Handbook Warnings

• HANDBOOK OF WARNINGS EDITED BY MICHAEL S. WOGALTER NorthCarolinaState University 15A LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2006 Mahwah, New Jersey London To my parents, Laur a and Ralp h and to my sister and brot her, Rosanne and Kevin and to all of my family, friends, colleagues, and stu den ts. Senior Acquisitions Editor: Assistan t Editor : Cover Des ign: Full-Service Compos ition: Text and Cover Printer: Anne Duffy Rebecca Larsen Tomai Maridou TechBooks Victor Graph ics This boo k was typeset in 9/11 pt. ITC Garamond Roman , Bold, and Italic. The heads were typeset in Novarese, Novarese Medium , and Novarese Bold Italic. Copyr ight © 2006 by Lawrence Erlbamn Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photosrat, microform , retrieval system, or any othe r means , without prior wr itten permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. , Publishers 10 In dust rial Avenue Mahwa h , New Je rsey 074 30 www.erlbaum.com library of Co n gress Cata loging-in-Publication Data Handbook of warn ings/ edited by Michael S. Wogalter . p. cm . Includes bibliographical references and index . ISBN 0-8058-4724-3 (cloth : alk. pape r) 1. Risk communication. 2. Warnings. I. Wogalter , Michael S., 1955 TI0 .68.H37 1999 620.8-dc22 200 5029220 Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper , and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 • CONTENTS Series Foreword xi Foreword xiii Preface xv About the Editor xix Editorial Advisory Board xxi Part I INTRODUCTION 1 Purposes and Scope of Warnings 2 3 Michael S. Wogalter A Brief History of Warnings Da vid Egibnan and Susanna Rankin 11 Bohme Part II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3 Methods and Procedures in Warni ng Research 4 23 Tonya L. Smith-Jackson and Michael S. Woga lt er 21 Postexpo sure Evaluation of Warn in g Effectivene ss: A Review of Field Studies and Population~Based Research D av id M D e]oy, Kenzie A. Cameron, and Lindsay J Della V 35 vi • CONTENTS Part III MODELING THE PROCESS 5 Communication -Human Information Processing (C-HIP) Model 7 51 Michael S. Wogalter 6 49 Optimal Warnings: An Information and Decision Theoretic Perspective 89 Mark R. Leht o Human Factors Models 63 Mark R. Leht o Part IV SOURCE AND CHANNEL PREDELIVERY ASPECTS 8 Warning Sourc e 9 11 I Eli P Cox Ill and Michael S. Wogalter l 09 Warning Channel : Modalit y and Media 123 H. Harvey Cohen, Joseph Cohen , Christina C Mendat, and M i chael S. Wogalter Part V VISUAL WARNINGS IO Consumer Produ ct Warnings: Resear ch and Recomm endations 12 137 Rese arch on Warning Signs Gabr iel K R ousseau and Michael S. Wogalter 147 Warning Symbo ls 159 Michael S. Wogalter, N Clayton Silver, S. Da vid Leonard, and Helen Zaikina Mmy F Lesch II 135 13 Road Warnings With Traffic Contro l Devices Robert E. Dew ar 177 CONTENTS • Vii Part VI AUDITORYAND ACTIVEWARNINGS ' 16 !...'lIntrod uction to Auditory Warni ngs a.., d Alarms 189 187 Responses to Dynamic Warnings 221 Joachim Meyer !::!en Haas and Judy Edwortby 17 - "J Comp lex Nonv erbal A uditory Signa ls :and Speech Warnings / Active Warnings: False Alarms 231 James E Bliss and Corey K Fallon 199 _'udy Edu;o rtby and Elizabe th H e/lier Part VII POSTRECEPTIONPROCESSING 243 s Att entio n Switch and Maint enan ce Jficbae l S. Wogal ter and William] 19 245 21 Vigilante,]1: Comprehe nsion and Retentio n of Warn in g Inform at ion 22 267 Ho lly E. Han cock, C. Travis Bowles, Wendy A. Rogers, and Arthur D. Fisk 20 .'v1enta l Mode ls of Warn in g Decisio ns: Id enti fy ing and Addressi ng Inform ation Needs Beliefs, Att itudes, and Motivation 289 D onna M. Riley The Persuasive Functions of Warnin gs: Theory and Mode.ls 301 Kenzie A . Cameron and David M. D e]oy 23 Behavioral Complia nce: The ory, Methodology , and Results