(PDF) Suby, J. A. y L. Luna 2019. Paleopathology in Southern South America. Recent advances and future challenges. En: Ubelaker, D. y S. Colantonio (Eds.), Biological Anthropology in Latin America: 311-324. Smithsonian Institution Scholar Press, Washington

Despite disparities among countries, paleopathology experienced a remarkable development in South America in recent years, including current theoretical approaches and new methodological procedures. More specialists in bone and dental paleopathology offered relevant information in local, regional, and international journals and conferences. Some southern South American countries, particularly Chile and Argentina, are leaders in the recent progress of paleopathology in the Americas. This paper summarizes the recent past and present of paleopathological research in southern South America and offers additional considerations about the challenges that need to be confronted in the near future.

Smithsonian Scholarly Press s m i t h s o n i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n s to a n t h ro p o l o g y • n u m b e r 51 Biological Anthropology of Latin America Historical Development and Recent Advances Edited by Douglas H. Ubelaker and Sonia E. Colantonio SERIES PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Emphasis upon publication as a means of “diffusing knowledge” was expressed by the first Secretary of the Smithsonian. 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Despite disparities among countries, paleopathology experienced a remarkable development in South America in recent years, including current theoretical approaches and new methodological procedures. More specialists in bone and dental paleopathology offered relevant information in local, regional, and international journals and conferences. Some southern South American countries, particularly Chile and Argentina, are leaders in the recent progress of paleopathology in the Americas. This paper summarizes the recent past and present of paleopathological research in southern South America and offers additional considerations about the challenges that need to be confronted in the near future. 1 University of the Center of Buenos Aires Province–National Council of Scientific and Technical Investigations (CONICET). Núcleo Consolidado de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Paleontológicas del Cuaternario Pampeano (INCUAPA). Grupo de Investigación en Bioarqueología. 508 Street No. 881, ZIP 7631, Quequén, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2 National Council of Scientific and Technical Investigations (CONICET), Multidisciplinary Institute of History and Human Sciences (IMHICIHU); Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Grupo de Investigación en Bioarqueología. Saavedra Street No. 15, ZIP C1083ACA, Buenos Aires, Argentina. * Correspondence: jasuby@conicet.gov.ar Manuscript received 28 April 2016; accepted 10 November 2017. RESUMEN. A pesar de una serie de diferencias existentes entre países, la paleopatología tuvo un notable desarrollo en Sudamérica durante los últimos años, incluyendo la incorporación de enfoques teóricos modernos y la aplicación de nuevas metodologías. Una mayor cantidad de especialistas en paleopatología ósea y dental han ofrecido información relevante, presentada en revistas y conferencias locales, regionales e internacionales. Algunos países del sur de Sudamérica, en especial Chile y Argentina, tienen una influencia fundamental en el reciente progreso de la paleopatología en América. En este trabajo analizamos el pasado reciente y presente de las investigaciones paleopatológicas en el sur de Sudamérica y ofrecemos consideraciones adicionales acerca de los retos que deben ser enfrentados en el futuro próximo. RESUMO. Apesar das diferenças existentes entre os vários países, a paleopatología teve nos últimos anos um notável desenvolvimento na América do Sul, tanto pela incorporação de abordagens teóricas atuais como pela aplicação de novas metodologías. O aumento do número de especialistas em paleopatología óssea e dentária teve como consequência a produção de informações relevantes, apresentadas em revistas e conferências, locais, regionais e internacionais. Em especial o Chile e a Argentina tiveram uma influência fundamental no recente progresso da Paleopatologia na América do Sul. Este capítulo sintetiza o passado recente e o presente da pesquisa paleopatológica no sul da América do Sul, fornecendo considerações adicionais sobre os desafios que devem ser enfrentados no futuro próximo. INTRODUCTION As in other regions in the world, paleopathology has seen considerable development in South America since the second half of the twentieth century. New theoretical and methodological approaches have been introduced to the study of social, cultural, and 312 • SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY biological influences on the health of past societies both before and during the colonial period. Primary results of this progress in paleopathological research include a greater number of specialists in interpreting evidence of past health; more scientific studies being undertaken at local, regional, and worldwide levels and more numerous international collaborations, which usually result in a higher quality of resources, broader knowledge and more broadly accepted interpretations. South America is a large and heterogeneous continent with marked differences in economic and educational status between countries. In the past, the continent was inhabited by numerous human societies with profound biological and cultural differences, from highly stratified societies like the Incan Empire in the Andes, to small bands of hunter-gatherers like Selk´nam in Tierra del Fuego (Steward, 1963; Poole, 2008). This variability means that research in paleopathology is also amply diverse, depending on available resources and focusing on different aspects of past populations according to local and academic interests. In this chapter, we describe and analyze the current status of paleopathology in Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, the southernmost countries of South America. As is usual in this kind of review, it is a great task to gather all the published results from every country. For that reason, we opted to include only the most relevant investigations, particularly those reported during the last three decades, although in some cases previous research is included considering its importance in later local developments. It is not our intention to summarize the history of paleopathology in these countries, since this approach was partially or fully conducted in the recent past (for example, Castro and Aspillaga, 2004; Guillén, 2012; Mendonça de Souza and Guichón, 2012). On the contrary, we offer an integrated interpretation of recent investigations and, in our opinion, the most important challenges that paleopathology will deal with in this part of the world in the near future. PALEOPATHOLOGY IN CHILE Chilean paleopathology is one of the most developed in southern South America. Past populations from northern Chile received extraordinary attention, stimulating the current paleopathological