate reports show that between 2015 and 2019, there have been a continued increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels at a rate of 20%, which is higher than the previous five years (Olivier & Peters, 2020; World Meteorological Organization, 2019). The in- Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) cupation, the information that the person received, and at times the age of the person in question (van der Linden, 2015). African farmers are aware of climate change (Antwi-Agyei & Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2021; Zougmoré et al., 2021); however, the majority of farmers do not have the capacity to handle the impacts of climate change. In the Central region of Ghana, farmers' perception of climate change focuses on a rise in temperature over time but not on reducA major driving force of such emissions is agricul- tion in rainfall, even though scientific data shows a ture which is believed to be responsible for releasing reduction in rainfall as a major indicator of climate 10 - 12% of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, change (Dadzie, 2021). nitrous oxide, and methane (Dai et al., 2021; Gołasa et al., 2021; IPCC, 2007). As a result, the earth's glob- Fierros-González & López-Feldman (2021) observed al temperature has increased by 0.740C from 1906 to that literature on climate change in Latin America has 2005 and is expected to increase further by 6.40C on increased since 2000 but not up to the volume of literaaverage in the 21st century (IPCC, 2007). The rise in ture in Africa and South-East Asia (Karki et al., 2020). global temperature has contributed to increased earth In Ghana, some amount of literature exists on climate surface temperature and variations in rainfall (Collier change in general. However, it is quite limited when et al., 2008). However, it is unclear to scientists and it comes to farmers’ perceptions of climate change farmers what the future holds as it is difficult to pre- in the northern regions and the mitigative measures dict in absolute terms what will happen except to use to cope with climate change. In developed countries models to simulate climate change scenarios that are such as Italy, Germany, and France, climate change has been perceived by farmers as a change in climate likely to occur in the future (Challinor et al., 2007). over the past decades (Mwaniki, 2016). Rokhani et al. Despite the awareness of climate change in the world’s (2020) identified factors influencing farmers' percepscientific community, scientific knowledge among tions of climate change in developed and developing farmers on climate change in developing countries countries. In developed countries such as France and like Ghana is lacking as such, negatively affecting ag- Switzerland education on climate change is done usricultural production which also affects food security ing scientific data, unlike Ghana, a developing coun(Wood et al., 2021). The objectives of this paper are try where minimal education is done using scientific to find out what farmers in the Yendi municipality data. perceive as climate change, what they consider as the causes of the change, and how they are adapting to the In China, farmers' perceptions of climate change are new phenomena. A review of literature on farmers' high as China's central government has prioritised perception of climate change and adaptation strate- such climate change issues since 2009 (Wang & Zhou, 2020). In Thailand and Vietnam, the geographic locagies are discussed in the next section. tion of farmers influences their perception of climate change (Waibel et al., 2018). In the United States of 1.1. Literature review America, tribal farmers believe that climate change has occurred as a result of anthropogenic activities 1.1.1. Farmers perception of climate change which are causing harm to human society (William According to Whitmarsh & Capstick (2018), cli- et al., 2014). mate change perception is a complex issue that can be attributed to different social, psychological, and 1.1.2. Adaptation to climate change environmental constructs like knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and concerns about how the climate in an The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change area is changing. Perceptions on climate change can (IPCC) defines adaptation as ‘Adjustment in natural be influenced and shaped by the characteristics of the or human systems in response to actual or expected person perceiving it, their experience, culture, oc- climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderate harm crease in atmospheric carbon due to climate change contributes to less predictable weather patterns, making it difficult to cultivate lands in countries that rely on rainfall for farming (National Geographic, 2020). The United Nations (UN) advocates for urgent and ambitious climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as a rights-based approach to climate action (UN, 2021; UN, 2019). 