Dove at The Window

T h is d i s s e r ta tio n h a s b e e n m ic ro film e d e x a c tly a s re c e iv e d 64—11,37 5 H U N T IN G T O N , A b b ie G e r t r u d e E n d e r s , 1 9 2 6 D O V E A T T H E W INDOW : A ST U D Y O F AN O L D O R D E R AMISH C O M M U N IT Y IN OHIO [w ith ] A P P E N D IX E S . Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , P h . D . , 1957 A n th r o p o l o g y U niversity M icrofilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, M ichigan R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. C O P Y R I G H T BY ABBIE GERTRUDE ENDERS HUNTINGTON 1965 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. DOVE AT THE WINDOW A STUDY OF AN OLD ORDER AM ISH COMMUNITY IN OHIO * A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF YALE UNIVERSITY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 1956 6y Abbie Gertrude Enders Huntington R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Old R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. DOVE AT THE W I N D O W ■ A STUDY ON AN OLD O^DSP. APISH COMMUNITY IN OHIO A religious, ag ri cultu ra l comm un it y in Ohio has been studiedover a period of five years. A single Old Order Am i s h Mennoni te church district was selected as the focus for the investigation. The community is des cr ib ed in religiou s terms as a chu rch that is in an Intermediate pos itio n b e t w e e n the Catholic and the P r o ­ testant churches. The Amish ritual an d liturgical calendar Is mere hishly d ev el oped than the Protestants' -though it is reduced by co m­ parison with the Catholics. "Tie Ami sh wi t h the Prot est ants admit of only two sacrame nts but the Amish have vestiges of the others. The Amish cer emony of anointing: w i t h oil differs out little from extreme unction. The A m i s h concept of the c h u rc h involves elements similar to those held by the Catholics (membership in the true church necessar y to salvation) and by the Protestants (there is no heirarchy of a ut h o r i t y beyo nd the local c o n g r e g a t i o n ). These beli efs lead to the formation of a local congr eg at io n that is very powerful. The .Amish co mmunity is d e li ne at ed by compariso n to folk c u l ­ ture wit h w h i c h it has many characte ris ties in common a lt ho ug h b a s i ­ cally the di ff e r e n c e is great. For the Amish co mmu ni ty is se lf ­ consciously ma int ained and the isolation kno wingly produced. This functional isolation is an important factor in the persistence of the basic oatterns of A m i s h culture. Some persist en t patterns observable are, 1) the codifi cat ion of values into a religious system that has been the most important single determ in an t th ro u g h o u t the history of the Amish; 2) a strong local congregation; 3) a- time or ientation toward the past; '+) a perioaocity of activirtires that is interre lat ed witTrUrhe various cycles of nature; 5) a conscious or semi-consc iou s a b ilit y to ov e r ­ look and ignore uni mp ortan t deviation; and a tendency to avoid generalization. Various specifi c material elements have beco me symbols of separa teness a n d these have persisted whe n otherwise they woul d have been lost. mhe gre ate st threat to the Amish com mu ni ty today is the high school at tenda nc e of their a d o l e s c e n t s . The t e a c h i n g in the public school is secular; by s tr es si ng nat ional h o m o g en ei ty public school te a c h i n g un dermin es the stre ngth of the local community; the teaching is future oriented.; it emphasizes the importance of educa­ tion and of intellectual pursuits. Another t h re at is the Selective Service prog ram which takes the you n g Amishmen out of the community to work two years in a lt er na tive service. This gives the young men an op oortunity to b ec o m e co mfo rtab le in the world b e yo nd the local congregation. Duri ng this period, the yo u n g men are especially susceptible to fore ign religious influences that cannot be i n t e g r a t ­ ed with the Amish religion. Social Security is a pot ential threat in that it might enable the individual family to receive support from a source other than the local Ami sh community. Amish adoles ce nce is characterized by cha nn el ed revolt a g ai ns t authority. This di ffic ult period can function b o t h for the good of the individual and the rood of the community. However, the tensions it produces are 5 n c re as ed by required high school at tendance and I—>7 service. Inspire of these threats so long as the Amish are able to respond, to the various problems as a. community rather than as a cluster of families or individual, they will persist, even if s p e c i ­ fic attributes of the ir culture arc- lost. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Fairfield Osborn and the Conservation Foundation and to Swarthmore College and the late Dr. .Louis M. Robinson I would like to express my appreciation for financial assistance that enabled me to carry on field-work. I would like to thank the teachers who have helped in my training: Dr. Paul B. Sears who first led me to see the interrelation of culture and physical environment, Dr. Alta Schrock whose enthusiasm for botany and her Amish heritage were equally contagious, Dr. Curt S t e m under whose gentle guidance I began my graduate studies, and the late Dr. Ralph Linton who helped with the early stages of this investigation. I am further indebted to Dr. Roland Bainton, Dr. Sidney M i n t z , and Dr. Stephen Reed who have made many helpful criticisms throughout the various stages of the work. I would especially like to thank Professor G. Evelyn Hutchin­ son wno has guided each step from the first flicker of inter­ est to the writing of the last word. Without his encouragement, guidance and inspiration this study would never have been made. I would also like to thank Dr. Margaret Mead for her help, particularly before my second trip to the community, when she made many specific suggestions for work in the field that proved invaluable. Dr. Robert Redfield's Cooper Found­ ation lectures at Swarthmore I found very stimulating and iii R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. especially helpful in developing a more comprehensive view of the field. Mrs. Margaret Redfield was not only encour­ aging in her interest, but also as demonstrating a success­ ful resolution of the roles of wife and scholar. I would like to thank Dr. Irvin Child for his suggestions on gather­ ing data on child rearing and Mrs. Boughton Cobb for her in­ tuitive insights. Dr. Melvin Gingerich and Dr. Harold Bender made valu­ able suggestions during the early stages of the study. Dr. John A. Hostetler’s Annotated Bibliography on the Amish was a great help. The American Friends Service Committee put me in touch with the Bural JLife Association of Richmond, Indiana, which was Instrumental in helping me select the community. I would like to thank Dr. C. Archie Crandell who intro­ duced me to Dr. Arthur G. Hyde, director of the state mental hospital, who kindly allowed me to study the records of Amish patients. At the hospital I was further assisted by Dr. Kogin- ski, Mr. Clarence D. Hooly and Reverend C. Wayne Balyeat who arranged for me to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings led by an Amlshman. During my first two trips to the community the Rever­ end William H. Stauffer and his wife Esther Stauffer were our hosts. They helped me immeasurably. Mrs. Stauffer teaches in the public school and with her help I was able to visit iv R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. all the rural schools, some of the retired teachers and school officials as well as those who were administering the schools at the time of my visit. Mr. Stauffer introduced me to the Amish family with whom I have spent the most time. I would also like to thank Dr. Bussel Oyer and Mrs. .Laura Oyer, Dr. Dan Hostetler and Mrs. Esther Hostetler, the lieverend Herbert Fretz, Mrs. W. A. Beachy (who taught me much about quilts), Mrs. Mar­ garet Brown and George H. Smith. Lovina Hurst, whose family left the Old Order Amish when she was a baby, and her husband David, who is the son of Mennonite missionaries, read the manuscript and made suggestions. Lloyd Merritts printed the photographs and Erna Huber, Christine Ford, Irene Soifer, and Betty Guillard helped with the typing. I come from an extended family that is almost completely gemelndschaft in its organization. help from them. I have had a great deal of I would like to thank Mrs. Ellsworth Hunting­ ton, Mrs. William F. Chamberlin, Mr. Henry S. Huntington, II. I would like to thank Ruth Stout for her help in criticizing the manuscript and Gdnes Ege for helping me organize my notes and books for moving. X wrould like to thank my Grandmother, Mrs. Frances S. Enders, for the hours, day after day, that she took care of my daughter so X could work up the material. And my Grandmother, Dr. S. Gertrude Crandell, who lives on the edge of the central Ohio community, for her help chauffeuring me around and for introducing me to scholars, officials, and Men- v R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. nonites in the area who worked with the Amish. I would like to thank my neice, Anne Huntington for accompanying me on one of the field trips and also my daughter, Abigail. My Aunt, Mrs. Louis N. Robinson, and my parents, Dr. and Mrs. Robert K» Enders have worked hard and long on this dissertation. They have provided the financial support, have cared for my daughter, at considerable inconvenience to themselves, and have helped with mundane tasks associated with such a project. Throughout the course of the study, my husband has worked with me, helping at each stage and turn. For their constant en­ couragement and assistance, I want t.o. thank them. My Ornish hosts were gentle and patient with the married woman who .did not know the work of a hired girl. As they showed me the simple skills, they taught me much more.- I hope I may pass some of this along as I try, with affectionate hon­ esty, to describe their life. vi R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f m e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... Page iii INTRODUCTION...... 1 Chapter I. SETTING AND HISTORY. 19 Setting History The Amish ; ■ Divisions of the Amish Church in America Growth of the Stoneyrun Chruch District of the Old Order Amish History of the Village of Stoneyrun History of the Herald IJ. RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION 58 The Scripture, the Confession and the Ordnung The Christian Year Christmas Good Friday Easter Ascension Day Pentecost Other Church Days III. BOUNDING THE COMMUNITY - MECHANISMS OF I S 0 LAT 10N"oaoaooaooooe«.oo.ooa.a.«**.i Concept of the Church The Published Ordnung Specific Mechanisms of Isolation Mechanisms Shared with Other Amish Mennonite Churches Dress Language Etiquette Education Limitation Patterns of Residency Prohibition Uniquely Oqd Order Amish Telephones Electricity Rubber Tired Tractors Automobiles Attitude Toward Machines Pictorial Representation of People R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 101 Page Changing Boundaries - How the Ordnung is Modified Amish'Methods of Social Control Used to Inhibit Innovation. Pressures for Innovation Differential Enforcement of the Ordnung Routes by Which Innovation Enters the Community IV. INTERACTION AMONG RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES 230 Degrees of Interaction Ceremonial Interaction Interaction Among Old Order Amish Churchs Ministerial Visiting Kiss of Peace Social Visiting Channels of Communication Economic Interaction Community of Consumption Patterns of employment Sharing of capital Mutual Aid (Pire Insurance) Response to the Polio Epidemic Interaction with Other Amish Churches The Sam Yoder Church The King Church and the Stutzman Church The Beachy Amish Church Interaction with Other Mennonite Churches The Conservative Mennonites Other Mennonites Interaction with Other Historic Peace Churches V, INTERACTION WITH THE W ORLD.. ................ 347 Relation to the World Religious Interaction Social Interaction Economic Interaction Relation to the State Voting, Oaths, Courts and Civil Office Government Agencies Social Security VI. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL. 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 ...<>«•.oooo*«o<>» 431 The Rural Grade School High School History of Amish Education in Stoneyrun, 1 8 1 1 - 1951 Recent Educational Developments in the Central Ohio Community Develonments in Stoneyruh Developments in the Country Adjacent .to Stoneyrun An Amish Parochial School R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Page Solution to the Amish High School Attendance Problem in Other States Possible Solutions for the Central Ohio Amish Community to Enforced High School Attendance . VII. MILITARY SERVICE. ... o .. ... ......... 515 Amish and Quaker Attitudes Toward War Pre-Revolutionary Experiences The American Revolution The Civil War World War I World War II Participation of the Old Order Amish Old Order Amish in Civilian Public Service Camp Experiences of the Home Churches Effect of V/orld War II on the Amish Community Universal Military Training and Service Old Order Amish Reaction to the I-W Program Old Order Amish Non-Cooperation with Selective Service Community Support of I-W Workers Problems Inherent in the I-W Program Community adjustment to the I-W Program VIII. TENSIONS WITHIN THE COMMUNITY............. Tensions Related to Community Structure Community Size Formation of New Communities Community Success and Failure Community Disorganization New and Old Communities in Ohio Tensions Resulting from the Influence of Contiguous Protastantism Oral Behavior Use of Tobacco Use of Alcoholic Beverages Religious Tensions German Reading Bible Study Relief Sewing Evangelism and Revivals Missions Tensions Related to Amish A.dolescence Singings and Other Social Gatherings Feigned Ignorance of A.dolescent Behavior Rowdiness Pressure to Join Church R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 605 Page C o m p a r i s o n of A m i s h and Q u a k e r Adolescent Experiences Courtship IX. C E R E M O N I A L I N T E G R A T I O N OR T H E C O M M U N I T Y ____ 784 C h u r c h Serv i c e I n i t i a t i o n of M e m b e r s - B a p t i s m E s t a b l i s h i n g of the F a m i l y - W e d d i n g S e l e c t i o n of L e a d e r s - O r d i n a t i o n Disciplining Members - Meidung R e s o l u t i o n of D e a t h - F u n e r a l Communion X . V I E W S OF T H E C O M M U N I T Y . ........ ........... . 1030 A Church T h e A m i s h C o m m u n i t y and the F o l k S o c i e t y Cultural Persistence BIBLIOGRAPHY.........c...;;.......................... 1056 APPENDIXES 1089 ............... R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. IN TR OD UC TION The p ri mitiv e all by itself, isolate, the community that is a whole is f a s t d i s a p p e a r i n g and anthrop olo gy is m o v ­ ing on to study com munities connected w i t h other that are more or less intimat ely communities, w i t h nationa l w i t h larger c i v i l i z a t i o n s . ^ states and All the c o n t e m p o r a r y community studies in this country and man y carried on abroad lead the investigator essential to assess f o r c e s that arise outside and yet are to an un d e r s t a n d i n g of the community. This is true of the study of an Old Order A m i s h Me nnonite The A m i s h are me mb e r s small co mmu niti es of a small Ch ri s t i a n sect that live throughout N o r t h America. have their own subculture, with the but they are surr ou nd in g cultures. but not s e l f - c o n t a i n e d . A m i s h community, the The The communities h ac h community is i n t e g r a t e d , study of the single Old Order subject of this dissertation, and to the culture in in constan t contact investi gat or out to other A m i s h communities, nonites community. leads the to other M e n ­ that surrounds and impinges on the A m i s h community. R e l a t e d to the d i s a p p e a r a n c e is a n interest in acculturation. of the pri mi ti ve P r im it iv e groups isolate in vary- 1. R o b e r t Redfield, P e a s a n t Soc iet y and Culture: an A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A p p r o a c h to C i v i l i z a t i o n (Chicago, 111.: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 1-34. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 2 ing degrees of cont act w i t h ot her cultures ject aspects of the larger culture. accept and r e ­ A c c u l t u r a t i o n studies analyze the resp o n s e s to dif fe re nt contact s i t u a t i o n s „ one extreme different is the culture that, while larger culture, main tai ns At in contact w i t h a its own configuration. The Old Order A m i s h Menno nit es have main ta i n e d their own subculture in spite of mi gra tio ns fr o m one country to a n ­ other and one lo c a l i t y to another. They demons trate a high degree of cultural p e r s i s t a n c e . The role of r e l i g i o n (often con fus ed wi th myth, and superstition) has long interes te d ant hro pol og is ts magic al­ though su ch interest has p e r i o d i c a l l y b e e n held in disrepute. R elig io n is g e n e r a l l y believe d. to be an important, the most important, cohesive in h um a n society. to under sta nd how r e l i g i o n fun ctions gra tio n and persistance, gions of diverse types; to produce it is n e c e s s a r y In order group'inte­ to analyze r e l i ­ it is ne ce s s a r y to show the r e l a t i o n of r e l i g i o n to soci al life in general. attempt 2 if not an analytic d e s c r ip ti on of one 3 in this study, I Chr istian s e c t . 2. B ron is la w Malinowski, Magic, Science and R e l i g i o n (New York: D o u b l e d a y Anchor Books'] 1952) , p~! 68; A"! R~] Rad cli ffe-Brown, " F o r e w a r d , ” to R e l i g i o n and S o ci ety Am o n g the Coorgs of South I n d i a , by M . N . S r i n i v a s , (O x f o r d : Cla rendon Press, 1952), p. v; Emile Durkheim, The E l e m e n t a r y Forms of the Rel ig ious Life, a Stud y in R eli gio ns (trans. J. W. Swain), (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1954). 3. E. E Evans-Pr itch ard , " R e l i g i o n , ” The I n s t i t u ­ tions of Pri mi tive Soc ie ty (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1956), p „ 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 3 There has b e e n some h e s i t a n c y to apply a nt hr o p o l o g i c a l m e t h ­ ods to ’’hi gher" re li g i o n s that sonal salvation, but include the concept of p e r ­ this h e s i t a n c y does not seem justified. The role of the A m i s h r e l i g i o n in shaping their social life and in p r o d u c i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g clearly evident. and the their social structure is The r e l a t i o n between the Amis h r e l i g i o n social structure of A m i s h soc iet y is more obvious, and more simple, than a p a r a l l e l r e l a t i o n obse rv ed among 4 the Hindu C o o r g s . T o d a y there is a re sur genc e of interest in Chr i s t i a n theology and r el ig io us traditions. Men non ites are of interest to tianity because attitudes they throw The Old Order A m i s h students of compara tive C h r i s ­ some light on the p r a c t i c e s and emerging during the Reformation, because somewhat intermediate p o s i t i o n b e t w ee n the C a th ol ic and Ameri ca n Protestan tis m, and be caus e of their ch urc h of their ow n unique f o r m of Christianity. The ensuing d i s s e r t a t i o n is an an aly tical an Old Order Am is h Me nnon ite co mmunity in Ohio. study of It does not attempt to an sw er a single q u e s t i o n or a series of questions, rather I have tr ie d to de sc rib e the co mmu nity in such a wa y that co mparison s can be made w ith other 4. M. N. Srinivas, R e l i g i o n and S o c ie ty A m o n g the Coorgs of South India (O x f o r d : Clare nd on Press, 1954). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 studies with: in the four areas 1) cultures, I have indi ca ted a b o v e , n am e l y studies of in tegrat ed but not sel f-co nt ai ne d 2) studies of cu ltur al persistence, the f u n c t i o n of religion, and 4) comparative 3) studies of Christianity. The Ol d Order A m i s h are a st ron gly commu nal p e o p l e who express themselves mo st fully, a church. n o t as individuals, Throug h o u t the d i s s e r t a t i o n the su b ­ can but as co mmu nity a s ­ pects w i l l be str es sed and the individual and the fa mily will be d i s c u s s e d only as they relate to the community. The ch ara cter of the A m i s h individ ua l and the strength of the A m i s h fa m i l y is cl osely tied to the fact that both d e ­ velop and gro w w i t h i n an A m i s h community. The f u n c t i o n of r e l i g i o n can be studied among the A m i s h for their r e l i g i o n has 5 ent of o the r factors. causal significance independ- 5. The influence of religio n is well il lu strated in Max Weber, The P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c and the Sp irit of -Capi­ t a l i s m , trans. Talc ot t P a r so ns (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1930). Some w r i t e r s would prefer to use the terms "va lue -p re mises " or " v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s ." However, all the basic v a l u e - p r e m i s e s and v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s of the A m i s h are r e l i g i o u s l y sa nc ti o n e d and in so far as they are formulated, they are e xpre ss ed in r el ig io us terms, su p ­ po rt ed by s u p e r n a t u r a l sanctions. Therefore, in d is cu ss in g the Amish, I bel ieve it is simpler and easier to em p l o y the terms " r e l i g i o n ” and "religi ous ." E t h e l M. Albert, "The Clas s i f i c a t i o n of Valu es, " Am e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , April, 1956, pp. 221-48. Clyde K l u c k h o h n and O t h e r s , "Values and Va l u e - O r i e n t a t i o n s in the Theory of Action: A n E x p l o r a t i o n in D e f i n i t i o n and C la ss if ica tion." In To war d a Gener al Th e o r y of A c t i o n , e d s . T. P a r so ns and E~ Shiles (C a m b r i d g e , Mass.: H a r va rd U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1952), pp. 388-433. Flor en ce Kluckhohn, "Dominant and Substitute Profil es of C u l tu ral O r i e n t a t i o n s : Their Si gni fi ca nce for the Analysis of Social Stra ti fic atio n," Social F o r c e s , May, 1950, pp. 376-93. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - The Old Order Am i s h have 5 - in common w i t h their non- Amish neigh bor s the same means of livelihood, sized, co mm er cial farms; (certain f a m i l y names are d e sc en t from Swiss or G e r m a n scock common to bo th the A m is h and the n o n - A m i s h ) ; kno wl ed ge of P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch; length of residence. namely family­ and a similar Yet the Old Order Am i s h r e m a i n not only dis tinct but distant f r o m the n o n - A m i s h about them. The r e a s o n for the distin ctnes s of the A m i s h cannot be their economic pursuits, mental situation, nor their ethnic unity, for these are shared w i t h the non-Aniish. The only re a l di ffe rence Vogt, in his nor the e n v i r o n ­ is the rel igi ous distinction. study of the H o m e s t e a d e r s , offers as his tral hypot hes is; "the va l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s cen­ are not m e r e l y dependent va riables but have b e e n one of the significant determina nt s of the in the course of events th rou gh ou t the h i st or y 7 community.n Among the Ol d Order A m ish their r e l i ­ gion has b e e n the mo s t important Arensberg states, ’’There single determinant. is in the U n i t e d States a O form of com mu nit y for every r e c o g n i z e d A mer ic an 6. The D u t c h today. culture.” children of the n o n - A m i s h speak v e r y little 7. E v o n Vogt, Mo de rn Homes teader s: The Life of a T w e n t i e t h - C e n t u r y F r o n t i e r C ommun it y (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1955), p. 2. 8. Conrad M. Arensberg, ’’A m e r i c a n C o m m u n i t i e s , ” Amer ic an Ant hropologist, December, 1955, p. 1160. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 6 The Old Order Am is h have similar whe th er Illinois. their own community f o r m that is it be in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ontario or It is an e x p r e s s i o n of their r e l i g i o n and is integrated by their religion. An A m i s h community consists of a cluster of church di strict s each w i t h its own m i n i s ­ terial body. The church distric t is integrated ritually; it main ta in s ri t u a l ties w i t h the ne ig hb or ing church d i s ­ tricts and w i t h more dis tant Amish communities. Amish communi ty is not a complete community. But the Rather it is a co nfigu r a t i o n on the edge of the Mai n Street "servicece nte r” : Ma in Street is p a r t i a l l y dependent on it and it is par tial ly dependent on M a i n Street, but there is no feeling of unity be tw een M a i n Street and the Old Order Amish community. or a community. cides w i t h Together they do not form a ne ig h b o r h o o d The boundary of the A m i s h communi ty co in­ the boun da ry of the church and this b o un da ry is ex pressed in reli gi ou s ra th er than spatial or p ol it ical terms. The ideological bo un da ri es are re inf orced behav- iorally. The Amish f o r m a p a r t - s o c i e t y or a subculture, but the de l i n e a t i o n is very d i ffer en t f r o m a p e a s a n t v i l ­ lage,^ a N o r w e g i a n p a r i s h , a 9. Redfield, Lozi c o m m u n i t y , o r P e a s a n t , o p . c i t ., pp. a 35-66. 10. J. A Barnes, "Class and Committees in a N o r ­ wegian Island Parish," H u m a n R e l a t i o n s , February, 1954, pp. 39-58. 11. Ma x Gluckman, "The Lozi of Ba rot seland in No rt hw estern Rh odes ia ," in Seven Tribes of Bri ti sh Central A f r i c a , ed. E l i z a b e t h Colson and Max G l u c k m a n (London: Ox fo rd Univ er s i t y Press, 1951). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 7 settlement of Yaqui laborers. 12 The remarkable c u l tu ra l p e r s i s t e n c e illus tr at ed by the A m i s h has b ee n d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y their relig io us beliefs and certain hi sto ric the negative and p o sitiv e accidents. In studying bot h accul tu r a t i o n of the Amish, it mu st be re mem b e r e d that the A m i s h sep ar ate d f ro m the North E u r o p e a n culture in w h i c h they had originated. quite a different differ ent cultures Since This is s it ua tion f ro m that of two h i s t o r i c a l l y coming into contact for the f i r s t time. their in s t i g a t i o n the A mi sh have be e n a small group living w i t h i n the larger cu ltu re f rom w h i c h they w er e d e ­ termined to remain se parate d. T hey c o u l d p r o b a b l y not have m ai nt a i n e d this s ep ar a t i o n ha d it n o t b e e n for the fact that during their early years in this count ry they were able and their separ at io n was to ob t ai n land in blocks aided b y the physica l recent times these conditions of the frontier. In more conditi on s have be en emulated b y the practice of always set t li ng in communities that i m m e di atel y develop the typical A m i s h social structure and are p r o ­ tected by id eol ogical and b e h a v i o r a l bo un darie s that help m a i n ta in the se pa ra tion that no longer physical. Ar izo na W i t h i n these 12. (Chicago, can be p r i m a r i l y communities the A m i s h culture can Ed wa rd H. Spicer, Pascua, A Ya qu i Village 111.: U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1940). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. in - 8 - continue. 13 Those fi ne d w i t h i n the asp'ects of their limits of the community, w i t h the su rro unding culture, sistence. This ship b e h a v i o r culture have far from contact shown the greate st p e r ­ is most true of religi ous and, that are c o n ­ to a lesser degree, ceremonies, court­ of child care. To re g a r d the A m i s h as a fossil culture or a living re mn an t of the s ix teent h c e n t u r y is a gros s o v e r s i m p l i f i ­ cation, dent for if they are studied that all b ee n modified, ica. specific exp res si on s to some extent, The m o d if ic at io n, small, but carefully, of their culture have since they have been in A m e r ­ compare d w i t h other groups, it is still substantial. their m e t h o d of transportation, gr ow and the w a y they cultivate the crops they them have w i t h i n the ha l l o w e d areas deep w i t h i n the some indications that the of change. p e r s i s t e d are a few b a s i c attitudes. is their all changed. E ve n com mun ity there In fact it w o u l d appear only aspects of the A m i s h culture p o r t a n t of these m a y be T h e i r costume has changed, are it becomes e v i ­ that have r eal ly P e r h a p s the m o s t im­ concept of the ch u r c h - c o m m u n i t y 13. In Eu rop e the A m i s h (with the same bel iefs their A m e r i c a n counterpart) we r e unable to develop their own social structure due to the scarcity of land that kept ind iv idu al families w i d e l y separated. In Europe the Amish have died out as a d i s t i n c t group. John A. Hostetler, n01d W o r l d E x t i n c t i o n and New W o r l d Survival of the Amish: A Study of Group M a i n ten an ce and D i s s o l u t i o n , ” Rural S o c i ­ o l o g y , September, 1955, pp. 212-19. H o s t e t e l e r attributes their e x t i n c t i o n to other fact or s as well, h o w eve r I fe el that the lack of an A m i s h social structure was crucial. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. as - 9 w h i c h encomp ass es " . . . m a n ’s cognitive view of the universe, man's r e l a t i o n to it, and man's r el atio n to other men." 14 A l s o of importance is the A m i s h concept of time. They have a pa st r at h e r than a future orientation, ing close to the land the m o o n is of grea ter the minute hand. ly in their baptisms, w e d d i n g s and seasonal occurr ence of been o r ga ni ze d around the areas of comparison. h i s t o r y and r e li gious the than communion. The d i s s e r t a t i o n has not cribed. importance The r o u n d of seasons is expr e s s e d r i t u a l ­ church services and the four po s s i b l e and l i v ­ Rat he r or i e n t a t i o n of the setting, the co mm u n i t y are de s­ The seco nd p a r t deals w i t h the me cha n i s m s by w h i c h community is isolated, communi ty and the religious groups. "the W o rl d" the social structure w i t h i n the i n t e r ac ti on of the co mm u n i t y w i t h other The r e l a t i o n of this p a r t - s o c i e t y to of the su rro und ing culture wi l l follow, the tensions exi stan t w i t h i n the d e s c r i p t i o n of the then commun ity and f i n a l l y a ceremo nial in t e g r a t i o n of the community. D e s i g n a t i o n of A r e a and In fo r m a n t s The church district that is the subject of this has b e e n g i v e n the fictit ious name of "Stone yr un. " study It is 14. Cor a Du Eois, "The D o m i n a n t Value Profile of the A m e r i c a n Cu ltu re," A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , December, 1955, p. 1233, p r o p o s e s that the value pre mi se s of any culture can be c o n s i d e r e d to rest upon the above ass umptions. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 10 on the edge of the largest Am is h community in Ohio and o c ­ cupies part of the t e rr itor y that formed the first Amish church to be established in that state. A l t hough the Ohio A mi sh com mu ni ty is now the largest in the w o r l d ha rdly been studied. 1S it has No w o r k has been p u b l i s h e d exclusive- 1g ly on the A m i s h of Ohio, and, to m y knowledge, no doctoral 15. D ep en di ng on the exact d e f i n i t i o n of what con­ stitutes a single Old Order A m i s h community, the Indiana community in El kh ar t and LaGrange counties ma y be larger than the central Ohio community. See A p pe nd ix I, Part A. All the Old Order A m i s h in Ohio do not f o r m a single co m­ munity. 16. Two works have some m a t e r i a l on the Ami sh f r o m w h i c h the Mennonites being studied arose. Nettie Glick, Hi storical Sk etch of the Wa l n u t Creek, Ohio, Am ish M e n n o n ite Ch u r c h (Sugarcreek, Ohio: p r i n t e d b y M en non ite Publish ing House, 1933). This p a m ph let contains o n ly 16 pages. John Umble, Ohio Men noni te Su nday Schools (Goshen, Ind.: Menno ni te Hi st o r i c a l Society, 1941), contains a few sca t­ tered references to the Old Order Amish. John A. H o s t e t ­ ler, in his excell ent A n n o t a t e d Bi bl i o g r a p h y on the A mi sh (Scottdale, Pa.: Menno nit e P u b l i s h i n g House, 1951), m e n ­ tions only ten articles containing a total of fifty- fou r pages that p e r t a i n to the Ohio Amish. M. A. Jones, "Reading A m o n g the A m i s h , " W i l s o n L i b ra ry B u l l e t i n , February, 1948, pp. 450 - 51. R. TTi J o n e s , '*The D a i r y Indu stry in Ohio P r i o r to the Civil W a r , 1’ Ohio State Arch aeolo gi ca l Q u a r t e r l y , 1947, pp. 46-69. A~ P^ Karch, "The A mish of Holmes County, O h i o , ” in The Standard Atlas of Holmes C o u n t y , Ohio, ed. A. J. S t i f f e r , (C i n e i n n a t i , O h i o , 1907) . S. Miller, "Bishop Moses J. Miller (1811-1897)", G o s p e 1 H e r a l d , November 22, 1934, p. 735. (A single f l y sheet that was later pri nt ed as a small f our page booklet has been p ub l i s h e d on this Bishop.) S. H. Miller, "The Amish in Holmes County, Ohio," Mennonite Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y , (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennoni te Publi sh in g House, 1919), pp. 31-32. H. C. Ryder, "The P r o b l e m of the A m i s h as Related to School Attenda nce ," Sc h o o l and S o c i e t y , Jan ua ry 2, 1926, p. 17. Grant M. Stolt zf u s , '‘C o o p e r a t i o n Builds a Barn in a Day," A m e r i c a n - G e r m a n R e v i e w, August, 1950, (Continued on Page 11) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 11 di sser ta ti on has dealt w i t h the Ohio Amish. 17 This is in strong contrast w i t h the numerous treatments of the P e n n s y l "I Q vania Amish. Studies have also b e e n p u b l i s h e d that in- 16. (Continued f r o m Page 10) - pp. 18-19. S. Tschantz, ’’A m is h De mo ns trate Co-operation, Bu il d B a r n in D a y , ” W o o s t e r D a i l y R e c o r d , Aug ust 8, 1949, p, 16. J. H. Yoder, "Caesar and the M e i d u n g , ” MQR, April, 1949, pp. 76-98. There are a few other articles on the Ohio A m i s h that have appeared. Two s h o r t articles by W. I. Schreiber, ”A D a y w ith the A m i s h of Wa yn e County, O h i o , ” A m e r i c a n - G e r m a n R e v i e w , February, 1946, pp. 12-13, and r,The Swiss Bre th re n in O h i o , ” Ame rica nGe rm an R e v i e w , June, 1946, pp. 22-24. V a r io us New sp ap er articles have appeared in The Cleveland P l a i n D e a l e r , The Columbus D i s p a t c h and The D a i l y Repo rter ( D o v e r , O h i o ) . 17. To my knowledge there are only five un publis hed m a s t e r ’s theses that deal w i t h some as pect of the Ohio A m i s h culture. F. W. Almendinger, A n H i s t o r i c a l Study of Holmes County, O h i o . U n p u b l i s h e d M. A. thesis. U n i v e r s i t y of So uth ern California, 1938. R. Ely, A H i s t o r y of the Amis h People of E a s t U n i o n Township, Wayne County, Ohio, w i t h S p e ­ cial Em p h a s i s on E du c a t i o n a l P r o b l e m s . U n p u b l i s h e d M. A. thesis. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1942. L. R. Fletcher, The Am ish People of Holmes County, Ohio: A Study in Hu man G e o g r a p h y . U n p u b l i s h e d M. A. thesis. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1932. V. L. Leeper, The H i s ­ tory, Customs, and Social Life of The A m i s h of Ohio wi t h Special Reference to Holmes C o u n t y . U n p u b l i s h e d M. A. thesis. K en t State University, Kent, Ohio, 1936. J. W. Wentmore, A Propos ed P r o g r a m of E d u c a t i o n for the A m i s h p e o ­ ple of Mi d d l e f i e l d Township, Ge a u g a County, O h i o . U n p u b ­ lished M. A. thesis. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1938. 