perspective (Verano and Lombardi, 1999). This is probably because stratified and unequal Andean societies developed in this region over the course of about two millennia, and its climate promotes preservation of a great number of mummified and skeletal remains (Verano, 1997). A considerable number of studies were also performed on the remains recovered from southern Patagonia, including current Chilean and Argentinian territories. Regrettably, populations from other Chilean regions received less attention (Castro and Aspillaga, 2004). Some reviews of the most relevant results were presented by Munizaga (1974), Allison (1984), Moreno et al. (1993), Castro et al. (1997), Verano (1997), Castro and Aspillaga (2004), and Rothhammer and Llop (2004). The studies in northern Chile were mainly centered on skeletal and mummified remains from the Arica and Tarapacá regions. As in other South American countries, like Peru or Ecuador, paleopathological research was initially led by foreign physicians and physical anthropologists, such as Aleš Hrdlička, Marvin Allison, Enrique Gerszten and Arthur Aufderheide, who stimulated the study of several collections of skeletons and mummies, offering much relevant information about cultural and biological aspects related to human health in pre- and postHispanic times. Most of these investigations continued with modern approaches by local or foreign researchers (Verano and Lombardi, 1999). The studies of health mainly focused on evidence of several infectious diseases in northern Chilean populations. The detection of remains with signs of tuberculosis (Arriaza et al., 1995) was extremely important to explain its presence in preColumbian Andean populations. Chagas disease (Guhl et al., 1997, 1999, 2000; Ferreira et al., 2000; Aufderheide et al., 2004; Orellana-Halkyer and Arriaza, 2010), treponematosis (Allison et al., 1982; Standen and Arriaza, 2000a), leishmaniasis (CostaJunqueira et al., 2009; Marsteller et al., 2011; Costa-Junqueira and Llagostera, 2014), pulmonary diseases like pneumonia (Aufderheide et al., 2002; Aufderheide et al., 2008), and non-specific infectious diseases (Kelley and Lytle, 1995; Aspillaga et al., 2006; Varela et al., 2006; Tótora Da-Glória et al., 2011) were also reported in several archaeological contexts. Paleoparasitological studies of internal and external parasites were also conducted in the last several decades (Ferreira et al., 1984; Goncalves et al., 2003; Reinhard and Urban, 2003; Arriaza et al., 2010a, 2012, 2013, 2014; Araújo et al., 2011; Rodríguez et al., 2011). As in other stratified and highly populated societies, trauma was frequently evaluated in populations from northern Chile, where evidence of accidental, ritual-based, and violent injuries were studied, mostly from a paleoepidemiological and biocultural approach (Costa-Junqueira et al., 1998; Standen and Arriaza, 2000b; Lessa and Mendonça de Souza, 2004, 2006, 2007; Rosado and Vernacchio-Wilson, 2006; Torres-Rouff and Costa Junqueira, 2006; Varela et al., 2006; Standen et al., 2010; TorresRouff, 2011; Castelleti Dellepiane et al., 2014; Lessa, 2014; Lessa and Gaspar, 2014; Pacheco and Retamal, 2014). These papers show a process of increasing violence in certain strategically located areas of the landscape (such as the Atacama desert during the Middle Horizon [600–950 A.D.] and Late Intermediate Period [950–1400 A.D.], Lessa and Mendonça de Souza, 2004, 2006; Torres-Rouff and Costa Junqueira, 2006; Standen et al., 2010; Torres Rouff, 2011, Lessa, 2014), which affected individuals differently by sex, age, and social hierarchy, with traumatic lesions being more prevalent in young and middle adult males. The effects of arsenic poisoning on the health of past human populations from Atacama was first suggested three decades ago, in studies showing teratogenic consequences on skeletal and mummified remains (Figueroa et al., 1988; Silva-Pinto et al., 2010; Boston and Arriaza, 2009; Arriaza et al., 2010b; Byrne et al., 2010). Other studies with important consequences analyzed NUMBER 51 the impact of diseases related to activity patterns in northern Chilean populations, including auditory exostosis (Standen et al., 1995, 1997; Ponce, 2010), osteochondritis dissecans (Kothari et al., 2009; Ponce, 2010), and osteoarthrosis (Silva-Pinto et al., 2013). Pathological conditions such as neoplastic (Sawyer et al., 1988, 1990; Gerszten and Allison, 1991), neurological (Gerszten and Martífinez, 1995; Appenzeller et al., 2000; Gerszten et al., 2001; Carod-Artal and Vázquez-Cabrera, 2004), and oral diseases (Linossier et al., 1988; Rosado, 1998; Costa-Junqueira et al., 2004; Meller et al., 2009; Hubbe et al., 2012; Watson et al., 2013), as well as related paleodemographic analyses (Arriaza et al., 1988; Quevedo et al., 2000, 2003), also were documented and offered very valuable contributions to the comprehension of the variability of human adaptations. In contrast, studies of health in past populations from southern Chile were less thoroughly analyzed, mostly with bioarchaeological or physical anthropological approaches. A review of this kind of information in southern Chile and Argentina, reported during the last three decades, was recently published by Suby (2014a). In general, due to the absence of cemeteries in prehistorical times and areas of inhumation with low numbers of individuals, mostly one per site, many researchers have studied skeletal collections from different archaeological sites, with or without chronological and geographical information. In contrast to the studies conducted in the north of the country, these analyses were mainly focused on the general health status of human populations. Pérez-Pérez and Lalueza Fox (1992), Guichón (1994), Aspillaga et al. (1999, 2006), Morano and Bucarey (2009), and Castro and Aspillaga (1991) described or quantified metabolic, oral, and articular diseases in human collections from southern Chile. Moreover, Constantinescu (1999, 1997) presented descriptive analyses of entheseal changes and articular disease in a skeletal collection from the insular and continental portions of the Magellan region. Paleopathological analyses of anemia (Suby, 2014b) and vertebral joint disease (Suby, 2014c) were carried out in skeletons recovered in the southern territories of both Chile and Argentina. Several descriptive and quantitative analyses of oral health, metabolic disease, trauma, and osteoarthrosis in human remains were published during the last decade, such as the studies of the skeletons recovered in Cabo Nose (Alfonso-Durruty et al., 2011), Cañadón Leona 5 (L’Heureux and Amorosi, 2009), and Cerro Sota (L’Heureux and Amorosi, 2010), located in the Magellan region of Chile. Regarding infectious diseases, Saez (2008) documented possible cases of tuberculosis in native populations from Chiloé as a result of contact with European settlers during the colonial period and suggested that this disease was a primary cause of morbidity and death. PALEOPATHOLOGY IN BOLIVIA Paleopathological research in Bolivia is much less developed. A review of the most important paleopathological analyses • 313 was summarized by Rio Dalenz and Vincenty (2007). As with others from