2 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- November 2021 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) or exploit beneficial opportunities’ (IPCC TAR, 2001; 5). Various types of adaptations can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation (IPCC TAR, 2001). According to Burton et al. (2006), these adjustments reduce the negative effects of climate change on people’s health and well-being. Adaptation to climate change takes various forms that are passive, reactive or anticipatory. They aimed at ameliorating the adverse consequences associated with climate change (Smit & Pilifosova, 2003). A study on farmers’ adaptation strategies in South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe revealed that farmers focus on long-term changes in rainfall, temperature, and farm-level adaptation measures (Global Environment Facility, 2018). Adaptation to climate change involves a wide range of options such as crop selection and distribution strategies across different agro-climatic zones. It also involves substituting new crops for old ones that are seen as not capable of coping with climate change (Easterling, 1996; Njeru et al., 2016). from 21°C to 36°C. The vegetation is savanna vegetation which is characterised by short to medium trees. The main economic activities are farming and animal rearing. The soil comprises sedimentary rocks of voltaic sandstone shales and mudstone. The soil is predominantly laterites, ochrosols, sand and clay. In terms of administration, the Municipality has three town councils: Yendi zonal council, Malzeri zonal council, and Gbungbaliga zonal council. There are 268 communities in the Municipality (GSS, 2014). 2.2. Sample selection A purposive non-probability sampling technique was used to select 6 out of 21 farming communities with technical assistance from the Yendi District Assistant Director of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). The six study communities are Dabganjado, Sukaani, Bagbani, Kpaatia, Kulkpanga and Tindang (Table 1). Data were obtained from farmers through face-to-face interviews using a questionnaire to collect information on farmers’ observations and perCultivating different crop varieties that adapt appro- ceptions on climate change, levels of awareness on priately to soil and prevailing environmental condi- climate change, causes of climate change, adaptation tions at specific places in terms of drought and water- strategies, and barriers to climate change adaptation. logged soils are further adaptation measures (Salick & Two hundred and forty (240) farmers were randomly Byg, 2007). According to the FAO (2007), long-term selected for an interview with assistance from agriculadaptation strategies of farmers include changes in the tural extension officers working under the Ministry of way the land is used, the use of new land management Food and Agriculture. techniques and technologies and water-use efficiency techniques. In Ethiopia, strategies adopted by farmers Focus group discussions (FGDs) were held for loand livestock keepers include shifts in livestock types, cal people known to be experts in weather predicwhere goats and sheep are preferred to the rearing of tion. The FGD participants and key informants were camels that consumes a lot more pasture. Other farm- purposively selected from seven (7) communities to ers have fish farms in addition to keeping livestock understand the climate information needs of farmers and also find out the extent to which indigenous (Gebre & Kifle, 2009). knowledge has been helpful to predict rainfall. Processing of data was done using descriptive statistics 2. Methods shown in tables, graphs, and charts. 2.1. Study area 3. Results Yendi is located between latitude 9° 26´33.79 North and 0° 00´35.68 East. The municipality shares bound- The general perception among farmers in Yendi is a ary with six districts: Saboba to the East, Chereponi view of rapid changes occurring in climate over decand Zabzugu to the South, Nanumba to the North, ades which is the source of harsh climatic conditions Gushegu and Mion Districts to the West. The district that negatively affect farming. Study results show the stretches over an area of 1,446.3 sq. km. (GSS, 2010). majority of the farmers (86.3%) noticed the climate is The district experiences a mean annual rainfall of changing, while (9.5%) said the climate is not changabout 1,125mm during the peak rainy season of ing. A few (3.5%) were not sure about changes in the March to September. The daily temperature ranges climate despite the annual variations in the pattern ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany-November 2021 3 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) Table 1: Study communities Community Population Sample Size Number of People in Focus Group Dagbanjado Sukaani Bagbani Kpaatia Kulkpanga Tindang Yendi Total 1,548 1,057 643 1,154 1,650 1,502 51, 335 58,889 34 23 19 21 46 38 59 240 4 5 4 5 8 7 12 45 of rainfall characterised by a decline in precipitation even in months when rain is expected, a situation that has resulted in a much drier Northern Savannah zone. When the farmers were asked about specific observations on the frequency and amount of precipitation in a year, 64.1% mentioned a decrease in precipitation in the past 30 years. Still, a few of them 2.8%, said rainfall rather increased. Those who did not notice any change in rainfall and said the rainfall pattern is somehow irregular were 11.4% 1.2%, respectively. Please refer to Figure 1. sional visit of agricultural extension officers who educated them on what to do to cope with climate change. 