18. The ar ticl es and books that con tain m a t e r i a l on the P e n n s y l v a n i a A m i s h are too numerou s to mention. M u c h of the ma t e r i a l in H o s t e t l e r ’s B i b li og ra phy p e rt ai ns to the P e n n s y l v a n i a Amish. John A. Hostetler, Amish Life (Scott­ dale, Pa.: Herald P r e s s , 1952). Calvin G. Bachman, The Old Order Am ish of L an caste r County (Norristown, Pa.: P e n n s y l ­ vania Ge rm an Society, 1942) and W a l t e r M. Kollmorgen, C u l ­ ture of a Contemp or ar y Community: the Old O rd er Amish of Lancaster County, P e n n s y l v a n i a , ’’R u r a l Life Studies**; 47 Un it ed Sta tes D e p a r t m e n t of Agriculture, September, 1942, are v e r y goo d studies. K o l l m o r g e n ’s w o r k has b e e n used by various sociologists and anthropologists. E r n e s t W. B u r ­ gess and H a r v e y J. Locke, The F a m i l y f rom I n s t i t u t i o n to (Continued on Page 12) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. elude m a t e r i a l on the Am i s h in Iowa ,"^ I n d i a n a , 2® Illinoi s M a r y l a n d , 22 and N e b r a s k a . 23 S t o n e y r u n is part of a large, Am i s h community. It offers study an integrated, old, healthy, growing an e x cel le nt o p p o r t u n i t y to thou gh not compl e t e l y self-c on ta in ed, co mmu nity e s t a b l i s h e d on a fi r m r e l i g i o u s basis iting a remarka ble degree of and e x h i b ­ cultural pers ist ence. 1 8 o (Continued f r o m Page 11) - Compan io ns hi p (New York? A m e r i c a n Book Co., 1954), pp. 79-91. John Gillin, The Wa ys of Men; A n I n t r o d u c t i o n to A n t h r o p o l o g y (New Y o r k A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1948), pp. 209-20, 547-48; Charle P. Loomis and A l l a n J. Beegle, R u r a l Social Systems (New York? P r e n ti ce -Hal l, 1950), pp. 11-14, 789-824; Meyer P. Nimkoff, Ma rri age and the F a m i l y (New York: H o u g h t o n M i f f ­ lin Company, 1947), pp. 240-55. 19. M. Gingerich, The M e n n o n i t e s in Iowa (Iowa City, Iowa? State Histor ic al S o c ie ty of Iowa, 1939); and S. D. Guengerich, ’’The H i s t o r y of the Am i s h S ettle me nt in Johnson County, Iowa," M O R , October, 1929, pp. 234-48. 20. Ira Ford, et al, H i s t o r y of N o r t h e a s t e r n I n d i ­ ana, LaGrange, Steuben, Noble, and Dek alb Counties (Chicago, 111.: 1920). Oh l T T r o y e r , et al, M en no nite Chu rch H i s t o r y of H o w a r d and M i am i Counties, I n d ia na (Kokomo, Ind.: P u b l i s h e d by You n g P e o p l e ’s Ch ristia n A s s o c i a t i o n H i s t o r i c a l Committee, 1915). 21. H. F. Weber, C e n t e n n i a l H i s t o r y of the M e n n o n ­ ites of Illinois, 182 9-1929 (Goshen, I n d . : Me nno nite Historical Society, 1931). CT H. Smith, "The Ami s h in I l l i n ­ ois," Me nn o n i t e Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y (Scottdale, Pa.: M e nno ni te P u b l i s h i n g House, 1907), pp. 18-24. N. 22. D. Cunz, The M a r y l a n d G e rma ns J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1948). (Princeton, 23. W. W. Cox, H i s t o r y of Seward County, N e b r a s k a , .and R e m i n i s c e n c e s of T e r r i toria l H i s t o r y (Unive rsi ty Place Neb.1 1905) . ‘ i'he r e f e r e n c e s for s tudies of t h e A m is h in di ff e r e n t l oc al i t i e s are not complete. Th e y m e r e l y i n d i ­ cate the avai l a b i l i t y of such material. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 13 'This stu dy has b e e n carried out over iod b e t w e e n July, period, and September, I have made five trips band made to the I have D u r i n g this communi ty and m y h u s ­ spent almost five months in the the longest visit lasting two m o n t h s . ^ tained a cor res pondence wi t h various the course of the 3tudy. of the into 1956. an a dd it ional trip to b r i n g two couples east to visit us. wi t h 1951, a five year per- community, community, I have m a i n ­ informants t hro ughout A l t h o u g h I wa s not a full m e m b e r due to the fact t h a t I was not ba pti zed the Old Ord er Am i s h church, I wa s able to p a r t i c i p a t e in vi rt uall y eve r y aspect of c o m m u n i t y life that wa s ble f o r a m a r r i e d hir ed girl and a you n g mother. band made three trips to the c om muni ty and was 26 suitaMy h u s ­ able to su p­ pl e m e n t m y fi ndings b y obt ai ni ng i n f o r m a t i o n that sex and status made un ava ila ble acc om pan ie d me on one to me. My thirtee n- ye ar old niece trip and h e l p e d me to u nd er stan d the 24. The specific dates were as follows: July 5, 1951 - Septem ber 4, 1951; M a r c h 8, 1952 - M a r c h 26, 1952; October 2, 1952 - N ov em be r 14, 1952; September- 15, 1953 - Octo ber 5, 1953; June 18, 1955 - June 28, 1955. My h u s ­ band spent two days in the c o m m u n i t y in e a r l y January, 1954, and then b r o u g h t two couples Ea st fo r a w e e k ' s visit wi th us. P r o m O c to ber 13 to Nov ember 14, I w o r k e d as a hired gir l in three d if feren t Ami sh families. Neither my hus band nor I ha v e be e n in the comm u n i t y in December, F e b ­ ruary, A p r i l or May. 25. A n importa nt f a c t o r in m y acceptance was the fact that I have long hair, for the A m i s h b e l i e v e that a w o m a n w i t h b o b b e d hair cannot be a Christian. Of less importance, bu t still an asset, is my m e m b e r s h i p in the Soci ety of Friends. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 14 adolescent girls as she and confidences. joined fr e e l y in their work, play My f o u r t e e n - m o n t h old daughter p o i nt ed up some aspects of Amish child care and respons es of yo ung children. My closest contacts wer e w i t h the w o m e n and children. Because of the length of the study, able I have b ee n to observe differen t individu als I know adjust to go­ ing to school, church, to leaving school, to dating, and to p re gn ancy and parturition. contact has been with boys to joining My m ost lim ited in their late adolescence. Informants are designa ted by a co mbin at io n of l e t ­ ters and numbers. The letters indicate the church a f f i l i ­ ation and the numbers ident ify the individual. have odd numbers, each informant e ral ly have all females, even numbers, is at once apparent. consecutive numbers. changed their All males so the sex of Husband and w i f e g e n ­ Individuals who have church a f f i li ation are indicated by p l a c i n g the church in w h i c h they were ra i s e d in br ack ets be fo re their pre se nt church. Individuals who ia tion d ur i n g the course of the changed their a ff il ­ study are re p o r t e d as b e ­ longing to the church in w h i c h they held their me mbe rshi p at the time the ob s e r v a t i o n was made. However, I have r e ­ tained the old informant number so it is pos sible to refer b a c k and identify individuals wh o later left the church. The f o l lo wi ng de sign ati ons have b e e n used: 00A - Old Order Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 15 BA - Beach y A m i s h 0 CA - Conservative ( A m i s h ) , now aff il ia ted w i t h the ’’Old*’ Mennonites. AM " Ohio and E a s t e r n conference of the nonites, f o r m e r l y an A mi sh group. GCM - General " Ol d” M e n ­ Conference Mennonite. 0 - Other, an individ ual not aff ili ated w i t h any of the groups specific al ly designated. OOAl represents a specific Old Order A m i s h man. represents a m a n to w h o m I had gi ve n the n u m b e r .6 5 while he still be lo ng ed to course (00A65)CA the Old O rd er Amish. of the study, he Conservative church. D u r i n g the transferred his m e m b e r s h i p to the (00A)AM2 is the de s i g n a t i o n of a specific w o m a n who transf err ed her memb er ship to the Ohio and E a s t e r n (Amish) Mennonite Ch u r c h pre vio us to the time I gave her an informant number. Title The Old Order Amish are a small group of non- resistant people liv ing on the edge of the d o mina nt cu l ­ ture. dow. They see the w o r l d incompletely, The world, glimpse too, as through a w i n ­ sees them in co mp le tely as it might a "dove at the w i n d o w . ” Some of the quilt pat te rn s the Amish use have b e e n handed dow n for generations. tern on a piece of paper, from scraps of cloth. Instead of d raw ing the p a t ­ the w o m a n w o u l d sew up a sample These sample s were p a s s e d d o w n f r o m R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 16 m o the r to daughter, e s p e c i a l l y if the daug ht er did not have a quilt of that pattern. lar p a t t e r n for "Dove at the W i nd ow" was it used small scraps of cloth. also be used as a p a t t e r n for f r i e n d s h i p central square was a good place f o r -he first time I came across when I was looking thro ug h the to e m br oi de r this p a t t e r n was quilts and p a tt er ns belonged to an ol d M en no ni te woman. h o l d i n g up the pattern, It could quilts for the the f r i e n d her name. a popu­ "This," that she said, "my m o t h e r made w h e n she was young woman. It must be almost a h u n d r e d years old." had b e e n made in Limpyv ille first A m i s h settlers by a d e s c e n d e n t of one of the can be com pare d to one of their A quilt can be made o f d i f f e r e n t kinds of material; scraps f r o m other art icles of various and p a t t e r n s can be cut and added tern of one pie c e of cloth m a y be that of another. small, in another, It in the central Ohio community. The A m i s h culture p a t c h w o r k quilts. a to the quilt. The p a t ­ com pl etely d if fe re nt f r o m In one quilt the basic larger. colors square m a y be The d e s i g n of the q u i l t i n g that holds the b a t t e n in plac e ma y v a r y fr o m one quilt to a n ­ other. A l t h o u g h two quilts m a y no t have in common, same, Amish. if the a single deta il co nf i g u r a t i o n of their p a t t e r n is the they are calle d by the same Some people notice name. So it is w i t h the the color of a single patch, the printe d p a t t e r n on another, and observe that the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 17 patches are differ ent. it is not the W h a t they fa il to observe ch ar acterist ics of the patch, that is important. Tho ug h all the details is that but its shape, change if the co nfigura tio n of either the quilt or the culture remains the same, it had made of calico, survived. m u s l i n or color m a y be blue, "Dove at the win dow " m a y be cotton taffeta, green or magenta, of solid colors or a v a r i e d print, large or small - it does not effect the quilt. So the A m i s h m a y dress the p a tc hes m a y be the w i n d o w m a y be the r e c o g n i t i o n of in knee bre ec he s or broadfall trousers, wear straw hats w i t h hors es or tractors, use kerosene gas, they w i l l persist. from a n y source, ments or dark bonnets, Just as pl o w stoves or bottled so long as the c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the the same, the p r e d o m i n a n t culture remains the cloth m a y come so the A m i s h can integrate f o r e i g n e l e ­ if they can shape them to fit into the basic pattern. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . CHAPTER I SET TI NG A N D H I S T O R Y SETTING The wide undulat ing fields of b ri ll iant g r e e n corn and black fl o c c u l a t e d eart h stretched out before stillness of the July d a y n o t a leaf rippled. tion, w i t h o u t richness. sound, In the Without m o ­ the wide Ohio land made us aware of its We dr if ted w i t h a sensual p l easur e of a b o u n t i f u l harvest. view. us. in the promise Grad u a l l y we r e a l iz ed that we had a Instead of the und ulations that h el d one to the vista of a single far m st ea d lost in a sea of fields, we no w looked f ro m one hilltop in the valleys, small hills, fields, to another and into numerou s valleys. and ne st le d securely near the far mst eads the bot t o m s of the stood sur rou nd ed by their own yet w i t h i n w a l k i n g di stance of one another. sides of one hill wer e ri b b o n e d w i t h wheat and g r a y - g r e e n oats. shocked barley, O n another hill, corn al te rn a t e d w i t h strips of timothy. The g ol d e n strips of dark Near the top a bearded fa r m e r was m a k i n g h a y w i t h the h el p of his wife perhaps his oldest daughter. pearing be hi nd Down or Al ong the d irt roads d i s a p ­ the hills stood neat wh it e houses surrounded by w h i t e - p i c k e t fences that v i v id ly drew the b o u n d a r y b e ­ tween f r o n t y a r d and barnyard. The large houses had generous R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 19 porches opening above the summer kitchens, every flower, eve ry w h i t ew as he d picket, over or behind e a c h house The b a r n but t hey needed to be noticed. For swelled a great prote c t i v e barn... • is the Amishma n's summer church. and roun de d silo define his reli gi ou s Its ful l curves life as accur a t e l y as the po in ted steeple and n a r r o w clapboards r e f l e c t New E n g ­ land Puritanism. Along the paved h i g h w a y the small suburba n homes turned their backs on the farmland. road. For many, T he y b e l o n g e d to the these houses f or m a w all that keeps them from seeing the Ami sh c o m mu ni ty that lives the far m la nd b e h i n d the highway. ger to drive on p a v e d ro ads com mu ni ty in the world, and worships in It is possibl e for a st ra n­ through this, the largest Am is h wi th ou t e v e n realizing he is in an Amish neighborhood. There are fr equ ent breaks in the w a l l whe re dirt and gr avel roads lead f r o m the these little roads the buggies state routes. slowly wend, small Al ong clat ter ing on their steel- rim med w h e e l s and squeaking as they bo unce the washboards. Sometimes the dr iv er over is an old m a n nodding sleepily at the reins or a m i n i s t e r r e a d i n g the New T e s t a ­ ment as his horse plods along. Other times w i t h several children. The y o u n g e s t p e r ha ps it is a mother secured in a car seat that has b e e n fas te ne d to the na r r o w buggy. Along these ba ck roads the Amish drivers n o d to one another and R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 20 o c c a s i o n a l l y to an " E n g l i s h m a n ” w h o m they recogni ze drives w i t h co ns id e r a t i o n f o r traffic neted w o m a n nods too en gro ssed edge working in the g a r d e n or h o e ­ The old m a n and the m i n i s t e r in their thoughts, sons are are p r o b a b l y sleep or re a di ng to a c k n o w l ­ their A m i s h n e i g h b o r s w o r k i n g farmer and his The b o n ­ to the h o us ewif e or her bar ef o o t e d daug h t e r s who are p i c k i n g strawberries, ing the' patch. shy horses. and w h o in the fields. And the too busy and too far f r o m the r oa d to do more than qu ickly gl anc e at the p a s s i n g bugg y to see if they recognize This the horse. is where mo st of the Amish farms the bu sy road that acts as a c h a nn el b r i n g i n g in w o r l d l y influences and whose f as t mo v i n g aut omobi le s dan ger the lives of the p l a i n people who horse and buggy. owned land Along solidly by Amish; lie, b ack f r o m and trucks e n ­ still travel by some of the dirt ro ad s the along others, Am is h land is and " E n g l i s h ” is interspersed. To the Amish, a r e l ig io us "co mmunity" concept. up of one's neighbors, members. is not a territorial, but The co mm u n i t y is not n e c e s s a r i l y made but ra t h e r of one's f e l l o w church They are a "co mm un ity of conformed to this w o r l d . ” 2 saints"^ who are "not Thus t he y are b o u n d toge th er by 1. D o r t r e c h t (Dordrecht, Dort) C o n f e s s i o n of Faith, Article VIII. This is available in m o s t standard w or ks o n the Mennonites. 2. Rom. 12:2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 21 an ideolo gy and a w a y of life ra ther than by me re g e o g r a p h ­ ical propin quit y. covers parts Though this A m i s h community in Ohio now of five counties, and is land is by no m e a n s so li d l y Amish. crossed by highways, completely outside still growing, the It is crossed and cris- vil lages and " E n g l i s h " 4 farms and al most unr e la te d to the that are life of the community. G e o g r a p h i c a l l y the A m i s h c ommu ni ty is about th irty miles long f r o m north to so ut h and about tw e n t y miles wide. The northwestern quarter lies le vel ed by gl ac i a l drift. type soil. 5 The rest of ated r e g i o n of Ohioj on Here land that in this al thin seams small hills of the w e s t ­ The surface shales and s and stones w i t h o c c a s i o n ­ of limestone. De ka lb silt laom. was the c o mm un it y is in the u n g l a c i ­ in the steep, area are ago the farms have a silty loam ernmost p o r t i o n of the A l l e g h e n y Plateau. rocks ages The soil is p r e d o m i n a n t l y The cre ek valleys are a l l u v i a l or sandy 5. See Ap p e n d i x I, P a r t B, for a map showing the l o ca ti on of the central Ohio Old Ord er A m i s h Mennonite community. 4. The term "English" is used by the A m i s h in r e f e r ­ ri ng to anyone w h o is not Amish, e v e n though his name be Sch um ake r and he speak P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h fluently. 5. W o o s t e r loam. B u l l e t i n of the U n i t e d States Geolog ic S u r v e y , No. 58 (Washington, D.C.: Dept, of the I n ­ terior, 1890), p. 60. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 22 and g e n e r a l l y have a hi gh na tu ral fertility. farms ext e n d south and east into The Am ish the lower pr od uc ti ve Coal 6 Measure s . The e a r li est Am is h land by soil type, ness of the land, later settlers in Ohio did not select but r a t h e r were its good springs attracted b y the cheap7 and large timber. The settlers select ed l and more on the basis of l o c a t i o n than on nat ura l fertili ty or ease of handling. The y d e ­ sired to be nea r fellow churchmen and away f r o m the i n f l u ­ ence of the cities. surface did Only w h er e the they refuse qu ality of the convenient coal came close to the locations because of the soil. The g r o w i n g season in this p art of Ohio is f a i r l y long, f ro m the first of April until the end of September. Rai nfal l is w e l l distributed, the m ea n m o n t h l y fall is 3.28 inches w i t h the gre ate st fall usually occurri ng in June. The average te mpera tu re varies f r o m a low in January of 27.7 deg rees F ah re n h e i t to a h i g h of 72.4 degrees in t n 8 July. 6. W. A. Lloyd, J. I. Fa lconer and C. E. Thorne, The Ag ri cu lt ure of Ohio (Ohio Ag ri c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t Station B u l l e t i n 326 ^Wooster, Ohio, 19187), pp. 282, 326, 408, 420. 7. D e l b e r t L. Gratz, Bernese An ab ap tists and their Am er ica n D e s c e n d a n t s (S c o t t d a l e , P a . : Herald Press, 1953), p. 142. 8. See A p p en di x I, Part B, for t e m p e r a t u r e cipitation charts. and p r e ­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 23 The area co ver ed by the Ol d Order Amish Mennonite community of central Ohio includes twenty towns, est of w h i c h has a p o p u l a t i o n of 889. 9 The Amish avoid living in any of these villages even more sc rup ulo usly than they a/oid living along the m a i n highways. the land to dress. We are not the larg- "God gave us city f o l k . " ^ In spite of t h i s : the Amish make use of the towns e ve n as they must oc casio nal ly use the highways. de pend on the A m i s h fa rmers And the vil lage s in turn in their h i n t e r l a n d as m u c h as they depend on the E n g li sh familie s that live w i t h i n their limits and along their conn ec ti ng highways. recognize b o t h "the world" his pr oper place. The villages and the "Christian," giv i n g each In front of a general store p a r a l l e l lines m a rk off p a r ki ng places to the right, while to the left is an iron r a i l i n g over w h i c h a sign proclaims, "No Parking - HIT CH IN G ONLY." The central Ohio A mi sh community is composed of thirty-three church d i s t r i e t s .^ On the e a s te rn edge is a church d i s tr ic t I shall call Stoneyrun. 12 Ston e y r u n church 9. See App en di x II, Part B, for a map gi ving the locatio n and p o p u l a t i o n of the towns. 10. tricts, 00A63. 11. 1951-1955. P r e v i o u s l y there w er e fewer d i s ­ by 1956 the number increased to thirty-five. 12. districts. See A p p e n d i x I, Par t B, for a map of the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. church - 24 district is a big church. 13 Its a p p r o x i m a t e l y one h u n d r e d and t e n members b e l o n g to f i f t y - s e v e n f ami li es are m a n y children. two preachers. It has and there its own bishop and d e a c o n and It is an old church. W i t h i n its b o und ar - ies lies b u r i e d the first Amish bishop to p r e a c h in Ohio. It is a strong and we l l es t a b l i s h e d church in spite ing on the edge of the larger c omm un it y w h e r e churches. Throughout the years it has a tt empte d to ignore itself and of b e ­ it has b e e n constantly b uf fe ted by e v a n g el is tic Pr otes t a n t tinual p r e s s u r e and has 14 this con­ tried to turn its atte n t i o n in on towards the other thirty-two Ami sh c h u r c h d i s ­ tricts that they m a y all be of one mind. Not o n l y is Stone yr un church d i s t r i c t on the edge of the community, but it also surrounds cluded in the the largest town of the community- This, too, brings of the ten sions w i t h i n the c h u r c h and m a k e s t w e n t y in ­ into focus some it h a r d e r for the members to rema in se parated f r o m the world. The village of S t o n e y r u n serves as the m a r k e t for about one third of the central Ohio Amish community. spite of its eco nom ic importance, In the f i r s t day we were there we l i t e r a l l y w a l k e d rig ht through the center of town 13. See A p p e n d i x I, P a r t B, for a map g i v i n g the size by f a m i l y and member, of the d i f f e r e n t church d i s ­ tricts. 14. The g ra ve ya rd is just n o r t h of Stoneyrun. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 25 looking f o r it. ness district. 15 ~ We thought we must have m i s s e d the b u s i ­ F i n a l l y we saw a sunburn ed farm er with s u s ­ penders m a r k e d ’’P o l i c e ” h o l d i n g up his ’’This is S t o n e y r u n , ” he so most of the stores thing h e r e . ” said. are closed. U s u a l l y you c a n buy a n y ­ stores were sold lettuce, If you w a nt ed lettuce, grow melon s or sweet corn, melons or y o u grew it. you w e n t and b o u g h t them d i r e c t l y fr om him. in pou nd p a c k a g e s very w e l l s u p ­ but it was ha r d to buy a n y t h i n g else. None of the g r o c e r y stores corn. ”But i t ’s T hu r s d a y afterno on We f o u n d that the plied w i t h staples, large overalls. sweet., If yo u did not to a farm er w h o did Spices could be bought and yard good s b y the bolt. Ha d we fi r s t approached S t o n e y r u n f r o m the east, we w o u l d have ha d a view of the who le looks like village. a large F r o m the town fo r the br ickya rd s out smoke f r o m their tall chimneys, lage the appearance ship. clay, 17 c o ns ta nt ly pour the dis tan t vilnA of a h i g h l y in dust r i a l i z e d town. The three b ric ky ar ds fire top of the h i l l it limestone and As wel l as the g i vi ng are w e l l located; red shale, coal are all mi n e d in the towncoal m i n e d for the brickyards, 15. See A p p e n d i x I, P a r t E, for a p h o t o g r a p h of the corner of M a i n S t r e e t and Broad Street. 16. See A p p e n d i x I, P a r t E, for a p h o t o g r a p h of Stoneyrun village sh ow ing the brickyards. 17o Ohio W a t e r R e s o u r c e s Board, B u l l e t i n 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 26 - there are three p r i v a t e l y o w n e d stripmines and one owned by a large ru bbe r company. Most of the r e ma in in g industries T O are c l o s e l y r el a t e d cheese factories, to agriculture. three dairies, and a fr e e z i n g plant. Th ey include four a fo od p r o c e s s i n g company, There are also a lumber m i l l in g company and a f a r m e r s ’ equity. tion does a m i l l i o n dollar business company, a The livesto ck auc- a year. 19 The A m i s h who do no t ma rk et at S t o n e y r u n g e ne ra lly trade either at a town of 2,398 on the w e s t e r n b ord er of the comm un ity or at a small city w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 14,00 5 that lies a few miles be yond the n o r t h w e s t e r n b o u n d ­ ary. The y ma ke use of fa rt he r cities as m a r k e t for cash crops such as turkeys, advantage of hos pi ta ls dis tant sheep or broilers. and med ical They also take specialists in more cities. 18. See A p p e n d i x I, P a r t D, for a list of the m e r c i a l e s t a b l i sh me nt s in Sweet wat er township. com­ 19. ’’L i v e s t o c k A u c t i o n Sales for ’54 / s i c . ’ 53/ total $2,755,035. Re p o r t of the sale of l i v e s t o c k during the past year was $1,673,555.58, w h i c h include d 14,885 hogs, 6 , 1 8 5 pigs, 1,248 shoats, 8,544 calves,' 1,808 steers and heifers, 1,477 beef cows, 601 bulls, 126 da ir y cows, 889 ruffs, 337 boars, 1,066 lambs, 425 sheep. ’’There were 1,164 horses sold at horse sales for a total of $81,480, w h i c h makes a gr an d total of $ 2 , 7 5 5 , 0 3 5 . 5 8 . ” H e r a l d (Stoneyrun) January 21, 1954, p .' 1. Here, and in citations throughout, the S t o n e y ­ r u n n ew sp ap er has b e e n give n a fictitious name. | i R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 27 The members of the St on e y r u n church dis trict live two counties and three townships. Of) However all but five families live in a township Therefore, has b e e n n e ce ssar y to use civil d i v i ­ sions, w h e n it d a t a have I have called Sweetwater. been ga t h e r e d for Sweetwater township. The topogra phy of Sweetwater tow nship fluences is varied. grown o n some farms The topography also effects the drainage one field 21 It i n ­ the date of early and late frosts to the extent that peaches can be so there in and not on others. of the land and is v a riati on from one f a r m to another and f r o m to another in the types of crops gr ow n an d the handling of the soil. iation in soil types, A l t h o u g h there is considerable var- 22 most of the soils tend to be heavy. The far mer s try to pl ow during the fall or ve ry early spring to get full use of the light en in g effects of the frosts. g ene ration ago the bo tt om lands were gentler hills were p l a n t e d and pasture or wo od lots. too wet to crop. The the steeper ones kep t in Duri ng the last fif teen years the valleys have b e e n d r a i n e d by dee p e n i n g the strea m beds. 20. See A p p e n d i x I, P a r t church district. C, for a map of S to ne yr un 21. See A p p e n d i x I, Part D, for a topograp hic al map of Sweetw ater township. map, 22. See Ap p e n d i x I, Part D, for a phy si og ra phic a soil map and soil chart of Sweetwater township. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. A - 28 p*Z ©uite a few far m er s ti l e 100 their fiel ds are now p l an te d extensively. Gradually and the b o t t o m lands the A m i s h are ing the advantage s of contour p l a n t i n g and those who plant More see­ still the hills now g e n e r a l l y set th e m out in s t r i p s . ^ and more A m i s h fa rm ers permanent pasture are using the h i l l land for for d a i r y cows or turkeys. The crowns of the hills are often w o o d e d or are the site of small f a m i l y graveyards. There are about 150 farms in S wee tw at er township wi t h almost 13,000 acres of farmland. the farms and one -t hi rd of the f armla nd is owne d b y Amish. A m ish tenants w o r k e d at least 1,500 half the f a r m l a n d in the men. 26 A b o u t o n e - t h i r d of The perce nt ag e is g ra duall y growing. township acres so that almost is being farme d by Amish- of land own ed and far me d b y A m i s h Du ri n g the know of no A m i s h m a n in the course of this study, I township who. sold land to an Englishman, while I kno w of three farms that were bo ug h t 23. cess water. The farmers lay tile drains to c a r r y off e x ­ farm. 24. Note the conto ure d fiel ds of the A m i s h g e neral A p p e n d i x I, P a r t F. 25. The Amis h f a r m owner or re si d e n t s in S w e e t ­ water township belong to four d i f f e r e n t chur ch districts. See A p pe nd ix I, Part D. 26. See A p p e n d i x I, land in Swe et wa ter township Amish. 25 P a r t D, f o r a map showing the that is owned or w o r k e d by R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 29 by Amish f r o m E n g l i s h f a r m e r s and more land ren t e d by Amishmen. In 1953 about t w e n t y - s i x farms were bein g r u n by t e n ­ ants of w h o m at least f i f t e e n were A m i s h m e n who idea lly were in the p r o c e s s of b e c o m i n g f a r m owners, W i t h i n the township larger Amish community, 27 and t hr ou ghout the g e n e r a l f a rm in g is the rule both for A m i s h and E n g l i s h farmers. rotations are used with and hay, alternating. corn, potatoes for home four, and five year one or two s m a l l - g r a i n crops suitab ili ty for horses, of a l f a l f a is spreadin g as is realized. Three, T i m o t h y is g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d to alfalfa because of Its tioner its importance ens and have or turkeys c o n s u m p t i o n with p e r h a p s a little cash crop, Almost all of th e m raise The few to sell. is their mos t their o w n c h i c k ­ spe cialized farmers sized d a i r y herd or raise sheep, in a d d i t i o n to d oi n g a considerable general farming. the use The Ami s h far me rs gr o w some fruit and their own hogs. may have a good bu t as a soil c o n d i ­ They pr od uc e their own m i l k and w i t h m a n y this steady cash crop. area of the broilers amoun t of Bro il er s are of g r o w i n g import anc e as a es peci a l l y as they can be rai se d on a small amount of land. 2 7 o See A p p e n d i x I, Part D, for a chart of the crops p r od uc ed a n d l i v e s t o c k raised in Sw eetw ate r t o w n ­ ship . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 30 - Although most Amish are farmers, their farmsteads should not be thought of merely as auxiliaries to the farm- 28 land. They are the center of the family and community life as well as part of an economic plant„ The houses are built or remodeled to accommodate large numbers of people that gather for an ice cream supper or come to attend a funeral or a church service» straw In summer the large barns or sheds are used as churches0 The farmstead is the Amishman's refuge, his garden of Eden, the closest he comes to Paradise on eartho The yard is bright with flowers, and birds fly in and out of the many martin houses0 about A pair of peacocks may walk slowly in the yard or there may be a deep pool filled with goldfisho A grape arbor shades the sand box or the pum p 0 The white fence and gate separate the garden from the world outsideo Within the Amishman feels secure» home, his church and his livelihoodo It is his Within its protection he is born, he worships, he learns and practices his occu­ pation he courts his wife, he marries her, his own child is born. Here he will die and in his home the funeral will be heldo Finally he will be buried in the family graveyard behind another white fence within sight of the one that has sheltered him during his lifeD 28. See Appendix I, Part F, for pictures of Amish farmsteadso R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 31 W it h i n the Amish communi ty the f armst ea d houses all the activities that have become di v e r s i f i e d in the world out sideo center, As w e l l as b e i n g the home, the t o w n meeting, for the aged, functions the an d the church, it is the r e c r e a t i o n lying- in hospital, Al l important the home community as w e l l as fa m i l y ac tivities take place in the Amish farmsteado HISTORY The A m i sh The Old Order A m i 3 h Menn on it es do not consider t h e m ­ selves a sect, but the true c h u r c h of God that has existed since the beginning. This church, they believe, lio s.v c n 77ne s i c w s.s composed of G o d ’s angels. was es ta blishe d in the Garden of Eden. Cain and A bel to the pre sen t day, cf pe ople on the earthj 30 pq started in Later it F r o m the time of there have bee n two kinds those who bel o n g to the God and those who are child re n of the devil. chu rch of U n t i l the 29, ’’Die Gemeinde Go ttes is e r s t l i c h a ng ef an gen von Gott in de m Him mel mi t den E n g e l n , . . . ” D i e t r i c h Phi I i n , Enchiridion, oder Handbtlchleln, von der C h r i s t lichen Lehre und R e l i g i o n (L a n c a s t e r , Pa. j Jos eph Ehrenfried, 1811), p. 423. 30, "Darnach so ist die G e m ei nd Go tt es in de m Paraaies angefan gen mit Ad a m und E v a , . . . ” Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 32 time of David the tr ue that church was always visible, but since time the ch urch has sometimes b e e n fo rc ed into hi d i n g and "has fre qu en tly vanished fi-orri Ihe and b l o o d t h i r s t y world..." srxghirnof— the— s inful— 31 Dass die Kirche von Anf ang her bis zur Zeit Davids allezeit sey sichtbar, er k e n n t l i c h und von andern V8l ke rn un te rs c h i e d e n gewesen, is klar und offenbar, und w i r d auch (so wir wissen) von nie mand daran gezweiselt. So bleibt uns d a n n n och allein ilbrig zu beweisen: dass dieselbe noch der Zeit Dav ids a l l e ­ zeit (nach der vo rh e r g e - e n d e n Weise) seye zu erkennen gewesen, und auch bis an der W e l t Ende Bleiben werde.32 Gleichwie der Mond, o b s c h o n sein Leib und W e s e n ni em al vorgehet, d o n n o c h vo n m e n s c h l i c h e m Auge nicht allezeit in seinem v ol le n Licht gesehen wird, e n t w e d e r w e i l er unter die Erde gehet,- oder w e i t er zu w eit von der Sonne absteht, und der Sc h a t t e n des Erdr eic hs ihm seinen Glanz behimmt, w e l c h e s wir eine Finst ern iss nannen: also ist es auch b e s c h a f f e n mit dem W e s e n und An se he n der Gemeinde Gottes auf Erden. Dieselbe, ob sie schon ni cht ganz vergehet, zeiget sich doch nicht allezeit in einer vollen Gestalt, ja, scheint zu Zeiten g an z hi nwe g zu sehn (doch. nicht an alien, sondern nur an et- 31. Th i e l e m a n J. va n Braght, The Blo o d y Theater or Martyrs Mirror of the De fe nsele ss Christians Who Bap tiz ed Only U p o n Confess ion of F a i t h and Who Suffered and Died for the Test im on y of Jesus, Their Saviour, F r o m the Time of Christ to the Year A.D. 1660 (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1951), p. 392. 32. T. J. V Braght, Der Blutige Schau-Platz, oder Martyrer Spiegel der Tauffs-Gesinnten, oder w e h r l o s e n Christen, Die um des Zeugnisses JEsu, ihres S e l i g m a c h e r s , willen, gelitten haben, und getffdtet w o r d e n sind, von Christi Zeit an, bis auf das Jahr 1660 (Lancaster, Pa.: Joseph Ehrenfried, 1814), p. 11. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 33 li chen Pl&tzen) es sey d u r c h etlicher Le u te n Tr9.gh.eit, die aus G e r i n g a c h t u n g oder andern U r s a c h e n die fiusserlichen o f f e n b a r e n Gebote Gottes versM.umen, entweder am ent sta nde ne r M i s v e r s t 9 n d e n oder Irrthflmer willen, w o d u r c h viele Re ch t s i n n i g e zu Zeiten sind verffihuret and von d e m w a h r e n G o t t e s d i e n s t abgebra ch t worden, oder am der Verfolgung, Gewalt and T y r a n n e y fiber den G l a a b e n willen, and wel l sie dar nach lebten: da he ro sich die F r o m m e n m a s s t e n verbergen, v e r s t e c k e n (and als von M e n s c h e n abgesondert) in Bfischen, W i l d n i s s e n and ei n s a m e n P l S t z e n a l l e i n aufhalten, also, dass ihre eig ent li ch e Kennzei chen, Licht and Tagen, vo n der W e l t i ns ge me in ni ch t k o n n t e n geschen, viel w e n ig er er ka nnt w e r d e n . 