ORIGINAL ARTICLE Patterns of Pirate Taxi Drivers Helping Behavior and Type of Help Rendered in an Urban Setting: A case of the City of Lusaka in Zambia Omedy Mweene 1 and Jason Mwanza 2 1Supershine University 2School of Humanities and Social Science, University of Zambia ….…………………………………………………………..…… Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore patterns of helping behaviour among pirate taxi drivers. Design/methodology/approach The authors employed a questionnaire-based cross-sectional study design. Findings The author's key observations are that more than three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 133 (78.7%) exhibited high egoistic helping behaviour and just about three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 119 (70.4%) exhibited low altruistic helping behaviour. The dominant type of help rendered is related to emotional distress and helping those who have faced difficulty with unmet material desires. The regression model does not predict the outcome variable which is the type of help rendered as the altruistic helping and egoistic helping scores were > 0.05 (p= 0.106 and p = 862) respectively. Research Implications The findings of the patterns of helping behaviour identify true differences though without reasons. Lived experiences from a qualitative study could render lived experiences and motives which could enrich the elicited patterns. Despite the limitations, the strength of our study lies in the novelty of the study area. The study has affirmed the need for studies in socio-cultural value orientation (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism), or the specific ontogenetic community circumstances in which the pirate taxi driver leaves and has grown up especially the socialisation of giving practices. To this end, the study adds a leading analytical voice for understanding the patterns of type of helping behaviour and help rendered. Originality/value This is the first study that has to add a leading analytical voice for understanding the patterns of type of helping behaviour and help rendered. Keywords: Lusaka, Pirate Taxi Drivers, Helping Behaviour, egoistic, altruistic Introduction Social life in all communities has shown that some people have a tendency to be empathically aroused upon observing the needs of another person, and sometimes their compassionate reaction leads them to help the other person and they opt to offer particular practical help. This may not be true in collectivities where members are competitive like pirate taxi driver communities. Pirate taxi drivers in Zambia act as a collectivity and continue to organise themselves spontaneously at road junctions. Pirate taxi drivers in Zambia have formed collectives that appear to embrace a prosocial behavioural helping spirit. Behaviour is considered “prosocial” when it benefits others, particularly when the benefit for that other is the primary goal (Hinde and Groebel, 1991). Before the emergence of the concepts of organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) and helping behaviour, Barnard’s cooperative system provided a crucial foundation for the study of positive individual discretionary behaviour at work in informal groups. In particular, Barnard noted that a coworker’s willingness to cooperate and contribute is indispensable to the social system (Love et al., 2001). The coworker effect is an important factor linking positive individual behaviour with the broader social context of the workgroup. Barnard further stressed that the concept of willingness to cooperate and contribute to the collective as a whole or individual members does not refer to an individual’s willingness to enter a social system because of a contractual sense (Baker et al., 2002; Williamson, 2005). Roethlisberger and Dickson on the other hand have observed that informal organisations contain the sentiments and values by which individuals and/or groups of individuals are informally differentiated and integrated and as such, have a tendency to tend to help each other. Roethlisberger and Dickson’s concept of the informal organisation may contain the essence of what helping behaviour could be (Organ and Ryan, 1995; Melody et al., 2009) but it does not specify as previous research posits. Broadly, humans appear to experience four varieties of negatives states that would require a type of help rendered and these are instrumental need, where an individual (a) has difficulty completing goal-directed behaviour (Svetlova et al., 2010; Paulus, 2014); Carpendale et al., 2015); (b) experience an unmet material desire, in which an individual does not have access to a particular resource (Hay, 1979; Brownell et al., 2009) (c) and experiences emotional distress when an individual experiences a negatively arousing emotional state (Warneken and Tomasello, 2006; Vaish et al., 2009). These aspects of the type of help rendered are yet to be studied in informal groups outside of organisations. The current study The current study was conducted to explore patterns of helping behaviour. To this end, we assessed the two types of helping behaviour and these are altruistic and egoistic helping behaviour vis a vis three types of help that are rendered and these are helping where an individual has difficulty with unmet material desires or when an individual desires physical help or where an individual is in emotional distress. Given that helping depends on location, level of education and the social-economic conditions of a helper, these variables were selected as grouping variables to elicit patterns of differences. Methods The survey that informs this study was part of a larger PhD mixed-methods project. We enlisted 169 youthful participants from a population using Yamane Taro’s Table (1967:886) setting 95% confidence level and p = 0.5. Participants came from four social-economic pirate taxi ranks as clusters within the City of Lusaka. The pirate taxi drivers were from low to middle-class households living in an urban area. Pirate taxi drivers were first informed about the survey through the leaders at the taxi rank. We had to engage the leaders first to let them understand what our study was and what it entailed. We gave the leaders a flier which the drivers would read well in advance before the study. This engagement facilitated acceptance to be part of the study. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the university Zambia institutional review board. Procedures All participants gave informed consent and completed the survey at their own time and were to be handed over to the team leader at the taxi rank. The team leader at the taxi ranks ensured that questionnaires were answered by those who were identified based on the sampling frame. Eleven of the questionnaires could not be part of the analysis as they were excluded because of the missing data. The final sample for analysis comprised 169 questionnaires. The response was rather high 93% and this was higher than the recommended 80% (see Fincham, 2008). Data were analysed by using SPSS version 21 (Inc., Chicago, USA). For all statistical analyses, p < 0.05 was considered significant. Cronbach’s α values exceeded the benchmark of 0.70 for each of the constructs (Nunnally, 1978), thus providing evidence for their reliability. Findings An almost equal number of pirate taxi drivers was drawn from the four taxi ranks except for Kangwa, a low to moderate social SES location, which had a low number n = 30 (17.8%) (Table 1). Table 1: Distribution of respondents by locality n = 169 Locality Hybrid (Moderate SES M'tendere (Low SES) Kabulonga (High SES) Kangwa (Low to moderate SES) Sample size n = 49 (29%) n = 48 (28.4%) n = 42 (24.9%) n = 30 (17.8%) The sample was rather youthful and their ages ranged from a low of 19 years to a high of 39 years and this evidenced by the mean age which is 28.9 (± 4.4 SD). There were however statistically significant variations in mean age in the four locations (t = 85.533; df = 168 and p = 0.001). Orientation of helping behaviour When we assessed the type of helping behaviour, we found that more than three-quarters of the drivers n = 133 (78.7%) exhibited high egoistic helping behaviour, as compared to less than a quarter n = 33 (19.5%) who exhibited moderate egoistic helping behaviour and a paltry n = 3 (1.8%) exhibited low egoistic helping behaviour. The sample composite means the score was 9.6 (± SD 2.4). This score falls within the high egoism helping behaviour range which is 5 to 11. In terms of altruism, just about three-quarters of the drivers n = 119 (70.4%) exhibited low altruistic helping behaviour, n = 28(16.6%) exhibited moderate helping behaviour and n = 22 (13.0%) exhibited moderate altruistic helping behaviour. The altruism means the score was 12 (± SD 2.5). This sample generally places the altruistic helping behaviour of pirate taxi drivers as low as it falls within the moderate altruism behaviour range of 12 to 15 (see Table 2). Table 2: Profile of helping behaviour Descriptives Helping behaviour Frequency µ SD Min Max Egoistic Helping Behaviour n % 9.6 2.4 5 18 High egoistic helping behaviour 133 78.7 - - - - Moderate egoistic helping behaviour 33 19.5 - - - - Low egoistic helping behaviour 3 1.8 - - - - Altruistic Helping Behaviour n % 12 2.5 3 15 High altruistic helping behaviour 28 16.6 - - - - Moderate altruistic helping behaviour 22 13.0 - - - - Low altruistic helping behaviour 119 70.4% - - - -  Dominant Types of Help Rendered Pirate taxi drivers had the propensity to render help when it concerned an individual in emotional distress (comforting in sickness or conflict with colleagues or customer) and those who faced difficulty with unmet material desires (e.g.; helping others in achieving an action-based goal –a resource like money, spare tyre). Individuals who desired physical help (e.g.; fixing a tyre, taking driving errands on behalf of a friend when committed) were less helped (Table 3). Table 3: Dominant Type of Help Rendered Type of help rendered Always Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never I am at hand helping where an individual has difficulty with unmet material desires (e.g.; helping others in achieving an action-based goal –a resource like money, spare tyre). 62 (36.7%) 35 (20.7%) 19 (11.2%) 28 (16.6%) 25 (14.8%) I am at hand helping where an individual desires physical help (e.g.; fixing a tyre, taking driving errands on behalf of a friend when committed). 22 (13%) 42 (24.9%) 39 (23.1%) 47 (27.8%) 19 (11.2%) I am at hand helping where an individual is in emotional distress (comforting in sickness or conflict with colleagues or customer). 55 (32.5%) 45 (26.6%) 41 (24.3%) 17 (10.1%) 11 (6.5%) Patterns of Helping Behaviour We computed the individual responses to create composite scores as a variable of interest from response choices (Never = 1, rarely = 2, occasional = 3, frequently = 4 and always = 5). It was decided a priori that the ideal expected helping score that a respondent who scored ≥ 13 points would be considered to be an all-round helper and such would render all three types help. The sample mean score was 10 (SD ± 2.3) and this was lower than the expected 13. The minimum was 5 and the maximum was 15. Only n = 18 scored ≥ to 13 and as such were all-round helpers. We assessed the profile of helping behaviour and the extent of helping when one was altruistic and egoistic. We were concerned with all-round helpers – those whose scores were ≥ 13. Regarding altruism and the type of help rendered, we noted that out of N = 133 who demonstrated high