Michael J Kalsber and Kevin J Williams 313 279 Ba ru ch Fiscbhoff and Sara Eggers Part VIII INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES AND EXTRINSICFACTORS 333 24 Receive r Characteristics Tonya L. Smith:fackson 335 25 Expectat i ons Alison G. Vredenburgh 345 and I lene B. Zackowitz Viii • 26 CONTENTS Warnings and Aging: Describin g the Recei ve r Characteristics of Older Adults 27 Cultu re and Warnings 363 Tonya L. Smith -Jackson 355 Christopher B. Mayhorn and Kate I. Podany 28 Extrinsic Nonwarning Factors 373 Alison G Vredenburgh and Jessica He lmick-Rieb Part IX GUIDELINES FROM RESEARCH 29 Typography and the Visual Des ign of Warnings 31 385 Signa l Words Explicit Information in Warnings 419 Kenneth R. Laughery, S1: and Danielle Paige Smitb Jorge Frascara 30 383 407 Elizabeth He/lier and Judy Edwortby Part X DEVELOPMENT METHODS 32 Hazard Analys is as Part of the Safety Information Deve lopment Process 36 43 1 An Overview of the ANSI Z535 Sta nd ard s for Safety Signs, Labels, and Tags Practical Aspects of Gra phic s Related to Safety Instruction s and Warning s 463 Daniel A. Johnson Stepbe n L. Youn g 33 429 37 U.S. and Inte rnational Sta ndards for Safe ty Symbo ls 477 Shelley Waters Deppa 437 Geo.ffi·ey M. Peckbam 14 38 Deve lopment and Objec tives of the ANSI Z535 Series of Stand ard s for Safety Signs and Colors: A Histo rical Pers pe ct ive 35 39 Warning Degradation and Durability Naomi E Glasscock and Na than T. Dorris ISO Design Standard s for Safety Signs and Lab e ls Geoffrey M. Peckham 455 487 Michael S. Wogalter, Vincent C Conzola, and William J Vigilante, ]1: 445 Stephen L. Young, J Paul Frantz , Tim otby P Rh oades, and Steven M. Hall Applying Usa bility Engineering Principles to the De sign and Testing of Warning Text 499 CONTENTS • ix Part XI REGULATIONS - ._, ·~·arn ing Information in the Labeling arid Adv ertising of Pharmaceuticals 513 43 Regulatory Requirements for Motor Vehicle W~ngs 515 553 James P Foley Sam::y JI. Ostro ve Consu mer Product Safety Commission: :::>ev e lopment of Product Warnings 44 529 Shelley Waters Deppa An Overview of the Principal U.K. Systems for Safety Warnings and Signage 565 Anarew K. Weyman -l Warni ngs and the U.S. Occupational Safety an d Health Administration 537 --imb et ·ly A. Monro e ana Gary Orr Part XII CIVIL LITIGATION -'J : r:e Duty to Warn in Products Liability 583 50 • ::i.-zw rt ,vfadden -c "7he Quie t Revolution in Post-S ale Duties - I :arni ng Duties for Risks to Children '. 1 51 597 _\/. Stu ar t Madden 4.8 The Warn ing Expert in Civil Litigat ion Allocation of Responsibility for Injuries Keri n } Willi am s, M i chael] Kalshe1; and Kenne tb R. La ugbery J 629 Williams , and Consider the So urce: Warnings and Anti-Warnings in the Tobacco, Automobile, Bery llium, and Pharmaceuti cal Indu stries 635 Susanna Rankin Bobine ana D avid Egi lman 605 Ken ne th R. Laughery, S1: and Michael S. Wogalter ~q Jury Decision Making in Civil Litigation: Compensatory and Punitive Awards Danielle Paige Smith , Ke v in Mich ael } Ka/sher 589 -~!.Stua r t Madden 58 1 52 617 Marketing Versus Warning Eli P. Cox III 645 X • CONT ENTS Part XIII SELECTED APPLICATIONS AND CASE STUDIES 53 59 Design of Warnings for Physical Tasks: Slips , Trips, Falis, and Manual Materials Handling 655 54 60 Alcohol and Tobacco Warnings David P. MacKinnon 55 669 61 Motor Vehicle Warnings 687 Warnings and Hazard Communications for Nat ural and Technological Disasters Christopher B. Mayhorn, Jeffrey A. Orrock FIRE WARNINGS 701 Warnings and Markings for Stairwa ys and Ped e strian Terrain 62 63 Revisions of Labeling for Personal Watercraft : Labe l Devel opme nt and Evaluation Stephen L. Young , J Paul Frantz , and Timothy Rh oa des Risk Communication for Legal, Financial , and Privacy Agree ments and Mass