southern Peru and northern Chile, remains from western Bolivia were initially studied by foreign scientists in the nineteenth century. Bandelier (1904) recovered and anthropologically studied trephined skulls from Aymará sites, which were sent to the American Museum of Natural History (New York) and were later studied by Aleš Hrdlička. Most current paleopathological studies continue to focus on human remains from the Aymara populations, mainly through studies of mummies. For example, Suarez Morales (1967) reported serologic analyses of 10 mummies housed in the National Museum of Archaeology in La Paz, all corresponding to blood group 0, which is similar to other findings in Latin America. More recently, Mendonça de Souza et al. (2008) studied a mummified body of a seven-year-old child, with the possibility of perimortem trauma and tuberculosis. Moreover, Vincenty (2004) offered descriptive macroscopic, radiological, and histological results of five pre-Inca mummies from Potosí and Oruro, and identified cases of thyroid goiter, congenital anomalies (probable atrophy), infant hydrocephaly with trepanation, scoliosis, fibroma, and a sharp trauma with hemorrhage. Virus HTLV-1—responsible for leukemia and lymphoma in adults and for tropical spastic paraparesia—was molecularly identified in bone marrow of mummies of ca. 1500 bp housed in the Archaeological Museum R. P. Gustavo Le Paige of San Pedro de Atacama (Li et al., 1999). Céspedes and Villegas (1976) visually and radiographically studied 418 pre-Columbian non-adult and adult skulls housed in the National Museum of Archaeology of La Paz, Regional Archaeological Museum of Tiwanaku, and Anthropological Museum Eduardo López Rivas of Oruro, in order to identify dental and cranial pathologies. The authors described and quantified several types of dental anomalies, such as transpositions, supernumerary teeth, teeth displaying giantism and dwarfism, retentions, caries, dental calculus, granulomas, antemortem tooth loss, and attrition. They also described trepanations and the frequencies of wormian bones. The study of infectious diseases was also explored in Bolivian remains. Paleoparasitological studies mention that Chagas disease—an infectious illness with great implications for sanitation in South America even today—originated in the Bolivian highlands as a consequence of the adoption of sedentary habits by prehistoric human groups (Araújo et al., 2013). Moreover, a study performed by a German–Bolivian team on 123 pre-Hispanic skeletons from the Loma Salvatierra site in the northern lowlands (Prümers et al., 2012) showed a high degree of degenerative joint disease, absence of evidence of violence, frequent indicators of anemia (i.e., cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis) and signs of bone infections. Two of those skeletons showed sabre-shin tibiae and signs of Hutchinson’s disease in the incisors, which was interpreted as being caused by a treponemal disease, possibly venereal syphilis, based on morphological and molecular results (Prümers et al., 2012). Ponce Sanjinés (1982) interpreted humped figures of ceramic iconography from the Americas as cases of vertebral tuberculosis. Finally, 314 • SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY some paleopathological analyses of camelid and bovine remains recovered from colonial sites in Potosí showed degenerative changes to phalanges, vertebrae, tarsals, limb elements, and ribs (Defrance, 2008). Most of the scarce paleopathological research in the country is primarily descriptive in nature, although this trend is starting to be reversed through the development of more integrative and interpretative research. PALEOPATHOLOGY IN PARAGUAY Despite the many anthropological studies on populations of the Aché and other related ethnic groups (e.g. Hill et al., 1984, 1985, 1987, 1997, 2007; Bribiescas, 2001; Gurven et al., 2001; Hurtado et al., 2003; Tsuneto et al., 2003; Walker and Hill, 2003; Dornelles et al., 2004; Schmitt et al., 2004), very little paleopathological data are available for indigenous groups from Paraguay. Among the most important is that of a postcranial skeleton of a 15-year-old girl known as “Damiana,” who was kidnapped after the assassination of her family in 1896 and died of tuberculosis. In 2010, the Natural Science Museum of La Plata, Argentina, returned her remains to the Aché community. Later, the skull of this skeleton was identified in the anatomical collection of Charité, in Berlin (Koel-Abt and Winkelmann, 2013). Paleopathological analyses were conducted, showing signs of stress-like cribra orbitalia and dental enamel hypoplasia, as well as endocranial impressions that were interpreted as the result of tuberculous meningitis (Koel-Abt and Winkelmann, 2013). PALEOPATHOLOGY IN URUGUAY Anthropological disciplines, including paleopathology, are quite recent in Uruguay (Figueiro, 2014). The main focus of skeletal research comprises mortuary practices, age and sex estimation, diet and molecular analyses for studying biological distance among populations, and in some cases, descriptive references of bone and dental pathologies (for example, see Sans et al., 1997, 2012; Moreno et al., 2014; chapters in López Mazz and Sans, 1999). However, systematic paleopathological studies, as in Paraguay and Bolivia, are still uncommon. The studies produced in the last twenty years were mainly concerned with establishing the health status of past populations. Most studies used samples from east and west regions of the country, analyzing oral stress indicators (e.g., caries and linear enamel hypoplasia), signs of non-specific bone infections, anemia (cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis), Harris lines, and muscular stress markers (Portas and Sans, 1995; Sans et al., 1997; Sans, 1999; Calabria, 2001). Some studies on osteoarthrosis, Schmorl’s nodes (Sans, 1999) and trauma (Pintos and Bracco, 1999; Gascue, 2009; Gianotti and López Mazz, 2009; Cabrera et al., 2014) were also reported, most of which are mainly descriptive because of small sample size. However, efforts for systematization appeared in recent years (for example see Figueiro, 2014). The general trends identified show few differences between sexes, with an increase in mechanic and oral pathologies with age and trauma through time (Gianotti and López Mazz, 2009; Cabrera et al., 2014). Some exceptions are highlighted considering oral health for late pre-Hispanic societies, with variations inferred in diet composition between males and females, and among different individuals buried in the same site (Sans, 1999). Finally, a recent contribution from forensic anthropology about rights violations also adds relevant information about perimortem lesions (López Mazz et al., 2014). PALEOPATHOLOGY IN ARGENTINA As in Chile, paleopathological studies of past populations from Argentina have seen remarkable progress since 1980, especially during the last two decades. In contrast to research developed in northern Chile, research in Argentina is strongly influenced by the North American bioarchaeological approach (e.g., Buikstra, 1977; Buikstra and Cook, 1980; Buikstra and Beck, 2006; Cook and Powell, 2006), probably due