egoistic helping behaviour, only n = 16 were all-round helpers. Out of N =33 = who demonstrated moderate egoistic helping behaviour, only n = 2 were all-round helpers and the three who were egoistically low were all-round helpers. Concerning altruism and the type of help rendered, we noted that out of N = 126 who demonstrated low altruistic helping behaviour, only n = 13 were all-round helpers. Out of N =23 = who demonstrated moderate egoistic helping behaviour, only n= 3 were all-round helpers and the only one who was egoistically low was an all-round helper (Table 4). Table 4: Profile of helping behaviour Helping behaviour All-round scores Egoistic Helping Behaviour n 13.0 14.0 15.0 High egoistic helping behaviour From n = 133 6 8 2 Moderate egoistic helping behaviour From n = 33 2 0 0 Low egoistic helping behaviour From n = 3 0 0 3 Altruistic Helping Behaviour High altruistic helping behaviour From = 20 0 1 1 Moderate altruistic helping behaviour From = 23 2 1 0 Low altruistic helping behaviour From n = 126 6 6 1 We also assessed the type of help rendered according to groups (level of education, type of vehicle ownership and location where drivers operated). The data shows that there were differences within the three groups even though all groups had scored lower than 13 for all-round helpers (see Table 5).  Table 5: Descriptives of Type of Help Rendered Grouping variable Mean Median Variance SD Minimum Maximum Range Location Hybrid (Moderate SES 9.4 9 5.2 2.3 5 15 10 Kangwa (Low to moderate SES) 9.7 10 4.2 2 6 14 8 Kabulonga (High SES) 10 11 3 1.7 7 14 7 M'tendere (Low SES) 10.3 11 5.5 2.3 5 14 9 Vehicle ownership type Private 10.2 11 4.6 2.1 5 15 10 Personal 9 9 4.8 2.1 5 15 10 Level of education Never been to school 10.1 11 6.5 2.5 5.0 14 9 Primary School 9.4 9 4.8 2.2 5 15 10 Secondary school 10.3 11 4.2 2 5 15 10 Despite these differences, we conducted one-sample t-tests to determine whether the sample comes from a population with a specific mean = 13. The t value gives us a p-value (or 2-tailed significance value) of .000. This is, in fact, a significant result at 0.05 alpha level and in this case, we reject the null hypothesis and assert that the differences within the sample groups show a statistically significant difference between our sample mean and the population mean. We further note that the group scores are lower than the population 'normal' score of 13. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Level of education -185.73 168 .000 Location of work -114.95 168 .000 Ownership of vehicle -448.46 168 .000 Score of helping -17.11 168 .000 This table provides the R and R2 values. The R-value represents the simple correlation and is 0.125 (the "R" Column), which indicates a low degree of correlation. The total variation in the dependent variable is very low 1.6%. Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .125a .01 .004 2.19 a. Predictors: (Constant), Category for egoistic helping, Category for altruistic helping ANOVA indicates that the regression model does not predict the dependent variable as p > is 0.05 (0.270), and indicates that, overall, the regression model does not predict the outcome variable which is a type of help rendered and this evident when the altruistic helping and egoistic helping behaviour scores are assessed as they were > 0.05 (p= 0.106 and p = 862) respectively and the model as such, is not a good fit for the data. ANOVAa Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 12.75 2 6.37 1.31 .27b Residual 802.53 166 4.83 Total 815.29 168 a. Dependent Variable: Type of help rendered (score) b. Predictors: (Constant), Egoistic helping behaviour, altruistic helping behaviour Coefficients a Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 11.08 .77 14.33 .000 Category for altruistic helping -.40 .24 -.12 -1.62 .106 Category for egoistic helping .06 .36 .01 .17 .862 a. Dependent Variable: Score of helping Discussion This study yielded three key observations of the patterns of pirate taxi drivers helping behaviour that merit discussion. First, we found evidence for orientation of helping behaviour and we found that more than three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 133 (78.7%) exhibited high egoistic helping behaviour and just about three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 119 (70.4%) exhibited low altruistic helping behaviour. The second is that the dominant type of help rendered showed pirate taxi drivers having a propensity to render help when it concerned an individual in emotional distress (comforting in sickness or conflict with colleagues or customer) and those who faced difficulty with unmet material desires (e.g.; helping others in achieving an action-based goal –a resource like money, spare tyre) Individuals who desired physical help (e.g.; fixing a tyre, taking driving errands on behalf of a friend when committed) where less helped. Only n = 18 scored ≥ to 13 the expected population mean score to qualify as all-around helpers. The pattern of helping showed statistically significant differences within and across the three groups (location on account of social-economic status, vehicle ownership and level of education). The third is that overall, the regression model does not predict the outcome variable which is the type of help rendered as the altruistic helping and egoistic helping scores were > 0.05 (p= 0.106 and p = 862) respectively. The model is not a good fit for the data. The survey responses of 169 pirate taxi drivers indicated that although many attributed a considerable degree of responsibility to help in one or two types of helping, attributions of helping were unrelated to the three in one pirate taxi driver. Instead, select the type of help whether for altruistic or egoistic reasons