Excavations
next to House H1
in ‘Marea’ (Egypt)
in 2017
Abstract: Archaeological excavations in the 2017 season
continued the investigation of the early Byzantine and early
Islamic House H1 in the northeastern part of ‘Marea’. The
building had already been excavated, but required further study
to identify the type and function of structures in its immediate
vicinity. Five stratigraphic trenches were excavated, exploring
a well shaft, one of the wall abutments, a small cell added to
the building, a sewer and streets with an accumulation of debris
and rubbish. This also enhanced a better view of the house
surroundings as well as their development in the course of the
6th century and later. A range of Roman ceramics from layers
underlying the house was also discovered in the deepest of the
trenches.
Keywords: early Byzantine, early Islamic, house, streets, pottery,
‘Marea’, Egypt
The ‘Marea’ site is located on the southern shore of Lake
Mareotis, near the modern village of Hawwariyah and
about 40 km southwest of Alexandria. The identification of the ancient name of the settlement has long been
disputed (Rodziewicz 2003: 27–38; Wipszycka 2012),
even so most researchers continue to refer to the place as
‘Marea’. Intermittent excavations since 2011 have focused
on the uncovering of a house designated as H1, a feat
finally completed in 2016 (Kościuk 2012: 29–32; Babraj,
Drzymuchowska, and Willburger 2014: 48; Wielgosz-Rondolino and Gwiazda 2016) [Fig. 1].
PAM 28/2 (2019)
Mariusz Gwiazda1
Aleksandra
Pawlikowska-Gwiazda2
Institute of Archaeology
University of Warsaw
1, 2
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 28/2
Gwiazda and Pawlikowska-Gwiazda 2019: 61–79
DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0013.6879
Team
Dates of work: 11 October–27 November 2017
Director: Krzysztof Babraj, archaeologist (Archaeological Museum in Kraków)
Deputy Director: Prof. Tomasz Derda, papyrologist, epigrapher (Institute of Archaeology, University
of Warsaw)
SCA representatives: Mai Ibrahim Abed El Monem (archaeology), Amr Ibrahim Ali Noah, Director of the
Fawzy el Fakhrany Storage Museum in Marea, Ashref Mohammed Abed El Samea (conservation),
Mohamed Abdelbaset Ahmed (conservation), Sherif Ayman Saad Ahmad (survey)
Archaeologists: Anna Drzymuchowska, ceramologist (Archaeological Museum in Kraków),
Dr. Mariusz Gwiazda (independent), Aleksandra Pawlikowska (independent)
Architect: Daria Tarara, chief architect (freelance)
Numismatist: Dr. Piotr Jaworski (Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw)
Glass expert: Renata Kucharczyk (Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology UW)
Conservator: Tomasz Skrzypiec (freelance)
Survey: Prof. Krzysztof Misiewicz (Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw)
Acknowledgments
Special thanks are due Dr. Mustafa Amin, Secretary General of Egypt’s Supreme Council of
Antiquities, for his understanding of the work of the Mission and his special consideration. Also,
special thanks to Dr. Ismail Mohammed, General Director of Foreign and Egyptian Mission Affairs
and Permanent Committee, for generous assistance at all stages of the project. Our work could not
have been completed without the cooperation of Mr. Mustafa Mohamed Roshdy, General Director
of the Alexandrian Antiquities Department, and the generous help of Ms Samiha Noshy Rafla,
General Director of Foreign Excavations in Alexandria, who spent many hours helping the Mission in
administrative matters, and of Ms Amira Sabah.
The project was financed by the Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, University of Warsaw,
and by the National Science Centre Poland Grants DEC-2011/01/B/HS3/02184 and DEC-2012/07/B/
HS3/03638.
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
The house with its series of rooms
aligned around a central courtyard [Fig. 2]
was constructed apparently not earlier
than the 6th century, as indicated by
the archaeological data, and continued
to function in modified form through at
Fieldwork & research
least the mid 8th century. It is the only
residential building excavated in ‘Marea’.