Media The Future of Risk Communication: Tec hn o logy-Based Warning Systems 771 783 Michael S. Wogalter and Christo pher B. Mayhorn 723 P. Append ix: Bibliograp hy of Standards 805 825 / : 763 Man-Sung Yim, and James M. Miller and Chris Parent Auth or Inde x Subject Inde x Color Plates 755 Marc L. Resnick 711 H. Har vey Cohen and Jake Pauls 58 Pharmac e utical Risk Management and Liva Nohre Robert Brady Williamson 57 739 and Brian Kaplan Louis A. Morris Vicki L. N eale and Tbomas A. Dingus 56 Warning Symbol De velo pment: A Case Study on Teratogen Symbol Design and Evaluation Ri chard Goldsworthy Bohdana Sherehiy, Da vid Rodrick , Waldemar K arwowski, and Michael S. Wogalter 653 795 • SERIES FOREWORD which is illustrated in over 220 figures and more than 65 tables. Over 3,800 references are provided for further in-depth study on warning design , use , and litigations . Design and use of warnings are a suppl ement co, and not a substitute for, safe products and process design , effective se lection of personnel , and the implem entation of sound education and training methods. However, the design of effective humancentered warnings that comply with standards w ill tend to reduce error rates , mishaps , and accidents. Thus , the effective use of this Handbook will contribute to the reduction of errors , mishaps , acc iden ts and effect ive use of this will increase the ease of interaction of people with the surrounding environment . The Handbook should be of special use to huma n factors and ergonomics professionals , safety engineers , produ ct and process design en gineers , and trial lawyers. -Gavriel Salvendy Series Editor ~r.J:i th e rapid introduction of highl y sophisticated computer , :ete)c ommunication , service , and manufacturing syste ms , a =io r shift has occurred in the way people use technology 2:::!C!wo rk with it. The objective of this book series on Hu:::2ll Factors and Ergonomics is to provide researchers and _?C!l..'ti tioners a platform where important issues related to ::..::.c::se ch anges can be discussed , and methods and recommen_.::cions can be presented for ensuring that emergi ng techa.»Ogies pro vide increased productivity , quality, satisfaction , st:'e :y. an d health in the new workp lace and the Information »..-~~--:-C. e pre sent volume , Handbook of Warnings , has been by the most prolific writer and the leading international ry on wa rning design and use . The Handbook pr ovides -,,::d!eor y. design , usage , litigations , and case studies relatin g v.-unin g . The 63 chapters of the Handbook provide the ex:::;>ie, e breadth and depth of the discipline of warnings, ~:cc -~o:i I xi I • FOREWORD Warnings research in re cent years has made good progress on virtually all of these fronts. We know a great deal more than we did 30 years ago about how to design warnings so that they are more likely to be effective. We have learned about some of the factors that may "get in the way " of a war ning being effective, such as fanilliari ty and cost of compliance. We also better understand that warnings are no safety panacea. There are often limitations on w hat can be accomplished with warnings. Indeed , these limitations are the reason war nings are the third line of defense in dealing with hazards. In this volume , the perspectives, issues , challenges, and factors prev iously mentioned as well as numerous other considera tions associated with the des ign and effectiveness of warn in gs are addressed by leadin g res earchers and scholars in the field. The chapters on th eory and models and thos e on research methodolo gy provide the reader w ith a broad perspec tive wi th.in which to view and evaluate the status of warnings research. The substantial coverage of effecti ve war ning desig n issues rep rese nts the mo st comp