3.2 .Causes of climate change The farmers mentioned multiple causes for climate change, including superstitious beliefs, seasonal changes, farming practices, and the destruction of trees. Destruction of trees is perceived to be the most common cause of climate change, according to 47.5% of the farmers. The farmers have observed that the absence of trees prevents cloud formation, a requireAs far as change in temperature is concerned (Figure ment for rainfall. Others believed there are supernat2), 58.3% of the farmers said the temperature is rising, ural forces such as local gods that can stop the rain and 2.6% perceived a decrease in temperature. Those from falling whenever the iniquities of communities who said there is no variation in temperature were become unbearable, as mentioned by 22.5% of the 14.6%, and 20.4% of the farmers perceived fluctua- farmers (Figure 4). tions in monthly and daily temperatures. Those who claimed they do not know the causes of climate change were 12.5% of the respondents. Poor 3.1. Awareness of climate change farming practices were mentioned by 10% of the When farmers were asked about the sources of in- farmers as the cause of climate change, and change in formation available to them on radio and television, wind direction was mentioned by 5% of the farmers 50% of them rated their source of information from as the cause of climate change. Farmers believe that media as a ‘medium’ level of awareness on climate unfavourable wind directions do not enhance the forchange. Their explanation of what a medium level of mation of rain-bearing clouds that cause rain to fall. awareness means is getting information at least once Others (2.5%) believe that change of seasons from wet every six months from a media source. The response to dry naturally causes dry, hot conditions, which is of farmers to awareness of climate change is shown in a natural event that cannot be attributed to climate change. Figure 3. Those with a low level of awareness constitute 29.6%, 3.3. Adaptation strategies by farmers and they obtain information at least twice a year on climate change. A few of them, 20.4%, had a high level Farmers in Yendi Municipality, like many other smallof awareness of climate change as a result of the occa- scale farmers in the world, have been adapting to cli- 4 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- November 2021 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) Figure 1. Farmers’ perception on precipitation Figure 2: Farmer’s perception of change in temperature Figure 3: Farmer’s awareness about climate change ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany-November 2021 5 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) mate change for many years through improved farming practices. The data shows a majority of farmers affirm they take some actions to cope with climate change. In all, about 92% said they take measures to adapt to climate change, while 8% of the respondents said they take no adaptive measures to cope with climate change. cause a misjudgement will amount to the loss of seedlings. Expansion of agricultural lands is another adaptation strategy meant to cope with climate change, as 12.91% of the respondents believe extending or changing land cultivated from infertile lands to more fertile forest soils will help increase farm yields. When it is impossible to expand farm sizes due to the absence of forest and woodlands, farmers apply chemical fertilisers to increase their yield, which was mentioned by 7.91% of them. When situations become unbearable due to climate change, most farmers migrate to cities to find menial jobs (Yaro et al, 2015). The construction of dams to irrigate farms is an adaptation method applied by 4.41% of the farmers. Rearing of animals instead of crop cultivation and diversification of livestock from high grass-eating ruminants to less grass-consuming animals amid drought conditions is an adaptation measure practised by 4.16% of the respondents. In a follow-up question to find out what specific adaptation initiatives are implemented, different measures were mentioned, such as the use of chemical fertilisers and a shift from crop cultivation to animal rearing (Figure 5). The most common adaptation measure to climate change is a move away from cultivating crop varieties that cannot cope with water stress to drought-resistant crop varieties that mature in a short rainy season, as mentioned by 42.08% of the farmers. Examples of drought-tolerant crops mentioned are special millet varieties and the cultivation of more vegetables than cereals such as pepper that can be harvested in few months before droughts become severe. Other farmers (20.83%) adapt to climate change 3.4. Barriers to climate change adaptation strategies