3 3 The M a r t y r e r S p i e g e l , w h i c h is f ound in v ir tu al ly every Ami sh home, devot es most of its a p p r o x i m a t e l y one thousand pa ge s to a d i s c u s s i o n of the A n a b a p t i s t lineage and to various de sc ri pti ons deaths f ro m the of the dif fe rent m a r t y r s ’ time of Christ until 1660. An aba ptists had m a n y spi r it ua l forebears, not there but w h e t h e r or is a dir e c t con ne c t i o n w i t h e ar ly h e reti ca l groups is debatable. The t e r m " A n a b a p t i s t ” covered a n u m ­ ber of diff er ent t he ologi es and i n d i v i d u a l s . ^ It was and various d iv er ge nt groups a t e r m a p p li ed by enemies and g ene rally d i s l i k e d by the people 33. Cer ta in ly the thus labeled. 35 I b i d ., p . 13. 34. F r a n k l i n H a m l i n Littell, The A n a b a p t i s t V i e w of the Ch urc h (American S o c i e t y of C h u r c h History, 1952), pp. 19-49. R J. Smithson, The An abapt is ts (London: James Clarke & C o ., 1935), pp. 11-140. 35. The Ana b a p t i s t s r e p u d i a t e d infant baptism, therefore t h e y d e n i e d that they were "re" baptisers even though they a d m i ni st ered the ri gh t to individuals who had, as infants, b e e n baptised. By using the term Anabaptists, their enemies could b r i n g them to t r i a l under an old Justinian law that inflic te d d e a t h for the re pe t i t i o n of baptism. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 34 The Swiss Brethren, to call themselves, were to existence For or the Br e t h r e n as they p re f e r r e d a group of Ana bapti st s w h o came in a p r a y e r m e e t i n g one several ye ars in­ January night in 1525. a group of Swiss me n who ha d had access to the u n i v e r s i t y teachings of the day and who read the Bible themselves, the had b e e n exp re ssin g their d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h Catholic Church. Testame nt Church, time of Christ, lowed Zwingli, church and These m e n felt s t r o n g l y that the New as t he y b e l i e v e d it had existed should be res t o r e d . ^ ® in the At fi rst they f o l ­ but w h e n he de c l i n e d to f o rs we ar a state infant baptism, ers who b e l i e v e d the m o r e t h or ou gh-g oi ng r e f o r m ­ in a church kept pure by discipline they could not follow him. 37 felt A ft er a series of disputa 7 Q tions b e t w e e n these m e n and Zwingli, ' the City C o u nc il of 36. John Horsch, "Rise and E a r l y H i s t o r y of the Swiss Br e t h r e n C hur ch," M © R , July, 1932, pp. 169-91, O c t o ­ ber, 1932, pp. 227-49. 37. The An ab ap ti sts ins is te d that the ch ur ch must consist only of h ear tf el t believers of godl y behavior. The u n wort hy n e v e r were baptized, or if ba p t i z e d and later pr oved unworthy, were ex c l u d e d by the ban. Such a church is bou nd to be come a c o mp ar ativ el y small conventicle. These beliefs w er e incompatible w i t h those sup po rt ing a state c hur ch in w h i c h all the inhabitants of a n area were deemed Chr i s t i a n by virtue of in fan t baptism. Ha rold S. Bender, "Conrad Gr ebel as a Zwinglian, 1522-1523," M©R, April, 1941, pp. 67-80. John Horsch, Me nn on i t e s in Europe (Scottdale, Pa.: Menn onite Pu bl is h i n g House, 1942), pp. 30-69. p. Klaeui, "Hans Landis of Zurich (1614)," M©R, October, 1948, pp. 203-211. 38. John Horsch, "The Struggle B e t w e e n Zwingli and the Swiss Br e t h r e n in Zurich," M & R , July, 1933, pp. 142-61. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 35 Zurich forbade them nto meet, 39 ship t o g e t h e r . " to teach, and to have fellow- Instead of obey in g the edict, they b a p ­ tized one another upon the co nfe ssio n of f a i t h and, ing the Great Commission, wen t forth to teach, preach, baptize new members of the body of Christ, Ab out ten years later, in 1536, lific writer and soon became Brethren, one of the a Catholic p r i e s t in He was a pro­ leaders of the D u t c h G ra du ally his influence spread As the two groups and 40 Holland named Menno Simons was b a p t i z e d , ^ Anabaptists. accept­ to the Swiss su bs ta ntially agreed, they fi- nally accepted the same c onfes si on (Dortrecht Confession) and later they too bec ame kn own by the name 42 of M e n n o n i t e , ^ 39, H. S. Bender, Mennonite Ori gins in E u r o p e , ’ ■'Mennonites and their H e r i t a g e , ” No. 1 (Akron, Pa. : Men nonife Central Committee, 1942), p. 15. (Berne, 27-35, 40, C. H en ry Smith, The Story of the Mennonites I n d . ; Mennonite Book Concern, 1941, pp. 18-19, 41, Cornelius Krahn, "C on version of Menno Simons," M O R , January, 1936, pp. 46-54. John Horsch, "Rise of Mennonites in the Nether lan ds," M®R, October, 1934, pp. 147-65. Go s h e n College Revie w S u p p l e m e n t , January, 1926, pp. 23-32, 42, John C. Wenger, The D oct rines of the M e n n o n ­ ite s (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennoni te Publ is h i n g House, 1952), p . 77, 43, The name was fi rs t used in 1550. T. P. Murphy, Mennonite B o d i e s , "Census of Religious Bodies 1936" (Wash ­ ington, D. C.i Bureau of the Census, 1940), p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 36 a name that had or igi n a l l y b e e n used to d i s t i n g u i s h the nonresistant An aba pt is t adheren ts of Menno fanatical, re voluti ona ry sects. The Mennonite and kept pure by discipline. Ques­ and to not by a trained clergy or a h i e r a r c h y of It was a complet ely c o ng re ga tion al led to man y divisions, preted, 45 answered by ref er ring b a c k to the Bible the community, officials. 44 church wa s a church seeking to res to re the New Te st ame nt p lan tions we re Simons f r o m the more church. This for the Bible was v a r i o u s l y i n t e r ­ and each co ng r e g a t i o n ex er c i s e d the disciplin e d i f ­ ferently. As one M enn onite wr i t e r says, "This p r o b l e m of preserv ati on and disc ipl ine is ba si c a l l y the source of diAp. visions in our b r o t h e r h o o d . " ^ The first important s e p a r ­ ation occurred In 1528 w h e n a group w i t h d r e w f r o m one of the Swiss Breth ren congregations and formed a communal Bruderhof. This group later became k n o w n as the Hu tt e r i a n 44. The name was used to d i s t i n g u i s h t hem f r o m such groups as the Mftnsterites. John Horsch, "Rise and F a l l of the Anabaptists of Mu enst er, " M Q R , A p r i l , .1935, pp. 92-103 and July, 1935, pp. 129-43. John Horsch, "Menno Simons' Attitude Toward the An abap ti st s of M ue ns te r," MQR, January, 1936, pp. 55-72. John Horsch, "An I n q u i r y into the Truth of Accusations of F a n a t i c i s m and Crime Ag ai ns t the E a r l y Swiss Brethren," MOR, January, 1934, pp. 18-31, April, 1934, pp. 73-89. 45. Littell, o£. c i t . , pp. 74-93. 46. P a u l Peachey, "Decisive Momen ts Christian S c h o o l , May, 1954, p. 78. in Our Pa s t , " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 37 Brethren, burned named alive in for one 1535» of their early leaders who was 47 A n o t h e r im po rta nt d i v i s i o n occ urre d b e t w e e n 1693 and 1711s - 4-ft A m a n named Jacob A m m a n (of the P r o v ­ ince of Alsace in Prance) con tend ed that the observ anc e of certain C h r i s t i a n p ra c t i c e s ha d been lost in some meas ure and r e s o l v e d to reb ui ld the Templ e of God up o n w ha t he conside red the old foundation. He introduced, in particular, a doctrine p e r t a i n i n g to the avoidance of e x c o m m u n i c a t e d p e rso ns in w h i c h he d e m a n d e d that the ex p e l l e d be shu n ne d in nat ur al as w e l l as sacram en tal e a t i n g . ' W h e r e ­ upon it came to pa ss that all who w o u l d not confess this avoidance w i t h h i m he ex p e l l e d from the church. The re fore the peop le div i de d themse lve s into two g r oup s w h i c h caused m u c h discussion, but w h i c h did not p r od uce good f->°ui t . A m m a n ’s maj or ning, hoods' concerns seemed to be: as m e n t i o n e d above, 2) 1) "Meidung" or sh u n ­ that those wh o spe a k f a l s e ­ should be excommunicated, and 3) that one say that tr ue -h ear ted per so ns w o u l d be saved,^ sho uld not Some other 47. John Horsch, The H u t t e r i a n B r e t h r e n (Goshen, I n d » j Men nonite Histor ica l Society, 1931), p p . 6-10. The Hutter ite s offer an in ter est ing p a r a l l e l to the Amish. Ammon, 48. Spel le d Jacob or Jakob; Amen. and Amman, Ammann, 49. The Letters of the A m i s h D i v i s i o n s , t r a n s . John B. Mast, (Scottdale, Pa.; C hr istia n J. Schlabach, 1950), p. 13. 50. M i l t o n Gascho, "The A m i s h D i v i s i o n of 1693-1697 in Switzerland and A ls ac e, " M & R , October, 1937, p. 246. John Horsch, " ' H a l f - A n a b a p t i s t s ’ of Sw itz e r l a n d , " M Q R , January, 1940, pp. 57-59. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Issues were the pra ct ic e of foo twashing, of comm u n i o n twice a year 51 instead of o nl y once, ance at services of the state church, stood. 5P attend­ t rim ming the beard, and co nfo rming to the w o r l d in hair s t y l e s The the cel eb ra ti on and dress. intricacies of the d iv i sjLq . n,..axe....ld.t-t-1-e-.under-' The d i v i s i o n took pl ace w h e n the M e n n o n i t e s were being p e r s e c u t e d by the var ious state churches, stead of p e r s e c u t i o n c on so li d a t i n g the was rent b y bi tter disagreement. church, the church Pe e l i n g s r a n so strong that in 1711, w h e n the Swiss Go ver nment the B r et hren to emigrate, but in­ fin al ly encouraged the D u t c h e m i s s a r y ha d d i f f i c u l ­ ty in p e r s u a d i n g the M en no n i t e s and A m i s h ^ 4 (followers of Jacob Amman) to travel in the same boat. 55 E v e n today 51. A m m a n in tr od uced the p r a c t i c e of f o o t w a s h i n g among his followers. C. H e n r y Smith, Me nn o n i t e I m m i g r a ­ tion into P e n n s y l v a n i a (Norristown, P a . : P e n n s y l v a n i a German Society, 1929), p. 224. 52. To da y there is still the f e e ling among the Amish that communi on m u s t be h e l d once a year and it is good to h ol d it twice a year so that ev e r y o n e ca n p a r t i ­ cipate at least once. "Everyone needs to h av e c o m m u n i o n once a year and o f t e n a w o m a n ma y have to m i s s it (if she's p r e g n a n t or has a tiny baby) but this wa y s h e ' l l be able to go once at least." 00A2 53. Letters of the A m i s h D i v i s i o n , o p . c i t ., p. 54. The name A m i s h is a m o d i f i c a t i o n of Amman. 55. "Pew of the Re is t p a r t could be p e r s u a d e d to accompany the expedition, re fusi ng to go on the same boats w i t h the Amish." Smith, 0£. c i t ., 1920, p. 89. The e x p e d i t i o n traveled d o w n The Rhine to Holland. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 42. - 39 there is only limited fellowship b e t w e e n those who adhere strictly to the A m i s h f a i t h and other M enn onite groups. Va rio us letters of the A m i s h D i v i s i o n circulated in manuscript f o r m and later were p r i n te d in G e r m a n . ^ in 1950 they were edited and translated into E n g l i s h b y John 57 B. Mast. Most of the Am is hme n w i t h w h o m I di scussed the CQ his tory of the church had read them. advertisements in the He rald are in the classified such items as: W h y couldn't the Swiss Bre th re n ministers agree w i t h Jacob A mm on and his friends in 1694? 10^ in coin will b r i n g you a p r i nt ed statement of Hans Reist and 15 other m i n i s ­ ters and bishops concerning their attitude toward a v o i d a n c e . 59 Fo r Sale - The letters of the A mish and Mennonite d i visio n in 1693 to 1711, price 50jz?. This boo k gives a true hi st or y of what caused the A m i s h and Mennonite d i v i s i o n . 56. Joseph Stucky, Eine Begebenheit, die sich in der Menn on iten- Ge me in de in De ut sc hl an d und in der Sc hw ei z von 1695 bis 1700 zugetraten hat (Elkhart, Ind.: L. A. M i l l e r , 1936) . Also, '*Ge schichtliche Beitrage aus d e n M e n n o n i t e n g e m s i n d e n , n C h r i stlicher Gertie inde Kalenda r (Kaiserlautern, G e r m a n y ) , 1908, pp. 1 3 6 - 5 1 j 1909, pp. 133-41; 1915, pp. 121-24. 57. Letters of the Amish D i v i s i o n , o p . c i t . 58. OOAl, 0 0 A 2 3 , 00A95. 59. D e ce mb er 13, 1953, by an Old Order Amishman. 60. July 14, p. 8. Ad ve rti s e m e n t w r i t t e n 1955, p. 8. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 40 - There is still an active interest in the division. Ouite a few A m is hm en know that at the end of the sy, Jacob Amman ex co mm unicated himself, had acted rashly, church. here confessed that he and asked to be r e u n i t e d w i t h the m a i n I have been told, even by Old Order A m i s h who a d ­ strictly to the rules of the church, bad the d i v i s i o n ever took place, be one church. P "1 for "it is w r o n g controver­ that it was too that they should still But they feel that they mus t stay A m i s h for anyone who was raised A m i s h to leave the church of his p are nts." 62 Thus the di v i s i o n continues. There are me mb ers on b o t h sides who w i s h to h e a l the break, but, as in the time of Jacob Amman, neither side will com- promise su ff icie nt ly for them to become reunited. One of the fa ctor s that co nso lidate d was the e m i g r a t i o n to America. 61. 0 0 A 2 3 , 00A24. 62. 00A2. 63 the d i vi si on It is not k n o w n w h e n the 63. Sometimes specific con gregations of the A mi sh will become affilia ted w it h ano ther b r a n c h of the M e n n o n ­ ites as a unit. Me mb er s and congregations have joined the General Conference Mennonites, the "Old" Mennonites, and the Be ach ey Amish. By this means, at least half of the people of Amish descent in A m e r i c a have now become M e n n o n ­ ite. "It is est im at ed that about 2/3 of the Ami sh in America have me r g e d w i t h the Men nonit es ." John A. H o s t e t ­ ler, "Amish Problems at D i e n e r - V e r s a m m l u n g , " Men noni te L i f e , 1949, p. 38. "...in A me rica at least hal f of all the A m i s h have b e e n re uni ted w i t h the Men non ite b o d y since 1915." Harold S Bender, Editorial, MOR, 1937, p. 234. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 41 first A m i s h came to America. 1709 about the Pa la ti na te A letter im migran ts m e nt io ns no n i s t s " ® ^ w h i c h m a y be a re fe r e n c e the Bernese emigrants later came of W i l l i a m P en n's to America. "divers Men- to the Amish. of 1711 were Amish, in Most of some of w h o m The f i r s t A m i s h fa m i l y ge nera lly b e lie ve d to hav e settled in A m e r i c a w a s that of Ba rbar a Yoder whose husband died her family, arrived in A m e r i c a in 1714. later, at sea but who, with 66 the rest of F our years the Am ish were num ero us e n o u g h to p e t i t i o n the P e n n s y l v a n i a go vernment. lists were kept. ft7 Aft er 1727 complete p a s s e n g e r B e t w e e n 1735 and 1754 m a n y A m i s h names are fo und among them. 68 However, all the A m i s h immigrants 64. C. H e n r y Smith, The M enn onites: A Bri ef H i s ­ tory of Their O r i g i n and L at er D e v e l o p m e n t both in Europe and A m e r i c a (Berne, I n d .: M e nn on it e Book Concern, 1920), p. 214. 65. "...the m a j o r i t y of the Bernese An ab ap tists who arrived at A m s t e r d a m were of the A m i s h f a c t i o n whi le the gre ater share of those wh o left at v a r io us points d u r ­ ing the journey were of the Re is t group." Gratz, op. cit., p . 63 . 66. Galvin G e o r g e Bachman, The Old Order A m i s h of La nca st er County (Norristown, P a . : P e n n s y l v a n i a G e r m a n Society, 1942), p. 51. 67. A p e t i t i o n to the governors of P e n n s y l v a n i a . f r o m the Amish d a t e d 1718 has b e e n r e p r i n t e d in m a n y places. Samuel W. Peachey, A m i s h of K i s h a c o q u i l l a s V a l l e y (Scottdale, Pa.: M en no ni te P u b l i s h i n g House, 1930), pp. 45-47. The same p e t i t i o n w a s also tra ns la te d f r o m Ge sc ht e der M e n n o n i t e n and r e p r i n t e d in the H e r a l d , M a r c h 24, 1955, p . 2. 68. Smith, 1929, pp. 183, 205-221. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 42 ~ of the e i g h t e e n t h cen tury did no t number over five h u n d r e d people . The A m i s h tended to settle in disc re te settlements as indicated by a le tt er f r o m some P e n n s y l v a n i a Men non ites to Hol land in 1773. As to the Amisch, they are m a n y in number; but they are not here near us, and we can give no further i n f o r m a t i o n concerning them except only this, that they hold ver y fast to the out wa rd and ancient i n s t i t u t i o n s . The letter continues d w e l l , ” but as to to give an acc ount of ’’w he re ours the A m i s h the w r i t e r s what placed they dwell amo ng u s . ” in separate communi ties 71 Because they settled after a r r i v i n g in this country, there was little Di vis ions in the A m i s h Chu r c h in A m e r i c a The ”do not know in incentive fo r re con ciliat ion . stress on C o n g r e g a t i o n a l l y con tr ol led church discipline has cont in ue d and has led to nu m e r o u s divisions among the A m i s h in this country. The maj or d iv isio ns in 69. M e l v i n Gingerich, The Men no ni tes in Iowa (Iowa City, Iowa: State H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y of Iowa, 1939), p. 42. "They were the ancestors of p r a c t i c a l l y all the Am ish in P e n n s y l v a n i a today." 70. And reas Ziegler, Isac Kolb, C h r i s t i a n Fund, "A Letter f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a Men no n i t e s to Hol land In 1773," M0H, October, 1929, p. 230. 71. Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 43 the A m i s h church took place during last century (c. Amish came of more I 8 6 0 - 1 8 7 4 ) . 72 the third quarter of the At this into bei ng as a distinct group by liberal congreg at ion s f r om them, that separated f r o m the Am is h during affiliated with various Mennoni te Mennonites have joined the joined 7" the separation The three groups this per iod have since conferences, The Amish " Ol d” Me nn on i t e s while fenseless M enn onites and the have time the Old Order the D e ­ Central Conference Mennonites the General. Conference Mennonites., The Conservative A m i s h Men no nit es were reco gn iz ed as being distinc t f r o m the Old Order in 1905 althoug h for many years p r e v i o u s l y they had formed an .u no f f i c i a l but s e p a r ­ ate group o The Conservatives have with services in English,, church e v e r y Su nday They have Sunday school and 72. Me lv in Gingerich, ojc. c i t . , pp.. 142-37. Hos­ tetler, ’’A m i s h Pro bl em s at Die ner -V er sa mmlun ge n, 11 I b i d . C. H en ry Smith, The S t o r y .of the M ennonites (Berne, Ind.: Mennonite Book Concern, 1 S 4 1 ) , pp. 6 2 5 - 3 7 0 C. Henry Smith, Mennoni tes in A m e r i c a , ’’Me nno n i t e s and Their H e r i ­ t a g e , ” Noo 2 (Akron, Pa.: Mennoni te Central Committee, 1944), pp. 38-43. Har ry F. Weber, C e n tennial Hist or y of the Mennoni tes of Illinois, 1829-19 29 TGoshen, Ind.s M e n ­ nonite Historica l Society, 1931), p p „ 31-41. For a chart giving the m aj or Amish division, see App en di x I, Part A. 73. Various letters and mi nu t e s of d i f f e r e n t con­ ferences that met in an effort to pr ev ent d isr up ti on have been printed. Sees D a v i d B e H e r , Elne Ve rmah n u n g oder A n d e n k e n . D a v i d A. Trever, H i n t e r l a s sen Schri fte n von David A. Treyer v o n Holmer C o u n t y T A r t h u r , 111,s L. A. Miller, 1925), pp„ 174-183. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. sponsor m i s s i o n work. electricity, They allow their members the use of automobiles, and rub ber tired tractors, bu t they still have fai rly strict dress regulations. In 1954 the Conservative A m i s h Mennonite s d r o p p e d the w o r d from the name of their chu rc h 74 "Amish" and they were invited by the "Old" Men no nite s to join their conference. In January of 1955 they w i t h d r e w their spo nsorship from the E n g l i s h section of 75 the Herold der W a h r h e i t . ' By 1956 the C o n ­ servatives had become affilia ted w i t h the "Old" Mennonites. The B e a c h y A m i s h became a Old Order in 1.927 wh e n church d i s t i n c t fro m the their conservative elem en t w i t h d r e w to m a i n t a i n full fellows hip w i t h other Old Order C o n g r e g a ­ tions. The Beac hy A m i s h believe in m i s s i o n activity and 77 Sunday school on alternate S u n d a y s . ' ' of electricity, T h e y allow tractors and automobiles the use and they do not 74. Me nnonit e Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y , 1955, Ellrose D. Z o o k e d . , (Scottdale , Pa. * Me nnon ite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1955), p. 96. 75. Un t i l February, 1955, the statement of o w n e r ­ ship of the Hero ld der W a hr heit reads "a s em i-monthl y publication, in the interest of the AM I S H M EN N O N I T E CHURCHES (Old Order and Conserva tive) .. ." 76. Fo r a chart diagra ming The A m is h divisio ns and reunions w i t h .the Mennonites, see Ap p e n d i x I, P a r t A. A similar chart of the Men non ite div isi ons and r e u n i o n s is f o u n d in the same place. 77. Church is held eve ry other Sund ay w i t h Sunday school on the int ervening Sunday. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 45 shun members In February, who withdraw 1955, to join the Conservative church. the y took over the sponsorship of the E n g l i s h se ction of the Herold der W a h r h e i t . tives grow closer to the ’’O l d ” Mennonites, As the Conserv- the Be ac hy Am ish church is e x p a n d i n g and fi ll i n g the plac e fo r m e r l y o c cupie d by the C ons ervative church. A b o u t 1919 some of the Old Order A mi sh in the cen­ tral Ohio A m i s h c o m m u n i t y separated f r o m the m a i n ch urch because the y felt that it w a s b e c o m i n g too wo rldly. small, local church is known as the Sa m Yoder ing the course of the years visions Sam Yod ers shun e v e r y member who leaves they shun such an apostate forever. about clothing re gu la tions care little church. it has suffe red various and it has never s p r e a d outside This of Ohio. 79 Dur­ subdiThe their ch urc h and T h e y are v e r y and house f u r n i s h i n g s . strict They about the use of tobacco or alcohol. 78. A l v i n J. Beachy, ’’Be achy A m i s h C h u r c h e s , ” M e n ­ nonite Histori ca l B u l l e t i n , January, 1955, p. 3. A l v i n J. Be a c h y , "The Rise and D e v e l o p m e n t of the Be a c h y A m i s h M e n ­ nonite C h u r c h e s , ” MQR, April, 1955, pp. 118-140. See also John B. Mast, ed., Facts C o n c e r n i n g the Be ac hy A. M. D l v i sion of 1927 (Myersdale, P a . : P u b l i s h e d by Menno J. Yoder, 1950) . 79. This is a common phenomenon, for in the other large A mis h communities are also fo und similar small, local churches that are more strict than the Old Order Amish from w h i c h they separated. The Old es t Order Ami sh of P e n n s y l v a n i a are such a church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 46 OQ W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of the Sam Yoders, the Old Order Amish are the most conservative b r an ch of the Men n on it e church. bers V a riou s is f r o m liberal. J" studies the more have shown that the flo w of m e m ­ con servative chu rches to the more The Old Ord e r Amish do not pro se lytize. Occa­ sionally a n o n- Am is h child m a y be raised in an A m i s h family and later who wishes join the Old Order. 82 More rarely, someone to m a r r y a memb er of the Am i s h c h ur ch also the Old Order. 83 But the additio ns Virtua lly the complete members hip are of the insignificant. churc h consists of children who have b e e n b o r n of Amish parents, families and r a i s e d in the church.. joins Therefore into A m i s h the g r o w t h cf the Old Ord er A m i s h depends on the re pr oduct iv e powers 80. The Sa m Yo de rs are classed as Old Order Am i 3 h by everyone except the Old Order and the Sam Yod ers themselve s . 81. John A. Hostetler, The So ci o l o g y of Mennonite Ev ange l i s m (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald P r e s s , 1954). Kar1 B a e h r , "S e c u l a r i z a t i o n A mo n g the M e n n o n i t e s of El kh ar t County, Indiana," MQR, July, 1942, pp. 131-60. 82. Jose ph Yoder, R o s a n n a of the A m i s h (H u n t i n g ­ don, Pa.: Yod e r P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1950), also 0 0 A 9 7 . 83. One of the Her al d scribes m en tion s a p e r s o n "who was adop te d into the A m i s h f a i t h w h e n he m a r r i e d Mary, the old est s i st er of Bishop _____ _. The entire f a m ­ ilies of the Haya rds of matu re age belong to the same Old Order church. Those of youn g age are also being reared in like ma n n e r . " H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 11, 1952, p. 1. (0)00A2 was a Cat holic girl who m a r r i e d an Amish m a n she met while he w a s in Civ ilian Public Service camp. She joined the A m i s h to m a r r y him, then they left the church, but have since r e u n i t e d w i t h it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 47 of the mem ber s together with their abi lity of h o l d their children in the chur c h of their f a t h e r s , Growth of the S t o n e y r u n Church District of the Old Order Am i s h There are various ways church districts. to judge In the earl y stages the easiest m e t h o d is to study the geogr aph ic spread. The A m is h buy up a d j a ­ cent land and the p h ys ical dimensions crease. the g r o w t h of A m i s h This m a y continue of the dis trict i n ­ until the distance across the district is so great that it cannot be covered b y horse and b u g g y in less than two hours. W h e n this happens, district is u s u a l l y divided into two or mere tricts. Anot he r w a y to to study the divisions p op ul a t i o n becomes more smaller d i s ­ judge the gro w t h of the district into new districts. As is the Amis h conce ntr ated - wh en they are able to b u y E n g l i s h farms w i t h i n the g e o g r a p h i c a l area, they divide the the old farms into smaller new farms or w h e n - the n u m ­ ber of families in one d i s t r i c t may gro w so large that the church mem bers Then, too, cannot be accom mo dat ed there will be a division. in one house. QA A third type of growth is r e p r e s e n t e d by the e s t a b lishm en t of dau ght er co m­ munities. W h e n land gets 84. district si z e . scarce and p r ic es are high, a See Cha pter VIII f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. church - 48 small group of familie s may move new community. families who together to es tab lish a This g r o u p is fo l l o w e d later by individual leave the old, w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d home to join the younger community. St on ey run church district shows all these c h a r a c t e r ­ istics of a g r o w i n g church. 1930, The five church districts of the ma j o r i t y of whose ministers r e c ei ved their mail from the St o n e y r u n post office, twelve church districts, since d i v id ed into of w h i c h eight still receive mail from the S t oney ru n p o s t office. two types of growth: have 85 This then represents g e og ra ph icall y the A m i t h are taking over more area and, because of greater families, the geo gr ap hi c area covered by each chu rc h d i s ­ trict is becoming smaller. daughter communities. con ce nt rati on of S t on ey ru n also has ha d various In 1936 the no rt he rn most district of the central Ohio A m i s h co mmun ity was church still in the daughter stage and was b e i n g served by the bishop f ro m Stoneyrun. W h e n we were in Sto ney ru n in 1953 a group of three young m ar r i e d m e n wen t on a trip lo oking for a good Qg location for a new community. At the same time, some families were considering m ov i n g as a unit to a new loca- 85. D at a compiled fro m Mennonite Yea rboo k and D i ­ re cto ry , Ellrose D,. Zook (ed.) , (S c o t t d a l e , Pa. : Mennonite Pu bl ishing House, 1936-1950) . 8 6 . Two of the m e n were 00A45 and 00A91. not know the third. I did R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 49 tion that had b e e n started by the Con servatives but had no Old Order settlement. 87 Ne it he r of these plans h a d m a t e r i ­ alized by the summer of 1955 and the ch urc h had g r o w n so large that they pla nn ed to divide into two church districts at the 1955 fall communion. The growth of the centra l Ohio Am is h communi ty has paralleled the g r o w t h of the St one yrun church district. The ge ogr aphi cal a r ea cov ere d b y the com mu nity is growing. The number of c h u r c h districts has increased of the specifi c church dis tric t has be come Amish p o p u l a t i o n has bec ome more the course of the years, started, 88 and the area smaller as the concentrated. 89 During va rio us new communities have b e e n esp ec ia ll y further west, by A m i s h f ro m the central Ohio community. History of the Village of St on e y r u n Stoney ru n is the oldest A m i s h church w e s t of P e n n - 87. I will not give the informant numbers for these families since it is ver y important that the com mu ni ty m e m ­ bers not know that they considered moving. 8 8 . See Ap p e n d i x I, P a r t B, fo r a chart sho wing the increase in A m i s h church districts b e t w e e n 1930 and 1954. 89. See App en dix I, Part B, for a map showing the increase in the ge ogr a p h i c a l area covered by the central Ohio community and the smaller area covered by the specific church districts. A chart contrasts the c o m m u n i t y of 1936 with the communi ty of 1954. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 50 sylvania. The l o c a t i o n was chosen in 1803 b y a small g r o u p of P e n n s y l v a n i a A m i s h m e n w h o were p r o s p e c t i n g for a good site fo r a new community,,®0 In 1808 or 1809 "Yockle" M i l ­ ler and several other families®^" settled on the ban ks of Sweetwater Creek 92 and a few years later he p r e a c h e d the first A m i s h sermon in Ohio. 93 These fi r s t settlers were 90. Gratz, ojo. c i t ., p. 142. L. R. Fletcher, "The Amish People of Holmes County, Ohio; A Study in Hum an G e ­ o g r a p h y ” (U np ubl ished M. A. thesis, Ohio State University, 1932), pp. 8-9, gives the date as 1807 w h i c h seems more probable. 91. The land of these ori gina l settlers has stayed in the family. One of the farms settled in 1812 is in the great grand so n' s name. Ha rv e y Hostetler, Des cen de nt s of Barbara H o c h s t e d l e r and C hr isti an S t u t z m a n (Scottdale, P a . : Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1938), p. 3 7 0 92. E. W. Almendin ger , "An H i s t o r i c a l Study of Holmes C o u n t y , ” (U npu bl ish ed M. A. thesis, U n i v e r s i t y of Southern California, 1938), pp. 66-67. V. L. Leeper, ”The History, Customs, and Social Life of the Am i s h of Ohio With Sp e c i a l R e f e r e n c e to H o l m e s C o u n t y , ” (Master's thesis, Kent Sfate Univer sity, 1936), p. 21. Gingerich, ojo. c i t . , p.43. Smith, ojo. c i t . , 1920, p, 216 . 93. At the edge of a c o u n t r y road, in a cow p a s ­ ture owned by an " E n g l i s h ” dairyman, is a w e e d - g r o w n graveyard. The sandstone markers, some co nt ai n i n g only initials and a date, are so w e a t h e r e d that a few cannot be made out. One of these reads: B i s h Jacob Miller, d. Nov .. 18.2. aged.. In the same g r a v e y a r d are the f o l l o w ­ ing markers: "Dor ada wife of Jac Miller, d. Ma y 1879, aged ..;” "Isaac Miller, d. Fe b 25, 1866, aged 46 yrs. 1 d ; ” "Anna w ife of Isaac J. Miller, died Dec. 31, 1882, aged 6. ... 2 m o . 29 da;" "BxE Aug 23, 1 8 5 1 ; ” "RxM 1 8 5 9 ; ” "J ac ob; ” "Rebecca dau IJ and L. (A?) Mil ler d. Fe b 19, 1851 aged 5 m o . ; ” "Infant son of IJ and L (?) Mil ler d. Feb. 21, 1 8 5 2 ; ” "Levi son of IJ and L Miller d. Sept. 12, 1858, aged 7 m o . ” R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 51 Swiss A m i s h f r o m Somerset In 1817 94 more A m i s h m o v e d f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a to wh a t is now the no rt he rn mo st part of The and Berks County in Pennsy lvania. the C ent ral Ohio A m i s h community. 95 two churches grew toward one another until they f i n a l ­ ly me r g e d to f o r m the l a r g es t and one of the most compactly settled A m i s h communities O n Novembe r 30, in America. 1811, born in the n e w community. the first A m i s h child 98 was He r parents had b e e n mar ri ed the year before in P e n n s y l v a n i a and h a d made Ohio Q7 the trip whe re they built a log cabin w i t h o u t floors made beds of fo rk ed sticks and poles. to and W h e n E l i z a b e t h was 94. In this same y e ar another religious communi ty of Germans settled in Ohio. The Ger m a n Separatists, as they were called, started a co mmu nist ic soc iety at Zoar. "Zoar, An Ohio E x p e r i m e n t in Com munalism" (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State A r c h a e o l o g i c a l and His to rica l Society, 1952), p. 11. 95. Gingerich, ojo. c i t . , p. 44. 96. Al ta Schrock, "Amish Americans: F r o n t i e r s ­ men," W e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a H i s t o r i c a l M a g a z i n e , p. 52. 97. A l v i n J. Beachy, "The A m i s h Se tt le m e n t in So m ­ erset County, Pe nn sylv a n i a , " M Q R , October, 1954, p. 285, gives two ear lier dates. Sp ri ng of 1810, S usan Miller, daughter of Jacob, and January 12, 1811, Moses, son of Jonas Miller. A m e m m o r i a l booklet, Hi st o r y of Bishop Moses J. M i l l e r of Hol mes Cou nty giv es his birthdate as Jan. 12, 1811, and states that he wa s the second child born in the colony and the third white child to be b o r n in the county. E l i z a b e t h Yod er was the first white child born in Hatteryville (at the time S ton ey ru n wa s not yet founded). 98. Rev. Ha rve y Hostetler, o£. c i t ., pp. 226-27. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. born, a "log w a s pee le d and w h e n hollowe d ou t it answered for a cradle ones." 99 to woo sleep to the eyelids of the little The earliest settlers of Sweetwater township to have been Amish, Troyers were but the Millers, Stutzmans, soon joined by En g l i s h settlers. were a He ssian soldier, seem Yoders, and Am on g these a ve ter an of the W a r of 1812, and several families f r o m Somerset County.'1'00 The first Switzerland, Stoneyrun. cheese maker in Ohio arrived fro m Berne, in 1833 and settled a few miles south of About 1850 he started mak i n g cheese c o m m e r c i a l ­ ly, buying m il k from ten neighbors. More immigrants ar ­ rived from Switzerland and cheese factori es were numerous by the 1860's.'1'0 '1' The area of cheese mak ing in Ohio still coincides cl osely w i t h the A m i s h communities. The Amish tend to raise d a i r y cattle instead of fattening bee f as so many of the E n g l i s h farmers, tion against and because of their i nj u n c ­ the use of electricity, produce milk for m a n y Amish cannot the fluid ma r k e t so they supply the steady stream of m ilk to the cheese factories. 1882, 102 Of the thirty- 99. U h r i c h s v i l l e - D e n n i s o n C h r o n i c l e , July 13, as rep ri nt ed in H e r a l d , May 23, 1940, p. 6. 100. Ibid. 101. Tuscarawas-co. Centenn ial Fair Edition. 102. The Amish have always b e e n important pro d uc er s of milk'- for the cheese houses. Some Amish have c o n s i s t e n t ­ ly refused to sell m i l k on Sunday. Sunday milk, sold M o n ­ day, was used for cheese. Since the advent of electricity, he alth laws have req uire d milk for the f l u i d market to be cooled b e l o w a temperature possible w i t h spring water. Therefore A mi sh m i l k was unacceptable. In 1955 gasoline powered m ilk coolers were first used by the Ce ntr al Ohio Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 53 one cheese factories operating in Ohio in 1953, twenty- three were w i t h i n a fif teen -m il e radius of Stoneyrun. Of the two villages ville is the older. in Sweetw ate r township, ins Ha tter y- It appa re nt ly w a s named about 1812, but was not incorpo rate d until bet ween 1900 and 1910. 104 In 1880 Ston ey run was only a crossroads w i t h a o n e -room schoolhouse, bu t the g r a d i n g for the railroad was almost f ini shed. The r a i l r o a d fat he re d 1890 it was a thriving village 200 inhabitants.