to the development of important and numerous long-term archaeological programs, as well as the number of grants awarded in Argentina. In fact, most of the students working in paleopathology in the country are archaeologists. For that reason, taphonomical and mortuary issues are constantly included as part of paleopathological studies (Aranda and Luna, 2012; see chapters in Luna et al., 2014a). Mendonça de Souza and Guichón (2012) offer a review of the history of paleopathology in Brazil and Argentina. Also, the most recent advances of bioarchaeological studies of past human populations from Argentina were recently summarized (Aranda and Luna, 2012; Luna and Suby, 2014). As described in those articles, paleopathological research received increasing attention during the last two decades as part of bioarchaeological studies, focusing on the health of past populations from a biocultural approach in all regions of Argentina. Many of them include modern methodological and analytical procedures, together with regional and anthropological approximations. The investigations are very prolific, so the articles mentioned in this section are only a small part of the whole body of paleopathological research in the country. In the last two decades, Argentinean research in paleopathology reached international scientific standards, and, as a consequence of that, it began to gain recognition in the rest of the world. As an example of this process, many studies were published in international journals, encompassing the analysis of multiple lines of evidence, including those from the northwest (Arrieta et al., 2014; Seldes and Botta, 2014; Luna et al., 2015; Gheggi, 2016), the center of the country (Fabra and González, 2015; Fabra and Salega, 2016), the western center (Bernal et al., 2007; Gómez Otero and Novellino, 2011; Ponce and Novellino, 2014), the Pampa (Luna et al., 2008; Luna and Aranda, 2014; Scabuzzo, 2012), northern Patagonia (Flensborg, 2011a; Flensborg, et al., 2013; Gordon, 2015), the central coast of Patagonia (Gomez Otero and Novellino, 2011), and southern Patagonia NUMBER 51 (Suby and Guichón, 2009; Suby et al., 2009, 2017; Suby, 2014b, 2014c). Paleopathological studies in all these regions were usually oriented to the study of the health status of past human populations through metabolic and oral diseases, in some cases considering current theoretical and methodological approaches and integrating different variables on a comparative perspective (García Guraieb, 2006; Seldes, 2006; Luna, 2008; Suby et al., 2013; Suby, 2014b; González Baroni, 2014). In addition, some studies were aimed at specific diseases. Tuberculosis was suggested in pre-Columbian remains from the northwest and south of Argentina (Arrieta et al., 2011, 2014; García Guraieb 2006; Guichón et al. 2015) and treponematosis in southern Patagonia (Garcia Guraieb et al., 2009; Castro et al., 2008), as well as cases of osteomyelitis (Flensborg et al., 2013). Degenerative joint disease of the vertebrae was specifically studied in the center of the country (Fabra et al., 2014) and in Patagonia (Suby, 2014b). Oral pathologies were frequently studied in different areas of the country, including analyses of oral pathologies such as caries, periodontal disease, abscesses, calculus, antemortem tooth loss, dental wear (L’Heureux, 2002; Novellino, 2002; Novellino et al., 2004; Bernal et al., 2007; Menéndez, 2010; Bernal and Luna, 2011; Flensborg, 2011a; Gómez Otero and Novellino, 2011; Luna and Bernal, 2011; Gheggi, 2012; Miranda, 2012; García Guraieb and Maldonado, 2014; Luna and Aranda, 2014; Miranda and Fuchs, 2014) and physiological stress (enamel hypoplasia; e.g., Novellino and Gil, 2004; Luna and Aranda, 2010). In general terms, the results are compatible with trends identified in other regions of the world: • 315 hunter-gatherer societies show high wear rates, periodontic reactions, calculus, antemortem tooth loss, and low prevalence of caries; on the other hand, individuals from agricultural societies exhibit lower dental wear and a higher frequency of caries. In both types of societies, differences between sexes are minimal. In recent years, systematic research about violence patterns from a paleopathological perspective were fulfilled in different regions of Argentina (Barrientos and Gordon, 2004; García Guraieb et al., 2007; Flensborg, 2011b; Gheggi and Seldes, 2012; González Baroni, 2013; Berón, 2014; Gordón, 2015; Politis et al., 2014). Finally, analyses about neoplastic (Luna et al., 2008, 2015; Figure 1) and congenital diseases (Fabra and Salega, 2016) are very scarce but have been recently published. The comparative results usually show striking differences between huntergatherer and agricultural societies, as expected, but also a high variability within them, related to sex and age variation in some of the variables considered, mainly degenerative joint disease and oral health. Some divergent trends were identified related to the second line of analysis (e.g., Miranda, 2012; Fabra et al., 2014; Luna and Aranda, 2014), which offer support for the high diversity of each mode of subsistence. In this sense, more integrative paleopathological research is needed in order to better comprehend the different pathways covered by the pre-Columbian societies in various temporal and spatial settings. In contrast to studies of skeletonized remains, mummified remains were much less frequently analyzed (Fernandez et al., 1999; Previgliano et al., 2003; Wilson et al., 2007, 2013; Corthals et al., 2012), contrasting with the long-standing tradition FIGURE 1. Left os coxae lateral view of a middle adult male from the Pukara de la Cueva site, Jujuy province, northern Argentina, showing nodular and irregular bone outgrowth probably corresponding to metastatic prostate cancer (see Luna et al., 2015). Photo: Leandro Luna. 316 • SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY of mummy studies from Peru and Chile. Identified modern skeletal collections, such as those of Chacarita (Bosio et al., 2012) and Lambre (Salceda et al., 2009, 2012), are being formed with individuals who died during the twentieth century and offer relevant results to the study of bone pathologies (Plischuk and Salceda, 2011; Plischuk, 2012; Plischuk et al., 2014), sex and age-atdeath methods (García Mancuso, 2013; Desántolo, 2013), and differential preservation (Luna et al., 2012). Directly related to paleopathology, forensic anthropology, working on the documentation of human rights violations, has had an outstanding development in Argentina since the 1980s as a result of the need to identify skeletal remains of individuals assassinated during the last military government of 1976–1983. The Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense [EAAF]) is recognized worldwide as one of the pioneers and leaders in this field, also contributing to the identification of skeletal pathologies (EAAF, 1990, 2009; Olmo and Salado Puerto, 2008). THE PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE CHALLENGES IN SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICAN PALEOPATHOLOGY Paleopathological studies of southern South American populations made significant progress