Other buildings in its vicinity include
an early Byzantine church just across the
road, a port warehouse, quay and latrine
[see Fig. 1].
excavation around House H1
In 2017, an architectural examination of
the exposed parts of House H1 was coupled with documentation of ceramic vessels and coins discovered in earlier years.
Continued excavations helped to improve
the understanding of structures partly
uncovered in earlier seasons (T1) and four
more trenches, T6 to T9, were dug on the
southern side with the aim of exploring
the immediate surroundings of the house.
Fig. 1. Satellite image of the northeastern part of ‘Marea’ with the indication of the position of
House H1 (University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | processing M. Gwiazda)
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trencH t1
Clearing the space adjoining Room 22 on
the north in 2016 uncovered a room designated then as T1. It had a stone floor
and two unidentified installations, located
by the south and north walls respectively.
These rectangular enclosures were filled
with earth. The northern installation was
excavated. Some 2 m of deposits were re-
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
moved (before stopping because of a high
groundwater table) from a shaft measuring
1.00 m by 0.80 m [Fig. 3 bottom]. One of
the inside faces of the well was documented [Fig. 3 top]. The well (cistern?) was built
of limestone ashlars covered with pink
waterproof plaster and furnished with
typical openings in the walls enabling
climbing up and down inside the shafts.
Fig. 2. Plan of house H1 with the location of trenches dug in 2017 (University of Warsaw Marea
Archaeological Project | drawing D. Tarara, A.B. Kutiak, M. Gwiazda)
64
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
Fieldwork & research
The fill contained burnt bricks, fragments of amphorae (AE 3, LRA 1, LRA
5/6, LRA 7) and cooking pots (Pieri 2005:
77–84, 114–131; Dixneuf 2011: 97–111,
154–173; see Engemann 2016: 31, Pl. 12, Form
C 54) [Figs 4, 5:1–5].1 There was also a fragment of a porphyry slab with rounded edge
and coins from the 5th and 6th centuries.
Judging by the dating of the ceramics, the
installation may have gone out of use by the
end of the 6th or in the 7th century.
trencH t6 and t7
The L-shaped trench T6 was traced
west of rooms 6, 18 and 19 of the house,
the objective being to trace the stone
structures observed on the ground.
The maximum length of the trench
Fig. 3. Well (cistern?) in trench T1: bottom, view of the enclosure looking north; top, west wall
of the shaft (University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | photo M. Gwiazda; drawing
A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda, digitizing M. Gwiazda)
1
The calcium residue on the inside wall of the cooking pot below the rim suggests that it was
used to boil water.
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65
Egypt
explored was 9.20 m, the width 8.20 m.
The top of the collapsed west wall of
House H1 was cleared and found to
extend a maximum of 6 m westward
[Fig. 6 top]. It consisted of practically
nothing but limestone pseudo-ashlars
with a large amount of mortar. The
small number of pottery vessels included some covered with mortar, sug-
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
gesting they had been mixed in with
the binding mortar before the wall
collapsed. Single fragments of LRA 5/6
amphorae [see Fig. 5:6] were found in
the top of the layer; lower down, numerous fragments of LRA 1 and LRA
5/6 containers were found along with
fragments of tableware (Egyptian Red
Slip Ware A) and kitchenware.
Fig. 4. Selected finds from the well/cistern shaft filling: top, fragments of LRA 1, LRA 5/6, LRA 7
amphorae and a cooking vessel; bottom, fragments of bricks and AE3 and AE4 residual amphorae
(University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | photo A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda)
66
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
Fieldwork & research
Fig. 5. Selected ceramic vessels from trenches T1, T6, T7 and T8: 1 – AE 3; 2 – LRA 1; 3 – LRA 5/6;
4 – LRA 7; 5 – cooking pot; 6 – LRA 5/6; 7 – LRD bowl; 8 – LRA 1; 9 – LRA 4; 10 – LRA 5/6;
11 – ERSW A, 12, 13 – LRA 1; 14 – LRA 4; 15 – LRA 5/6; 16 – handle; 17 – pot lid; 18–21 – LRD
bowls; 22, 23 – jugs (University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | drawing M. Gwiazda,
A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda)
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Egypt
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
Fig. 6. Trenches T6 and T7: top left, orthophoto plan of the combined trenches; bottom, street level
with the sewer in Trench T7, looking north (University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project |
photo and orthophoto M. Gwiazda)
68
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
A column of Aswan granite, 1.90 m
high, was found among the rubble in
the western part of the trench [see
Fig. 6 top]. It appears to be resting
directly on the tamped earth surface of
an ancient street and the rubble from
the southwestern part of House H1,
which apparently collapsed on top of
it. The assumption is that it had been
abandoned there some time before the
destruction of the building.