-*-^® grown to By 1900 a p o p u l a t i o n of 243. Letter fr o m E. of somewhat less than By 1950, w i t h a popula- of the thirty-one cheese f a c ­ Ohio ‘Amish community and the edges of the community. Map D h i o (Arnold, R o s c h and HartJune, 1955). 104. U. S. Census Bureau, quoted in the H e r a l d , ^p ril 105. and by it had been incorpo rat ed and 103. I b i d . T we nt y- si x tories are w i t h i n the Ce nt r a l remaining five are around the of the Swiss Cheese Ce nt er of line, New Philadelphia, Ohio, Ohio) 107 the t o w n ^ ® The D a i l y R e p o r t e r 2, 1953, p. 2. J. Miller, (Dover, H e r a l d , May 23, 1940. 106. In contrast to this, the Zoarite community was in some measure des tr oye d by the railroad. However, the increased ease of communication, althoug h it-did not d e s ­ troy the Amish, was p a r t i a l l y r es po ns ible for divisions that resulted in the loss of a large number of members. 107. H e r a l d , M a y 23, 1940, p. 3. A leaflet still owned by various S t o n e y r u n residen ts advertised the f i f ­ tieth an niversar y of Stoneyrun, h e l d August 5 and 6, 1932. This wo ul d m e a n that it became a village in 1882. 108. Herald, Ma y 23, 1940, p. 5. 109. See Appendix I, Part D, for a chart of the popula ti on g r o w t h of the township and included villages. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 54 tion of 889, of the it was the largest to w n w i t h i n the bo undaries central Ohio Amish community. S t o n e y r u n has g r o w n up fr om the r a i l r o a d and H a t t e ry vi ll e has g r o w n d o w n toward the r a i l r o a d so that n o w m a n y res id en ts the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the vill ages grew, it in co rp or ated moved.-*--'--*- As the do not k n o w where is drawn. some A m i s h farms .-*--*-*“* influence of the As St on e y r u n These f am ilie s town extended, • more Amish families m o v e d furTrier out into the c o u n t r y and to new communities. History of'the H e r a l d In the late 1880's, a r at h e r sickly yo u n g m a n f r o m one of the A m i s h families was d e c i d i n g wh a t business he could go into that w o u l d not f u r t h e r undermine his health. He bought some presses, Stoneyrun, n 2 settled do w n in the village of and p l a n n e d to do commer cial printing, letter- 110. In among the ty pic al m i d w e s t e r n village homes stands a big A m i s h farmhouse. Shut ters have b e e n add ed to the w i ndows and the house has be e n painted, bu t it is still c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y Amish. A bo u t a bl o c k f r o m t h e — railroad station is the d es erte d fa mi l y cem et er y that w e n t with the farm. 111. One A m i s h fa mi ly has a small part of their farm w i t h i n the co r p o r a t i o n limit. Th ey h a v e r e t a i n e d the land for ’’they owned it before Sto ne yr un wa s inc orpor at ed ." However, the p r o x i m i t y of the town has enco ur ag ed this family to become f a i r l y liberal. They m i x much more w i t h non-Amish th a n is typical. 112. H e r a l d , Ma y 23, 1940, p. 5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 55 heads, sale bills, the co un t r y around. labels, and the like, for Ston e y r u n and In 1890 he b e g a n p u b l i s h i n g a b i - w e e k ­ ly paper w h i c h w o u l d ’’f ear le ss ly p u b l i s h w hat ever ma y be of interest and conducive of good m o r a l s . " ^ ^ three issues we r e sent free The first to various families in and around St oneyrun and to the p u b l i s he r' s friends tives who had m o v e d f r om Stoneyrun. been Amish, and r e l a ­ As the pu bl ish er had m os t of the people who r e c e i v e d issues of the Herald were m e m b e r s of the A m i s h church. Some of them sent back letters and w i t h the f o u r t h or f i f t h issue, devoting a page to these letters. he began Thu s the H e r a l d became a means of c o mm un ic atio n among A m i s h settlem ent s all over the U n i t e d States. Today the n e w s p a p e r head reads, ing Sto neyr un- Ha tt er yvil le Throug hou t the Nation." twenty years, and A m i s h - M e n n o n i t e After m a n a g i n g "S er v­ Communities the pape r for about the original editor sold it. It was impor­ tant en o u g h as a church o r g a n to be p r i n t e d by the M e n n o n ­ ite P u b l i s h i n g House in P e n n s y l v a n i a for a short time. Then it was bo u g h t by a local M en noni te mi ni ste r who p u b ­ lished it for sev en years. Since then it has b e e n p u b ­ lished b y a L u t h e r a n fa m il y who are na ti ves of Stoneyrun.-*-^* 113. H e r a l d , May 15, 1890, p. 1. 114. The above account is f r o m the A n n i v e r s a r y E d i ti on of the H e r a l d , and f r om in tervie ws w i t h the p r e s ­ ent editor. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 56 The editor is very sympathetic toward the A m i s h and has su c­ ceeded in ma k i n g it their pa per as evi denced by the fact that the p r e sen t cir cula ti on is r o u g h l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to the dis tribution of A mi sh in America, and that of the one- h un dr ed-and -f ou r scribes who w ri te fairly re gu l a r l y fo r the paper, nin ety- th ree are A m i s h . 116 The Her a l d is an eight-page w e e k l y w i t h sheets a little smaller than those of a regular newspaper. of national or in ternatio nal importance it directly concerns the Amish, by school legislation, No news is pub l i s h e d unless as w h e n they are a f f e c W d social security, or the draft. Local news of the township is p r i n t e d but mos t of the p a ­ per is d e v ot ed to columns f ro m various scribes. There average b e t w e e n sixty and seventh such articles each w e e k plus a few ex tra columns that m a y be w r i t t e n by som eone on a trip or anyone who wishes will be of interest. nerals, to send in something he There is a column of deaths thinks and f u ­ a section dev oted to obituaries and memorials, and 115. See Append ix IV, Part B, for a listing of the circulation of the He ral d b y state. See Ap p e n d i x I, Par t B, for a listing of the A m i s h me mbe rs hi p by state. In May, 1956, the circula tion was w ell ove r 8,000. Herald, May 3, 1956, p. 6. 116. The scribes are not paid. The list of scribes was compiled f r o m the editor's list of people to w h o m he was sending a 1953 calendar as a Christmas token. One was sent to each reg ular scribe. D u r i n g 1955, the number of Mennonites w r i t i n g for the Herald has increased. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. f; - 57 one to p u b l i c sales. One page Sometimes the editor has a ’’C o r n e r . ” is devot ed to ’’Classified A d s , ” such as a d v e r t i s e ­ ments for stray animals, driving horses, bu ggy harnesses, and such things. Mo st of the a d v e r t i s e ­ ments are directed toward the Amish, "Buggy S a l e , ” "Plain Goods l ad i e s ’ shoes, religious books, as, for example, for P l a i n P e o p l e , ” h i g h black and advertisements for Black M o n a r c h Coal Ranges and ha nd washers.-'-^ E a c h - w e e k the top, pri ces p a i d — for the various classif icat ion s of li ves tock are published. The w e e k l y res ults of the p o u lt ry and egg aucti on are also included. Of p r i m a r y interest to the subscribers are the chatty columns from!.the differenl. e o m m u n i t i e s . look up the column f r o m their former home, People a mo ther reads the column f r o m the communi ty in w h i c h her daughter now lives, some read the column f r o m that new settlement to see how it is coming along, and the column f ro m the co m ­ munity in w h i c h a cousin is vis it in g to see if the visitor 1 T O is mentioned. Perha ps one reads the col umn f r o m the community he himself visited years ago, just to see what is happening to all the people he met ba ck there. The Herald keeps interested Amishme n in touch w i t h the w i d e r Amish community. 117. See App en di x IV, P ar t B, for samples of the advertisements. 118. We felt we were really me mb er s of the c o m m u n ­ ity when, on our third trip, we had r e a ched the place where our small side visits were considered of general enough interest to appear in the scribes' columns. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. CHAP TER II RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION 1 R e l i g i o n is the f o u n d a t i o n of l i f e , x the frame of reference for the Amish. 2 Their r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s the basis for m u c h of their learned, are the cul tur al behaviour. \ \ 1. "Otti'er f o u n d a t i o n can no m a n lay than that is laid w h i c h is Jesus Christ," I Cor. 3:11. This wa s the characteristic q u o t a t i o n of Men no Simons. It app eare d on the title page of all his writings . 2. This is rather w e l l i l l u s tr at ed b y the cover of the F a m i l y A l mana c (Ellrose D. Zook, ed., Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e ) . It shows a group of m e n w i t h their plows and anvils, c o n v e r s i n g w i t h some Indians in a graveyard that stands by a M e nn on ite m e e t i n g house. Am o n g the gravestones, two w o m e n wander, and over the who le c o m ­ munity hovers the Dove w i t h an olive b r a n c h in its mouth. This pic tu re is b o un de d b y a m o d i f i e d Gr e e k r e v i v a l facade on w h i c h are appropriate Bible quotations. The stylobate reads, "Other f o u n d a t i o n ca n no m a n lay than that is laid which is Jesus Christ." I Cor. 3:11. The lower p l i n t h reads, "Faith, Hope and Charity." The upper p l i n t h of one pill ar reads, "Truth" and the other, "Sin cer ity." Around the two pi l l a r s are w r a p p e d streamers th a t read, "The heavens declare the g l o r y of G o d an d the f i r m a m e n t sheweth His handiw ork," Ps. 19:1, and "And it shall come to pass that w h o s o e v e r shall call on the name of the Lor d shall be saved." Acts, 2:21. The base bl oc k s of the p i l ­ lars read, "Isa. 2:4" and "Mic. 4:3." The architrave p r o ­ claims, "And o n E a r t h pe a c e good w i l l tow ar d men , " Luke 2:14. The p e d i m e n t has a p i c t u r e of the lamb, leopard, kid, lion, calf, and chil d together, and above this on the raking cornice is the pa ssage, "The w o l f also s h a l l dwell w i t h the lamb, and the l e op ar d shall lie d o w n w i t h the k i d and the calf and the young li o n and the f a t l i n g together, and a little child shall lead them." Isai ah XI:6. Abo ve the gate is written, "Glory to God i n the Highest ." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 59 Their r e l i g i o n i nfl uences the rituals ing to bed; it d eterm in es languages learned. travel; of eating and of g o ­ the oc cup ations f o l l o w e d and the It d eterm in es w h a t they see w h e n they it p r e d e s t i n e s wh o w i l l be ac quaintanc es and who may be friends. Their r e l i g i o n helps t h e m to face trouble and d e p r i v a t i o n for t h e y know w h a t is the purp ose of their life and they are qui et ly confident the goal. that they shall achieve 3 The sec uri ty gained f r o m their re l i g i o n is felt in the simple o b i t u a r y of an e i g h te en-y ea r old A m i s h bo y who was kicke d in the abd ome n whil e tryi ng to quiet his n e r ­ vous driving horse. On Sat u r d a y evening he see me d better, ate supper, we n t upstairs to sleep a n d at m i d ­ nig ht he came down and was b r e a t h i n g harder. R e a l i z i n g his end near, m o t h e r asked h i m wh at she could do f o r him. He told m o t h e r she should go and lay d o w n and rest. She told h i m that the Lor d could pr ovide a better home for h i m than we could. He died of a hemorrhage. THE SCRIPTURE, The THE C O N F E S S I O N AND THE ORD NU NG church is held t og et he r by a conf ess ion of faith 3. There are dev ia nt indiv idu als among the Am i s h who do not have this confidence and security. A n Am i s h m a n questioned the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of a m e n t a l h o s p i t a l about his wife, n/ 0 0 k ~ L 3 2 / R e p e n t e d of all her w r o n g doings and was a good C hr is ti an Mothe r and chu rc h m e m b e r since her youth. W h y does such a p e r s o n get a n o t i o n that she is eternally l o s t . ”' 4. H e r a l d , Apr il 9, 1955, p. 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 60 and a set of rules or reg ula ti on s for living r e fer re d to as 5 the "Ordnung." The Dort or D o r d r e c h t Co nf es s i o n wa s a d o p t ­ ed by a D u t c h M ennonite Conference o n Ap ril 21, the Al s a t i a n Me nn on ites in 1660, of P e n n s y l v a n i a in 1725. 6 1632, b y and by the Swiss Me nno nite s It is f o u n d in the intr od uc ti on n to t h e various editions of the M a rt yr er S p i e g e l , of their prayer book, 8 and it also circulates as pa rt in pa mph le t 5. The confession of faith and the Ord nung m ig ht be considered the charter of the ins ti tu ti on of the church. ”We can define an in stitu ti on as: a group of people uni te d for the p u r s u i t of a simple or complex activity; always in p o s s e s s i o n of a m a t e r i a l endowment and a technical o u t ­ fit; organized on a definit e legal and customary charter, linguistically f or mu lated in myth, legend, rule and maxim; and trained or pre pa red for the carrying out of its t a s k . ” Bronislaw Malinowski, The D y na mics of Culture Change (New Haven, Conn. : Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1949) , p"I 507 6 . John C. Wenger, The Doctrines of the Mennoni tes (Scottdale, Pa.: Men non ite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1952), p7 77. 7. T h i e l e m a n J. van Braght, The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror of the Def ense le ss Christi ans Who Baptize d Only U p o n Co nfes s i o n of F a i t h and W h o Su ffered and D i e d for the Test imony of Jesus, Their Saviour, F r o m the Time of Christ to the Y ea r A* D. 1660 (Scottdale Pa.: Mennoni te Pu b l i s h i n g House, 1951), p p . 38-44; and T h i e l e m a n J. va n Braght, D e r Blutige Schau-Platz, oder Mar ty re r Sp iegel der Tauffs-Gerinnten, oder w e h r l o s e n Christen, Die urn des Zeugnlsses Jesu, Ihres S e l i g m a c h e r s , w i l l e n g e l i t t e n haben, und getfldtet w o r d e n sind, von ffiirlsti Zeil an, bis auf d a s ~ Jahr 1660 (Lancaster, P a . : Joseph Ehrenfried, 1814), p p . 22-27. 8 . Die ernsthafte Ch ris tenpflic ht en thal ten d Schone geistreiche Gabete, w o m i t sich fromme C h r i s t e n h e r z e n zu al.len Zeiten und in ali en Nttten trBsten k # n n e n . • Nebst'’e i n e m A n h a n g e , ent halte nd eine Kurze Da r s t e l l u n g des GYa uben s und das G l a u b e ns -B ek ennt ni ss der wehru nd r a c h l o s e n Christen. (Revidierte und vermehrte Ausgabe; .Me nn on i t i s c h e Ve rlagshandlung, Scottdale, Pa.: 1945), pp. 184-215. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 61 form.® It is read to the ap plic ant s for b a p t i s m as part of their p r e p a r a t i o n and again the d a y before the actual ceremony. For an applicant is bap tize d only "upon the con­ fes sion of f a i t h ” w h i c h ac tu ally means after he has that he is baptize d subscribed to the Dort re ch t confession. The Amish ba pt ism al applicants do not have to mem or iz e this confession, but they should be compl ete ly familiar w i t h it and will ing to use it as a guide in all things. It is not a substitute for the Bible w h i c h is the final guide; rather it draws together numerou s Biblical pas sages and relates them to specific issues. The c o n f e s s i o n consists of eigh te en articles. first fo ur articles treat Go d an d the things, the fall of man, the promise of the creation of all the r e s t o r a t i o n of m a n through coming of Christ, Christ into this world. and the advent of The next two articles de al w i t h the New Testame nt as the law of Christ, ence and the amendment of life. and sixteen and sevente en ha ve and w i t h repent- Art icl es six to eleven to do w i t h the churchy concept of the church, b a p t i s m into the church, tion of chu r c h officers, supper, 9. Christenturns the the e l e c ­ the c e l e b r a t i o n of the L o r d ’s wa shi ng the S a i n t s ’ feet, the church w i t h the The and ex co mm u n i c a t i o n f ro m subsequent shunning of those who are Gla ub ensb ek en nt nis des w e h r - u n d ra uc hl o s e n (A r t h u r , 111.: L. A. Miller). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 62 expelled. There is an article on matrimony. Three a r t i ­ cles deal wi th the C h r i s t i a n ’s r el a t i o n to his government: the office of civil government, swearing of oaths. defense b y force, The final article and is on the R e s u r r e c ­ tion of the dead and the Last Judgment. Bri efl y summarized, the c onfe ss io n describ es the church as an i n d e p e nd en t v o lu ntary group of believers banded together f o r the pu rpose of wo r s h i p and co mplete ly separated from the state. On l y adults are b a p t i z e d as a symbol of i niti at io n into a v o l u n t a r y church of saints. This church of believers is ke pt pure b y the use of the ban to exclude d i s o b edien t persons. regarded m e r e l y as The L o r d ’s Supper is a mem o r i a l to the dea t h and suffering of Christ and not as contai nin g the "real p r e s e n c e . " Bible, esp ec ia lly the New Testament, faith and practice. Go vernment The is the on l y guide to is a divine i ns ti tu tion ordained for the p r o t e c t i o n of the rig h te ou s and the p u n ­ ishment of the wicked. obedient to his rulers Therefore (unless the C hr isti an m u s t be such obedience is co n t r a r y to the w o r d of God), pr a y fo r them and p a y taxes. However, a Christian m a y not fill the office of magistrate, for the magistrate uses f orce* an d love mu s t be the r u l i n g p r i n c i ­ ple; also a Christi an cannot take an oath. ■ji— ------------------ 10. tain reprints Most sta ndard works on Mennonit e h i s t o r y co n­ of this confession. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. As w e l l as the D o r t confession, there are two other confessions of fai th that are n o t tests for membership, but are w i d e l y r e a d and s u b s c r i b e d are older t ha n the Dor t confession. is Thomas von I m b r o e c h 's .^ of the A m i s h hymn al 12 to b y the Amish. This Spiegel 14 This confessi on is pri nt ed in the b a c k "l ^ and in the Mar ty re r S p i e g e l . second is the Th ir ty-T hr ee Art i cl es Jans Twisck. The f i r s t B ot h The of F a i t h b y P e t e r co nf es si on is found in the M a rt yr er and has r e c e n t l y b e e n p r i n t e d in b o o k l e t f o r m in both E n g l i s h and German. Mirror is quoted, 15 V e r y o ft en w h e n the M a r t y r 1s the r e fe re nc e is f r o m Twisk's confession. The D o r t c o n f e s s i o n is su bsc ri be d to b y all the Mennonites. 16 The w o r d i n g of the c on fess io n does not v a r y 11. "Co nfessio" and "Defens iones Opp o si ti on um" or the " C o n fes si on of Thomas von Imbroeck, concerni ng baptism " and the "Defense A g a i n s t the Opp on en ts b y Thomas vo n I m ­ broeck." For a h i s t o r y of this co nf es sion see F e l i x Reichmann, "An E a r l y E d i t i o n of Thomas von Imbroec k, " MQR, April, 1942, pp. 99-107. 12. Ausbund, das ist: E n t li ch e schBne Christliche Lieder, Wi e sie in d e m G e fSng ni s zu P a s s a u in d e m S chip's s' von den Schweizer-Brtldern und v o n an de ren rechtgl&ubigerT" Christen h i n und her g e dic ht et w o r d e n . ( L a n c a s t e r , Pa.': Amischen G e m e i n d e n in L a n c a s t e r County, 1949), pp. 823-35. 13. M a rt yr*s M i r r o r , on. 14. Ibid., pp. c i t ., 1951, pp. 367-71. 373-410. 15. P e t e r Jans Twisck, B e k e n n t n i s z des Glauben s nach GOttes Heilig e W o r t der W e h r l o s e n C h r i s t e n . In 33 Artikel n v o r g este ll t Mit e i n e n S c h r i f t s t e l l e n R e giste r (Saint Joe, Ark a ns as : M a r t i n Printers, 1954). John M a r t i n was b o r n into an "Old" Me nn o n i t e family, but joined the Old Order Amish. 16. E x c e p t the Ge neral Conferenc e M en no ni tes and the Mennoni tes w h o have r e m a i n e d in Switzerland. Wenger, l o c . cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 64 fr om ch urc h to ch ur ch nor even f r o m one b r a n c h of the church to the other. It was o r i g i n a l l y subscri bed to in an effort to achieve unif o r m i t y and unanimity. extent it has f ul fi ll ed this function, sponsible, in some me asur e, To some but it was als o r e ­ fo r the or i g i n of the Amish. Ce rt ain ly it h a s b ee n d i f f e r e n t l y int erp re te d by di f f e r e n t groups. The Bible is the inspire d w o r d of God, the Dort confession is a c o n f e s s i o n d r a w n up b y the f ore fathers in the attempt to res tore the church of Christ, wh ile the Ordnung is rules that have b e e n made by m e n in an effort further to define ho w the Bible everyday living. should be applied to The Bible is unchanging, It is b e l i e v e d li te r a l l y an d completely. fession is serious men. The D or t con­ but it wa s w r i t t e n by It w i l l not be changed for it is their confe ss io n of faith, Bible. and important, unalterable. but it can be in terpret ed more f r e e l y t ha n the Finally, the Ord nung is a largely u nw ri tten set of rules of conduct that ha ve grad ua ll y ev olved and are 17. F r e v i o u s to its ac ce pta nce in 1660, the Swiss, Palatinate, and A l s a t i a n churches did not pra cti ce s h u n ­ ning of ex p e l l e d me mbers and it seems that .some of the me n who first signed it f r o m these churches did so to p r o ­ mote un it y and no t bec au se they b e l i ev ed it completely. Milton Gascho, "The A m i s h D i v i s i o n of 1693-1697 in S w i t ­ zerland and A l sa ce ," MQR, October, 1937, pp. 248-49. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 65 constantly, though slowly, changing. drawn up b y m e n and are being from one next. These rul es were changed by men. T h e y vary church to the next and fr om one decade to the They are real iz ed as important in holding the church together, and for m a n y of the r u l e s Biblical, if rat her indirect, basis; there is a but the O r d n u n g is in no sense holy. The r e l a t i o n of these three "charters" church is w e l l illu str ated b y the patterns of Among the A m i s h there is no of the joking. such thing as a rel igio us joke in the sense of p o k i n g fun at heaven, prayer, Holy Ghost, or anything di r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the Bible. Following such an attempt, there is an ignorin g a complete lack of response. the mo s t discreet infidelity in marriage or funny, silence, They do not act shocked, but rather as tho ug h they had not he a r d it.-*-® even of the sort, A joke, ref er ring to possible is not considered either shocking but in p o o r t a s t e . 19 O c c a s i o n a l l y an Am i s h m a n who has h a d experience outside the community, as in a 18. My husband tried such a joke several times, as for example asking the preacher w h e n he fell asleep at a f a m i l y ga th e r i n g if he had b e e n pray ing for all of us. 19. M y hus band also tried this type of joke. The nearest the A m i s h a pp r o a c h to it is whe n a m a n happ ens to sit next to a w o m a n wh o is not his wife, he then half teasingly asks the h u s b a n d ’s permission. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 66 Civilian Pu bl ic Service camp, m a y p o l i t e l y indicate he knows it is supposed to b e funny. joking about On the other hand, the O r d nung is one of the m os t ple as an t ways to pass the time, and a real f e e l i n g of camaraderie d e ­ velops as eac h p e r s o n makes a clever dig forbidden,, One m a n pretends switch wh en someone walks sene lamp, or perhaps to turn on the electric light into the r o o m carrying a k e r o ­ (when, and never w i l l drive, of course, he ne ve r has a car). another about w e a r i n g b r o w n shoes or buying a gold w a t c h chain,, PO They may tease one (black are prescribed) They ge n t l y laugh at themselves for the rules th ey impose. the rule as about s om et hing another teases the p r ea ch er about his h a n dli ng a car so well driven, that such is r e a l l y unimportant, Th ey realize that but they are willing to follow it for m a n y clearly unders tan d that these p r o h ib it io ns h old the chu rch together. PI THE CHRI ST IAN YEAR E v e r y day has typical A m i s h family. its religio us observances for the There are prayers eight times a 20. There are instances of this type of teasing whenever two or more me n w h o are good friends gat her t o ­ gether „ 21. The specific p r o h i b i t i o n s and re qui re me nt s the Ordnung w i l l be di sc u s s e d in Chapter Two. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. of 67 day. In the m o r n i n g and e v e n in g the fat her reads oo from the prayer b o o k y is a prayer. and before and after e a c h m ea l there U s u a l l y it is silent, al t h o u g h in a few homes the fat her m a y rec it e a p r a y e r at this time. Amish families a prayer the Bible or perhaps In m a n y Menno Simons, Dirk Philips or the Mar tyre r Spie ge l is read each day. families gather A few together wh ile the father reads aloud. In other f a mi lies the yo u n g e s t c h i l d r e n are read to or told stories^ and the older childr en and adults each f o l ­ low their own course of reading. O n weekdays, r e l i g i o n is obs e rv ed in prayer, read­ ing and m o s t of the pa t t e r n s of acti vity of an A m i s h f a m ­ ily, but Su n d a y is the da y that is set aside e s p e c i a l l y for religious observances. most essenti al w o r k is done. 22. It is a day w h e n none but the pC Su nday is spent ei ther in Christenpflicht. 23. 00A5, 00A9. W h e n I visited the f a m i l y of 00A9 in 1952, they asked another f a m i l y w i t h w h o m I h a d stayed if I would m i n d r e a d i n g their pr ayers in Ge r ma n as that was the only pr ay er book they had. W he n I v i s i t e d them in 1955, the fa th er r e c it ed the Lord's P r a y e r in E n g l i s h before the m e a l and said a s pon taneous pr ay er in E n g l i s h after the meal. 24. reading. In a few fam il ie s there is almost no religious 25. "Remember the S a b bath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour and do all thy work; but the seventh d ay is the S a b b a t h of the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidse rva nt, nor thy (Continued o n Page 68) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 68 going to c h u r c h or visiting*, the family, attend church. The few visitors. 26 does in the and eve n then the fath er m a y church service, is a ga th e r i n g of visiting, is sickness suc h as chicken p o x or scarlet fever, family spend Sun day alone, day, On l y if there the wh ol e hel d eve ry other S u n ­ commu nit y w i t h p e r h a p s a The altern ate Sunday, w h i c h is spent also helps draw the church together as the m e m ­ 25. (Continued f r o m Page 67) - cattle, nor the stranger that is w i t h i n thy g a t e s . ” Ex. 20;12. However, the horses are used to p u l l the bug gies to ch ur ch or for vis i t i n g . One w o m a n told me that late Sat u rd ay nig ht a terrible snow st orm came up and the h un dr ed s of y o u n g t u r ­ keys out on the ran g e h a d to be put in a w a r m place. The only w a r m pl a c e wa s the basement, so the y her ded the t u r ­ keys in there. By Sund ay m o r n i n g the w e a t h e r w a s clear and warm, so the turkeys were tur ne d out, but of course the celler was in a terrible mess. The w o m a n of the house said to h e r mother that it was d r e a d f u l l y dirty, and if she left it it w o u l d become v e r y hard to scrub off and it would smell. Her m o t h e r said she thought it w o u l d be all right if she m o p p e d it up. "So I q u ickl y mop ped it, not doing any thing else, and I t h i n k God w o u l d understand. It would have taken me so m a n y hours if I 5d w a i t e d until Monday. ” 0 0 A 2 . This w a s the only time in her life she had ever w o r k e d on Sunday. It wa s imp or ta nt e n o u g h that she m e n t i o n e d it several times. Her behaviou r is in k e e p ­ ing w i t h the Ordnungs Brief of 1837, article e i g h t ” ...und den Sabbat Gott zu E h r e n f e i e r n soil, es musste d a n n ein Notfall s e i n . ” 26. The visitors f r o m other church dis tric ts are members of the w i d e r community. These visitors are u s u a l ­ ly me nti on ed in the Herald. ’’Those a tt endi ng chu rc h f r o m other district s ... w e r e . . . ” H e r a l d , July 14, 1955, p. 3. Bachman says of the P e n n s y l v a n i a Amish; ’’V i s i t i n g other congregations of their faith, and joining in their s e r v i ­ ces, on the Sundays w h e n their ow n di s t r i c t has no service, is not a common p r a c t i c e . ” C a l v i n Geor ge Bachman, The Old Order A m i s h of L a n c a s t e r C o u n t y (Norristown, Pa.; Pen n s y l vania Ger ma n Society, 1942) , p T 219. In contrast, there is considerabl e v i siti ng b e t w e e n church d i s t r i c t s in c e n ­ tral Ohio. / R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 69 bers w i t h i n a district or fr o m various districts enjoy the day in one a n o t h e r ’s homes. However, ing that it m a y be a bit frivolous instead the time Bible stories there is some f e e l ­ to visit on Sunday, should be spent teaching the and hymns. that children One Ol d Order Ami s h m a n complains: Sie gehe n suf Besuch. Und was ist dann ihr G e s p r a c h vom Marketpreis, vo m P f l a n z e n und Bauen, und wie am m e i s t e n zu ma ch e n sei, und die Menschen, die so aufgpz oge n w e r d e n k B n n e n es nicht anders begreifen„27 In m y experience, service and the most Sundays on w h i c h there w a s no service of a ne igh bor ing c h u r c h wa s not visited, the m o r n i n g was pQ stories and h y m n s . The v i si ti ng families spent teaching the is usu ally b y family. join to eat the noon m e a l basic meal children Bible Two to eight together. the hostess prepares the m e a l for all, ies are coming, church each usually brings the hostess has prepared. Sometimes but if m a n y f a m i l ­ a dis h to add to the The adolescent chil- 27. D a v i d J. Hochstetler, "Der rechte Ge b r a u c h des S a bb at s, ” H d W , Oct obe r 1, 1953, pp. 585-86. See also, P. Y. "Ein w e n i g vo n der S a b b a t t a g , ” H d W , Au gu s t 15, 1954, pp. 87-89. Comments on the observance of S u n d a y are also found in the scribes' columns and occas ion al articles In the H e r a l d . September 24, 1953, p. 1, June 24, 1954, p . 1. 28. The hymns were in E n g l i s h as w e l l as German, and some of the Bible storybooks were also in English. Sometimes the m o t h e r wou ld read from an E n g l i s h Bible storybook, tra nslating and ret el ling the story in P e n n ­ sylvania Dutch. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 70 dren ra rel y join the family for these S u n d a y gatherings. They may be spending the w e e k e n d w i t h f r ie nd s or rest ing after a S a turd ay ni g h t date and in p r e p a r a t i o n for a S u n ­ day singing. If m a n y families have be e n invited and the group seems to be ve r y large, the ch i l d r e n b e t w e e n seven and fourtee n m a y be left together to sp e n d the da y by themselvesj The the boys at one f a r m and the girls at another. children enjoy these Sundays, pQ espe c i a l l y if none of the b a b i e s have b e e n left at home for them to care for. The mother of the hosts or host esses plans the dinner for them befo re a few simple games. she leaves, and pre pares and often suggests She m a y leave a supply of balloons with the children as a special treat and perhaps a piece of candy for each child. long p eriods of play, from adults. The children g r e a t l y e n j o y these un in terr up te d by w o r k or requests They w a n t no supervision and even try to get their adolescent brothers and sisters to go away for day. If the adolescents extracted from them, stay home, a p r om is e in front of the parents, will ’’stay away and n o t spoil our f u n . ” are gener al ly w i l l i n g to ignore happy to be left alone is us ua lly that they The adolescen ts the children. to read, write the letters, Th ey are daydream and sleep. 29. See App e nd ix VII, Part A, for a p h o t o g r a p h of such a group of boys spending Sunday together. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 71 fhe rest of the f a m i l y starts the b u g g y ride to their neighbors w it h the mothe r b al ancin g the y o un gest bab y and often a ”J el lo ” salad or a pud di ng on her lap. ies gather a lit tle before noon. The f a m i l ­ The m e n u n h i t c h the ho r s e s and then sit in the shade of a tree or on the large p o r c h while the w o m e n assemble dinner. delicious. S u n d a y dinners are always If there are o n l y three families present, usually eat at the table w i t h two settings, are more than three, di nn er large table Is b r i g h t w i t h ways da zzli ng ly white been p o l i s h e d . ^0 crystal, but if there is serv ed bu f f e t style. color. The table The cloth Is a l ­ and the Su nday silverware has just The Su n d a y tumblers are of cut glass amber or green. The stacked china pl at es glisten. In large low pans is the meatloaf, or home canned beef. dressing, There always s e e m s f r i e d chicken, to be noodles, sometimes even noodles f i x e d two or three ways, potatoes w i t h pools of b r o w n e d butter. There and m a s h e d is rarely a vegetable, bu t there are several kinds of pic kl es salads of all k i n d s that displays the y and colors, and m a n y e ac h i n a gr eat glass bowl these m ino r w o r k s of art to b est advantage. 30. The Sun da y flatwar e is silver plate that has been bought b y saving coupons f r o m various foods and sending the m in w i t h the small re q u i r e d am ount of m o n e y until a complete set has b e e n accumulated. I k n o w of no Amish family who bought their S u n d a y silverware at a store. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 72 Most of the salads have a gelati n base as then they can be pre pared the day before, gelatin appeal and the brig h t shades of c o l or ed strongly to the A m i s h housewives. Oft e n there are as m a n y d e sse rt s as all other dishes combined. There are p udd in gs day, and cakes and pies. and on Sunday one has the w e e k ' s from. dings On top of ma n y of the salads is hea pe d w h i p p e d and mo st of the p u d ­ As the m e n come in, maining par t of the room, W h e n they are silent grace. swirls and peaks. c a re fu ll y and then call the w o m e n stand ba c k against the wall and near the k i tc hen door. table. supply to choose cream in abundant The w o m e n arrange the table the men. S a t u r d a y is b a k i n g The m e n fill the r e ­ but st ay sev er al fee t fr o m the all in, they bow their heads for Then the m e n start laod in g their plates and carrying them b a c k to the p o r c h or the lawn wh e r e will eat. Next the w o m e n fi x the children's plates help the little ones w i t h their food. have eaten and the m e n have had wome n fill their o w n plates. of her you nge r children, their sec on d helpings, brought into the d i n i n g r o o m for the men, ways a lot remaining, the E a c h m o t h e r checks the plate she eats it to keep it from b e i n g wasted. much as he can hold, and W h e n the ch i l d r e n and if they have have their second helpings. they left any food, Then coffee is and the w o m e n W h e n eve ryone has e a t e n as the r e m a i n i n g food, and there is al­ is ca re f u l l y put away and the dishes R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 73 quickly w a s h e d and r e t u r n e d to the top shelves. Finally, by mid af te rno on,"the w o m e n sit down to continue their e x ­ change of news and h o u s e h o l d hints and m i l d gossiping. In the late afterno on the m e n come up to where the w o m e n are sitting. One m ent io ns the cows, another, the turkeys - even on Sun day the animals mu s t be cared for. gather up their food that was left bottles and diapers, call the children, the horse has been h i t c h e d up, leave. ass emble The w o m e n the b a b i e s ’ and b y the time the f a m i l y is re a d y to Fo r everyone c onc er ne d it has been a very ple as an t day o S un d a y is the p r o t o t y p e for all the A m i s h holidays. In a sense, another h o l i d a y adds a second Sabbath to the week, for all hol idays are obse rved as holy days. holidays are spent visiting, and, as o n Sunday, The none but the most es sential wo r k is permitted. Christmas The A m i s h year does not b e g i n w i t h the secular Ne w Year, but wi t h C h r i s t m a s . ^ Their year b e g i n s as the 31. Fo r a pe opl e who have exto lle d h a r d w o r k as one of the gre atest virtues, these periods of enforced, (and greatly enjoyed), rest are e x t r e m e l y important. 