lete presentation of this subject matter to date. One sign of a maturing field of w arnings research ha s been the emer ge nce of var ious standa rds and regulations regarding warnings. Several ch apt e rs p rovide the reader w ith examples of regulations th at cover a broad spectrnm of warnings app lica tions . The volume also contains a sectio n wit h severa l chapters on the role of wa rnin gs in civil litigatio n. Warnings have come to play a significant role in product liability and pe rsonal injury litigation. The rea der should find this group of chap ters most interesting. Th e fin al section in th e book contain s so me sp ecific applicat ions of w arning s along w ith selected case studies . Here th e reade r can find important example s of the role of warnings. In summary, thi s Handb ook represents a major contribution to the field of wa rnin gs. The editor , Michael Wogalter , is to be co ngra tul ated for his selection of topics , the manner in w hich the y are organized , and th e exc eptional array of auth ors he has re crnited . This volume should occupy an important place on the s helf of all w ho share an interest in th e role of war nin gs in making our wor ld a safer place. -Kenneth R. Laughery , Sr. 1"b::: J)3St few decades have w itnessed a substantial increa se in ~ on warn ing design and effectiveness. Theoretical per-;,i:::crr eshave been proposed , methodological issues have been ~ ~ - and a considerable body of research findings have ~ ::epo ned. Th.is volume represents a landmark event in this ~.a nt and growing field of work. i.-run gs have an in1portant role in safety. Their purpose C111;. ::,.: \'iewe d from a few differ ent perspectives. At a general - 'i\-arnings are intended to reduce or prevent accidents , ;,c:S. h ealth problems , and property damage. At a different ~ W:lrnings can be regarded as a method for communicat- :sz:fer y-related information to a target audience who can then ::>errer informed decisions regarding safety issues. This ~ goal is related to people 's righ t to know , that is, to be ~ abo ut safety problems confronting them . A third per~ -c is that warnings are intended to influence or control ~.;:p:e - be havio r in ways that will res ult in improved safety. ~f-.· purp ose , applicable in some situations, is that warnings ..=c:nde d to re mind people , that is, to call into awareness mz;:u;= t and timely safety information or knowled ge that may ~ be latent in long -term memory . f: .'..c:aling w ith hazard s associated wi th environments , prod ~ « tas ks, warnings are generally considered a third line of ~be hind design and guard ing . This classic hazard -co ntr o l k:::2::-d:y defines a sequence of preferred safety strat egies . If one ~ m eliminate hazards through alternative designs, and if · =...: po ssible to effective ly separate people fro m the hazards .;il guar ding , then warnings offer a strategy for achiev • - s;:::"c:yby providing important information to the human (s) e..!. '"":..:-cif ec tiYe commun ication of warn in gs, howe ver, is not .I ~r ma tter. What need s to be warned , when to w arn , and :... -warn are only a few of the relevant questions important 'r!x v.arnin g designer. The information processing ab ilities t?:rrr...a tio ns of people represents a sub sta ntial domain of :.ccgethat is relevant to the designer. There are also nu~_ :ssues assoc iate d w ith the target audience, that is, those zze be ing war ned . People are not always reliable; we are ....m mesame toda y as we were yesterday , and we will very _ .igain be different tomorrow. Further , no two people are C'Rl:' a.tctl y alike . We vary on virt ually eve ry dimension includ ~ e nce , langu age, com p ete ncy, and so on. The se factors :-ep:ese ot cha llenges to the design of war nin gs. xiii