by timing themselves to take advantage of the rainfall to plant their crops. The planting dates are critical be- Even though much effort is put into adaptation to cli- Figure 4: Perceived causes of climate change 6 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- November 2021 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) Figure 5: Types of adaptation practices of farmers in Yendi mate change, there are some barriers to adaptation, such as lack of sufficient information on adaptation technologies and access to credit resources (Figure 6). The majority of farmers (51.9%) cited financial constraints as the main hindrance to climate change adaptation. Other challenges are lack of information (21.6%), inadequate access to irrigation facilities (9.5%), inadequate extension officers (9.4%), and insufficient access to infrastructure and inputs (7.6%). Information from a focus group discussion revealed a lack of access to weather forecast information as set back to climate change as farmers have no information to decide on the type of crop varieties to plant and the methods for planting as effective adaptation measures. irrigation facilities and recruitment of more extension officers was mentioned by 8.3% of them. Access to climate information was mentioned by (20.8%), and subsidising the price of farm inputs was suggested by 7.1% of the farmers. 3.5. Policies and incentives for climate change adaptation Farmers made various suggestions on sustainable adaptation policies and incentives that will make them adapt better. Farmers believe formulation of a comprehensive adaptation framework for the Yendi Municipality, when well-coordinated, will serve the interest of farmers. A coordinated policy will ensure that farmers are assisted in producing and linked to Agricultural extension officers who visit farmers to the right markets for their products to be purchased. advise them on their farms are too few, given the ra- Government assistance to establish efficient irrigation tio of extension officers to farmers in the Municipality systems will facilitate crop production during drought (1: 200). Inadequate logistics and the lack of existing periods. The promise made by the ruling New Patrifarmer co-operatives are seen as limiting adaptation otic Party government to construct dams in every village in Ghana, if indeed implemented, would have to climate change. helped farmers a great deal. While institutions are key to capacity building which helps farmers adapt better to climate change, they are 3.6. Ministry of food and agriculture’s support for not well resourced to build the capacity of farmers. adaptations When farmers were asked to suggest solutions to the challenges of adaptation to climate change 53.6% of The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the farmers cited financial assistance from the gov- whose responsibility is it to support farmers, has not ernment. In comparison 10.2% said construction of been very successful in helping farmers as it is not ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany-November 2021 7 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) Figure 6: Barriers to climate change adaptation strategies well resourced. The Ghana national adaptation plan was published in 2018, meaning it is very new and yet to be implemented. A focus group discussion held for farmers showed they have had support from MOFA in terms of technical support, which usually comes as educating farmers on best farm practices and supplying agro-chemicals. The education given to farmers includes bush fire prevention and correctly mixing and applying agro-chemicals on food crops, particularly maize and rice. Even though some credit facilities exist, they have so far not received any benefits. According to the agriculture extension agent for Kpaatia, farmers have not benefited from the credit scheme because they failed to form an association that gives farmers financial assistance as financial institutions find it is easier to recover loans from associations than individuals. financial support believe this kind of assistance would help them mechanise their farms, purchase fertilisers, and improve seeds. Those who want material support favour the distribution of free seeds, pesticides, and fertilisers. Only 2.5% preferred technical support such as training to learn best farm practices which will equip them with the knowledge to improve their farming methods to cope with climate change adaptation. 