Trench T7 (extending T6 southward) was 2.65 m long north–south and
3.40 m wide east–west [see Fig. 6 top].
The surface layers consisted of rubble
associated with the destruction of the
House H1 wall. Below it, a sequence of
layers corresponding to successive street
surfaces was identified. A concentration
of ash, measuring 1.00 m by 1.50 m, lay
on top of these deposits. It does not
seem to have been related to the destruction because it is separated from
the rubble by a 0.10-m-thick accumulation of earth. Thus, it is presumably proof of a hearth burning nearby. The level
corresponds to finds of tableware (Late
Roman D ware, Hayes 1972: 379–382,
Form 9A, second half of the 6th century) [see Fig. 5:7] and fragments of LRA 1,
LRA 4, LRA 5/6 and LRA 7 amphorae
[see Fig. 5:8–10]. A layer rising eastward
might have been a provisional rubbish
dump. Numerous fragments of LRA 1,
LRA 4, and LRA 5/6 amphorae, as well
as tableware (ERSW A, Gempeler 1992:
78, Pl. 22.12, Form T 244), kitchen utensils and a fragment of a clay ventilation
pipe were found there, in addition to
fragments of residual amphorae AE3
and AE4, and a separator. The original
antique street surface, which under-
PAM 28/2 (2019)
Fieldwork & research
lay these accumulations, was furnished
with a sewer running northwest–
southeast [Fig. 6 bottom]. It had a covering of stone slabs. Mortar mixed
with crushed ceramics was used in its
construction. A tamped-earth surface
stretched east of the sewer, reaching the
outer wall of House H1.
trencH t8
The trench on the south side of House
H1, next to room 1, was 1.50 m wide and
4.50 m long. A thin-wall compartment
was recognized, attached to the walls
of the house in the western part of the
trench [Fig. 7]. The eastern part of this
structure was best preserved, while the
western and southern parts were completely destroyed, the only remaining evidence being impressions of mortar on the
adjoining structures. The unit measured
1.40 m from west to east, and 1.30 m from
north to south. The wall was 0.31 m above
the tamped earth level located east of it.
No artifacts that could help to identify its
function were found in it. In terms of the
architectural stratigraphy, it is younger
than the walls of House H1, but it cannot
be ruled out that it belongs to the first
occupational phase of the building.
The tamped-earth level east of the
unit was covered with a layer of crushed
mortar, most likely washed out from the
neighboring wall. Two layers with a large
number of broken vessels were found
above this surface. The ceramics included LRA 1, LRA 4, LRA 5/6, and LRA 7
amphorae, LRD bowl fragments (Hayes
1972: 379–382, Forms 9A–B, second half
of 6th–7th century) and two well-preserved jugs [see Fig. 5:18–23]. A hoard of
162 bronze coins from the 5th and 6th
69
Egypt
centuries was found in a pit, just 5 cm in
diameter and 10 cm deep, in the original
walking level next to the wall of House
H1 [Fig. 8].