during the last century, with a great potential to continue contributing important data to the understanding of ancient diseases. Changes in theoretical approximations led to tremendous improvements in social and biological explanations from a bioarchaeological perspective since the 1980s. The examination of stratified and non-stratified societies from different historical contexts of the sub-continent offers invaluable insights about the evolution of many diseases that affect humankind and its relationship with social and biological factors in the present. Some evidence of that can be found in the important discoveries about tuberculosis during the 1970s and 1980s in South American remains, which forced reconsideration of the spread of this complex disease through time. In the same way, the information provided by the studies of mummies form Chile and Peru were, and still are, central to understanding some diseases only present in such remains. As in other regions of the world, paleopathology had a promising beginning in the late nineteenth century. However, in some countries, studies were performed by foreign scholars, with or without local professional participation, and sometimes with relatively little involvement in the social problems of the working areas. In many cases, research was not sustained during the majority of the twentieth century. More constant and valuable data derived from fully scientific approaches began to emerge only in the last three or four decades. As a result, some countries show scarce paleopathological production, especially within the international literature. The bright side is that the twenty-first century offers new opportunities to increase paleopathological research in South America. In the first place, advances in internet communication allow bridges to be built between distant researchers much more easily than before. As a consequence, information travels and is shared faster with anyone with enough interest, and collaborative research projects among researchers of different countries from South America and all around the world is now a more affordable possibility. Travel is not always necessary, and academic efforts can be integrated with economic resources. This is a major issue for southern South American countries, whose economic resources are usually lower in comparison to North American and European countries. During the last decade, new discussion forums were created. The Paleopathology Association Meetings in South America (PAMinSA) started in 2005 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and provided a great opportunity not only to show the regional scientific research to foreign scholars, but also to spread paleopathological resources from more developed regions to others that need encouragement for their emerging efforts. The participation of internationally recognized specialists in paleopathology and bioarchaeology surely provide significant help to promote these meetings, and will probably be important to sustain them in the future. Chile and Argentina were hosted these meetings in 2007 and 2009 respectively. They returned to Argentina in 2015 and were held again in Chile in October 2017 and in Brazil in 2019. In between, Peru (2011) and Colombia (2013) hosted PAMinSA (www.quequen.unicen.edu.ar/paminsa/). Disparity in production is not only regional, but also topicrelated. In some cases, as in northern Chile, paleopathological studies are centered on specific diseases and cases. An exception is trauma analysis, which has been a very prolific focus of attention. In contrast, in southern Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay, energy was focused on the study of multiple stress markers to understand changes in the health status of human groups. Primarily, changes in health indicator prevalence in a spatial and temporal perspective were explored, in relation to the exploration and colonization of new ecosystems, demographic changes, dietary patterns (e.g., introduction of agricultural practices and new resources as result of the European conquest), and sociocultural variations (e.g., those produced by the contact between natives and Europeans). Many of these results are published in international journals, while others are communicated in indexed local or regional publications, in many cases with free access by scholar networks such as www.scielo.org, which gathers the information of a great number of scientific journals from Latin America, Portugal, and Spain. Pre-Hispanic populations from South America were culturally and socially very diverse, varying from very stratified and unequal societies to low-density hunter-gatherers adapted to very different ecological settings. The stratified societies exhibited high demography dynamics, overcrowding, high prevalence of infectious diseases, interpersonal violence, and human sacrifices, while the hunter-gatherers demonstrated varying frequencies of non-specific stress indicators such as enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia (Figure 2), porotic hyperostosis and Harris lines. NUMBER 51 • 317 FIGURE 2. Active cribra orbitalia in a skull from Tierra del Fuego island, Argentina. Photo: Jorge Suby. Because of this variability, bioarchaeological records of past societies are dissimilar in many regions of South America. While in some places hundreds of skeletons could be studied, in others, only a couple dozen are available, which forces the adjustment of aims, methods and perspectives. But even in those cases, valuable information has been reported and is enthusiastically welcomed in international meetings and journals. New challenges will emerge in the coming years. High level and original scientific production is being created in some southern South American countries, such as Chile and Argentina, with increasingly higher international impact, although this goal still needs to be deepened and spread to the other countries in the region. In many cases, the most recent theoretical and methodological advances are systematically incorporated into bioarchaeological and paleopathological research, providing rigorous results. Interdisciplinary interaction in paleopathological studies needs to be deepened, although this is not exclusively a regional problem (Mays, 2012). In this matter, research groups completely oriented to paleopathological studies that include multiple kinds of data (archaeological, biological, medical, among others), are not yet common in southern South America and need to be addressed in the near future. More participation of South American scholars in international forums, such as the Paleopathology Association (PPA) meetings of North America and Europe, is another aspect required in order to create new collaborative bonds and to promote regional results and discussions, which in some cases are so isolated that they do not register on the international scene. Economic constraints of South American countries are an omnipresent obstacle to this aspect. Finally, another important issue to be highlighted is the need for the creation of methodological consensus regarding the criteria for the evaluation of variables, in order to ensure that the results generated by different researchers are comparable (Luna et al., 2014b). In conclusion, paleopathology in southern South America shows significant scientific dynamics, especially in countries like Argentina and Chile, and an accelerated development is expected in the coming years, with high-quality articles. In the remaining countries, research potential is remarkable, since they offer adequate samples, and the main goal is to achieve the formation of local specialized resources on the academic and societal levels that address paleopathological problems from a population perspective. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Sonia Colantonio and Douglas Ubelaker for their kind invitation to write this chapter, and Ana Luisa Santos for revising the abstract in Portuguese. 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A. 2014a. Desarrollos recientes en el estudio de la salud de las poblaciones humanas antiguas de Patagonia Austral. In Avances Recientes de la Bioarqueología Latinoamericana, eds. L. H. Luna, C. M. Aranda, and J. A. Suby, pp. 69–100. Buenos Aires: Grupo de Investigación en Bioarqueología. Suby J. A. 2014b. Porotic Hyperostosis and Cribra Orbitalia in Human Remains from Southern Patagonia. Anthropological Science, 122(2):69–79. https://doi .org/10.1537/ase.140430. Suby J. A. 2014c. Nódulos de Schmorl en Restos Humanos Arqueológicos de Patagonia Austral. Magallania, 42(1):135–147. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718 -22442014000100008. Suby, J. A., S. Costantino, C. Capiel, M. M. Lucarini, and E. Etchepare. 2013. Exploraciones de la Densidad Mineral Ósea y Osteopenia en Poblaciones Humanas Antiguas de Patagonia Austral. Intersecciones en Antropología, 14:433–445. Suby, J. A., and R. A. Guichón. 2009. Diet, Nutrition and Paleopathology in Southern Patagonia. Some Experiences and Perspectives. 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Tótora Da-Glória, P., W. Neves, M. Costa-Junqueira, and R. Bartolomucci 2011. Nonspecific Infectious Diseases in Prehistoric San Pedro de Atacama, Northern Chile. Chungara. Revista de Antropología Chilena, 43(1):135–146. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-73562011000100013. Tsuneto, L., C. Probst, M. Hutz, F. Salzano, L. Rodriguez-Delfin, M. Zago, K. Hill, A. Hurtado, A. Ribeiro-dos-Santos, and M. Petzl-Erler. 2003. HLA Class II Diversity in Seven Amerindian Populations. Clues about the Origins of the Aché. Tissue Antigens, 62(6):512–526. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1399-0039 .2003.00139.x. NUMBER 51 Varela, H., J. Cocilovo, M. A. Costa, and S. Quevedo. 2006. Evaluación de la Adaptación en Poblaciones Arcaicas del Norte de Chile. Antropología Física Latinoamericana, 4:31–46. Verano, J. 1997. Advances in the Paleopathology of Andean South America. Journal of World Prehistory, 11(2):237–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02221205. Verano, J., and G. Lombardi. 1999. Paleopatología en Sudamérica Andina. Bulletin du Institute Francaise d´Études Andines, 28(1):91–121. Vincenty, C. 2004. Aporte a la Paleopatología del Altiplano Boliviano. Archivos Bolivianos de Historia de la Medicina, 10(1–2):26–31. Walker R., and K. Hill. 2003. Modeling Growth and Senescence in Physical Performance among the Ache of Eastern Paraguay. American Journal of Human Biology 15:196–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.10135. Watson, J., B. T. Arriaza, V. Standen, and I. Muñoz Ovalle. 2013. Tooth Wear Related to Marine Foraging, Agro-Pastoralism and the Formative Transition • 323 on the Northern Chilean Coast. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 23(3):287–302. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.1247. Wilson, A., E. Brown, C. Villa, N. Lynnerup, A. Healey, C. Ceruti, J. Reinhard, C. Previgliano, F. Arias Araoz, J. González Diez, and T. Taylor. 2013. Archaeological, Radiological, and Biological Evidence Offer Insight into Inca Child Sacrifice. Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(33):13322–13327. https://doi.org/10.1073 /pnas.1305117110. Wilson, A., T. Taylor, C. Ceruti, J. A. Chavez, J. Reinhard, V. Grimes, W. MeierAugenstein, L. Cartmell, B. Stern, M. Richards, M. Worobey, I. Barnes, M. Thomas, and P. Gilbert. 2007. Stable Isotope and DNA Evidence for Ritual Sequences in Inca Child Sacrifice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(42):16456–16461. https:// doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0704276104. NUMBER 51 pneumonia, 296, 312 Poey, Felipe, 176, 357 political conflict, 33, 37, 240–242 Politis, G., 282 Pollero, R., 336 Pollet, T. V., 137 polymerase chain reaction, 2, 112, 129 polymorphisms, 113, 116, 132, 275; restriction fragment length, 2, 116; Y-chromosome STR, 198 Pomeroy, E., 136 Pompeu, F., 14 Ponce Sanginés, C., 313 Pontifical Catholic University (Peru), 244 Pontificial Javeriana University, 196 population: analysis of behaviors of, 1–2; in Argentina, 334; and bioarchaeology, 11, 204; and biodemography, 190, 333; and biological anthropology, 298; in Bolivia, 335; in Brazil, 13; in Chile, 298, 343; and demographic transition, 191; drift of, 116; effective size of, 6; and genetic structure, 115; history and structure of, 17; in Mexico, 90, 96–97; and migration, 131, 190; in Paraguay, 334; and pathological conditions, 174; polymorphism to evaluate origins of, 113; studies of, 89; in Uruguay, 334; in Venezuela, 252 population genetics, 112, 196–200, 354–355; and admixture, 333–334; and biological anthropology, 196; in Bolivia, 275–276; in Brazil, 1–3, 6; in Chile, 198, 270, 272–274, 298–299, 302, 354; and demography, 332; in Ecuador, 196–200; in Latin America, 196; in Paraguay, 275; in South America, 269–271; in Uruguay, 274–275; in Venezuela, 252–253 Poqomchis, 118 porotic hyperostosis, 26; in Argentina, 304; in Bolivia, 313; in Chile, 296; and osteology, 221; and paleopathology, 222, 357; in South America, 228–229; in Uruguay, 314 Portas, M., 336 Portugal, 190, 354 Pospísil, M., 168 Pott’s disease, 220 poverty, 134, 135, 345–346 Pradilla, H., 207 principal components analysis, 167 Procuraduría general de Justicia del Distrito Federal (PGJDF), 80, 81 Procuraduría General de la Republica (PGR), 80, 81 Programa Educacion, Salud y Alimentacion, 102 Program of Reproductive Ecology of the Argentinean Chaco, 346–347 Program of Social Nutritional Promotion (Argentina), 346 Project Biedma (Argentina), 346 Project Venezuela, 244 pubic symphysis, 64 Pucciarelli, H. M., 284, 334, 344 Puerta, M., 205 Puerto Rico: abortion in, 193; admixture in, 151–154; and biodemography, 191; LSAMAT at, 177; and paleopathology, 174–175, 178–183; peopling of, 150; slaves in, 156 pulmonary diseases, 296, 312, 357 Py-Daniel, A. R., 14–15 Quatrefages, Armand de, 23 Quechua Indian Project, 342 Quechuas, 128, 136 Quevedo, S., 242 Quilombolas, 44–49, 51–53 racial taxonomy, 284 radiocarbon dating, 221 radiology: and forensic anthropology, 243; of mummies, 225; and osteopathology, 74; and paleopathology, 221, 227, 229, 357 Radovich, J. C., 335 Ramos, Arthur, 34, 38 Ramos, C. V., 44 Ramos Galván, R., 98, 99 Red Cross, 81 Regalado Ruiz, Luis Alberto, 81 Reich, D., 117 Reinhard, Karl, 26, 27 Reiss, W., 220 