4. Discussions The general perception of farmers about climate change in the Yendi Municipality is that of a drier savannah zone where the soil moisture is either very limited or absent depending on the month of the year making it difficult or impossible to grow crops. It is also reported that the frequency of rainfall has deWhen farmers were asked to rank the kinds of sup- clined, and temperature is increasing, a perception port they preferred from the government, majority confirmed by the Ghana Meteorological Agency in of them ranked financial support first (52.5%), fol- 15 years (1997 - 2011). Similar studies in the Western lowed by material support (35%) in terms of tools and Region of Ghana show farmers' perception of climate agro-chemicals. Others mentioned technical support, change focuses on a reduced frequency of rainfall which is the government's main support to increase and an increase in temperature (Acquah & Onumah, farmers’ output and adapt to climate change, as the 2011). In other parts of the world, climate change is least response. About 52.5% of farmers in favour of perceived as variability in rainfall and temperature 8 ISSN-Internet 2197-411x OLCL 862804632 UniKassel & VDW, Germany- November 2021 Future of Food: Journal on Food, Agriculture and Society, 9 (4) (Jolly et al., 2002; Dhaka, Chayal & Poonia 2010). Even though farmers are aware the climate has changed, there are many viewpoints regarding the causes, some of which can be based on science, such as destruction of trees/vegetation and poor farming practices that accelerate climate change, while others are based on superstition. Adaptation efforts of farmers to climate change in the Municipality are crop and animal diversification, expansion of farmlands, use of chemical fertilisers and agrochemicals to increase farm yields. Studies elsewhere show farmers resort to livelihood diversification, water harvesting schemes, crop diversification, planting of drought-tolerant crops, migration, and adjustment in planting dates as measures of adapting to climate change (Batterbury, 2004; Khan et al., 2009; Simbarashe, 2013; Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2013; Liu et al., 2013). The vulnerability of farmers to climate change can be improved further when their capacity is built on climate change adaptation in addition to eliminating social, environmental, and cultural obstacles that hinder climate change adaptation (Sand, 2012; Raghuvanshi & Ansari, 2016). availability and access to climate information would aid farmers to make informed decisions concerning their farm operations, but such information is often not available to them (Challinor et al., 2003: Kandji et al., 2006). According to Golnaraghi & Kaul (1995), in the case of Brazil, grain production in 1992 fell by 18% when the average precipitation also decreased significantly by 73%. This can be contrasted with grain production, which fell by 85% in 1987 with about 70% of average precipitation when climate forecasts were not applied. 5. Conclusions This study concludes that farmers believe the climate has changed in the Yendi municipality with indicators of high temperature and irregular or decreasing precipitation, resulting in changes in the amount of crops produced that will affect food security in the near future. The main causes of climate change identified by the farmers in the study area are negative farming practices of cutting down trees, burning the bush during the dry season and belief in supernatural forces. Adaptation measures to climate change include diAs mentioned by 51.9% of the farmers in Yendi mu- versification of crops and animal species. Farmers are nicipality, providing financial support and subsidies ready to adapt their farming methods to cope with the to farmers to buy fertilisers and agrochemicals is an- changing trends they have observed but cannot do so other way to adapt to climate change. The District mu- due to barriers to adaptation to climate change, such nicipal officer of MoFA explained that farmers need to as financial constraints and lack of access to weathorganise themselves to take advantage of credit facil- er information. The difficulty in adapting to climate ities since financial constraint is seen as a major set- change affects food supply and food security in Africa back to farmers and institutions who intend to adapt and Ghana in particular. Finally, the government of Ghana should put in operation the national climate to climate change (Batterbury, 2004). adaptation plan document that was launched in 2018 Lack of irrigation facilities has worsened the plight of to assist farmers to adapt to climate change. farmers as they struggle to cope with climate change. The government’s assistance can relieve farmers from Conflict of Interests the hardship of climate variability and enable them to cope with climate change when irrigation facilities are The authors hereby declare that there are no conflicts provided (Vidal, 2009). Government and private sec- of interest in the gathering of data and preparation of tor interventions are vital for farmers to be effective this paper. in adapting to climate change. It is projected that the impact of climate change will become severe such that References traditional coping/adaptation mechanisms may not Acquah, H. D., & Onumah, E. (2011). Farmers’ perbe sufficient to deal with these impacts (Rai, 2008). ceptions and adaptations to climate change: An estiLimited access to climate information has been a chal- mation of willingness to pay. Agris, 3(4), 31-39. lenge to farmers when it comes to deciding on the type of crops to plant and crop cultivation methods. The Antwi-Agyei, P. & Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H. 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