The foundation of the south wall of
House H1 was examined and found to be
composed of unworked limestone rocks
(0.2 m x 0.17 m x 0.15 m and less), and
two courses of limestone pseudo-ashlars,
one without mortar in the joints and
the other already bonded with mortar
and partly plastered. The foundation
reached 0.50 m below the street level and
cut through several layers preceding the
construction of the building. The highest
Fig. 7. Plan of trench T8 with the position of a
compartment attached to the outer wall of the
building (University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | drawing A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda, digitizing M. Gwiazda)
Fig. 8. Hoard of coins found in a pit near the
wall of house H1 in trench T8; scale = 5 cm
(University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological
Project/photo M. Gwiazda, A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda)
70
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
layers contained a varied repertoire of
tableware (including LRD bowl, Hayes
1972: 373–376, Form 1, late 5th–early 6th
century), kitchen utensils, fragments of
LRA 1 and LRA 4.4 (Majcherek 1995:
169, late 6th–7th century), and LRA 5/6
[Fig. 9:1–5]. In addition, animal bones and
numerous small fragments of ceramic vessels were identified, some of which were
water-washed [Fig. 12 top]. The oldest of
the layers found thus far lay directly below the foundation level of House H1. It
contained large quantities of Roman AE3
and AE4 amphora sherds, separators and
charcoal inclusions [see Fig. 9:6–9].
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
Fieldwork & research
Fig. 9. Selected ceramic vessels from trenches T8 and T9: 1 – LRD bowl; 2 – LRA 1; 3, 4 – LRA 4;
5 – LRA 5/6; 6 – AE3; 7 – AE4; 8, 9 – separators; 10 – LRD bowl; 11–21 – ERSW A; 22 – frying pan;
23 – pot lid; 24 – cooking pot; 25 – carinated bowl; 26 – LRA 5/6; 27 – lantern(?); 28 – saucer lamp
(University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological Project | drawing A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda, digitizing M. Gwiazda)
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trencH t9
The trench dug east of Rooms 12 and 13
was 2.40 m long north–south axis and
4.00 m wide east–west (later reduced
in size). The objective was to verify the
presence of a wall and additional rooms
east of the house. The latest accumulations consisted of silt with a lens of
ashes and a large number of ceramic
vessels representing a broad repertoire
of forms: a small number of LRD bowls
(Hayes Form 9A, second half of 6th
century), a plate with a painted scroll
motif, ERSW A, frying pans (see Bailey
1998: 38, Pl. 20), cooking pots with lids
(see Egloff 1977: 110, Form 116), carinated bowls (Majcherek 2008: 113, 114,
Fig. 40), a single handle of an LRA 1
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
amphora, much more numerous fragments of LRA 5/6, and lanterns(?) with
round perforations [see Fig. 9:10–27].
The deposit also contained a fragment
of a 7th-century oil lamp (Rodziewicz
1984: 106–109, 236, Pl. 65) [see Fig. 9:28],
animal bones and a small number of
glass objects.
The underlying deposit was 0.20 m
thick with a significant number of small
fragments of ceramic vessels with rounded edges [Fig. 11 bottom]. The deposit also
contained tableware (LRD and ERSW
A), LRA 4, LRA 5/6, LRA 7 [Fig. 10:1–7],
and Egloff 167 amphorae, dating this layer
and the ones above it to the second half
of the 7th century or later. The debris
underneath was composed of small ir-
Fig. 10. Selected ceramic vessels from trench T9: 1–3 – LRD bowls; 4 – LRA 4; 5, 6 – LRA 5/6;
7 – LRA 7; 8 – LRD bowl; 9 – ERSW B frying pan; 10 – LRA 5/6 (University of Warsaw Marea
Archaeological Project | drawing M. Gwiazda, A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda)
72
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
Fieldwork & research
Fig. 11. Selected small water-washed ceramics from Trench T8 (top) and T9 (bottom) (University of
Warsaw Marea Project | photos A. Pawlikowska-Gwiazda and M. Gwiazda)
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regular chunks of limestone mixed with
large lumps of mortar, the latter bearing
impressions of limestone pseudo-ashlars,
wooden beams, and bunches of reeds
[Fig. 12]. This material was certainly associated with the collapse of a wall and
ceiling of a room. The earth deposit upon
which this debris had collapsed yielded a
small amount of ceramic vessels, including LRD bowls (Form 9), a frying pan and
an LRA 5/6 amphora rim, with a terminus
a quo of their deposition in the second
half of the 6th century [see Fig. 10:8–10].
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
This layer covered a tamped earth level
mixed with crumbled mortar, abutting
the face of the house walls. It was the
lowest level uncovered during the excavations in this place.