Relethford, J. H., 298, 304 renine-angiotensine-aldosterone system, 136 reproduction, 353, 354; in Argentina, 334, 336; and biodemography studies, 333; in Bolivia, 335; in Caribbean, 192; in Colombia, 250; in Cuba, 192–193; and demographic transition, 191; in Ecuador, 252; and nutrition, 137; and slaves, 336; in Venezuela, 253, 263 Restrepo, A., 196 Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), 241 Rex González, Alberto, 304, 344 rheumatoid arthritis, 16 Ribeiro-dos-Santos, Ândrea K. C., 5 Ribeiro-Rodrigues, E. M., 5 Richards, D. G., 334 Ringuelet, S., 303 Ringuelet, Susana, 344 Rio Dalenz, J., 313 Rivero de la Calle, Manuel, 166–168, 176, 177, 357 Rivet, Paul, 219 Rocco, P., 272 Rocky Mountains fever, 133 Rodrigues Carvalho, Claudia, 12, 14, 15, 26 Rodríguez, C. A., 207 Rodríguez, Ernesto Leon, 209 Rodriguez, J. V., 342 Rodríguez, J. V., 219, 220, 240, 241 Rodríguez Cuenca, José Vicente, 85, 205 Rodríguez-Flórez, Carlos David, 209, 356 Rodríguez-Larralde, A., 197, 199 Rodríguez Suárez, Roberto, 163 Rodriguez-Varese, S., 274 Rodríguez-Varese, S., 335 • 383 Roksandic, I., 168 Romano Pacheco, Arturo, 60, 74, 80, 81 Romero, Javier, 60 Romero, P., 273 Romero Molina, Javier, 72 Rona, Roberto, 343 Roquette-Pinto, Edgar, 12, 34, 356 Rosales, A., 106 Rose, Jerome C., 61–62 Rothhammer, F., 270, 273, 312, 343 Rouse, Irving, 150, 162 Rovira, T., 271 rubella, 133 Rubin de la Borbolla, Daniel, 60 Rubio-Fuentes, Alberto, 33, 34 Ruffer, Marc Armand: Studies of Paleopathology of Egypt, 173 Ruiz González, Judith, 72 Ruiz-Linares, Andrés, 5, 197, 198 Rupert, J. L., 136 Rwanda, 240 Saboya, M. I., 131 Sáez, A., 313 Saint Barthelemy, 151–152 Saint Lucia, 191 Saint Martin, 151 Saint Vincent, 191 Salas, A., 119 Salas, R., 208 Salazar, R., 242 Salceda, Susana Alicia, 344 Sales Cunha, Ernesto de Mello, 12 Salesian Polytechnic University (Ecuador), 250 Salgado, H., 208 Salles Cunha, Ernesto de, 24–25 Salzano, 5–6 Salzano, Francisco, 4, 104, 197, 199, 271, 334, 353–355 Samuelle, C., 335 Sánchez, Jesús, 60 Sanchez, J. P., 336 Sanchez, M., 208 Sánchez Compadre, E., 190 Sánchez Pineda, E., 105 Sandoval, J. R., 5, 275 Sanoja, M., 219 Sans, M., 4, 197, 199, 271, 274, 284, 336 Sant’anna, M. S. L., 42 Santo Domingo, 150 Santos, Fabrizio: 198 Santos, M., 116 Santos, Ricardo Ventura, 12 Santos, Sidney E. B. dos, 5 Sapelli, C., 335 Saul, Frank, 61, 70, 71, 84 Sauvain-Dugerdil, C., 333 Savorgnan, F., 335 scanning electron microscopy, 178 scaphocephaly, 71, 357 scarlet fever, 133 Scazzochio, C., 270–271 Scherer, L. Z., 15 schistosomiasis, 131 384 • SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY Schmitt, R., 275 Schmörl nodules, 222, 229, 314, 357 School of Anthropology and History of Northern Mexico, 71 Schottelius, Justus W., 219 Schroeder, D. G., 136 Schull, W. J., 270 Schultz, A., 113 sciatic notch, 81 scoliosis, 206, 313 scurvy, 222, 229, 357 Selby, H., 90 Sendero Luminoso, 243 Senegal, 134 septic arthritis, 206 serological analysis, 115, 130, 250, 270, 313 Serrano Sánchez, Carlos, 70, 81 Servicio Mé dico Legal (Chile), 328 settlement patterns: in Andean region, 298, 305; in Argentina, 303; in Chile, 299–301, 304; and paleopathology studies, 357 sex: aDNA in identification of, 66; bias of in admixed populations, 133; and biodemography studies, 333; and dental traits differences, 16; and dimorphism, 296, 298, 301, 304; estimates of, 81, 314, 316; and maturation, 105, 106; and osteology, 15, 34–35, 63–64, 83, 204–209 short tandem repeats (STRs), 118, 129, 275; autosomal, 119, 198, 199; Y-chromosome, 118, 199 Siboneyes, 150 sickle cell anemia, 3 Siegrist, N., 334, 337 Sierra Sosa, Thelma, 65, 66, 73 Silberstein, C., 335 Silva, D. A. S., 42, 44 Silva, H. P., 44, 46, 51 Silva, Sérgio Francisco da, 12 Silva, S. F. S. M., 14 Silva-Célis, J. E., 204, 205 Silveira, K. B., 52 Simoes, Aguinaldo L., 5 Simon Bolivar University (Venezuela), 244 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 4, 116; and migration, 6, 132; and population genetic studies, 5, 6, 118, 130, 131, 135, 154, 198 Siniarska, Anna, 105 Sisto, G., 343 skeletal biology, 356 skeletal remains: aDNA from, 275; in Chile, 312; and forensic anthropology, 34–35; measurements of, 284; in Mexico, 70; and paleopathology, 173, 218; and population genetic studies, 270; protection of, 204; and trauma, 15 Skoglund, P., 6 slaves, 133–134; in Africa, 150–151; in Caribbean, 150–152, 156–157, 177; and fertility, 336; in Latin America, 354; in South America, 270 smallpox, 133, 174–175 Smithsonian Institution, 245, 343 Snow, Clyde, 243, 327, 328 Soares, N. T., 44 social anthropology, 240, 326, 328 social sciences, 218, 244 Societe d’Anthropologie de Paris, 70 socioeconomics: and growth and development, 44–45, 96, 100–101, 104, 106, 136; and health status, 107, 134; in South America, 250, 254 Sotomayor, Hugo, 219 South America: and blood group studies, 128–129; dental studies in, 232–234; and forensic anthropology, 245–246; growth and development studies in, 252, 258–259, 342, 343; health studies in, 234; life expectancy in, 231; and paleopathology, 218, 316–317; population genetic studies in, 196, 198 Souza, M. M., 44 Spain: and biodemography, 190; colonization by, 275, 354; forensic anthropology training in, 83, 84; forensics experts from, 243; mass disappearances in, 240 Specialized Forensic Team (Peru), 243, 244 Spielman, R. E., 115 spina bifida, 182 spinal fusions, 206 spongy hyperostosis, 61 Squieren, E. George, 221 staphylococcal infections, 133 Steckel, Richard H., 61–62 Stemper, D., 207 Stewart, T. D., 113, 357 St. Kitts, 151 Storey, Rebeca, 73 Strange, J., 298 streptococcal infections, 133 stress, 16, 26, 72, 97, 136 STRs. See short tandem repeats (STRs) Stübel, A., 220 Studies of Paleopathology of Egypt (Ruffer), 173 Suarez Morales, O., 313 Suasnavar, José Samuel, 85 Suby, J. A., 313 Sullivan, L. R., 204 Sunderland, E., 240 Suriname, 152, 191 surnames, 130–131 Surraco, G., 271 Sutter, J., 332 Sutter, R. C., 299 Swanson, J., 113 sweet potato, 164 syphilis, 16, 71, 133, 174, 218 Syria, 240 Tabío, E., 163 Taboada-Echalar, P., 275 Tainos, 150, 162, 174, 175 Talavera, Arturo, 80 Tanner-Whitehouse method, 105–106 Tapia, M., 208 Tavares, B. M., 44 Technical Forensic Institute (Uruguay), 328 Technical Judicial Police of Venezuela, 244 Tello, Julio, 242 Tello, V., 246 Ten Kate, H. F. C., 303, 343 Teribes, 116 Terreros, María Cristina, 344 Thibon, F., 303 Thompson, L. M., 137 thrifty genotype, 135, 136 thyroid goiter, 313 Tiesler, Vera, 73, 74 Tiradentes, S. B. da S. P., 33 Tobago, 152 Torrado. S., 337 Torregrosa, L. J. Nieto, 98 trace elements, 66, 298 trachoma, 131 Tratado de biotipologia e patologia constitucional (Berardinelli), 34 trauma, 16, 71–73, 316; in Argentina, 303; in Bolivia, 313; in Caribbean, 176, 178, 179; in Chile, 296, 298, 312, 313; in Cuba, 177, 179; and forensic anthropology, 35; and osteology, 83; and paleopathology, 357; in Peru, 229; in South America, 222, 224–225; in Uruguay, 314 trepanation, 60, 72 Treponema, 133 treponemal infections, 174, 178 treponematosis, 16; in Argentina, 315; in Caribbean, 176, 179; in Chile, 296, 312; in Colombia, 208–209; in Jamaica, 177; and paleopathology, 218, 220, 357; in Puerto Rico, 180 Trichuris trichiura, 131 Trinidad, 