32. Johann RiLber, B l n R e gi st er von S c h r i f t e n und Liedern die in den A m i sh en G e m e l n d e n g e br au ch t w e r d e n (B a l t i c , O h i o : Johann R & b e r ) . See Ap p e n d i x II. John Umble, "Amish Service M anua ls ," M Q R , April, 1941, pp. 95-117. John Umble, "Ma nuscript Service Ma nual s," M Q R , January, 1941, pp. 25-32. Joseph W. Yoder, Ami sche Lleder (Huntingdon, Pa.: Yo de r P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1942), p. xii. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 74 Christian era did w i t h the bir th of Jesus. ning is rather central Ohio, But the b e g i n ­ confused for among the Old Order Ami s h in Christmas is celebrate d twi ce. 33 "New** Christmas and ’’O l d ” Christmas. celebrated on Dec emb er 25, w h e n New Christmas they claim, does is the w o r l d celebrates while Old Christmas is celebr ated on January 6. celebration, They have not have it, This any r e l a t i o n to E p i p h a n y ^ but is the d a y on w h i c h Christmas was c e l e ­ brated before the calendar was changed. As we are in the h o l i d a y season some young peo pl e m i g h t wond er w h y Dec em ber 25th is called Christmas that some people think that January 6 t h is the day w h e n Christ was 33. These two c e l e b ra ti ons are not on two s u c c e s ­ sive days as Bachman, Lancaster, ojo. c i t . , p. 217, r e ­ ports for the P e n n s y l v a n i a Am i s h when he mentions "Se con d Christmas.” My h u s b a n d was w i t h two Ohio Ami s h couples who were vis iting in P e n n s y l v a n i a on January 6. He saw no evidence that the P e n n s y l v a n i a Ami sh cel eb rated O l d Christmas. The m e n and boys were wor ki ng as usual. When the subject came up in Ohio, one of the A m i s h m e n was shocked to learn that in P e n n s y l v a n i a they worke d on Old Ch r i s t m a s . 34. Ep i p h a n y is celebrate d Jan uar y 6. Formerly January 6th was cel ebr ated as the a n n i v er sa ry of J e s u s ’ birth in the E a s te rn church and at Jerusalem. This con­ fusion about the date of Chr ist's b i r t h existed among the various brances of the C hris ti an chu r ch until about 700 A. D. In fact, the Armenia ns still celebrate Ja n u ­ ary 6th as the bir t h d a y of Christ while the res t of the Christian church celebrates His b i r t h d a y on D e c e m b e r 25. Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Lit u rg y (Westminster: Dacre Press, 1954), pp. 357-59. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 75 - born. This mixup came about w i t h the c h a n g ­ ing of the c a l e n d a r . ^5 Followin g their ch ara ct er is tic p a t t e r n of t u rni ng back -back to the time of Christ and the Apostles, and of at­ tempting to turn away f r o m the w o r l d -- they have he ld on to this older, t ra di tion al date for Chr is t' s b i r t h . I n spite of this, New Christm as has crept ing importance, w h i l e Old Christmas less strictly. One of the in and is of g r o w ­ is being celeb rat ed school teachers who se pupils come f r o n S to n e y r u n c h ur ch district and church district number two, boasted, "Last year all m y pupils w e r e school for Old C h r i s t m a s . Old C hri st ma s in is a fast 35. H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 27, 1951, p. 7. The calendar was changed in 1582 in Catholic countries. This w a s the time w h e n the Me nn o n i t e s we r e bein g sev er el y p e r s e c u t e d by the state c h u r c h and perh aps they w o u l d n o t let the Pope dictate w h e n they w e r e to cele br ate Christmas. There are thi rt een days' differ enc e b e t w e e n the two calendars. "January 1, 1955, Julian calendar, c o r r e s p o n d s to January 14, 1955, G r e g o r i a n calendar." Family A l m a n a c , o p . cit., 1955, p. 3. The Ami s h attribute the v a r i a t i o n in date to the change in the calendar. I am not in a p o s i t i o n to say w h e t h e r this is the correct e x p l a n a t i o n or if the variant date is a survival or a r e v i v a l that was i n t r o ­ duced at the time of their founding. 36. I have no t come across an y reference to E p i ­ phany or January 6 in E d w i n Miller Fogel, Bel iefs and Superstitions of the P e n n s y l v a n i a G e rmans (Philadelphia, P a . : Am e r i c a n Germ a n i c a Press, 1915) or any m e n t i o n of it in Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t ., or in any of the i s ­ sues of the P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n (publis hed b y the P e n n ­ sylvania D u t c h F ol kl or e Center, Inc., F r a n k l i n a n d M a r ­ shall College, Lancaster, Pa. and, after the S p r i n g issue of 1956, at Bethel, Pa.) to w h i c h I have access. 37. 02. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. = 76 70 day. The p a r e n t s meets, still do no w o r k and often c hur ch bu t the h o l i d a y is d ying out if sec ular o b l i g a ­ tions such as school can inte rr upt the celebration. ertheless mo st of the A m i s h adults 'Z Q church0 or r e a d i n g the Bible, thanks for the b i r t h of their Nev­ still spent the da y in singing hymns, and giving S a v i o u r . 4^ Old Christmas has r e maine d a p u r e l y religio us cel- bration while Ne w Christmas has m a n y secular aspects. The religious c e l e b r a t i o n is still paramount, but it is a constant fight to keep o u t the w o r l d l y influences. s c r i b e s ’ columns in the H e r a l d reflect The this effort. Now as C hr is tmas is d r a wing near, h o w are we to celebrate the b i r t h of Christ, our Sa vio ur? Are we spirit ua lly m i n de d? Now -a- da ys S a n t a Claus is a d v e r t i z e d g r e a t ­ ly in ne ws pap ers. What are we tea chi ng or telling our chi ldren and g r a n d ch ildr en about Christma s? Are we telling them w h y Christ 38. No b r e a k f a s t the n oon meal. is eaten. The f a s t is b r o k e n at 39. C h u r c h is he ld o nl y o c c a s i o n a l l y o n Old Christmas. As New Chr is tmas grows in importance, the cen­ tral Ohio A m i s h are b e g i n n i n g to have c hur ch on D e cembe r 25. In 1953, five of the thirty-three chu rc hes had s e r v ­ ice on New Christmas, a Friday. Herald, D e c e m b e r 17, 24, 31, 1953. I have b e e n told, ’’W h e n we g a t h e r on New Christmas we sing fa st er hymns than at Ol d Christmas, then we sing all the old tunes that are m or e r e l i g i o u s . ” 00A23. 40. The two couples w ho came E a s t to visit us did not w a n t to m is s the ch ur ch service Sunday, January 3, but they were w i l l in g to travel on Old Christmas. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 77 came to this earth, or are we striving to fill them w i t h candles, cakes and r o a st s? I deem it not w r o n g to have a nice quiet f e a st and at the same time t e a c h the chi ld ren w h y Christ came to this w o r l d . 41 W i t h Christmas draw in g nigh, the w o r l d l y inclined are f e a t u r i n g Santa and his outfit. At times p l a i n people, ev e n Amish, are noticed standing b y and looking on w i t h amusement. Mi g h t it not be more p r o p e r to pass by and not indulge in the make -believe. Let us more and more teach ou r children about the Christ child ins tea d of Santa C l a u s .42 As we are ap p r o a c h i n g Christmas time, let us all r e j o i c e in a Christi an way that a Savi our is born f o r us, and not as the wo r l d rejoices and leave out Christ co mp le t e l y the wa y it seems t o d a y ... If we wa n t to give gif ts ,l et us r e m e m b e r that God's gr e a t e s t gift to mank in d was the Saviour, and let us give our gifts unto His h o n or a n d n o t for the honor of ourselves. No one should try to make children believe in San ta and such untrue stories, but should tell them the true and loving story of our Lord and Saviour that they m a y also look up to the One who was bo r n for them. If they are taught un truthf ul things about Santa, etc., ho w can we e x p e c t them to be tru th fu l to us, and then w h o w i l l be re spo nsi ble for it?43 P e r h a p s I am wrong, but I am afra id wh e n every ki n d and class of p e o p l e w a n t to share Christmas, it c a n only be done by le avi ng out Christ ... Now h o w or w h y c a n those w h o do not believe in Christ celebrate His b i rt hd ay ? Ma ny of course p l a y up S a nta Claus, that m a n of Mythology, wh o is sup po se d to have his home at the N o r t h Pole, and is classed as a Mer ry 41. Herald, D e cem be r 2 0 , 1951, p. 42. Herald, De cember 13, 43. H e r a l d , De cember 18, 1951, p 5„ . 1. 1952, p . 5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 78 Fellow. Stop and think a minute. Does not Santa Claus rece ive the thanksgiving, honor, and reverence, w h i c h r i g h t f u l l y belongs to C h r i s t ? 44 These are the just a few of the m a n y comments that r e p r e s e n t Amish attitude towa rd too gr e a t a secula ri zati on of Christmas and also t o ward the dan ger s of celebr ati ng a religious h o l i d a y in the ma nn er of the world. A l t h o u g h m o s t of the A m i s h stress the feel a ve ry real Saviour, ten. the S u f f e r i n g Christ cannot be c o mp le te ly f o r g o t ­ The ple as ure 45 and joy for the b i r t h of their comfor tin g is more intense, more meaningful, cause it came t h r o u g h pain. Herald joy, E. J. Mill er writes in the an article on "Christmas Grows U p .11 Christmas mean s more th an the b i r t h of the Christ child and the se nt ime nts w h i c h we so lovingly attach to the ble s se d eventj Christmas is more than Angels, and Shepherds, and Wise M e n and a Bright Star in the East. Christmas means "God w i t h us." The day that we call Christmas is the time th a t God chose to reveal Hi mse lf to m a n as he nev e r had b e ­ fore. God came to e a r t h in the f o r m of flesh, bec ame obedie nt unto the dea th of the Cross, Hi ms elf bare our sins and thus p r o ­ vided for us p e r f e c t redemption. We err wh e n we limit our a p p r e c i a t i o n of Christmas to a b ea ut iful bab y b o r n in a manger. Christmas is a m a n- si zed matter. Let us not reduce Christ each year, to a Babe in Bethlehem, lying in a m an g e r in the m i ds t of curious, sniffling cattle. This we grant, was a won- 44. H e r a l d , D e cem be r 24, 1953, 45. H e r a l d , D e ce mb er 20, 1951, p. be­ p. 1. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 79 derfu l way for Christ to make His entrance into the world, it is a b ea ut iful and a p ­ p e a l i n g story to ch i l d r e n and to us as adults, it mel t s our hear ts as no other m e t h o d of incarna ti on would. But, let us never forge t that Jesus grew in w i s d o m and stature and in favor w i t h God and m a n ... That He r e ac he d the age of accountability, that He became a m a n such as the w o r l d ha d never known, w i t h a m e ss ag e so po w e r f u l that even the devil had to cry out in r e c o g ­ nition of His Divinity. Le t us r e m e m b e r that He di e d upon the Cross of C a l v a r y for our p e r s o n a l sins, and that as we believe in Him, our sins are w a s h e d away b y the Blo od of Jesus w h i c h was shed for us. The tone of this passage b elittl es birth, even t h ou gh the wor d s do not. is not typical, the the story of J e s u s ’ it but it does b r i n g out the importance of suffering Christ membered even In this r e s p e c t and that His at the joyous sufferi ng is to be r e ­ time of His birth. When the Amish teach their chil dr en "why Christ came to this e a r t h , ” they mu s t expl ai n to them about His death. Althou gh the rel ig io us paramount, aspects of Chri stm as are the secular aspects are g r ea tl y enjoyed.^® The preparations for them are not extensive, of the regular ho us e h o l d duties, t h e y keep but on top the wife busy. 46. E v e n tho ugh the Ohio A m i s h do not have C h r i s t ­ mas trees or teach their c h ildr en about Santa Claus, it could not be said of them, as Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t ., p. 217, does for the P e n n s y l v a n i a Amish, that they have "no special o bs ervances for the Christmas season" or that there is "nothing unusual about the Chr istmas season." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 80 The fall h o u s e c l e a n i n g should be finished! bought and some cookies and candies made| Christmas sent out. desire cards to decorate decorations 49 47 a fe w p r e se nts 48 p r o b a b l y some An d mo s t hou se wi ve s feel the their h o m e s a little. 50 The limited are always r e p r o d u c t i o n s of na tur al (God made) objects r a t h e r than p u r e l y dec or at iv e objects colored balls. plied to A few snowflake d e ca lc omani as m a y be ap ­ the wi nd ows and some pl as ti c around the house, w h i l e o n the evergreen trees such as snowflakes hung si deb oard ma y sit two toy (not d e c or at ed as pa gan Chr istmas trees, but spa rk li ng w i t h a little ar tifi c i a l s n o w ) „ 4 7 o "I am not done ho use cle ani ng yet. Maybe ^ will get it m i x e d up w i t h 1954 cleaning. I Hope to f i n ­ ish before C h r i s t m a s . ” P e r s o n a l corres po nde nce f r o m 00A2, X I 1/4/53. 48. ”We made some home made candy last night. Br. Menno and R e u bi ns were do wn to h el p us." Personal corres­ pondence f r o m 00A26, XIl/22/53. "Are you r e a d y for Christmas we have all our s h op ping done bu t I h a v e n ' t made any c a n d y yet. Oh I see I w i l l just have to hu s t l e to get e v e r y t h i n g done." P e r s o n a l corresp ondence f r o m 00A10, XIl/23/53. "We girls and I bak ed cookies one eve." Personal correspondence f r o m 00A2, XIl/22/53. 49. The Christmas cards us ually have a scripture verse p r i n t e d on them! if not, one is w r i t t e n on. Gen­ erally they have b e e n or dered f r o m the Me nno nite P u b l i s h ­ ing House. They tend to be br i g h t to the p oi nt of g a u d i ­ ness . 50. My h u s b a n d r e p o r t e d tha t he saw no Christmas decorations in the h o m e s of the P e n n s y l v a n i a Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 81 If the famil y has mas sc hoo l-age children, the C h r i s t ­ celebration m a y start w i t h the Christmas p r o g r a m at school. 51 This is a f a i r l y recent innovation,, rural teachers 52 e x p l a i n e d that afte r she h a d b e e n t e a c h ­ ing a few years, at school. their she d e c i d e d to have Some o f the pupi ls an e v e n i n g p r o g r a m came and told par e nt s w o u l d not let them p a r t i c i p a t e program. So she called on the pare nts them that it w o u l d be s om et hi ng that church. The ch i l d r e n w e r e her word, gious throughout. program ea c h year for the parents, 53 Since then, that is w e l l to the p a r e n t s . the own p a rty at school. her that in such a and explai ne d to could be giv en in allowed to come, the p r o g r a m s t a rt ed w i t h been acceptable One of the and true to a pray e r and was reli- there has b e e n an evening attended and has usu all y As well as the p r o g r a m school c h i l d r e n us u a l l y have their This is mo s t simply de sc r i b e d b y a fifth-grade girl's letter. We exchange names F r i d a y at school, the 21. I got a box of h a nki es and a p i n fro m Ivan Troyer. I ha d M a r y T r o y e r 's name. And 51. "On F r i d a y evening, D ec embe r 11, at 7;30 p.m. Frog Pond Hollow S c h o o l w i l l have a Christm as p r o g r a m of music, dialogues and plays, f o l l o w e d by a cake walk. The p u b l i c is invited to attend." H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 10, 1953, p . 1. 52. 53. program. 02. I have hea rd m a n y favorab le reports of this R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 82 fr om the teacher I got 1 lb of Bab y R u t h candy, a filled w i t h air snow m a n w i t h two Packs of gums b e t we en his legs. We ha d a San ta Claus at s c h o o l . 54 A fourth-grade b o y w r i t e s more briefly^ We exchan ged pre se nt s at school. I had Elmer Miller' s name., I gave h i m a cap gun. 55 The school childre n are not the only ones who have gift exchange. tricts, The young people, and in some church d i s ­ the w o m e n of the church have their own exchanges. One w oma n wrote, ’’Mrs. Noah Mullet is hav i n g sewing next week we wil l have Xmas e x c h a n g e . ” usually have their exchange The y o u n g people at their singing. ’’Singing is to be at E m a n u a l B. Swa rtz entrubers next Sunday e v e ­ ning and the Christmas exchange for the yo un g folks is to be at the home ning. of A l m a C- Schrock on Christmas e v e ­ At the Christmas singing and exchange, the young people o fte n go out caroling to their n e i g h b o r s ’ home s . Last came o n (Joy to the end 54. nig ht at 15 till ten some people the front p o r c h they b e g a n to sing, the World) and (Silent N i g h t ) „ At they all shouted M e r r y Christmas. 00A18 letter to 02, XIl/52. "55. 00A19 letter to 02, XIl/52. gift for a " n o n r e s i s t a n t ” child. 56. 0 0 A 2 , XIl/53. 57. H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 18, 1952, An interesting p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 83 We heard the m sing at Joes and Jakes, say M erry C h r i s t m a s .58 and New Christmas is v ery m u c h a f ami ly celebration. All the b r o ther s and sis ter s try to gather together. often means two gatherings, one for the h u s b a n d ’s. one f o r the w i f e ' s family and "The Y od er fa mi ly w i l l get t o ­ gether at A b e ’s except o n S a t urd ay because bands fa milys .5 ® change. This in some families, At a pr evious gathering, of the h u s ­ they have a gift e x ­ names were d r a w n out of a hat and it was k ept a great secret w h o was to give to whom. The gifts are small and inexpensive, but thought has gone into the sel ect ion and w r a p p i n g of the gifts that each w i l l be appropriate. O f t e n they are morous,®® and they are always enjoyed. all the bro ther s so quite h u ­ In other families, and sisters go together to b u y a p r e s e n t for the host and h o s t e s s . I t is the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of 58. 0QA100 letter to 02, l/52. 59. 00A2 p e rs on al c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , XIl/4/53. 60. In one fami ly one of the men was g iv en a tiny china mouse less than hal f an inch in length. (Cost |0„50). It was wrapp ed b y w i n d i n g and then enclose d in various boxes. W he n 00A 101 started unwra ppi ng his gift, the first box wa s abo ut the size of a gr oc er y box. Many minutes and m a n y laughs later, he ended up w i t h his tiny mouse. 61. Fo r Christmas 1954, a host (00A25) and hostess (OOA26) re ceiv ed a clock that o nl y h a d to be wou nd once a year and a chrome pl a t e d canister set w i t h m a t c h i n g g a r ­ bage can. The garbage can was b e i n g used as a storage bin. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 84 the couple who r e c e i v e d the p r e s e n t one year present for the host and hostess At these fa m i l y gatherings, the f o l l o w i n g Christmas. a big, delicio us meal is ea te n and hymns are sung as the fa mil y enjoys one pany. One w o m a n wrote about Christmas, Blessful da y at m y sister Bena's. each parent a gift. a n o t h e r ’s co m ­ "We ha d a nice Ev e r y o n e was there.*’®^ W i t h i n the immediate family, given a gift by the parents to select the each chi ld is us ua ll y and the ch i l d r e n together give These gifts are n e v e r extravagant, C. *z but are g r e a t l y appreciated. P\ A. In one f a m i l y the older children were g i v e n the choice of r e c e i v i n g a larger p r e s ­ ent from the p a r ent s or b e i n g given some of the m o n e y that the parents w o u l d spend and allowed to use this m o n e y to buy a present for each of the other me mb er s of the family. They chose the latter p l a n and had a w o n d e r f u l time lecting the surprise pr e s e n t s fo r e ac h other. 62. 00A 2 pe r s o n a l co rrespo nde nce se­ Sometimes, 1/5/53. 63. In M a r c h w h e n the school children were d r a w i n g pictures for me, two of them (in two d i f f e r e n t schools) spontaneously drew Christmas p i c t u r e s (when asked to draw a picture of a person). In October, the f our girls in one family (age 14, 12, 10, 8 ) got out the p r e s e n t s they had received f r o m their parents the p r e v i o u s Christmas to show me. They w ere still in their und ama ge d c a rd bo ar d and c e l l ­ ophane boxes. Some Chris tma s pre se nt s var ious ch ild ren r e ­ ceived from their parents were dolls, stuffed animals, Union train station, train, mu si c box, new dress and aprons, a toy horse, a china candy dish. 64. 00A23. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. !■ t' ~ 85 = as above, the c h i l d r e n spent m o n e y specifically for Christmas, usually, presents for their p a r e n t s , ® ® have earned. and es pe ci a l l y for they spend m o n e y that they C h i l d r e n that are too youn g to e a r n m o n e y (under about eight) ents; that ha d been g i v e n them are con si de re d too y o u n g to give p r e s ­ they still o n l y receive. Christmas is a v er y h a p p y time. a joyful celebration. as they give gifts R e l i g i o u s l y it is The immediate fa mi ly share h a p p i l y to one another, and the ext en ded fam il y come together for a w a r m and " b l e s s f u l ” day. to be It is a time thankful for all one has r e c e i v e d b o t h m a t e r i a l l y and spiritually; it is a time to r e me mb er th at ’’E v e r y good gift and every p e r f e c t gift is f r o m a b o v e . . . ” 6S Good F ri da y Good F r i d a y is a religious h o l i d a y that is not cel e­ brated by ch ur ch going®^ but b y f a s t i n g . ® ® All adult A m i s h 65. The girls in one f a m i l y col lected coupons fro m food packages and then sent them in w i t h the re q u i r e d m o n ­ ey for a set of coasters to give to their mother. In this same family, one g ir l gave her sister the m e c h a n i c a l p e n ­ cil she had w o n at school. 66. James 1:17. 67. Sometimes church is h e l d on Good F r i d a y i n ­ stead of on the f o l l o w i n g Sunday. It is not h e l d on Good Friday in add it io n to the Su nda y service. In 1955, fou r of the thirty-three churches had church on G o o d Friday. Herald, April 14, 1955, pp. 1, 5, 6 , Apri l 21, 1955, p. 3. 6 8 . ’’Fa st i n g here / a t the time of C h r i s t ’s C r u c i ­ fixion/ was not carried out o n official ch urch orders. (Continued on Pa g e 8 6) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 86 - in good h e a l t h f a s t until n oo n on Friday. they go nothing, to bed on M a u n d y Thursday eat nothing, 69 F r o m the time 70 until noon, they drink 71 swallow n o t h i n g „ The m o r n i n g is usually spent in singing h y m n s , r e a d i n g the Bible, ting around talking., atmosphere It is a mos t p l e a s a n t 72 and sit- and re lax ed that s tro ngly contrasts w i t h the typical p a t te rn of steady h ard work. 73 The a f t e r n o o n is often spent visit- 68 o (Continued f r o m Page 85) ■= They were stricken with grief and for got to eat, because their d e v o t i o n to Jesus was stronger than the hunger for natural food." Daniel E. Mast, Lessons on the Se r mo n on the M o u n t , tr. John B. Mast (Weatherford, Okla.; P r i v a t e l y printed, 1953), p. 116. 69. "The Amish do wi th ou t breakfast on Good F r i ­ day. " Fogel, ojo. c i t . , p. 256. Ch ildr en and pregnant women eat breakfast, b u t nothing is cooked for this m e a l and rather t han eat at the table, th e y have a pickup breakfast in the kitchen. 70. Mau n d y Th u r s d a y is not celebrated by the Amish. The General Conference Me nnon it es hold Comm u n i o n and foot washing on M a u n d y T h ur sday evening. 71. W h e n I wa s t e l li ng them about the f e a s t i n g r e g ­ ulations for Ramizan, the w o m e n looked at one a n o ther and murmered, "Just like our fa st days, we don't swallow a n y ­ thing either." 00A96« 72. "Moreover w h e n ye fast, be not as the h y p o ­ crites, of a sad countenance; for the y disfigure their faces, that they m a y appear unto m e n to fast." Matt. 6;16 as quoted by Mast, 0£. c i t ., p. 114. A fast day was one of the mo st pl e a s a n t day s I spent in the community. 73. Un til quite recently, Good F r i d a y (Karrfreidawg) v/as a holiday in the P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h country. Far mers thought it sinful to do any f a r m labor, other than nece s s a r y chores. There were m a n y superstitions about the dan ge rs of working on this d a y and the goodness of eggs laid on Good Friday. There w a s also a belief that no one should w o r k in the ground b e t w e e n G ood Fr id ay and Easter be cause Jesus was buried in the ea rt h these three days. A l f r e d L. Shoemaker, "Good Frida y Lore," P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , Easter, 1953, p. 2. I have not come across these superstitions among the Ohio A mi sh but I have not been In the community at Ea ster time o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 87 another A m i s h family, b u t this is not encouraged. 7 A A l t h o u g h church is never hel d on Good F r i d a y solely as a special Good Friday observance, it is occ a s i o n a l l y held on that day as part of the p r e p a r a t i o n and observance of C o m m u n i o n 0 Council meet in g, w h i c h is the p r e p a ra to ry church service for Communion, has been held on Goo d F r ida y in the central Ohio community, 7S ^ and even C o m m u n i o n is occasionally celebrated o n Go od Friday. 70 This is sur­ prising considering that in mo st Ch ri s t i a n churches, Com­ munion is sp ecifically n o t celebra ted on Good F r i d a y . ^ The Ami s h C o m m u n i o n service stresses the S u f f e r i n g Christ (one of the sermons is called "Das L e i d e n Christi") than the Re su rr e c t e d Christ. The A m i s h m in iste rs rat her time 74. B a c h m a n m enti ons a second fast day among the Old Order A m is h of Lancaste r County. "This second Fast Day of the year is common ly called ' M i c h a e l s t a g ’ ... the Amish claim that it has been h a n d e d down in their church that the ele venth day of O c tobe r is k n o w n by that name." Lancaster, ojc. c i t ., p. 218. None of the Ohio A m i s h wi t h whom I discussed St. Micha el 's D a y or M i c h a e l s t a g had ever heard of it. Th ey f a s t only on Old Christmas, Goo d F r i d a y and the S u n d a y p r e c e d i n g Communion. 00A1. 75. H e r a l d , April 8 , 1954, p. 4. Apr il 22, 1954, p . 1. 76. "Our co mmun ion was held on Good F r i d a y w i t h nearly all the members there" (Letter f r o m Arthur, 111.), H e r a l d , Apr il 14, 1955, p. 2, and April 22, 1954, p. 1. 77. "One notes the absence of the euc ha rist on Good Friday and Holy Saturday, w h i c h has p a s s e d into the tradition of all C hr ist endo m." Dix, Liturgy, op. cit., p. 349. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 88 the Communion service three o ’clock, so at the hour of His death. pretation of Communion, the Amish could come appropriate that the bre ad is b ro ke n at about it is p oss ible W i t h this in ter ­ to understand how to feel that Good F r i d a y 78 m i g h t be time to celebrate Communion. Easter Ideally E a s t e r coincides w it h sp ri ng C o m m u n i o n but actually In the central Ohio area, 79 Com mu ni on is u s u a l ­ ly celebrated in May®® reg ar dl ess of w h e n Eas te r falls.®^ 78. "This emphasis is similar to t h e emphasis the early Christi an church gave to the pr im i t i v e P a s c h a w h i c h had the character of a li turgy of ’Redemption' rather than a commenoration of the hi stor ica l f ac t of the R e s u r ­ rection of Jesus, such as E a s t e r has w i t h us." Dix, L i t ­ u r g y , op . c i t ., p. 338.. 79. 00A1. He t he n added, "But we never seem to get ready for it until sometime afterw ard s." See map of dates of Comm un ion Services, A p p e n d i x VI, P a r t E. "Nach unsere Mei nung ist es schBn w e n n w ir auf dem Tag das wi r feiern zum GedSchtnis von un se rm Hei la nd seine A uf e r s t e hung dann das Mahl der Liebe h a l t e n und seinen Tod und Leiden in Gedftchtnis halten." "Kurze N a c h r i c h t e n , " HdW, May 1, 1955, p. 130. 80. In 1954 Ea s t e r fell on A p r i l 18, the s i x t e e n t h Sunday of the year. As r e c o r d e d in the H e r a l d , Co mm u n i o n services wi thin the central Ohio A m i s h community were h e l d on May 2, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 8 , 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23. In 1955 Easter was April 10, the f i f t e e n t h Sunday. Com­ munion was celebrated on M a y 6 , 7, 8 , 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 22, and 30. In 1954 the c e l e br at io n of C o m m u n i o n fell wi th in the p e r i o d tradit ion al for the ce l e b r a t i o n of Communion among the laity in m u c h of the C hr i s t i a n church, the pe ri od b e t w e e n East er and Whits und ay. In 1955 C o m ­ munion was celebr ated w i t h i n this same period, b u t w i t h one exc ept ion and in that case it w a s celebrated on Whitmonday. 81. "It is to be regr et te d that the rev er en d fathers who f o r m e d the council of Nice were not advised (Continued on Pag e 89) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. .»ssasm \ - 89 Communion is the c o m m u n i t y Easter; tegration or renewing, rupted, 82 cycle of acting out than that E a s t e r be It is more this experience not be i n t e r ­ D u r i n g 195 5 E a s t e r ”N e u g e b u r t " integrated w i t h Easter, importa nt that celebra te d w h e n the m o t i o n of the sun and m o o n so indicate. about the time of the a rein­ almost a r e s u r r e c t i o n of the church, which is the bod y of Christo the whole it r e p r e s e n t s service; came this was easily but it is s i g n i fi ca nt that the service was not listed in the A m i s h ca le nda r®^ as ”Oster" but as ’’Ne ug eb ur t." The specif ic day of Good F r i d a y is more important t ha n the specific day on w h i c h E a s t e r falls. There are various reasons for this. F r i d a y does not co n ­ flict w i t h a cust om ary church service that is tied solar year. to the Good F r i d a y g e n e r a l l y f a l l s before C om m u n i o n when the c om mu ni ty m e m b e r s are in an un r e g e n e r a t e d state. The Am is h identify t h e m s e l v e s ve ry c l o s e l y w i t h t h e Suf- 81. (C ontinued f r o m Page 8 8 ) - to a b a n d o n the m o o n altogether, and appoint E a s t e r to be c el eb ra ted o n the first or second Su n d a y i n A p r i l 0M W. S« B. Woolhouse, "Calen dar ,” E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r l t a n n i c a (9th edition), 1877, Vol. IV, p. 593. In effect, t h is is w ha t the A m i s h have done although they have set East er iater in the spring. 82. See Cha pter VII for fur th er d i s c u s s i o n of C o m ­ munion. 83. Johann Rfiber, P e r Neue Am erik a n i s c h e Calendar (Baltic, Ohio? J. A. Rfiber"^ 1954), p. 13. See Ap p e n d i x II, for a listing of the A m i s h services and co r r e s p o n d i n g scripture readings for 1953 and 1954. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. “ 90 = fering Christ. It is more life to take up the than it is to be their w a y of cross w i t h H i m and suffer vi c a r i o u s l y able rebirth because the in k e eping w i t h sud denly to e x p e r i e n c e calendar so decrees. through His s uf feri ng and death and p u r i f y Gemeinde" tion. themselves, to so the c h u r c h p a t t e r n must So meti mes council church or "Ordnungs is hel d on Easter. for Communion, they m u s t go They can do this onl y as a church and not as individuals, not be broken. joys of Before they can identify themse lves w i t h the r i s e n Saviour, be ready to arise w i t h Him. the surmounts P r ev io us to, 84 This service, p r e p a r a t o r y the p e a k c o m m u n i t y d i s i n t e g r a ­ and during the service, each p e r s o n examines him se lf to see if he is ready to take C o m m u n i o n and also examines his bre t h r e n to see if he is w i l l i n g to take C om munio n w i t h 'them. confessions are made At this service, a num be r of and all p er sonal dif ferences and church d if fic ulti es m u s t be strai ght ened out if the church is to have Communion. for Easter, It is a service ill but it is of such importance that it cannot be in ter rupted for ano ther suited to the c o mm un it y celebration. The q ue st io n remains w h y the A m i s h church calendar did not evolve in such a w a y that spring C o m m u n i o n w o u l d naturally fall on Easter. 84. Herald, In some A m i s h communities, Apr i l 8 , 1954, p. 5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 91 they do manage to have Com muni on on or near Easter, this rarely happens in the but community. The QC minimizing of the actual date of E a s t e r may be another expression of the extreme central Ohio Co ng re gati on al is m of the church, Each church is a unit unto itself. The y not o nl y do not follow exactly the liturgi cal calendar of the rest of the Christian world, but they do not e ve n follow their ow n liturgical calendar literally. The m i n i s t e r s are free to choose and change the calendar in any way that adapts it better to their o w n church. Thus the deacon m a y read a different scripture passage, the ferent hymns, co ng re gat ion sing d i f ­ the ch ur ch vir t u a l l y ignore Easter, Communion several weeks f o r wa rd or backwards, on the needs of the community. outside This move d epend in g independence f ro m influences is p r o b a b l y the res u l t of their e x ­ treme religious introspection. their church community, body of Christ. for They are turned in upon they, as a church, are the What they do as His b o d y is more tant than any outside tates of any calendar. influence, more important impor­ than d i c ­ Sp ring C o m m u n i o n is their Easter. 85. For example, eight Ohio scribes m e n t i o n church services and visiting on April 10 w it h no reference to the fact that this is Easter. They also m e n t i o n a w e d d i n g and singing on that day wit hout r e l a t i n g it to Easter. In contrast, the visiting on Goo d F r i d a y w a s me nt i o n e d as Good Friday visiting. H e r a l d , A p r i l 7 and 14, 1955. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 92 The folk aspects of Ea ste r are little The Amish do not teach their Rabbit celebrated. children about the Ea st er 86 nor do th ey make egg-trees as is characteristic 07 of some other P e n n s y l v a n i a Ge r m a n groups. Rather, a Herald scribe po in ts out the danger s of such practices. It is p a g a n i s m w h e n the people seek to use mat er ia l things to r e p r e s e n t Chr ist on C h ris ti an holidays, ... We may be serving the creature m or e than the Creator, before we reali ze it (Romans 1:25), We need no carnal thing (idol) to repr es en t H i m for He sent the Comfor ter (Holy Ghost) as His r e p ­ re sen tative unto the believers, after His A s c e n s i o n (John 4:24, 14:26),88 Good Fr iday and Easter are so completely religious for the Amish that they are sometimes surprised to find w o r l d ­ ly people ce le br at ing these holy days too, I am sending this letter on S a tu rday as I d o n ’t think there wil l be any mail Eas te r Monday. An y w a y we didn't have any on Good Friday. It seems strange that everybody seems to keep these church h o l i d a y s , 89 Easter cards of a religious ly to people who are ill. nature m a y be sent, especial­ P e rs on al letters around E a s t e r 8 6 . A l f r e d L. Shoemaker, "Easter Lore," P e n n s y l ­ vania D u t c h m a n , Easter, 1953, pp. 3, 5, 11. This author points out that the Germans introduced the Ea ste r Ra bb it into Americ an f ol k traditions, Annual, 87. "The Ea st er Tree" (reprinted f r o m L o t h r o p ’s 1895), P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , Easter, 1953, p. 5. 