was mediated by feelings of personal decisions to lend the type of assistance for the helpees. With this distribution, it was not expected that we could see to see high egoistic and low altruistic individuals be all-around helpers and this could have been a feature of either high egoism or altruism helping behaviour. It was also surprising that we had very low levels of pirate taxi drivers who were not all-around helpers especially those who could be at hand helping in the three domains that are where an individual had difficulty with unmet material desires, physical help and helping in emotional distress. We hypothesise that individual pirate drivers had low attribution to offering help in all these domains but in one or two. We assume that the attribution of responsibility to help in a person suggests that a causal relationship could be existing between the perception of a helpee and the willingness to offer the type of help. Concerning the dominant type of help that is rendered by pirate taxi drivers, the dominant form of help rendered helping where an individual was in emotional distress (sickness or conflict with colleagues or customer). This shows that the pirate taxi drivers were empathetic or had ‘emotional contagion. In this study, empathy was an induction process that reflected an innate ability to perceive and be sensitive to the emotional states of others, which is coupled with a motivation to care for their well-being (see Decety, 2014). Moreover, finding differences in the type of help rendered by the three groups (location on account of social-economic status, vehicle ownership and level of education) indicates that it is not the situational specifics of the current social-economic environment or vehicle ownership or level of education that matter but other factors. The fact that there is a dearth of research that has examined the variables we selected, we could only hypothetically attribute the differences to variations in community-level variables, such as socio-cultural value orientation (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism), or to the specific ontogenetic community circumstances in which the pirate taxi driver leaves and has grown up especially the socialisation of giving practices. These socio-cultural conditions of a community promote different strategies and forms of living (Kagitcibasi, 2007; Bender Chasiotis, 2011; Capara et al., 2012). Limitations The current study has many limitations and leaves open some questions. We did not aim to produce statistical generalisable numerical results that are country oriented. However, it is only generalisable to the City of Lusaka. However, the findings of the patterns we have presented identify true differences though without reasons. Lived experiences from a qualitative study could render lived experiences and motives which could enrich the elicited patterns. Despite the limitations, the strength of our study lies in the novelty of the study area. The study has affirmed the need for studies in socio-cultural value orientation (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism), or the specific ontogenetic community circumstances in which the pirate taxi driver leaves and has grown up especially the socialisation of giving practices. To this end, we have to add a leading analytical voice for understanding the patterns of type of helping behaviour and help rendered. Conclusion We set out to investigate the patterns of helping behaviour and we assessed the two types of helping behaviour and these are altruistic and egoistic helping behaviour vis a vis three types of help that are rendered and these are helping where an individual has difficulty with unmet material desires or when an individual desires physical help or where an individual is in emotional distress. The key observations are that more than three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 133 (78.7%) exhibited high egoistic helping behaviour and just about three-quarters of the pirate taxi drivers n = 119 (70.4%) exhibited low altruistic helping behaviour. The dominant type of help rendered is related to emotional distress and helping those who are faced with difficulty with unmet material desires. The regression model does not predict the outcome variable which is the type of help rendered as the altruistic helping and egoistic helping scores were > 0.05 (p= 0.106 and p = 862) respectively. The current findings may have implications for understanding in the Zambian urban setting the need for studies in socio-cultural value orientation (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism), and looking at the specific ontogenetic community circumstances in which the pirate taxi driver leaves and has grown up especially the socialisation of giving practices. The study has added to the dearth of literature, which has not paid attention to the patterns of type of helping behaviour and help rendered. The observed patterns of helping and type of help rendered may be interpreted in a variety of different ways, these results show the differences in helping despite location, level of education and type of vehicle ownership. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the respondents for their valuable contributions. Our particular thanks go to the minibus and pirate taxi driver chairpersons at the ranks for being available to organise their members in the field to reach out to the respondents. Funding This work was supported by our funds. Declaration of Interest The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the paper. Author Biography Omedy Mweene is a PhD student at the University of Zambia. He is a lecturer in sociology and research methods at Supershine University. 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