152, 178 Trinidad and Tobago, 191 tropical diseases, 131, 219 Tsimane’ Amazonian Panel Study (TAPS), 342 Tsuneto, L., 275 tuberculosis, 16, 92, 133, 275; in Argentina, 315; in Caribbean, 179; in Chile, 296, 312, 313; in Dominican Republic, 177; medical techniques used to determine, 208; and paleopathology, 218, 220 Tuma, R. C. F. B., 42 Ubelaker, Douglas H., 33, 62, 205, 206, 220, 227, 245 Uchoa, Dorath Pinto, 26 UCV. See Central University of Venezuela (UCV) Ulguim, P., 15 ultraviolet radiation, 136 UNAM. See National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) United Kingdom, 83, 84, 326, 328 United Nations, 191, 334 United States, 83; and biodemographic studies, 190; and forensic anthropology, 326, 328; forensics experts from, 243; and Multinational Andean Genetic and Health Program, 342; and paleopathology, 178 NUMBER 51 Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, 71 Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV), 196, 219, 244, 245, 253 Universidad de Antioquia, 196–198, 219, 250 Universidad de la República, 284, 328 Universidad del Cauca, 219 Universidad de los Andes, 219 Universidad del Rosario, 196 Universidade de São Paulo, 37 Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 37 Universidade Federal de Pernambuco in Recife, 37 Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 37 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 5 Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), 70, 71, 80; forensic anthropology at, 81, 83–85 Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 219, 241 Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 334 University College, London, 200 University of Antioquia, 196–198, 250 University of Buenos Aires, 328, 344–345 University of Caldas, 196 University of Catamarca, 346 University of Chile, 343 University of Galicia, Spain, 199 University of Georgia, 342 University of Granada, Spain, 83, 84 University of Lancashire, 83 University of Rome, 198–199 University of Rome, Italy, 197 University of San Martin de Porres, 198 University of São Paulo, 2, 12, 15 University of the Republic, 284, 328 University of Utah, 117 University of Winnipeg, 168 University of Zulia, 199 urbanization, 134–135 Uribe Angel, Manuel, 240 Uruguay, 81, 336; admixtures in, 355; and anthropology, 284; and bioarchaeology, 284–285, 288; and biodemography, 190, 334, 353; birth rates in, 192; burial sites in, 285–288; and forensic anthropology, 326–329; genetic studies in, 191; growth and development studies in, 342; and migration, 335; mortuary practices in, 288, 289–290; and paleopathology, 314, 316; population genetics studies in, 270–271, 274–275; populations of, 270; population studies in, 334; regions of, 282 Uruguayan Forensic Archaeology Investigation Group (GIAF), 328 • 385 U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 190 Usaquén, William, 198 U.S. Virgin Islands, 151, 178 Vitolo, M. R., 42 Vivar, J., 242 Vivenes de Lugo from Eastern University (UDO), 199 Valdivia, Luis, 242 Valencia, A., 206 Valencia, Luis, 80, 81, 83 Valencia-Caballero, Lorena, 80, 81 Valencia Pavón, Margarita, 81 Valenzuela, Carlos, 343 Valls, A., 190, 240 Van der Hammen, T., 206–207 Van Gerven, D., 218 van Oven, M., 275 Varcárcel-Rojas, R., 179 Varela, C., 336 Varela, H. H., 298, 299, 305 Vargas, Luis, 80, 81, 84 Vargas-Arenas, I., 219 Vargas y Vargas, Luis, 70 Vaupel, James W., 190; Paleodemography, 64 Vázquez, V., 193 Venezuela, 128, 136; admixture in, 133, 134, 157, 197–199; and bioarchaeology, 204, 211–212; and biodemography, 353; and biological anthropology, 219, 252, 253; and forensic anthropology, 32, 244–245; and funerary archaeology, 209; genetic studies in, 129, 130, 191; growth references in, 256–258; and migration, 135, 162; and osteometry, 219, 252; and paleopathology, 218–219, 222, 225, 227, 229, 231, 234; population genetics studies in, 196, 197, 199, 200, 354; population of, 115 Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research (IVIC), 196–199, 253 Vergne, M. C., 14 Verruga Peruana, 133 Veselovskaya, Elizaveta, 85 Vicente de la Roche, M., 240 Vidal, H., 242 Vidart, D., 335 Viglione, H., 336 Vignati, Milcíades A., 343, 344 Villanueva, María, 80, 81, 98 Villegas, V. H., 313 Vincenty, C., 313 violence, 26, 135; in Argentina, 303, 315; in Chile, 296, 298, 312; in Mexico, 79–80, 83; osteological indicators of, 15; and trauma injuries, 71–72 Virchow, Rudolf, 24, 357 Wang, S., 271 Ward’s method, 166 Washburn, S., 284 weight: in Argentina, 347, 348; in Brazil, 42, 44, 50–53; in Latin America, 355; in Mexico, 96–105; in Venezuela, 244–245 Weiner, Joseph Sidney, 342 Weiss, Pedro, 242 WES analysis, 130, 132 Wesolowski, Veronica, 12, 26 Western Hemisphere Project, 16 West Indies, 156 Weston, D. A., 179 whole exome sequencing (WES), 130, 132 whole genome sequencing (WGS), 130, 131, 135 Wightman, A. M., 133 Wilbert, J., 196 Wilbur, A. K., 275 Wilkinson, Richard G., 72 Williams, S., 275 Windward Islands, 156 Winocur, Perlina, 343 Winter, Marcus, 72 Wolański, Napoleon, 105 World Health Organization, 98, 254 Wounans, 116 Xanthosoma sp., 164 Xavante, 115 yam, 164 Y-chromosome analysis: in Central America, 117; and ethnicity, 5; and migration, 132, 135; in population studies, 154, 271, 274, 275 Yugoslavia, 240 Yunis, E., 196 Zamia sp., 164 Zannier, G., 335 Zea mays, 164, 177, 178 zooarchaeology, 204 Zubillaga, C., 335 Zuñiga, I. J., 337 SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS SERIES For comprehensive guidelines and specifications, visit https://scholarlypress.si.edu. ABSTRACTS must not exceed 300 words. TEXT must be prepared in a recent version of Microsoft Word; use a Times font in 12 point for regular text; be doublespaced; and have 1” margins. REQUIRED ELEMENTS are title page, abstract, table of contents, main text, and references. FIGURES must be numbered sequentially (1, 2, 3, etc.) in the order called out; have components lettered consistently (in size, font, and style) and described in captions; include a scale bar or scale description, if appropriate; include any legends in or on figures rather than in captions. Figures must be original and must be submitted as individual TIF or EPS files. FIGURE FILES must meet all required specifications in the Digital Art Preparation Guide. Color images should be requested only if required. TAXONOMIC KEYS in natural history manuscripts should use the aligned-couplet form for zoology. If cross referencing is required between key and text, do not include page references within the key, but number the keyed-out taxa, using the same numbers with their corresponding heads in the text. 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Suby, J. A. y L. Luna 2019. Paleopathology in Southern South America. Recent advances and future challenges. En: Ubelaker, D. y S. Colantonio (Eds.), Biological Anthropology in Latin America: 311-324. Smithsonian Institution Scholar Press, Washington

Suby, J. A. y L. Luna 2019. Paleopathology in Southern South America. Recent advances and future challenges. En: Ubelaker, D. y S. Colantonio (Eds.), Biological Anthropology in Latin America: 311-324. Smithsonian Institution Scholar Press, Washington

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