88. H e r a l d , Apr il 14, 89. I b i d ., p . 2. 1955, p. 6 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 93 time have a referen ce minded of to the time the glorious E a s t e r M o n d a y is tent. of year w h e n we are r e ­ sacrifice o f our Lord.®^ still celeb rat ed to a lim it ed e x ­ Some churches have C o m m u n i o n on this day,^ and there is a little more v i si ti ng t h a n is typical fo r Mon- Ascension Da y A s c e n s i o n D a y is still held v e r y hol y amo ng the Amish, although it is r a r e l y celeb r a t e d in church ®^ and is not m e n t i o n e d in t hei r service manuals. is a da y of rest. Day, Ascension Day "It is v e r y wro ng to w o r k on A s c e n s i o n it is e s p e c i a l l y ba d to sew." 94 There is a saying 90. "This is a nice time of the year, espe ci a l l y to appreciate th at it w a s ma de pos si ble to have our name written in the B o o k of Li f e . " O O A 8 , IIl/3l/53. 91. Herald, A p r i l 22, 1954, p. 5. 92. Herald, April 14, 1955, p. 1. 93. So metime s c h u r c h is h e l d o n A s c e n s i o n T h u r s ­ day instead of the f o l l o w i n g Sunday. H e r a l d , M a y 19, 1955, p. 1. O c c a s i o n a l l y Co mm u n i o n may be cel eb rat ed that day. I b i d . W h e n c h u r c h is h el d o n A s c e n s i o n Thursday, m e n t i o n is made of the f a ct t h at it is A s c e n s i o n Day, w h e re as w h e n Communion is h e l d on A s c e n s i o n Day, there is usu al ly no reference to the fac t that C o m m u n i o n happens to be c e l e ­ brated on a special day. C o m m u n i o n takes pre ce de nc e over all other religious observances. 94. 00A2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 94 among some of the Men no ni te s who still obser ve this day that if you sew on A s c e n s i o n Thursday, blind. 95 church, Days w h e n they are not to w o r k and do not have the Amish go visiting. Thus it is not su rprising that on A s c e n s i o n T h u r s d a y there ing. 96 ings, yo u w il l become is considerable visit- A s c e n s i o n D a y is ra re ly m e n t i o n e d in A mish w r i t ­ although o c c a s i o n a l l y one comes across or a p oe m such as D a v i d Treyer's, an article "Ein H i m m e l f a h r t e g e - d i• c-U4h t ." j In 1955 the Be ac hy A m i s h held a y o u t h f e ll o w s h i p meeting o n A s c e n s i o n Day. 98 95. GCM15. There are m an y P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h s u p e r ­ stitions about this day. An article in the P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutchman (Ruth Henry, "Old-time Cures and B e l i e f s , H September, 1952, p. 4) reports that it w as b e l i e v e d that if a n y ­ thing were p l a n t e d on A s c e n s i o n Day, it would not grow, and that if one sewed on A s c e n s i o n Day, the house mig ht be struck b y lightening. She also re p o r t e d that the old p e o ­ ple did nothing but n ec e s s a r y w o r k on that day, read their Bible, and sang hymns. Fogel, o£. c i t ., p. 248, 249, 256, lists similar super sti tions. If you sew or raise a b a r n on Asce n s i o n Day, li ght ning will strike the barn. In fact, lightning w il l strike any thin g on w h i c h you w o r k on A s c e n ­ sion Day. p. 96. H e r a l d , June 3, June 2, 1955, p. 6 . Miller, 1954, pp. 1, 6 j May, 97. H i nt er la ssene S c h r i f t e n (Arthur, 1925), pp. 95-97. 26, 111., 1955, L. 98. H e r a l d , June 2, 1955, p. 1. E. H. "The Youth's Christian F ello ws hi p Meeting," HdW, June 15, p. 192. A. 1955, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 95 Pentecost The Pent e c o s t is celebrated in the Am ish church on Whitsunday or o n the service ne ares t it, even if this service does not hap p e n to fall o n Whitsunday . 99 If Com­ munion is to be celebra ted on or n ea r Whitsunday, P e n t e ­ cost is no t commem ora ted w it h a church service,, Occasion­ ally Communion m a y be cel ebr at ed as late as W h i t m o n d a y Whitmonaay (Pfingst Monday) a da y of rest and visiting,, is still o b s erved „ It is 102 Other Church Days There are also certain holidays that are com me mo r­ ated by sp ecial scripture readin g and hy mn s but w h i c h are June 15, cost o 99„ P. Y., "Das P f i n gs tfes t zu Jerusalem," H d W , 1954, pp. 356-57. A m i s h d e s c ri pt ion of P e n t e ­ 100. H e r a l d , Ma y 26, 1955, p. 2. 101. "W hit -Monda y in Hamburg" (reprinted f r o m the Reading Gazette of Ma y 22, 1896) P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , May, 1953, p. 4. "Today only the Amish and a mere handful of our older 'worldly* P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h any longer cele­ brate this holiday." Alfred L. Shoemaker, "Whit-M ond ay ... Dutch P o u t h f o u r t h /7 of July," Ibid., pp. 5, 12. 102. H e r a l d , June 2, 1955, p. lj June 9, 1955, p. 5. The Amish do not observe the G e r m a n folk aspects of Pfingsten. Eugene Fehrle, Deut sc he Fes te und Jahresbr&uche (Berlin? B. G. Teubner, 1936), pp. 76-89. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 96 = not celebrated outside of c h u r c h o ^ ^ first of these celebrated is the first is known as "S&emann" Chrono lo gic ally, the service in May. It and commemorates planting. The two services in July are called " E r n t e " ^ ^ and " E i n s a m m l u n g ” and commemorate of the Ami sh December, the harvest. 105 liturgical year, there Finally, at the firs t towards the end service in is a service o n ’’The En d of the W o r l d ” (Welt- End e). 103. Articles r e l a t i n g to these church services rarely appear in the He ro ld der W a h r h e i t at the a p p r o p r i ­ ate dates, nor are they m e n t i o n e d in the s c r i b e s ’ columns in the H e r a l d . In five years of read in g the H e r a l d , I only recall one such reference. Einsammlung Schriften’ were r e a d . ” July 14, 1955, p. 7. P. Y. , ’’Die E r n t e z e i t , ” HdW, July 15, 1954, pp. 425-26. However he does not d i s ­ cuss John 4 and Rev. 14 w h i c h are the " E r n t e s c h r i f t e n . ” In the Mi ffl in Cou nty Register, John 4 and Rev. 14 are listed for the f ou rteen th service after Christmas. (Yoder, Amische L i e d e r , o p . c i t , , p. xii.) In Ohio, these chapters are listed as p ar t of the n i n e t e e n t h service; the "Einsammlung S c h r i f t e n ” are r e a d as p a r t of the f i f t e e n t h and twentieth services. The Han db uc h ftlr P r e di ge r (Arthur, 111.; L. A. Miller, 1950), does not m e n t i o n the special readings at spe cifi c church services. 104. Fehrle, D e u t s che F e s te und J a h r e s b r & u c h e , o p . c i t . , pp. 94-100, discusses the German f o l k aspects of the harvest includ ing its religious commemoration, "christlichen E r n t e d a n k f e s t .” P. 94. 105. The A m i s h use the term har ve st in r e l a t i o n to these services and also to the h a r v e s t i n g of wheat. It is not used for corn ( m a i z e ) . W h e n I asked one w o m a n if the thirteen-year old b o y w h o m they had h i r e d to w or k for them was going to stay all summer, she replied, ”No, just until after h a r v e s t . ” 00A104. t 106. Littel, Ana ba pt is t V iew of the C h u r c h , o p . cit., p. 55, po int s out, ’’In the An aba p t i s t ’R e s t i t u t i o n ’ there was ... a keen sense that the end and fi nal r e c k o n ­ ing are close at h a n d . ” I do not believe that the p r e se nt (Continued on Page 97) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 97 Twice a year Co mm u n i o n is celebrated. three services There are that are as sociated w it h Communions burt," " O r d n u n g s , ” and " L i e b e s m a h l ." Spring C o m m u n i o n is generally celebrated b e t w e e n S S e m a n n and Pfingstj munion b e t w e e n E i n s a m m l u n g and We lt- Ende. immediately following the Galatians 5 are read. called "Freiheit." ation of the spring Communion, John 8 and service is but in the Regis t e r -^^ it is In a sense (Easter) fa ll C o m ­ In the service In the C a l e n d a r -^''' this not given a spe cial name, "Neuge- this service C o m m u n i o n service.'*’^® is a c o n t i n u ­ It stresses 106. (Continued f r o m Page 96) - W e l t - E n d e service can be clos e l y id entif ie d w i t h the Ad ve nt services. The only We lt-End e se rmo n I have h e a r d did not s ee m in any wa y to be a p r e p a r a t i o n for Christmas. The fact that the Amish break the li tu rgical year b e t w e e n the We l t - E n d e service and the Christmas service w o u l d f u r t h e r argue against an inti.mate connection. Rather, I b e l i e v e the b e g i n n i n g of the year is as so c i a t e d w i t h the b e g i n n i n g of the C h r i s t i a n E r a and the end of the year w i t h the end of the C h r i s t i a n Era on earth. "It is goo d to p r e a c h about the en d of the w o r l d at the end of the year." 00A1. 107. R&ber, Neue Am e r i k a n i s c h e C a l e n d a r , o p . c i t . 108. E i n Re g i s t e r von S c h r i f t e n und L i e d e r n g o p . cit. 109. It can be considered an e x t e n s i o n of the spring Communion service, w h i c h is also a prim it iv e Ea st er service in that it stresses ’r e d e m p t i o n ’ rather than comm emora ti ng the hi st ori cal fact of the R e s u r r e c t i o n of Jesus. Dix, Liturgy, ojd . c i t . , pp. 338-39, says of the p r i m i t i v e Pascha, it commemorated a del ive ra nc e f r o m bondage, ... f r o m the bondage of sin and time and m o r t a l i t y into ’the glorious liberty of the childre n of G o d ’ and ’the e v e r l a s t i n g k i n g ­ dom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus C h r i s t . ’ The life, death, resurrection and as cens ion - the p a s c h a l sacrifice - of Jesus was, of course, the me an s by w h i c h this r e d e m p t i o n was achieved." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 98 the freedom the C hr is ti an finds in Christ. The service following the au tu mn C o m m u n i o n is e n t i r e l y di ffe rent and is unrelated to an E a s t e r service. This is the general p r o g r a m for the A m i s h l i t u r ­ gical year. followed, As has bee n n o t e d above, it is not r i g i d l y but is adapte d to the needs of e ach ch urch d i s ­ trict o Brief m e n t i o n m i g h t be made here of the holidays. The fi rs t of these few Amish w r i ti ng s is the New Year. c o m me morat in g Ne w Year.-*--*-® secular There These transform the New Year c o m m e m o r a t i o n into a re ligious memor a ti o n . M o s t w o u l d be just as suitable are all com- as o b s e r v a ­ tions on the n ew liturgical year as on the New Year. 110. The Her o I d der W a h r h e i t always has se ver al articles on the New Yea r in the Jan uary 1 issue. General­ ly at least one h a l f of these articles are selec te d and were not w r i t t e n b y Amishmen. The ed itorial generally, but not always, concerns the New Year. The subject of the January 1, 1953, edit or ia l wa s "Darum, ist jemand in Christo, so ist er eine neue Kreaturs das Alte ist vergangen, siehe es ist alles neu gew ord enj" The 1954 nEditoriel les ” de -e mp has izes the importance of time for the Christian. The subject of the 1955 editori al wa s nIst dieses unser Gn ad en ja hr ?" There are no ar ticles w r i t t e n by Amishmen concerning the New Y ea r in the January 1, 1953, issue of the He r o l d der W a h r h e i t . In the Ja nu ary 1, 1954, 1955, issues appear the f ollo wi ng articles t P. Y. ’’Segnungen fur das N e u j a h r , ” 1954, pp. 3-4. R. L. Schlabach, "Neujahrs Ged an den ," 1955, p. 3. 111. F o r m e r l y among the P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch, New Year's Day wa s more of a rel ig io us holiday. See p a r t of a New Year's address r e p r i n t e d f r o m the R e f o r m e d C h u r c h R e c o r d , January 1, 1891. P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , Jan uar y 1, 1954, pp. 3, 13. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 99 v 11 P David T r e y e r ’s "Ein Ne uja hr sg ed icht" is typical. mentions He the pas si ng of the years and then offers a prayer' that the old life w i l l be bu rie d w i t h the old year and a new life started w i t h t h e 'new year. The New Y ear ma y also be mentioned as a time to reflect on G o d ’s goodness du ring the past year and to resolve to be a better Chr isti an in o n e ’s re la t i o n s w i t h God and w i th the c o m m u n i t y . Lasset uns auch suchen in der Regel und Ordnung von der Gemeinde bleiben, und in alien Tei lel unans tBs sig aus und ein zu gehen. H 3 Sometimes the y o u n g people m ay meet for a "singing" on New Y e a r ’s Eve w h e n various hymns are sung, ^ but there is * nothing that compares w i t h the typical New Y e a r ’s Eve celebration of t h e i r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s . 112. H in te rl ass ene S c h r i f t e n , o p . c i t ., pp. 113. P. Y . , "Segnun gen fttr das Neujahr," 0£. 94-95. cit., p . 4. 114. H e r a l d , Dec e mb er 31, 1953, p. 1. The old folks may h a ve a singing too, "Old Polks S i n g i n g on New Year's P. M .," H e r a l d , January 3, 1952, p„ 1. 115. Nor is there any ce le brati on that compares to the Pennsylvania D u t c h custom of sh oot ing in the New Year, Leonard L. Leh, "Shooting in the New Year," P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , January 1, 1953, p. 3. "New Y e a r ’s Day" (reprint from the L e b a n o n D a i l y T i m e s , January 1, 1881), I b i d . Andrew Berkey, **New Y e a r ’s Eve,** I b i d . As a child I r e m e m ­ ber the E n g l i s h at the edge of the central Ohio A m i s h co m ­ munity shooting in the New Year. My fa th er tells me that in his childhood in the same town, the Nat io na l Guard turned out to shoot in the New Year. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Me m o r i a l Day, 100 - the F o u r t h of July, Labor Day, pass unnoticed by the Amish. T h a n k s g i v i n g D a y is prim a r i l y im por ta nt ding day. Marriages u s ua ll y take p l a c e in the fall, Thursday is consid ere d the ideal d a y for a wedding, especially auspicious day has Day.-^® There and so an come to be T h a n k s g i v i n g are no w o r k proh ibi tions, no wedding to attend, as a w e d ­ and if there is the d a y m a y pass almost unnoticed, except that the chil dr en are home f r o m school and ca n help with the house and the f a r m work. Nonrel igi ous hol i d a y s are of almos t no importance to the r e l i g io us ly o r ie nt ed Old Order Amish. 116. "There wer e several we d d i n g s around here on Thanksgiving." Herald, Dec e m b e r 3, 1953, p. 5. "Weddings are so numerous I w o n ' t make an attempt to list them all." Ibi d., November 19, 1953, p. 7. 117. On l y one scribe from the central Ohio Ami sh community m e n t i o n e d T h a n k s g i v i n g other than as a w e d d i n g day. He first wro t e about the app ro achin g fall Communion, and after str essing the importance of p r e p a r a t i o n for C o m ­ munion, he went on to write , "Now that T h a n k s g i v i n g sea so n is here, let us r emem be r to be thankful in all things as the German tr an sl at ion has it. I Thess. 5:18. Le t us be thankful to God for the m a n y things w i t h w h i c h he has blessed us,- as w e l l as for the bles si ng s we expect to r e ­ ceive f r o m His b o un tifu l ha n d in the f u t u r e . " Herald, No­ vember 26, 1953, p. 5. The Herold der W a h r h e i t devotes several articles to Thanksgiving. T h e y are r e l i g i o u s and sometimes biographical, but they ne v e r m e n t i o n the n a t i o n ­ al or hist ori c aspects of Thanksgiving. S. P. GUngerich, "Auf den D a n k s a g u n g s t a g , " HdW, Nov em be r 15, 1952, p. 673. "Zum D a n k t a g , " I b i d ., pp. 680-81. This article wa s o r i g ­ inally printed in 1924. E l i Beiler, "Vo n der D a n k b a r k e i t ," H d W , November 15, 1953, pp. 6 7 5 - 7 6 j S. D. G. "Pflicht der Dankbarkeit," I b i d ., p. 681. In the No ve mber 15, 1954, issue of the Hero ld der W a h r h e i t , there were no G e r m a n articles on Thanksgiving, nor was it m e n t i o n e d in the e d i ­ torial . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. CHAPTER III BOUNDING THE COMMUNITY - MECHANISMS OF ISOLATION The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y tries to b e "in the world, but 1 not of the world." The comm un ity has var io us geo grap hi ca l settings and it is found in d if fe rent ge og ra ph ic al areas, but it has no ge ograph ica l bou nda ries. An A m i s h co mmunit y does not make up a w a l l e d city, n o r a discr et e village. The Amish of central Ohi o' li ve on either side of the h i g h ­ ways, s urr ounding the towns, farms. and sca t t e r e d a m o n g E n g l i s h But all w h o cel ebr ate C o mm un io n t o g et he r represent one community and all the A m i s h l i v i n g in the U n i t e d States and Canada w h o will b r e a k b r e a d t o g et he r r e p r e s e n t a c o m ­ munity. The Am ish communi ty can be l o c at ed in space but it cannot be a c c u r a t e l y b o u n d e d in space, The A m i s h co mm u n i t y has its history, but the Amish themselves prefer to Ignore the fact th at t he ir church has any bounda ries in time. The ch ur ch is b e l i e v e d to have started w i t h God in the B e g i n n i n g and a f t e r the Last J u d g ­ ment it will be w i t h God t h r o u g h eternity. To the extent that it coexists w i t h God it is b e y o n d time. The whole or ient ati on of the Am ish is religious, 1. Jo hn 17^16 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. they - 102. - define e v e r y t h i n g in religio us terras. then, that the bo undar ie s It is not surprising, of th eir c o mm un it y ar e a lso e x ­ pressed in religious terms. To them the one im portan t boundary is that w h i c h is dr awn b e t w e e n the people w h o are members of the true c h u r c h of Go d and those who are outside. The b o u n d a r y b et w e e n the pe ople w h o are me mb er s true church of Go d and those wh o are outside is, the least, a subject ive b oun dary. scribe the limits of the to say It is esse nt ial to d e ­ of the A m i s h community in more obj ec ti ve terms in order to de fi ne the unit that is b e i n g studied. Often in so ciolog ica l of the problem, or a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l though logical, studies the limits must be somewhat arbitrary. This is esp ec ia ll y true of a comm un it y study made w i t h i n the area of a modern, in dust ri a l i z e d state. The pr o bl em next arises: drawn? In what terms Ho w shall the limits be shall they b e stated? It is obvious that an e x c l u si ve ly g e o gr aphic al d e s c r i p t i o n of the limits of the A mi sh comm unity w o u l d be ins ufficient. Perhaps the limits can be Indicated by p l a ci ng the A m i s h in the social structure of the U n i t e d States. a class, a caste, a part society, We ask: Do the A m i s h form a subcult ure or a culture? Another met hod w o u l d be to a t t e m p t to place them on the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 103 - 2 folk-urban c on tinu um or to see if they, as peasants, have a part In the la r g e r society comparable to that occupie d by 3 peasants all over the world. Still a n o th er method wou ld be to relate the A mi sh to various tion' systems of 'value o r i ent a­ or mental configura tio ns: Where would' they stand in 4 relation to the G e m e i n s c h a f t - G e s e l l s c h a f t axis, the Apol5 6 lonian-Dionysian types, the s ac re d-sec ul ar extremes, or 7 mechanical versus organic solidarity? I have ut i l i z e d none of these concepts the limits of the Amish community. to describe They are de sc ri ptively helpful and pro vide an ind ica ti on of where the A m i s h fit into the general scheme of things, but I have not chosen ?. See Robert Redfield, "The Folk Society," American Jcurnal of Sociology, January, 1947, pp. 292-308. See also his Tepoztlan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930; "Culture Changes in Yucatan," American Anthropologist, Jan­ uary -March , 193^r PP* 57-59; The Folk Culture of Yucatan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941); A Village that Chose Progress (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950). 3- Robert Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1956). 4. Ferdinand Toennies, Fundamental Concepts of Soclol°gy (Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft), trans. C.P. Loomis (New York: American Book Company, 1940). 5. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (New York: New American Library, 1951). 6 . For example, Howard Becker and R.C. Myers, "Sacred and Secular Aspects of Human Sociation," Soclometry, August, 1942, pp. 207 f f •, November, 1942, pp. 355 7- Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society trans. George Simpson (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1947) Book I; also Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1937), P P - 301-451. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - to use them. 104 - Instead I attempt to describe the boundaries the Amish community erects around itself. I believe this is justified, for unlike most groups that are placed in one of the above frames of reference, voluntary organization. the Amish community is a To join the group requires an act of volition on the part of the individual balanced by a formal, voluntary acceptance of the individual by the group; at any time the individual may leave or be ejected by it. Therefore the limits the Amish draw for themselves appear to me to form the most logical, and consequently the most useful criteria, with which to work. This chapter is devoted large­ ly to a discussion of the self-imposed boundaries of the Amish community: from what basic premises they arise, what they are, how they function and how they change. Before discussing these parts I will, in passing, briefly relate the Amish to the more general configurations mentioned above. The Amish cannot be considered a class. Their numbers are too few, their geographical distribution is spotty, and they have little organic relation to the rest of society. In no way do the Amish represent a stratum of the larger society into which and from which individuals 8 frequently move. Nor can the- Amish be considered a caste 8. Paul Mombert, "Class,'’ Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. II (New York: MacMillan Co., 1930), pp. 531- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 105 - although they more nearly resemble a caste than a class. Kroeber has defined caste as an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior or inferior rank or social esteem in comparison with other such subdivisions. In the 9 first place there are no other subdivisions within our society with which to rank the Amish as superior or inferior. Even if Negroes and Jews were considered to be castes, they, with the Amish, do not form an ethnic unit; not do these threegroups have a hierarchal relation to one another. The Amist are an endogamous, hereditary subdivi­ sion, but it is self-imposed endogamy that is not recognized by the larger society. Neither law nor custom draws a rigid and permanent separation between the Amish and the rest of 10 society. When an Amishman changes his clothes he loses his group identity. The Amish form either a culture or a subculture de­ pending on the sense in which these two terms are employed. Each leading anthropologist has his own definition of culture, for the present purpose I will use Kluckhohn and 9. A.L. Kroeber, "Caste," Enc.ylopaedla of the Social Sciences, Vol. II (New York: Macmillan Co., 1930T, P* 25^. 10. In castes "individual mobility from one into a n ­ other class is forbidden by the larger society," Alfred Kroeber, Anthropology (New York: Harcourt. Brace and Co.. 1 9 W , p."2?6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 106 - Kelly's de scrip tiv e definition. A culture is a historically derived sys­ tem of explicit and implicit designs for living, which tends to be shared by all of specially designated members of a group. 11 Obviously this applies to the Amish. The question of whether the Amish should be classified as a culture or a subculture is not of basic importance if their relation to the surrounding society is understood. If "subculture" is equated to "part-culture" and "part-culture" is described 12 as an essential segment of the whole culture, then the Amish do not represent a subculture. Nor could the Amish society be classified as a part-society, for the larger society does not depend on them; they do not represent one 13 of "two halves that compose the total society." And al­ though the Amish can be analyzed adequately' only with reference to the total society, they do not represent a 14 class in the total society nor is their economic inter- 11. Clyde Kluckhohn and William H. Kelly, "The Concept of Culture," The Science of Man in the World Crises, ed. Ralph Linton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), p. 98. 12. Kroeber, Anthropology, o p . c i t ♦, p. 274. He dis­ cusses the subculture of women as distinct from men and de­ scribes the adolescent subculture. 13* Robert Redfield, "Peasantry: Part-Societies" in Peasant Society, o p . c i t ., pp. 35-86. 14. Sidney W. Mintz-, "The Folk-Urban continuum and the Rural Proletarian Community," American Journal of Sociology, September, 1953, pp. 136-154. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. h ■ ' - 107 - relation with this society sufficiently unique for them to form an essential element in the economy. If however, the term "subculture" is used to designate a clustering of designs for living that differ significantly from a similar culture held by a larger coexistent group, then the Amish can be considered a subculture. Although they have their own ethos and specialized customs these are within the frame15 work of the society as a whole. Therefore I classify the Amish as a subculture. The problem of where the Amish should be placed on the folk-urban continuum, if they should be placed there l^t-a at all, and how they should be related to the construct "peasant," I find particularly fascinating. However to do this thoroughly would require an elaborate digression. Brief­ ly, the Amish have many aspects of a folk culture and also of a peasant society, but the voluntary character of the group coupled with the rationalized, self-imposed sociological is­ olation immediately suggests that the Amish represent neither a folk society nor peasant society. I would tentatively de­ scribe the Amish society as a voluntarily contrived folk l^a. Neal Gross, "Sociological Variation in Contem­ porary Rural Life," Rural Sociology, XIII (September, 19^8), PP. 256-67. 15. John Gillin, The Ways of Men (New York and London Appleton-Century-Crof t s , 19^+8), p. I 8 7 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 108 - 16 soci et y. The place of the Am i s h on the Ge me in sc haft- G e s e l l s c h a f t axis Is easily determined. In fact Loomis, made by his students of an Am i s h family, association, usin g ratings a Ne w Mexi ca n ditch the Division of Extensi on and T r ai ning in the United States Department of Agriculture, tary units a n d the students' families, the students' mili­ consls tantl y c l a s s i ­ fied the Amis h family as a p p r o x i m a t i n g the extreme type of 17 G em e i n s c h a f t . sacred extreme, Sim ila rl y the Ami sh wou l d fall near the far from the secular, an d their society is based on organic, in con tra st to mechanical, solidarity. Their position in rel atio n to the A p o l l o n i a n - D i o n y s i a n p a t ­ terns is not quite so obvious. tion, The A m i s h emphasis on t r a d i ­ subordination of the individual to the group, skepticism of visions and rev el at ions and (except on the death 16. I hope at some point to be able to develop this concept further. It might be mentioned that the factors that mitigate to keep the Amish a unit are very different from those that brought Pascua into being and have pre­ served it as an entity, (Edward H. Spicer, Pascua, A Yaqul Village in Arizona /Chicago, 111., University of Chicago Press, 19^0/), or that are responsible for a rural proletari­ an community that may develop in association with planta­ tion agriculture. (Mintz, o£. cit ♦). 17. Charles P. Loomis and J. Allan Beegle, Rural Social Systems (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950), P» 2 5 . See especial­ ly Appendix A, pp. 789-82^. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 109 - bed) would Indicate that the Amish are considerably closer to the Apollonian type than to the Dionysian, but there are ele­ ments of both within their culture. I now turn from this extremely sketchy comparative delimitation of the Amish community to a discussion of the specific mechanisms that mark the boundaries of the Amish community, that isolate the Amish and define them as a dis­ crete entity. The need for such mechanisms can be under­ stood in terms of the Amish concept of the church and in turn of the community. CONCEPT OP THE CHURCH To the Amish the terms "church, "community" are synonymous. "congregation, and They use the term "Gem'einde" or "G'ma" to express their corporateness. Their concept of 18 the church describes the ideal Amish community. 18. See Franklin H. Littell, The Anabaptist View of the Church (American Society of Church History, 1952), especially the chapter "The Restitution," pp. 74-93, and his article "Anabaptist Doctrine of the Restitution of the True Church," MQR, January, 1950, np* 33-53* The Amish have in many ways preserved the early Anabaptist concept of the church. See also Erland Waltner, "Anabaptist Conception of the Church," MQR, January, 1951, PP* 5-16, and his article "Anabaptist Concept of the Church," Mennonite Life, October 1950, pp. 40-43. In his reply to Gellius Faber, Menno Simmons discusses the character of the church, Die Vollstandigen Werke, Part II (Raber Ausgabe; Baltic, Ohio; J.A. Raber, 1926), pp. 110-136. Dietrich Philip's eleventh book is on the church of God. Enchiridion oder Handbuchlein. Von der R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Although this 110 - ideal is n e v e r obtain ed it is the goal towards which they are striving, the p a t t e r n they are co nscio us ly attemp tin g to imitate. The A m i s h conc ei ve of the true ch ur ch of God as be- 19 ing a vi sib le church, truly repented, that is, c o m posed of those w h o an d right ly believed; "have wh o are r i g ht ly b a p ­ tized . . . an d i n c o r p o r a t e d into the c omm un io n of the 20 21 saints on earth." The chu r c h is s epa rate an d com pl etely 18. Chri-stlichen L e h r e und R e l i g i o n . (Lancaster, Pa.: Joseph Ehrenfried, 1811), pp. 419-59The M a r t y r e r Spiegel devotes an i n t ro du ct ory section to a d e s c r i p t i o n of the true church of God a n d the false church. T.J.V. Braght, Der Blutlg S c h a u -P l a t z , Oder M a r t y r e r Sp i eg el der T a u f f s -Ge sinn t e n . Oder w e h r l o s e n C h r i s t e n « Die urn des Z eu gn ls se s J e s u , ihres S e l i g m a c h e r s , wlllen', gelit te n haben, und getodtet worden s i n d , von Christl Zeit an, bis au f das J a h r l660" (Lancaster, Pa.: J o s e p h Ehrenfried, 1814), pp. 10-38. For recent Amish des cr i p t i o n s of the G e m e i n d e see: R a y m o n d W a g l e r comments on 'Die Ge m e i n d e Gottes" in "Was ist Sd nde ?" by Eli S. Beiler, H e r o l d der Wahrheit, XLIII, June 15, 195^, P« 355Raymond Wagler, "Was ist die Ge me inde ?" H d W , May 15, 1955, pp. 145-6; P.v. "Ein w e n i g vo n der Geme inde G o t te s, " HdW, September 15, 195**, PP- 533-35F o r Menno ni te di sc us si on s of ch ur ch -community see H.S. Bender, "Mennonite C o n c e p t i o n of the Church, an d its rel at io n to C omm un it y b ui ld i n g , " M Q R , April, 1945, pp. 90-100, Paul Erb, "Religious basis of the Mennonite Community," M Q R , April, 1945, pp. 79-85, and S.F. Pannabecker, "Anabaptist Conception of the Church in the Ameri­ can Mennonite Environment," M Q R , January, 1951, PP- 34-46. 19- The D ordre ch t (Dort or Dortrecht) C on fe s s i o n of Faith, Arti cle VIII. This is in co n t r a s t to t h e concept of the church h e l d by many Pr ot estan ts . The fu nd am en t a l i s t b e ­ lieves in an in vis ible as w el l as a visib le church. Gus tave Weigel, S.J. "Catholic a n d P r o t e s t a n t T heo lo gi es in Outline." American Scholar, Summer, 1956, pp. 311-12. 20. Co nfes s i o n of Faith, A c t icle VIII. 21. J ohn Horsch, "Writings," Me nno S i m o n s 1 Life and Writings (Scottdale, Pa.: M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g House, 1944), p. 74. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Ill - 22 different 23 . . . from the "blind, contrast to the world it is p e r v e r t e d world," "a 'chosen generation, In a royal 24 priesthood, an holy n a t i o n , '" a "c on gre gation of the 25 righteous," As the ch u r c h of God the Am is h conceive of 26 themselves as the bod y of Christ 22. Menno Simons, an d b e i n g one body, they Die vo l l s t g n d t g e n W e r k e , o p . c i t ., p . 46. 23Di et rich Philip, E n c h i r i d i o n or Hand B oo k of the Christian Do ctrine And B e l l g l o n , compiled~T b y the grace of G o d ) from the Hol y Scriptures for the b e n e f i t of all lovers of the T r u t h , A,B. Kolb ( E l k h a r t , Indiana: Me nn o n i t e P u b l i s h ­ ing Co., 1910), p. 86. The Amish re lati on to the world, which in effect is the secular is si mil ar to the Pr ot es ta nt stand, that opposes the sacred to the secular. Karl B a r t h expresses an extreme stand, similar to the Am ish stand, that the secular order exists und er the d o m i n i o n of sin and for the punishment of sin. In contras t the Catholic bel ief s places society und er God. Weigler, ojo. cl t . , pp. 312-316. The Amish place only their own soc ie ty un der God, suf fer ing the trials of time and m e e t i n g them in fai th and love. 24. C on fe ssion of Faith, Article VIII. In contrast many Protestant groups, as e xpr essed a t the m e e t i n g of the World Council of Churche s in 195^, b e l ie ve that the Church in history is sinful a n d even sinning. Weigel, ojd . c i t . , p. 312. 25. Confession of Faith, Article XVI. 26. ". . . Christ accepts the believers, unites with them in such a manner that he is the Head and believers are his body )Eph. 5:23) • • • For all believers are baptized by one Spirit into one body (I Cor. 12:13) •" D.P. op_. cit . 1910, p. 7 8 . Hansi C. Borntr&ger, "Christus das Haupt der Gemeinde Gottes," H d W , May 1, 195^ > PP* 266-67* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 112 - 27 are or ore mind. From this It is evident that there are three b asic chara ct eristics of the 1 "ideal-type" A m i s h com- 28 murityr 1) it is a v o lurta ry from ary other commurity, o r g a r i z a t i o r , 2) it differs ard 3) there is homog er ei ty within the commurity. The A m i s h fur th er conceive of the true church of God 29 as b eirg pure, urs po tted ard w i t h o u t blemish. To keep it this way it is re ce s s a r y that rated from that w h i c h "what is pure is impure . . . . . . be sep a­ Ir short, the church must 'put away from a m o r g Her sel f him that is wicked,' 30 whether it be ir doctrire or life." Not orly are separa- 27. . . sie sird e ir Lei b vor vieler Gliede rr C h r is t!, d u r c h eirer Geist zu eirem Leib getauft, (I Cor. 17. b.) urd mflsser r a c h dem V o r bi ld eires ra tu rl icher Leibes, eir Herz urd eire Seele seyr . . ." D.P., 1811, op. c i t . , p. 85David Beiler, Eire V e r m a h r u r g Oder A r d e r k e r , p. 11. Sr,. Paul re pe a t e d l y directs the members of the young church to be of ore mird. II Cor. 13*11, I Peter 3*8. •78. Ir spite of the phrase "born Amish" that is used by English ard Amish alike, technic all y the individual must join of his own volition. As a co ns equence of its vo lu rta ry nature certain individ ua ls may be e x c lu de d b e c a u s e the other members of the group do rot vo lu n t e e r to ass oc ia te w i t h them. A sufficient n u m b e r of Am ish ei th er do no t join the church or leave it, to illustrate that it Is valid to call it a voluntary organization. 