A wall abutment made of pseudoashlars bonded in mortar reinforced
the east wall of the house, being located
directly in line with the extension of the
partition wall between rooms 12 and 13.
It was interconnected with the wall,
demonstrating its contemporaneity with
the construction of the house.
discussion
Fig. 12. Fragment of a lime-mortar ceiling with
imprints of reed bunches and wooden beams
(University of Warsaw Marea Archaeological
Project | photos M. Gwiazda)
74
The LRA 4.4 amphora fragment found
in trench T8, in a layer cut by the house
foundation, is a surprising discovery.
Vessels of the kind used to be produced in the late 6th and 7th centuries
(Majcherek 1995: 169), which may suggest a later than previously assumed time
for the construction of house H1. Considering the isolated nature of this find,
it cannot be ruled out that the sherd is
an intrusion from higher-lying layers.
In the same trench, a ceramic midden
of Roman AE3 and AE4 amphorae (on
these, Dixneuf 2011: 97–134) was uncovered in layers underlying this building.
Ceramic middens of this kind were recognized already in the 2016 season under
the southwestern part of this building
(Gwiazda and Wielgosz--Rondolino, in
preparation), confirming earlier assumptions concerning the settlement character
of this part of site between the 1st and
3rd centuries AD (see Babraj and Kogut
2015: 88).
Excavations in room T1 made it
possible to identify the function of one
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
of the installations located there. The
partly excavated shaft, made of pseudoashlars bonded in hydraulic mortar,
was certainly a well or cistern. Characteristic footholds for climbing, known
from the Christian basilica and the
saqiyah (Szymańska and Babraj 2008:
85, Figs 31, 32, 34, Phot. 71; 2012: 60,
Fig. 3), were previously identified in
other structures of this kind in ‘Marea’.
In the case of House H1, the presence
of a relatively narrow shaft may indicate that it was indeed a well wherefrom groundwater would have been
drawn (see Mycielska-Dowgiałło and
Woronko 2008: 23). Similar structures
are also present in other parts of House
H1. Two wells were found previously
in the northeastern and southwestern
parts of Courtyard 17. Another small
presumed well, built entirely of bricks,
was added to the east wall of the house,
east of Room 12. The installation uncovered in room T1 is different because
it was enclosed on three sides by walls
creating a small room that was probably originally roofed. Most probably,
this newly examined well was originally connected with a building located
on the north side, and only later incorporated into house H1.
A water drainage channel is known
from Courtyard 17, leading toward the
street on the west side of the house
(Gwiazda and Wielgosz-Rondolino, in
preparation). It connected to a much
larger public sewer recognized now in
trench T7. The inclination and orientation indicate that the sewage from this
2
Fieldwork & research
part of the settlement was discharged
south, towards an artificial bay/port (see
Rodziewicz 2010: Fig. 4.14) [see Fig. 1].
Excavations carried out in 2017
indicate that House H1 was a semidetached building as late as the end of
the 6th or 7th century; there were no
adjoining buildings on the west, south
and east, only a public space that was
most likely empty. Changes occurred,
but not before the end of the 6th or in
the 7th century: hearths, earth accumulation, construction debris and household rubbish (animal bones, ceramic
table ware, kitchenware and storage
ware).2 The ceramic evidence from the
dumps outside the house (especially
from trench T9) corresponds in terms
of forms and chronology to the material found in earlier seasons in the
latest phases of House H1. In the second half of the 7th century, rooms inside the building were also changed
and so was their use (Gwiazda and
Wielgosz-Rondolino, in preparation).
The collapsed wall of the southwestern
part of the building suggests that it was
about 6 m high where the staircase was
located (rooms 18 and 19). There were
no traces in the rubble of mud bricks,
which could have been used in the
upper part of the wall, despite extensive
attestation of this building material in
‘Marea’ (Szymańska and Babraj 2007: 57,
59–62, Figs 3, 4). It is also assumed that
mixed construction material was used
on the upper floors of Roman houses
at Marina el-Alamein (Medeksza 1997:
84). This discovery brings us closer
A concentration of broken ceramic vessels was located on the surface north of room 26 and
a clustering of discarded ostraca from the late 6th century lay by the wall of the house just
south of room 5 (T. Derda, personal communication).
PAM 28/2 (2019)
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Egypt
Excavations next to House H1 in ‘Marea’ (Egypt) in 2017
to knowing what House H1 may have
looked like in the last phase of use.
The discovery of fragments of mortar
ceilings with imprints of wooden beams
and reed bunches in trench T9 is also
important in this context. Architectural
elements of this type were found during
earlier excavations in this building, in
rooms 23 and 24a. They are also known
from the roof of the early Byzantine portico next to the theater building and auditoria on Kom el-Dikka in Alexandria
(G. Majcherek, personal communication,
17 September 2015). A similar construction technique, using palm branches, has
also been recorded in Roman houses in
Kellis (Dakhleh Oasis) (Hope 2015: 209,
Fig. 9).
The stub wall against the east wall
of the house was found to be an abutment for the wall between rooms 12 and
13. Being located already on the slope
falling away to the lake, the east wall of
the building may have been in need of
such reinforcement for structural reasons. A similar structure was uncovered
in trench T2 on the north side of the
house, where it supported the arch between rooms 24b and 25 [see Fig. 2].
Of interest are the small pieces of
water-washed ceramic sherds, found
in abundance in trench T8, in the levelling layers under the house, and in
trench T9, in the trash from the end
of the 7th century or later. Waterwashed sherds had also been found
in the levelling layer under the floor
of room 16 (Wielgosz-Rondolino and
Gwiazda 2016: 119–120). Rounded ceramics for wiping can be found in
ancient latrines (Czerner et al. 2016:
156), but this does not seem to have
been the practice in ‘Marea’ (Szymańska
and Babraj 2007: 62–63; 2008: 35;
Majcherek 2008: 107; Szymańska 2010:
402, Fig. 5; Babraj, Drzymuchowska,
and Willburger 2014: 48). The appearance of rounded ceramics in at least
two cases in the levelling layers under
the building may indicate some other
function for these objects at the site.
The granite column from trench T6
resembles columns of similar size excavated in the nearby Christian basilica
(Szymańska and Babraj 2005: 45–46), but
the overall number of finds of columns
is relatively small considering the size
of this church. The building must have
been robbed in one of the occupation
phases (late 7th, mid-8th century). The
column, found next to house H1, in a
street leading from the basilica toward
the northern part of the artificial bay/
port, could be construed as evidence of
shipping these architectural elements
away from the town. For whatever reason, this particular column was dropped
in the street.
conclusions
Excavations in 2017 demonstrated the extent of the area in which pottery dumps
related to the production of amphorae
in ‘Marea’ in the Roman period can be
found.
76
The discovery of another well in
the house indicates the self-sufficiency
of the household with regard to the
water supply. The street sewer in one
of the trenches is likely to have been
Mariusz Gwiazda and Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
connected with the drainage network
found earlier inside the house. A small
compartment was observed attached
to the southern facade of the building, whereas the east wall was abutted.
Excavations outside the house walls
showed that the space around it was free
of architecture, ensuring easy communiDr. Mariusz Gwiazda
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9984-9375
University of Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology
00-927 Warsaw, Poland, ul. Krakowskie
Przedmieście 26/28
mariusz.gwiazda@gmail.com
Fieldwork & research
cation. Except for the place where there
was a sewer, there was no stone paving.
At the end of the 6th or 7th century,
the streets around House H1 gradually
began to change character, becoming a
place for discarding rubbish. At about
the same time, House H1 began to change
both in form and function.
How to cite this article: Gwiazda, M. and
Pawlikowska-Gwiazda, A. (2019). Excavations
next to House H1 in 'Marea' (Egypt) in 2017.
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 28/2,
61–79. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.6879
Aleksandra Pawlikowska-Gwiazda
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4957-5860
PhD Candidate, Institute of Archaeology,
University of Warsaw
00-927 Warsaw, Poland, ul. Krakowskie
Przedmieście 26/28
az.pawlikowska@uw.edu.pl
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