29- Menno Simon, Die vollstilndlgen W e r k e , ojo. c i t . , p. 99. 30. C onf ession of Faith, Articl e XVI. Al t h o u g h this sounds rather Mani ch e e a n I w o u l d ag re e with Steven Runciman, The Me dieval Manlchee (Cambridge, Uni ve r s i t y Press, 19^7), p. 178, "Writers wh o seek to find the heirs of the Cathars in the Pro testa nt s of the R e f o r m a t i o n or even in the earlier Pr ot est ants . . . do P r o t e s t a n t i s m an injustice." The Amish sanctif ica tion of marriag e an d stress on r e p r o ­ duction is co mpletely contrary to the Mani ch ee an or Dualist tr ad i t i o n . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 113 - tion from the w o r l d a n d h o m o g e n e i t y wi th in the chu rch the natural results of their re lig ious belief, 30 a by disciplinary action of the church. To be separate from the world, be different from the world. they are enfo rc ed means to the A mis h to And wi th in limits they believe being different to be more important than the specific ways in w hic h they are different. Thus they feel some kin ship 31 with certain no n- A m l s h groups, who dif fer from them, but differ still more from the world. This a ls o explains the fact that the Ami sh are not dis tur bed when g e og ra ph ical ly distant Amish communities have a slightl y dif fere nt set 32 of regulations keepi ng them di st in ct from the world. 30a. For further discussion of the concept of the church see Chapter VIII > I X ? and X c 31. As for example, the Old Colony Mennon lte s Mexico and the N o r t h Americ an Hutterites. in 32. The desire to be different from an y other c o m ­ munity, althou gh it origina lly a p p lied to the di ffere nc e b e ­ tween the Amish an d the world, has spread. E ve n with in the larger Ami sh communi ty each ch ur ch prefers to d iff er sl i g h t ­ ly from other A mi sh churches. This is exp res se d by minor variations in the ordnung. When I gave di ffe rent Am is h f a m ­ ilies a story to criticize that I had writte n about the Amish several of them commented, "It's good abo ut the Amish, but it isn't exactly like we do it here." T h ey kne w how things were done in P e n ns yl va nia by the Amish, that was considered correct Amish behaviour, but not correct for the Ohio Amish. The same attitude is expressed in the ex plana ti on tha t fo l ­ lows the transcript of the Or d nu ng of a Ch ris tian C h u r c h . This "does not mean that any church h a v i n g any di ffer ent rules regarding these items is ne c e s s a r i l y w r o n g . . . Take, for example, wi ndo w curtains. We have no doubt that the two R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 114 - The specific ways in w h i c h the A m i s h differ from the world have evo lved slowly du rin g the course of thei r history. They have rejected certain aspects of the surrounding materi33 al culture. These re jec ted features have be co me of their s e p a r a t e n e s s . symbolic They have a c ce pt ed certain other cultural traits and hav e cl un g to them lo ng a f t e r the y had 3^ been dis car ded by their n o n - A m i s h neighbors. These too have become symbols of separateness have dev e l o p e d ch urc h r e g u ­ lations - the ordnung. The ordnung re quires ch urch members to observe these symbols, to ma in tai n the e s t a bl is he d m e c h ­ anisms of isolation. For some of the isolat ing m ec hani sm s there is Bibl ical 35 support; for m any others the Bi ble offers little or no sup- 36 port. Those that can be supported b y the Scriptu res need 3?. kinds mentioned are sufficient and also scriptur­ al and do not give any appearance of decoration. But that is not saying that churches having other curtains are wrong provided they are plain. But any lace, fancy or showy _curtain is wrong anywhere." Ordnung Reasons (no place, /drawn up at Piketon, 0hio_7r, c. 1950) , p p . 5-6. For a description of the type of curtain allowed by this church see Appendix III, Part A, for those permitted by Stoneyrun see Appendix I T I , Part B . 33° Electricity, telephones, automobiles. 34. The horse and buggy, beards for men and head ■ coverings for women. 35° Beards for men and unshingled, long hair is sup­ ported by the quotation "Ye shall not round the corners of your heads, neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard," Lev. 19:27. For women’s prayer covering, I Cor. 11:15. 36. The prohibition against vehicles mounted on rub­ ber tires, against cars and telephones, bottled gas and electricity. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 115 - ... no other a r gument an d a r e g ener al ly The regula tions 37 ac cept ed quietly. that cannot b e supp or ted b y direct Bibl ic al reference are usually justified by a r g u i n g that to do other38 wise would be worldly. (It is a bas ic pr emise that to be 39 worldly is to be sinful and lost). Non-Biblical isolat­ ing mechanisms ar e f u r th er represent the old way, justified by saying that they "das alt G e b r a u c h , " and for the Am is h the old way is the b e t t e r way. "Peter says for the you nger 40 to submit unto the elder ..." In spite of these justifi­ cations there is g r e a t e r ten sion wi t h i n the com mu nity over the regulations for w h i c h there is no firm Bib li ca l basis 41 than for those that h av e c l e a r Bibical support. The non- 37. H o w e v e r all that are sup po rted by B i b l i c a l r e f e r ­ ence also have so ciolo gi ca l implications. One of the reasons for the ch anging a t t i t u d e toward ph o t o g r a p h y app ears to be the fact that this pr o h i b i t i o n a l t h o u g h it has B ibi cal s u p ­ port, does not fu nct ion as an is olat ing mechanism. 38. The only a r g u m e n t travel is that it is wor ldly. I have ever h ea rd aga in st air 39. The erring b r o t h e r is punish ed that he "may not be Condemned w ith the w or l d , " Con fes si on of Faith, Ar ticle SVII. 40. O r d n u n g R e a s o n s , p. 5* 41. David Beiler, V e r m a h n u n g , o p . c l t ., p. 10, mention s this as a source of trouble. "Einige w o l l t e n die Ordnung, die die Alten hatten, nlcht w e l t e r b i l l l g e n als wie mit dem Buchstarben der Sch rigt kann b e w i e s e n werden. Dad ur ch entstanden spitzfindige Fragen, 1st a u c h wohl zu glauben." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 116 - Scriptural limitations often appear arbitrary; in many in­ stances each must be learned separately; they cannot be logi42 cally deduced from a few axioms. During the last hund red years there has been r ec urre nt agi ta ti on wi thin the communi ty against n o n -B lblic al res trictions. criticism is given in an art ic le A typical an sw er to such in Ord nu ng R e a s o n s . Bec ause the B i b l e does not specify a certain mode of dress, some people seem to think the ch ur ch does not have the right to say what we should wear. But let us not forget that ne it her does the wor d of God in a specific w ay say that infant b a p t i s m is wrong, yet our f o r e ­ fathers were w i l l i n g to give their lives ra ther than pr a c t i c e it. Nei ther is specific men tio n made of gambling, movies, radios . . . 43 Many of the n o n - B i b l l c a l Isolating mechani sms are sound sociologically. They help the church mai nt ai n itself relatively separate from econ om ic and ideological f l u c t u ­ ations in the su rround ing world. The A mi sh ba se their concept of a chur ch separated 4?„ K n o w i n g abo ut the culture one could deduce that there might be certain colors or shades that were forbidden, but it is impossible to know just w h i c h these are until they are observed. In the same wa y one knows that there will be regulations about house furnishings, but it is only by b e i n g told or observing that one learns that cupboards w i t h glass doors are forbidden down stairs but a l l o w e d upstair s and ths t cupboards w i t h fr os te d glass doors are a l l o w e d even downstairs. Similar rul ing about p l e a t i n g the w o m e n ' s Kapps, and types of suspenders all owed the men, hav e to be le ar ned - they cannot be deduced. 43. op. 3-4. . Exactl y the opposite a r gu ment is used to defend their rejecti on of candles, special clothes for the clergy, and musical Instruments In religious services. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 117 - from the wor ld on Bi bl ical teachings. By sli ghtly ci r c u ­ itous rea so ning they soon rea ch the point that a n y t h i n g that helps the church to m ai ntain this separ ati on is Biblical. Thus, in their thi nk in g an d arguing, gical and r el ig ious they often mix s o c i o l o ­ Justifications for the ordnung. . . . what is plai ner and more scriptural and modest than for women to we a r bonnets, capes, and shawls (when ne eded)? Prom a financial viewpoint, al so it is more scriptural. 44 To wear bonn et s a n d shawls is scriptural b e c a u s e it is d i f ­ ferent from the world, it is modest a n d leads to humility rather than to pride. F i n a n ci ally it is dee med scriptural because these a r ti cl es are substantial, thrifty, sober and ^5 therefore cannot be c ons id er ed luxurious. This type of reasoning is extended almos t indefinitely. The chur ch of God is a visible church. shbuld be seen. Its uniqueness One of the easiest ways to a d v e r t i s e d i f ­ ferences is b y external appearances. "Stellet euch nicht 46 dleser Welt gleich" is interpreted by many A m i s h to mean "do not look like or do not appear like the world." number of the regulations have to do wit h dress, 44. O r d n u n g R e a s o n s , p. 45. Gen. 3*-7, 21, 46. Rom. I Tim. A transpo r- 7. 2:9, 10. 12:2 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 118 - tation, and house decorations. One liberal Amishman ad v a n c e d the question, what wou ld the A m i s h do if w o r l d l y people 47 started d r es sing like them? When residents of Ohio were encouraged to grow beards celebration, for the state sesq ue cen tenn ial the A mi sh did not like it. One w om an said, "Did you see Alan Putt w it h his be ard? I had a m in d to as k him 48 if he knew wh y he grew it and if he could live up to it." Another time this same woman went instead of a shawl. sho p pi ng wit h a jacket on She commented, witness without my shawl." "I don't make a very good A mi sh community members look different from their neighbors. Not only must the Amish com mun it y be different from the world, but it must a lso b e of one mind. internal agreement on h o w to be di ff eren t Th ere mus t be from the world. To achieve the state of b e i n g of one mind the individual must be subordinated to the group. . . . dann gle ich wle aus viel Kflrnenr, die zerstossen und gemshlen, das Bro d gemacht wird, und aus vielen KO rn er n eines Brods Leib wo rd en 1st, dar i nn en ein jegllches Korn sein Leib und Ges talt verloren; desglelchen we rden die Weinb e e r l e l n mit VerSnderung ihrer Gestalt eines gemeinen Weins und lieblichen Tranks, a l s o mu ss en auch alle Christen mit Christo, und sich selbst miteinander ve rei niget seyn. 49 47. Jo se ph Yoder, Ami sh Tra dit ions Yoder Pub li sh ing Co., 1950), p. 1 9 0 . 48. 00A2. 49. D . P . o£. c l t .„(1811) (Huntingdon, p. 84. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Pa: - 119 - But this complete subor di n a t i o n to the group doe s not affect all aspects point as of an in divi dua l's experience. From the of v ie w of the ch ur ch the individual may do and he pleases think so l on g as it does not h a r m to the G e m e i n d e . Should it at a n y time come to pass that any one sin aga in st his God in secret . . . of this we have n o t to judge, for it is a matter b e t w e e n him and God . . . his sin is private, hence no offence can fo llo w from it . . . hence there is no co mmi ssion of Christ, no divine co mma nd that he should be more severely taken to a c c ou nt no r e x cl ud ed or br ou gh t to shame bef o r e the church. 50 This explains the fact t h a t the A m i s h ch urc h seems to more about h o w a person acts an d dre sses feels or thinks. care than a b o u t ho w he An A m is hman may h ol d e xt re me ly he ret ical 50. John Horsch, "Writings," ojo. c i t . . p. 87<> See also Menno Simon, Die v o l l s t £ n d l g e n W e r k e , o p . c i t ., Part I, p. 393Bec au se of this a t t i t u d e that p riv ate sin does not harm the community and does not nee d to be confessed, what one does in pri vate has b e c o m e somewhat u nr e l a t e d to sin. It should be reme mb e r e d h ow e v e r that pr ivacy is alm os t u n o b t a i n ­ able within the Ami sh community. The individual is still b e l i e v e d to be ac c o u n t a b l e to God for his pri vate sins even th oug h he is not h eld r e s p o n s i ­ ble to the community. The at ti tu de towards m a s t u r b a t i o n is illustrative. The young child is di s c o u r a g e d fro m "handling him se lf ," but to my knowledge is not p u n i s h e d for it. Ra ther he is d i v e r t ­ ed, and is al w a y s clothed. (The childre n w e a r u n d e r w e a r even under their nig ht cl ot hes). An a d o l e s c e n t w h o is old enough to date and still m a s t ur ba te s may be w h i p p e d for it by his father, not bec ause m a s t u r b a t i o n is a sin, bu t b e ­ cause the f ath er fears that his son's m a s t u r b a t i o n ma y lead to insanity. In an effort to pro tect his child's h e a l t h v i o ­ lent measures are taken to st op the masturb ati on. It is more dangerous than sinful. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 120 - 51 theological views, bu t if he follows the ordn ung and his views do not cause di s c o r d in the co mmunity they ar e t o l e r ­ ated, Ano the r Ami s h m a n may be con servative in his thi nki ng and belief but if he driv es a car he forfeits his c omm unity membershipo Th e d ow nstai rs of the Ami sh homes a r e more strictly furnish ed than the upstairs; must be made exac tl y to pattern, the outer clothes the under clot hes may vary. Where the gr o u p is co nce rn ed there is e n f o r c e d homogeneity, in order that "the name of the Lo r d be /not7" blasphemed, 52 the church di sh on or ed," affected, but where only the individual is a s u r p r i s i n g amou nt of varia ti on can be t o l e r ­ ated. If an individual deviates, it is bet te r that his d e ­ viation be e n joy ed in private r a th er than have his b e h a v i o u r reflect on the whole church. Thus an article a d de d to the Strasburg Confess io n cautions the members aga in st ("of fentliche) use of drink an d tobacco, their use is required, for reasons the public sta tin g that if of h e alth members are to 53 use them secretly (im G e h e l m e n ) , The Am i s h w h o oppose 51. Such as b e l i e v i n g only in faith h e a l i n g an d r e ­ fusing to use medical doctors, or b e l i e v i n g that it is w r o n g to eat on Sunday, 52. Confessio n of Faith, Article XVI, 53« "Strasbu rg Confes sio n," Article 22 as rep ri nt ed I71 Artlkel und O rd nu ng en der Ch rl stll ch en G em eind e in Christo Jesu (Baltic, Ohio: J.'A, R a b e r , 195^ ) , p"^ 5*. The Am i s h conslder that tobacco may be used as a he al t h measure. Herald, July 22, 195^, p. 6, D,E. Mast, "Das Licht unter dem Scheffel," HdW, July, 195^, P. 399. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. in front of English people, than about those who smoke more, but do it with discretion. It spited me to see_______ take out a cig­ arette and light it right there in the store while the clerk was adding up the bill. He didn’t seem to care who saw him do it. 54 The comment "What will people think of the Amish?" often follows such a remark. The sensitivity to the opinion of the world, the fear that they, as Amish, will not be good witnesses constantly Influences their behaviour. In 1555 Menno Simon write con­ cerning the expelling of church members . . . betrachte Criminal-Angelegenheiten, besconders wenn sie schon vor die Oeffentlichkeit gekommen sind, nicht so, wie ihr andere fleischliche Werke beurtheilen wurdet, welche von der Welt nicht als einer entehrenden Strafe werth erachten werden. 55 "Pesonders wenn sie schon vor die Oef ■''entlichkeit gekommen sind,""especially if they are public": the fact that the deviation is known and may injure the group makes itnot only a greater offense but also a greater sin. 5^. If the 00a2. 55- Menno Simon, Die vollst&ndigen Werke, op. cit.. Part I, p. 3 9 2 . ---------- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 122 - 56 deviation Is no r known, it wi ll injure no one. Some Am is h individuals derive keen satisf act ion from be i n g unob se rv ed 57 in their own minute or in sig nificant deviation. The members are all of one mind wh e n it is ne ce s s a r y to protect the group, bu t each person enjoys his own inconspicuous foibles. THE PUBL I S H E D ORDNUNG "The church cannot exist an d prosner, n o r continue 58 in its structure without . . . reg ulations ..." In an effort to preserve the chu rch of God and to define the c o m ­ munity of saints 'the ordnung has developed. (pronounced "odd-nlng" by the Amish) The term "ordnung" is used to cover the various rules and regulations that govern the b e h a v i o u r of members of the Amis h church. These rules and reg ul at io ns are the major isolating mechanisms that have kept the co m ­ munity separated from the w o r l d for over two h u n d r e d and fifty years. 56. The variou s aspects of the ord nun g have, in Except the person committing the sin. 57. As for example the most minor variation in style of cutting the little boys' hair. One woman explained to me that instead of cutting it absolutely straight across the forehead she surved the "bangs" slightly. She was very anxious that I mention it to no one, not even her husband, for then she would have to cut them straight across. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 123 - most Instances, been verbalized and a few have been committed to writing in the form of church disciplines. Those regu­ lations that have been written down are the ones over which there has been the most controversy or which were felt to be of significant importance in maintaining group solidar­ ity . The Old Order Amish of central Ohio are living in accordance with disciplines drawn up in 1 5 6 8 , 1688, 1809, 1837, 1838, 1865, and 1917. These disciplines have been published in two small booklets that are still obtainable 59 within the community. The various disciplines show an interesting develop­ ment from the earliest ones to the later ones. In general the early disciplines are primarily positive and the regu­ lations are fairly general. Later disciplines have become increasingly more specific and negative. The earliest discipline attempted to strengthen the new small church with regulations for mutual support wlchln the community; the most recent discipline deals primarily with specific 58. Confession of Paith, Article IX. 59. Artlkel und Ordnungen. on. cit., and Eln Ordnungsbrlef der beschlossen worden 1st in Holmes County. Ohio, den _26ten Oktober. 1917T Artlkel und Ordnungen contains the 1568, 1688, 1809, I837"i 1838, and 1868 disciplines, Ein Ordnungsbrlef contains the 1865 and 1917 disciplines. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 124- - mechanisms that will keep the e s t a bl is he d ch urc h isolated from the world. Thus of 1568 in the St ra s b u r g Discipline we read that ministers shall visit n e i g h b o r i n g congregations; children and wiv es of v i s i t i n g ministe rs orphans shall be taken into families as shall be cared for; servants, s u pp orte d from the common p r o pe rt y an d d i s c i p l i n e d as children. In an Ohio dis ci pline of 1950 we read that hats are black with no less than t h r e e - i n c h rim and not extreme ly high in crown. ed trousers." No st ylish impress ions "to be in any hat. No p r e s s ­ "Dresses not sh ort er than halfway b e t w e e n knees and floor, nor over eight inches from floor. Longer 60 advisable." The oldest disc ip l i n e still in force a m o n g the Old Order Amish of central Ohio is the Strasburg (Strassburg) 61 Discipline of 1568. In 1905 the Strasburg Discipline was 62 published by an Amish b i s h o p pamphlet entitled as the first art icl e in a "Artikel und O rd nu ng en der Chris tll chen Gemeinde in Ch risto J e s u . " This b o o k l e t was r e p u blis he d in 60. Discipline of a Christian Church. This disci­ pline was subscribed to by the Pike County, Ohio church in 1950. See Appendix II, Part A for a complete transcript of this discipline. 61. Harold S. Bender, "The Discipline Adopted by the Strasburg Conference of 1 5 6 8 ," MQR, January 1927, pp. 5 6 - 6 6 . The Discipline is printed in German and in English trans­ lation in this article along with some very good introductory comments. 62. Bender, "Strasburg Conference," ojo. cit. , p. 59. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 125 - 63 1938 and again in 1954• The Strasburg discipline was re­ printed in the Herold der Wahrheit in 1919 and again in 64 1954. The reprintings of the Discipline indicate its 63. By J.A. Raber of Baltic, Ohio. 6l4-. June 15, 1954, PP* 363-66. The Discipline as it appeared in the Herold der Wahrheit was copied from a manu­ script that had belonged to the grandfather of J.F. Schwarzendruber. The Discipline discussed in Bender's article was s copy of a discipline belonging to Jacob Swartzendruber made by his son Frederick Swartzendruber. Therefore the same ori­ ginal may have been used Indirectly for both articles. The two copies of the Discipline are very similar. In the HdW discipline the spelling appears to be more modern, the punctu­ ation is different, and in some places there are slight dif­ ferences in phraseology. One article is omitted, number 18 in the M Q R . It reads: "Auch so sich jemanden der Gemein wuerde wider die Diener und Aeltesten auflehnen, der soli von den Aeltesten gestlllet werden, und hinter sich gemahnet werden, damit sie nicht kleinmuetig werden." And three articles are included at the end of the HdW discipline with­ out any indication that they are of a later date: "(24) Wenn es die Not erfordert, so mag ein Bruder Oder eine Schwester • auf ihr Besitztum, Haus, Oder Heimwesen wohl etwas Geld entlehnen und verzinsen, jedoch der Gemeinde ohne Nachteil Oder Schaden. (25) Was den Tobaksgebrauch und das Trinken anlanget, wlrd erkannt, dass das Offentliche Tabakrauchen und das Trinken Srgerlich sei, und deswegen nicht gestattet, werden soli. Wenn aber solches zur Arznei vonnttten ware, so mag es im Geheimen geschehen; und nit den delben soil nach Umstanden gehandelt werden. (26) Da die Diener des gdttlichen Worts vor allem schuldig sein ihr von Gott empfangenes Pfund in Wucher zu bringen, und da sie auch mehr als anders Insgemein einen grossen Asnpruch haben, und zuweilen drei oder vier Tagen, ja wohl auch etliche Wochen ausbleiben und von Heim sein m&ssen, so 1st auch erkannt, dase man ihnen mit den verganglichen und zeltlichen Mitteln, in Sonderheit aber von denen sie gefordert, und um deretwillen sie ihren Beruf daheim versSumen am meisten schuldig sein ihnen die Llebe erzeigen und etwas erstatten." Another significant variation occurs in Article 19 (20 in the MQR Discipline). In the H d W . Article 19 reads: "Die Schneider und Nflher sollen bel dem Schlichten und einf&ltigen Brauch des Landes bleiben, und gar nichts zur Hoffart machen." The phrase "des Landes" R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 126 - importance to the Old Order Amish. The second discipline in Artikel und Ordnungen is 65 dated 1688. It too is of European origin. There are only four articles listed. The first articles state that preachers are not to perform the ceremonies of Communion, 66 baptism, marriage, or excommunication, and deacons and bishops should settle disputes between members and spare the preachers. The last two articles state that members are not to go into a church for a funeral nor are they to attend meals prepared by the world to celebrate the baptism or "of the land" is interesting for it implies that the tailors and seamstresses can make simple clothes of the land and not only those decreed by the church. This issue came up a few years ago at the relief sewing after the Mennonite Central Committee sent precut clothes to the different sew­ ing groups in all the branches of the Mennonite church. Some Amish churches felt that the women should not sew world­ ly clothes, that it was not good for them even to know how to make any type of clothing that was not prescribed. They felt even more strongly that Amish-type clothing could not be sent for relief. Some churches, Stoneyrun for example, will make up English clothes while some of the other church districts concentrate on making comforts and quilts. I know one Amish seamstress (OOAA) who sews for the English as well as for the Amish and is willing to copy quite fancy clothing. Later disciplines are more specific about cloth­ ing regulations. The Discipline as it appears in Artlkel und Ordnungen differs more from the other two than they do from each other. The spelling, vocabulary and phraseology is slightly different as is the order of the articles. Several articles have been omitted and the newer articles included. 65. This discipline is referred to by Harold Bender in "Strasburg Conference," o p . cl t ., p. 6 0 , and in his article "Some early American Amish Mennonite Disciplines," MQ,R, April 193^-, p. 91, but in ne'ither place does he discuss it. monies ganzen 660 If there is no bishop who can perform these cere­ then a deacon for the entire community (Diener von der Gemeinde) shall be ordained to perform them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 127 - of children. 67 The Discipline of 1809 contains nine articles, five of which concern specific isolating mechanisms. The members are directed how to dress and wear their beards; jury duty is prohibited; members who affiliate with other communities are to be expelled. The other four articles discuss the behaviour of members within the community. This is the first American Discipline. Six of the twelve articles of the Discipline of 1837 pertain to specific isolating mechanisms of dress, house furnishing, holding of worldly offices, and methods of transportation. ban. Two others pertain to the exercise of the There is an interesting article which stipulates that married couples w i s h i n g to be r eceiv ed into the c h urch must promise to fulfill the obligations of Christian marriage 68 according to the or din ance of God. The Discipline of 1838 considered primarily the func­ tions of the ministers in maintaining discipline and har69 mony within the community. 67- See Bender, "American A m i s h Disc ipl in es ," ojo. c i t . , pp. 91-93j for a t ra nsla ti on of this discipline. 68. Bender, i b i d . , pp. lation of this discipline. 93-95 gives a com pl et e t r a n s ­ 69. To my kn ow l e d g e this Disci pl in e has not been the subject of any ar t i c l e in the M en no nite Q u a r t e r l y R e view. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 128 - The Discipline of 1865 is reprinted in both the 70 Artikel und Ordnung and in Ein Ordnungebrlef. It appar­ ently was first drawn up as a countermeasure against the growing liberalism of some of the Amish congregations. It was an attempt to formulate more of the church rules and to reassert the strict, "standhaft" position of the church at 71 a time when many were showing indications of breaking away. This Ordnung is the most specific and the most negative of those so far discussed. It states in detail the type of 72 cloth not to be used (schecklg, streifig, geblumte Kleider), the kinds of clothes not to be worn (die Ueberr&cke von 73 Oeltuch Oder Gumi . . . falschen Hemderbusses), and ways in which houses are not to be decorated (scheckiges Wand 74 und Fensterpapier, grosse Spiegal an den W&nden). Details 75 of the church service are also discussed. The Discipline concludes with a statement that the articles are right and 70. Bender, "American Amish Disciplines," ojo. cit. , pp. 95-98, gives a complete translation of this discipline. 71. The great schisms in the Amish church occurred during the years i860 to 1874. 72. Artikel und Ordnungen. o p . c i t . . p. 13 « 73- Ibid.. p. 14. 74. Ibid., p. 15. 75. Non-members are not to attend council meeting, ministers are not to hold their own private meeting during the first part of the_ service (Abrath), there are to be no fast tunes sung. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 129 - good and in accordance with the word of the Lord, the con­ fession of faith, and what has been taught by the forefathers. The subscribers intend bei denselbigen zu bleiben, so wie wir in unserem Taufbund angenommen und versprochen haben; 76 The Discipline of 1917 was subscribed to in Holmes County, Ohio on October 2 6 by a group of ministers from the various Ohio communities and from Pennsylvania, Illinois 77 and Indiana. It is the first discipline in which they self-consciously refer to themselves as "den sogennten 78 alten amischen Gemeinden.11 It begins with a statement that material in the "alten Brief" will not be repeated. However many of the articles are similar to those in pre­ vious disciplines. This Discipline has more on the behaviour of young people than any of the earlier ones. There seemed to be considerable concern over the fact that the young people were not abiding by the ordnung. There is the usual concern for peace within the community and an admonition 76. Artikel und Ordnungen. op. cit., p. 1 5 . 77- A transcript of this Discipline is in Appendix III, Part A. I have included it because I know of no published reference to this Discipline. It is not mentioned in John A. Hostetler, Annotated Bibliography on the Amish (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1951). 78. Eln Ordnungebrlef. o p . c lt., p. 9- Article 6 of the 1917 Discipline, also Article 10, p. 11, mentions the "alt-amischen ." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 130 - on the working of the ban. Getr&nk) The use of strong drink (st&rke Is forbidden as is the ownership of a telephone. To my knowledge these seven disciplines form the written basis for the ordnung as it is followed in the central Ohio Amish community today. There is a newer discipline that was drawn-up and subscribed to in 1950 by an Old Order Amish community in Pike County, Ohio. Although this community was outside the area being studied and was not in full fellowship with the 79 group being studied, their ordnung is nevertheless very 80 interesting. It is the only Old Order Amish discipline I know of that it up. was printed in English by the It carries of regulations men who drew further the trend towards specificites and sonsequent rigidity. The regulations are so detailed and exact that there was virtually no other 79. The Pike County community would hold church with the central Ohio community, but would not celebrate Com­ munion with them. The Amish use the verb "to fellowship" to Indicate intimate interaction. The noun "fellowship" is generally modified by the adjectives "full" or "limited." When two churches are in "full fellowship" they will cele­ brate Communjon together, otherwise they will not. 80. A transcript of this ordnung is in Appendix III, Part A . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 131 - 81 church with whom they could commune. The function of the written ordnung is to define the "boundaries of the larger community and to maintain uniform­ ity within the community. In order to do this in such a way that the committee will survive, the ordnung should be specific enough to exclude those who are in disagreement; but it must be general enough 'to allow the various geo­ graphically isolated communities to feel that they are of one mind even though there haviour. may be some variation in be ­ The single community must neither grow so small nor so rigid that there are no others outside their own little sub-group with whom they can join for Communion or among husbands and wives. whom .they can chose The disciplines that are followed by the central Ohio Amish contain a total of sixty-four articles (one discipline is not drawn up as numbered articles). These sixty-four articles refer to only a small fraction of the rules and 81. The community was dissolved during the years 1952-5^ when the government announced that it would build an atomic plant near them. Most of the members migrated to Almyra, Canada and reestablished the church there. One minister, Noah Keim, was unable to immigrate to Canada b e ­ cause he had a feeble-minded child. He could find no ac­ ceptable church community in this country. For a while his family lived alone in a section of Pennsylvania where there were no other Amish. Different groups of Amish would hire a bus and go to his home to "have church" with him, but there was no place in this country where his family could celebrate Communion. Finally he moved to Virginia and joined the Beachy Amish. See chapter VI for a further discussion of the Pike County Community. Nicholas Stulkfus was a preacher in this church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 132 - regulations governing the Old Order Amish. There are many prohibitions that are important enough to require a member who breaks them to make a public confession .or be banned, 82 that are not mentioned in the printed ordnung. What is usually referred to as the ordnung is a very large, vague, ever-changing nebula of regulations. Not even a bishop would be able to list everything contained in the ordnung of his own church district. He would know what was absolute­ ly forbidden, and what was absolutely required; but there would be many issues that had not yet been acted upon. Some 83 would be issues that were studiously being avoided, others 8k would simply be ones that had not yet been raised. Between the catagories of absolutely forbidden and absolutely re85 quired exists a whole spectrum, a continuous gradation. 82. Such as owning a car or a tractor with rubber tires . 83. The liberty a young Amish member takes in using the owner's equipment when sharecropping English land is ignored. Almost all Innovations go through a stage of care­ ful conscious overlooking. 8^. No decision has been reached whether or not the church would permit its members to build a bathroom on the second floor as no one has tried it. One family was consider­ ing it and they carefully cautioned me not to mention it to anyone. 85. See Appendix III, Part B, for listings of some aspects of the Stoneyrun ordnung. I have listed the regula­ tions in a series of five columns: Absolutely Forbidden, Discouraged, Allowed, Encouraged, Required. It should be remembered that there are not five catagories, but a continuum from forbidden to required. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 133 - circumspectness of th e individual involved w h e t h e r certain types of b e h a v i o u r will be pu n i s h e d or b e overlooked. Any behaviour Injurious to the ha r m o n y of the co mm u n i t y or that jeopardizes the separa ti on of the must be rooted out r e g a r d l e s s community from the world, of the convictions or feelings of the individual. In Ohio var ia ti ons in th e w o r k i n g of the ordn un g are clearly observed even a m o n g c om mu ning c h u r c h e s . ations relate pr im a r i l y to the unwritt en ar t i c l e s and are not sufficient to ke e p memb ers of one mind. from f e el ing that they are In general the smaller, betray the influence The v a r i ­ isol ate d com munities of the Mid-Western, Protestant culture that surrounds them more than do the larger communities. And within the larger commun it ies an "edge" churc h such as Stoneyrun wil l show more outside influence than a chu rc h in 86 the center of the c om mu nity <> SPECIF IC M E C H A N I S M S OF IS OLATION There are ce rt ain Ami sh mechani sms are not ice d immediately, of is ola tion that even by the most casual observer. These are the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of dress and speech. The Amish 86. See Ap p e n d i x III, Part C, for a chart i l l u s t r a t ­ ing this v a ri at io n in the o r dn un g of co mm u n i n g Ohio churches. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 13^ - are further isolated from the culture a ro u n d them by their patterns of etiquette, terns of residence. by their lim ited educati on and p a t ­ To some extent these characteristics are shared w i t h others. However, there are four more p r o ­ hibitions that are uniquel y A mi sh and ef fe cti vely cut them off from those who do not b e l o n g to the Old Or der Amish church. Th ese four prohib itions concern owning a telephone, having high line electricity in their homes, owning a t r a c t ­ or with rubber tires and d r i vi ng or owni ng an automobile. The prohibition against photogr aphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of people, a l th ough it stands as one of the regul at io ns of the church, is not of great importance as an isolati ng mechanism. It is of primary interest b e c au se the attitude toivard photography illustrates the flexibi lity in the fu n c t i o n ­ ing of the ordnung and illustrates a re gu lat ion in the p r o ­ cesses of change. 87 Mechanisms Shared W i th Other Am ish Mennonite Churches D r e_ s_ s_ When the average person hears the w o rk "Amish" they 87° Other Amish Mennonite churches have dress r e g u l a ­ tions althoug h they are not exactly the same as the Old Order Amish regulations. Most of the members of these other churches also speak Pennsylv an ia Dutch, have their own stylized p a t ­ terns of etiquette, be li e v e in limit ing education, and e n ­ courage rural residence. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 135 - think of b e a rded faces under b r o a d brim m e d hats, clothes. For Ami sh babies, A mi sh children, and strange Ami sh me n and Amishwomen the style of clo thing is prescribed. The men are di stingu ish ed by unpa rt ed hair h a n g i n g to their ear 88 89 90 lobes, long beards w i t h no mustache, b l a c k felt, 91 92 broadbrimmed hats, buttonless, lapelles suit coats, 88. The hair should be unparted. "As to the length of hair, if we stop to look ho w we are created, hair on the head grows out p r ofuse ly perhaps a little over halfwa y b e l o w the ears. We have scripture that we shall not w ea r them long like women, therefore it app ears the a bove le n g t h woul d be having them as God intended." Or dn ung R e a s o n s , o o . c i t . n. 8. 89. Lev. 19:27. R.C.W. in The Dark Tr ibu la ti on s and Falling Away (Saint Joe, Ark.: Marin Printers) writes c o n ­ cerning the beard. G O D put a beard on the face of man,/But with him its not a sound plan :/ l n s t e a d he wil l fo llo w his own trend;/ To GOD's law he w ill not b e n d . / T h e han dso mest creature GO D has made, (Gen. 1:2.6) GOD's image, finds fault, with works h a s /S ai d to GOD, "Why has thou made me thus? (Rom. 9:2 0,21)/No Potter, 'tis erred, not so for us!" An Amish preacher sent me a n o th er tract (not w r i t t e n by an A m i s h ­ man) on the Importance of the beard. 90. It is said that n o mustache is w or n bec au se m u s ­ taches were the b adg e of soldiers and as such are unb eco mi ng to a nonresistant people. Occ asio na lly there have be e n i n ­ dividual A mis hmen who felt they should w e a r a full b e a r d and not shave at all. I have not heard the sol die r- mu st ache a r g u ­ ment among the Am is h but I failed to ask them ab ou t it. 91. These hats are made by various commerc ial firms. They cost from.about $4.00 to $10.00 each. In summer the Amish men we ar straw hats that closely re semble those of an English farmer. 92. The unit coats or Mutze close w i t h large hooks and eyes. The coat has no lapels and a r ou nd neck. A vest may be worn un de r the coat. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 136 - 93 and broadfall, cuffless, creasel ess trousers. 94 plain white or col ored shirts T h e y wear 95 w i t h o u t a tie, dark socks 96 and b lack shoes. The w o m e n have long hair, covered at all 97 times b y a n ra y e r covering. When the y go out they ’ w ear a 98 bonnet over this. The dresses have fitted b o d i c e s and 93. The trousers close in the same ma nn er as Navy men's b e l l - b o t t o m e d trousers, b u t t o n i n g ac ross the top. 94. Whi te shirts are w o r n to chu rch services and w h e n ­ ever the men are dre ss ed up. These are u s u ally r e g ular whi te shirts that have b een p u rch as ed from any store and h ave had the pocket removed. Some wives still make t he ir husbands' shirts. The shirts made at home are put on over the head as they do not open all the way down the front. Col or ed shirts are worn w i t h blue denim b r o a d f a l l work pants. 95* The top collar but t o n of the shirt is us ual ly left unbuttoned. The b e a r d covers the place w h e r e the tie would b e . 96. Many men still wear high black shoes for dress, but low black shoes are now acceptable. See Appendix III, Part 13 for a chart on "Some Aspects of the St on e y r u n Ordnung, Married Men" for a d e s c ri pt io n of the fu n c t i o n i n g of the or d ­ nung in relation to men's clothing. See A p p e n d i x III, Part D for a de sc ription of men's clothing. 91. Woman's hair and her covering represent her proper relation to man and God. I Cor. 11:3-16. J.S.G.D., "Die Hauptbedeckung des Weibes." HdW, November 1, 1952, pp. 65354, and November 1 5 , 1952, pp. 684-86. Amish women wear their coverings all during their waking hours so that they can pray whenever they need to. An occasional super-religious woman may even wear her covering (Kapp) to bed. The Mennonite tract Woman's Veiling. Herald Press, Scottdale, Pa., circu­ lates among the Amish. 98. When working outside they may wear a dark warm head scarf instead of a bonnet. The bonnets are made by the woman herself or by a woman in the community. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 137 - 99 full skirts that h an g almost to the ankle. is a capelike shawl known as a the waist is an apron. "halsduch" and p in n e d ar oun d The dr esses are always colors a l t h o u g h they may be of many br ig ht and yellow. Over the bod ice They are practical an d pretty; of plain shades except red fitted well enough not to get in the way wh en the w o m e n w or k and yet not too tight to be binding. ing babies, (are) They are we ll sui t e d for n u r s ­ ope ni ng dow n the front w it h s tra ight pins, and a frequent change of aprons keeps them lo ok in g clean an d fresh. 100 Mo jewelry is ever worn, bu t a p lai n b a n d r i n g of brass or copper is to le r a t e d as a pre ve nt ive of rhe umatism. Th ei r 101 shoes are b l a c k and wh en they go outside t hey wea r black 102 shawls. The childre n are replica s of their parents, except for the very little ba bi es wh o are d r e ssed in wh it e dresses 99. Adult women wear no buttons. Their bodices are pinned closed with common pins. The skirts are gathered in front under the apron and pleated across the back. 100. N „ Stoltzfus, "fas ist S c h m u c k ? ," H d W , Oct ober 1$, 1957, PP. 61^-16. 101. The m a r ri ed wome n u sua lly we ar laced shoes w i th Cuban heels. H i g h heels and low-cut shoes are not worn. 102. For w o r k i n g outside they w e a r short b l a c k or navy blue .jackets that are he ld tog et he r w i t h a pin or hooks and eyes. For a des cri pt io n of married wo me n' s clothes see Appendix III, Part P, "Some Asp ects of the Sto ne yru n Ordnung, Married Women," and a l s o Append ix III, Part D, for a d e s c r i p ­ tion of married wo men 's apparel. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 138 - and aprons, 103 shoes. long white stockings, and b l a c k patent leather "Plain" clothes e st a bl is h a barrier b e t w e en the observer and the wearer. The Englishman instinctively identifies the person in strange clothes as different and unlike himself; he identifies him as a member of a group 10 Al­ and does not treat him as an individual. He is m u c h less likely to strike up a casual conversation with an Amlshman than with a n o t h e r Englishman. The wearer of the clothes has a sign that proclaims what and who he is. They witness for him, even when he w o u l d r a t h e r not have to witness. Quaker wrote of his simple dress, One "It has been many times since a bl e s s i n g to me as a m o n i t o r to r emind me of a plain105 ness of conduct co r r e s p o n d i n g w it h the cut of my coat." And for the Amlsh too their church- re gu l at ed clothes act both as a p s yc ho logical mo n it or an d as an actual monitor. 103. See A p p e nd ix III, Part D, for a d e s c r ip ti on of boys'and firis' clothing, an d Appe nd ix VIII for photographs of Amish children. 104. Several E n g l i s h people told me, "All A m l sh lookalike." The su perintendent of schools said, "I don't know which one I was talking to, though I think he said he was a bishop." Then he ad de d as so many other Eng li sh had, "All Amish look alike." The E n g l i s h a ttitude was r e fl e ct ed by the Amish comment, "Why you reme mb e r each one of us a n d y o u ­ 're not even Amlsh!" 105. Jo ur na l p. 20, as quoted in Ho wa rd Brinton, "Stages in Spiritual Development as Recorded In Quaker J o u r ­ nals ," Children of L i g h t . ed„ H.H. Brinton (New York: M a c ­ millan, 1938), p. 400. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 139 - To some extent they determine how others will treat him as an Amishman a nd they announce the limits of b eh a v i o u r that his church finds acceptable. L a n s u a g e 106 The adult A m i s h know three languages: Dutch (often called Pennsylvania-German), P e nn s y l v a n i a High German, and 107 English. Pennsylv an ia Dutch, spoken language of the home. a German dialect, is the Hi g h German is the language of the Bible and as such is used extensively in church. It is the language in w hi ch the hymns are sung and the Bible read. Finally, E n g l i s h Is the language of the world. when the Amish child goes to s c h o o l <, It is learned In Engl is h he talks to people outside his church a n d reads about wo rl dl y h a p p e n ­ ings. In E nglish he corresponds w i th his family and friends, for Pennsylvania Dutch is not a w r i t te n language, 108 Amlsh can write or speak High German. and few T he . A m i s h use of English differs sufficiently from their n e i g h b o r s ’ so that an Amish person usually can be recognized by his speech even If he is not seen. 106. J. William Prey, "Amlsh S pe ec h. April, 195^, pp. 85-89° His German ’T r i p l e - T a l k ’ ," American 107. Edward Yoder, "Study of the P e n ns y lv an ia -G er m an Dialect," M Q B . January, 1932, pp. 59-62. 108. This Is h a v i n g an extremely deleterious effect on the Herold der Wa h r h e l t that otherwise might b e a more effective mecha ni sm of cohesion. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 140 - influences the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of certain itfords; "d's" a n d "t's" may be p r o n o u n c e d a l m o s t identically, or one ma y be 109 substituted for the other. The Amis h men often have a characteristic h us k y bass to their voices and w h e n sp e a k i n g with E n g l i s h people they g e n e r a l l y speak slowly almo st w i t h a drawl that may give the lish with difficulty. impression that th ey hand le E n g ­ When the men resort to E n g l i s h a m o n g 110 themselves they speak much more quickly, an d they o b v i o u s ­ ly use it w i t h ease whe n d i s c u s s i n g almos t every subject except religion. certain aspects The y can discuss r eligious of personal relatio ns hi p s b e t t e r sylvania Dutc h than in English. in P e n n ­ On the other hand, cussing the most recen t d ev el op me nt s in farming, versation may sw it c h to E n g l i s h if many are scientific subjects and when d i s ­ the c o n ­ of the terms used terms. 109. This also influences Amis h spelling. In the May 1 5 , 1918 issue of the H e r a l d a p p ea r ed the headl in e "Ladies' Guilt to Meet." T h e a r t ic l e continued, "The Ladies* Guilt of the Ev a n g e l i c a l and Refo r m Ch ur c h . . . " The e d i t ­ or at that time was an A m l s h Menno ni te preacher. 110. In d i s c u s s i n g the phenom en on of s c h l s mo ge ne si s between the N e w Guinea n a ti ve s and the Europeans B a t es o n pointed out that "the in dividuals of eac h group adopt s p e c i ­ al norms of b e h a v i o u r in their contacts w i t h individuals of the other group." p. 184. He further discusses pidgin as having an. ethos of its own that is v e r y di ff e r e n t from the native ethos, p. 184. (It is a l s o d i f f e r e n t from the E u r o ­ pean ethos). The A m i sh use of the E n g l i s h l a ng ua ge whe n speaking to a n o n - A m i s h m a n would indicate that a schism o ge ni c relationship existed b e t w e e n the A m i s h and the English. Gregory Bateson, Naven (Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1938). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - lAl - The w om en do not handle E n g li sh as well as the men do. Their vocabul ar ie s are con s id er ab ly more limited, grammar is not as good. and their The women can discuss almost all s u b ­ jects b e t t e r in Pe nn s y l v a n i a D ut c h than in English, for their life centers ar ou nd the home and the c h i ld re n an d these have been little I nfluenced by the Engl is h world. The various household utensils and furnishings have German names, childhood illnesses, except diagnosed by a doctor, German names. for the contagious or those are called and known only by their Most m in o r ailments are k nown only by the German term and the names and the ingredients of the di ff e r e n t remedies, of the home cures lated into English. P r a c ti ca ll y the only time an A ml s h used it as a y o u n g girl to read teas, often cannot be t r a n s ­ woman uses E n g l i s h is when she is shopping. She continues ones the if she worked She may have for English people. it b e tt er than German, but she rarely speaks it as fluently as her husband. Not only is A mlsh E n g l i s h I de nt i f i a b l e by the v a r i a ­ tions in p r o n u n c i a t i o n and inflection, b u t the A m is h have also held on to E n g l i s h words that are n o longer used by their E n g l is h n e ig hb o rs ing. or are used with a different m e a n ­ For example "It spited me" is used to mean "It hurt 111 me," or "I felt v ery sorry." When the A m l s h refer to 111. "1. Injury; hurt; disgrace; dishonor. Webster's Ne w I nt er national D i c t i o n a r y , 19^2. O b s . 11 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 142 - 112 ounils In grade school they always speak of the "scholars." 113 Only w i t h Amish h ave I heard the term "poke" used in any context other than "a pig in a poke." housewife takes a modern object and admit that it is new) The way an A m i s h (almost r e f us in g to fits it in w i t h the old, was i l l u s t r a t ­ ed by a kindly woman who said, "Just a minute, I'll get you 114 a ooke for the cookies." W i t h that comment she ha n d e d me 115 a propylene bag. Certain phrases are always used in English and never in German, except perhaps said," is almost always in sermons. For instance, used instead of "Er s a g t e ." "He Words that have d ev e l o p e d since the Am is h came to A m e ri ca are used in English. The Ohio Amish always say "train," when 112. They have kept this old use of the term a l t ho ug it has been dro p pe d by their E n g l i s h neighbors. During the last century it was generally used, as when George Eastman wrote in 1866 about the school he was attending, "he had about 70 scholars a n d it is the b est private school for boys in the city." R o g e r Butterfield, "The Prodigious Life of George Eastman," Life, April 2.6, 195^+, p. 155. 113"1. A bag; a sack; specifically, a me a s u r i n g bag varying in size a c c o r d i n g to the commodity. No w D i a l .. L o c a l . or A r c h a i c ." W eb st er 's D i c t i o n a r y , o p . c l t . 114. 00A104. 115I that one hears as "It wonders well for ouite have n e v e r heard some of the typical phrases a m o n g the German people in Pennsylvania, such me," bu t such phrases as "She had not been a wh il e already" are common. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 143 - speaking Pe nn s y l v a n i a Dutch, a n d n e ve r Amish who raise turkeys call them Germany t hey are called "Zug" or " E l s e n b a h n ." "turkeys," " T r u t h & h n e ." few k n ow that in In the a r ti c le s in the Herold der W a h r h e l t , less fami li ar Ger ma n words are often given, wi t h the E n g l is h word w r i t te n in G erman mono t yp e and 116 enclosed in parentheses, or an E n g l i s h wo r d s u rr o un de d by 117 quotation marks may be included in the German text. Even a Biblical term may be empha si ze d by gi v i n g the E n g l i s h 118 translation. It is not unusual for a n au th or to give Webster's d e fi ni ti on of an E n g l i s h w o r d carefully translated 119 into German. A not he r indication that E n g l i s h is m a k i n g inroads into their Ge r m a n is the n u m b e r of E n g l i s h words that are 120 used even in the sermons. Such a w or d as "mountain" may be 116. ". . . ein Irrenhaus (mental hospital) . . ." HdlT, June 15, 1952, p. 360. "Ein n e u e r Porto-B ri ef mark (Postage Stamp) . . . " H d W . October, 1952, p. 611. 117. " . . . und viellei c ht ein w e n i g von d em was die Welt Moral n ennt und 'smart' weraen, . . ." HdW, June 1952, p. 361. 118. The term "Pfund" is explained" English)," H d W . June 15, 1952, p. 359. (Talent n a c h dem 119 • "Webster's Auslegung von Luxury 1st: Keln ziiruck halten 1m Essen Oder Trlnken Oder Ger&te, aber in diesen Sachen nach voller Lust leben." H d W , January 1, 195^, P« 7* 120. Frey, "Amlsh 'Triple-Talk'," o p . c l t .. p. 95> states "At one service attended, only one E n g l i s h w o rd was used during the entire four hours! It was the v erb 'to c u l t i ­ vate' - a very expressive and highly important term to farmers I have found many more E n g l i s h words used in sermons. The number of E n g l i s h words used va r i e d a great deal from one preacher to another. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1 Z j4 _ used instead of the even simpler Ger m an w o r d "Berg." The hymn that is sung in every Old Order A m i s h ch u r c h service appeared in t ra ns lation in the E n g li sh part of the He r ol d der W a h r h e l t . B e l i e v i n g that a translation into E n g l i s h of the old hymn w o u l d be a h e l p in u n d e r ­ standing and a p p r e c i a t i o n of it, several of our young b r e t h r e n of a ch u r c h which used the hymn regu la r ly have e n d e a v o r e d to be a help in this u n d e r s t a n d i n g and greater a p p r e c i a t i o n of what they are singing. 121 As early as 191^ an Old Order A m i s h bi s h o p wrote: We are quite often confr on te d with y o u n g people in convert classes w h o can s carcely read (German) and some cannot read at all (How can illiterates be Instructed in Christian doctrines?) w h i c h makes it all the more urgent to teach t h e m at home; . . .122 However, there are also certain phrases that are u s u a l ­ ly used in German and have a different m e a n in g in Ger ma n than they have in English. "Die Welt" is a religious concept that implies the sinful culture that surrounds the church, w h i l e "the world" as the children study it in school is p r im ar il y a geographical concept with few emotional adjective "worldly" overtones is highly charged w i t h emotion). 121. R a y mo nd Wagler, 1952, p. 435. (but the Words "The Loblied," H d W . J ul y 15, 122. Daniel E. Mast, "Family Worship," trans. John B. Jast, H d W . August 15, 195^, P* 512. This also shows h o w i m ­ portant German is consi de re d as the language .of religion. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - such as 1^5 "Ordnung" have no single, precise translation- When an Amishman is w r i t i n g in E n g l i s h or o c c a s io na l ly when he discusses r e l i g i o u s subjects in E n g l i s h he uses the German term instead of a t t e m p t i n g to translate it. P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch differs mark ed ly from High German. 122a Grammatically it is far simpler. The German w o r d order is usually retained, but endings tend to be dro pp ed from b o t h nouns and verbs. Some common German w or ds are n o t used. example pot at oe s are called "Grumbler" and n e v e r For " K a r t o f f e i n ." al23 A horse is known as a "gaul" and n ev er as a "Work" is known as "Aerwot" "marye" instead of "morgen," "little," and "seller" used, but always "net." instead of "Arbeit," 'tomorrow" is "glee" not is used for "Pferd." "kein" "that." is used for "Nicht" is never The mi xi ng of E n g l i s h and German words in P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch is most simply i l l u s tr a te d by the young children. announces A child of three at the end of the meal "Ich bin full (voll?)," or w akens the h ir ed girl 123 at night w i t h "Ich want toilet g e h e n ." There difference b e t w e e n P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch a n d G er m a n is e n o u g h to make it impossible for the A m l s h I have b e en w i t h to u n d e r s t a n d spoken 122a. J.W. Frey, A Simple Gra mm ar of P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h . (Clinton, S.C.: P u bl is he d by J. W i l li a m Frey, 19^2), •T .V„ Frey, "The German Dialect of Eastern Y o r k County, P e n n ­ sylvania," U n i v e r s i t y of Illinois, U r b a n a , 111., 19^1. al23. High German. 123. The terms "Grundbirne" and "Gaul" are used in 00A31. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 146 - High German. By hard w o r k they could piece t o g e t he r what was meant, b ut they u nd er st an d spoken E n g l i s h much more easily. One e v e ni ng when we w er e s i t t in g a round the "Room" singing hymns from the Ausbund a woman who read G er ma n bet124 ter than the rest started to translate the hymns for me. She translated h es it a n t l y and had to leave out several lines because she did not know they key word. The Am ls h make an effort to maintain the use of P e n n ­ sylvania Dutch. The children do not learn E nglish b efore they go to school, and there is never any effort made by 126 Amlsh parents to teach their children English. E n g l is h is a language to be learned outside the home and the community. Not only do the A m l s h find it easier to speak P e n n sy l va ni a Dutch among themselves, to speak English. casionally told, but there is a ls o some pressure not An individual, usually a w om an is, oc127 "You talk too much English." And it may 124. Because I spoke so little P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch it was assumed that I did not k now German. The final stage of my acceptance by the commu ni ty occurred at a Ge rm an reading. When I could read a l o u d the German B ible verses as well as most of the w omen a few w h o had continued to ignore me as an outsider came up and spoke to me. In a region where German is not taught in the schools knowing Ger m an is a n ot h e r i n di ­ cation of belonging. 126. The importance of P en n s y l v a n i a D utch is c o m p l e t e ­ ly overlooked by many of the Engl is h people. The principal of the local high school was d i s c u s s i n g his trouble with the Amish, "I said to them, 'Why don't y o u wise up and t e a c h the kiddies English?'" 127. It is important for the men to k n o w E n g li s h for they have many outside contacts, b u t w om en are supposed to have no interests and few contacts beyond the community. The women often a p o l o g i z e d to me for their p o o r E n g l i s h and r e ­ peated how much b e t t e r they could talk in Pe nn s y l v a n i c Dutch. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - be said of a child, 147 - 128 "She has too m u c h E n g l i s h on her tongue," meaning that E n g l i s h influences her pr on u nc ia ti on of German. One evening my h u s ba nd and I xvere a t t e n d i n g a b i rt hd ay d i n ­ ner for a youn g Mennonite Doctor to w h i c h our A m i s h hosts were not invited. After our hostess had been a s le e p several hours she said s o me th i ng w ok e her up and she asked her husband, "Are the Daves b a c k yet?" He respo nd ed sleepily, "Ich bin Dutch." So she r ep e a t e d her question in P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch 129 and he answered it. 130 because Pennsylvania Dutch is not a writt e n language, it can be learned only from people w h o speak it. Many people of German extraction speak P en nsylvania Dutch, but 128. 00A40. This comment w o r r i e d the c h i l d 1s mother who tried to determine how, it had happened. The parents had given the n i n e - y e a r - o l d child a New Testament with E n g li sh and German text in parallel columns. The child was devo te d to the book and always used it in prefe re n ce to a German T e s t ­ ament. Her mot h er thought possibly it had been a mistake to give her a New T estament with E n g li sh text. 129. 00A2. 130. A few A m i s h regret that Pe n n s y l v a n i a Dutc h is their mother tongue for they say that it is not good to speak and think in a language that cannot be written, 0 0 A 3 • John C. Wenger, History of The Mennonltes of the F ra nc o ni a C o n ­ ference (Telford, P e n n a . : Fran c on ia Mennonite Historical Society, 1 9 3 7 ) j P» 31, makes the same point. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 148 - 131 their usage varies slightly from that of the Amish. There­ fore the only way to learn Amish-Pennsylvania Dutch, is to learn it from the Amish. Not only does Pennsylvania Dutch as spoken by the English and the Amish vary, but the language also varies from one locality to another. Thus within a few moments after an Amish man starts a conversation the other Amish know where he was raised. Et_^g_ue__tt_e_ As well as the language differences certain patterns of behavior serve to isolate the Amish from the English. These are pervasive enough to warrant the claim that "if a person is raised Amish, it leaves its mark. Just watch them for awhile and even though they dress completely English 132 you’ll soon realize they're really Amish." The Amish children are exceedingly polite in the true sense of the word; they are well behaved and considerate, but they are not taught to say "please" and "thank you" or "you're welcome." The adults rarely use these words, although their manner and 133 actions express them. This has led many English people to claim that the Amish are not appreciative: 131* Erey, 132. 08. "Why they "Amish 'Triple-Talk,' m ojo. c i t ., pp. 87-91. 133. "There are times when a 'Thank-you' may be need­ less because there is such thorough understanding that it would be mere babbling." Evan J. Miller, "Courtesy," H d W , September 1 5 , 1 9 5 2 , p. 5 6 2 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1'49 - 13^ never even say 'Thank you.'" The Amishman does not open the door for his wife, insist that she precede him through the door, or seat her at the table, but in many less formal­ ly polite ways she shows his consideration for her. The men always insist that the women sit in the most comfortable seats in the car and, when they are traveling, if one bed turns out to be much more uncomfortable than the other, the men will sleep together in the uncomfortable bed and the women in the comfortable one. Special care and consider­ ation is shown pregnant women. Through the generations of deliberate separation from the world the Amish have developed a stylized manner of 13;i. 01, 03. The Amishman1s feeling that his actions say "thank you" is easily misunderstood by non-Amish. One evening an Amish farmer's turkeys had scattered across the road where they were in danger of being run over by a car or stolen. An English farmer who had recently moved to a near­ by farm started to drive in to tell the Amish owner about his turkeys. But one of the cows was in the lane so the English farmer could not drive past. He got out and walked up the long lane to report on the turkeys. The Amish farmer and my husband went down to gather in the turkeys. The only comment 00A2 made was, "Must have been scared by a fox." My husband was so distressed by the fact that 00A1 did not thank the man for all his trouble in reporting the turkeys, and staying until they were chased back into the pasture, that when the Englishman was driving off without a word be ­ ing said to him my husband unobtrusively thanked him. 00A1's attitude was that it was a neighborly thing to do. He would have done the same thing and not expected any thanks, it was just something one did, so he saw no reason to thank his neighbor for it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 150 - 135 dealing with English people. Pride is a sin, humility is a virtue, learning is unimportant; thus the Amishman has no compulsion to display his knowledge. Instead, he often assumes a facade of simplicity, minimizing his understanding 136 of the conversation or issues involved. A distinctive feature of an Amlsh-English encounter is the Amishman's re­ ticence. He will usually answer questions briefly, but he 137 volunteers no information and assiduously avoids discus­ sions about himself or about "the Amish." The fact that the 135» In Bateson's terms a relationship that is pri­ marily that of complementary schismogenesis has developed. The Amish are expected to respond with "what is culturally regarded as submission." However there are also some aspects of a symmetrical schismogenesis in the relationship. Bate­ son, on. cl t . , p. 1?6. See also Gregory Bateson, "Culture Contact and Schismogenesis," Man, (1935), Article 199, pp. 178-83 . 136. Simpson and Yinger identify as one reaction to prejudice the use of the avoidance technique "of assuming a humble and caricatured role." The Amlsh ideal is humility even among themselves, however the type of humility assumed for the English is slightly different. George Eaton Simpson and J„ Milton Yinger, Racial and Cultural Minorities: An Analysis of Prejudice and Discrimination (New York: Harper Brothers, 1953), P« 212. 137In discussing the American Negro Myrdal writes, . . his 'dumbness1 has been developed as an accommodation to caste . . „ there is a good deal of pretended ignorance on the part of the Negro . . . they feign inability to under­ stand certain questions . . . they restrict their conversa­ tion to what is necessary or customary. And they act humble, which also gives them an air of 'dumbness.'" Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (New York: Harper and Brothers, 19^), p. 961. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 151 - 138 English know little about their Amish neigh bo r s shields 139 the Amish from some external pressure- Amish posturing often leads the Englishman to underestimate the Amishman's knowledge and Intelligence and leads him to believe that he 1^-0 Is dealing with a "dumb Amishman," The limitation in 138. The ultimate in lack of knowledge about the Amish that I encountered was the question asked by the telephone operator in Stoneyrun. She had held that position for about three years during which time many Amlshmen had come into the office to use the telephone. I had been in several t.i^es with Amishmen when we needed to use the telephone. One e Ing while the Amishman with whom I had come was in the hai using the pay phone the operator said to me, "You're always with the Amish, you know a lot about them. What do they be­ lieve?" I tried to put her off by saying that it would take quite a long time for me to explain their beliefs to her. But she pressed on, "Do they believe in -Jesus Christ? Do they believe in Jesus as their Saviour?" She did not even know that they were Christians, (The operator belonged to a schismatic branch of the Society of Friends, the Foxite Quakers) . 139• Elsie Clews Parsons, Mltla, Town of the Souls (Chicago, 111,: University of Chicago Press, 1936), p. 515, makes the point that ignorance of a custom is a great pro­ tection to that custom. The Amish have been somewhat pro­ tected from criticism by the fact that their neighbors were ignorant of some of their customs. Wilbert E. Moor and Melvin M. Tumin, "Some Social Functions of Ignorance," American Sociological Review, December, 19^9. See especially the section "As Preservative of Stereotypes," pp. 792-93* 140. The word "dumb-Amishman" is fairly frequently heard from the lips of the English around Stoneyrun. In my experience I have nc found that the Amishmen are greatly limited by their relatively small English vocabularies. They understand many words they do not use and they are not afraid to show their lack of knowledge by asking the meaning of a word if they are not sure about it, or if indicating that they do not understand. Wenger, O]o. clt., states, "This language barrier helps to account for the charge of plain stupidity sometimes brought against Mennonites (Pennsylvania Germans)." I have found most of the naivete merely to be a veneer as­ sumed in front of strangers. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 152 - English-Amish Interaction was vividly illustrated on one occasion when I was h e l p i n g an A m i s h farmer inject his sick turkeys with antibiotics. We were in the midst nating discussion of the role of antibiotics ment of the h e a lt hy animal as well as sick ones. in the d e v e l o p ­ in the treatment From this we had started to discuss of diethylstilbesterol of a f a s c i ­ of the effects implants, when an English b u y e r a r ­ rived to inquire about p ur c ha si ng a few hundred turkeys. I stepped back with the children but remained w i t h i n earshot. "What are you doing?" the Englishman asked, to start the conversation. "Just inject i ng this stuff into some of these poor turkeys," Ammon said, indicating a small bottle in his hand. "What is it?" "Something the vet gave me." couldn't use it. (long pause) "He said he It's too old." "Does it do any good?" "Don't know, just started to inject when y o u came a- l o n g ." The man was t e l l i ng Ammon there was some ne w medic in e out called penicillin that he had heard did wo nd e r s for sick turkeys, when I had to leave. Ammon said n o t h i n g and one would have had the impression that he had n ev er h ea rd anythlng about penicillin. The b u y e r p robably left w o n d e r i n g how the Amish managed to r aise such good flocks w h e n they R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 153 - were ignorant of current developments in poultry husbandry. Another important behaviour pattern that effectively isolates the Amish from the English is their method of courtship. This differs so radically from the typical American high school and post high school pattern of dating than an Amishman does not know how to court any girl who is not Amish. The effect of this is well illustrated by the 141 experience of a young man who left the Amish. When he was in his late twenties he married a girl of only fourteen. "She was from a very low class family. No good family would 142 have let her marry so young." The young bride soon started running around with other men. He divorced her and later 143 married a girl of seventeen whom "he got from a ’home.'" Another boy w h o left the Amish about fi ft e e n years a go a ls o 144 "got his wife" from an orphanage. These men did not know how to meet and court other girls. .5ilu_cat_j^on L ^ m ^ t a t ^ o n The limitation on education also serves to isolate 141. Uncle of 00A 24. 142. OOA24. 143. 00A24. 144. Suitor of 0CA2. "Home" means an orphanage. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. M 154 - - 145 the Amish. T h e y p re f e r not to have their child re n go 1 *4-6 beyond the e ig h t h grade. Thus the A m i s h have had none of 147 the typical social e xperience of the h i g h school student, not have they studied the same subjects or had t heir interests developed in the same direction. A few of the A m i s h have done a good job of self-education, b u t often there a ppear important lacunae in their knowledge. cation contrasts strongly w i t h their E n g li sh n e i g h b o r s 1 for the Englishman wh o wants an education away. E v en their s e l f - e d u ­ obtains it - and moves The p e r s i s t e n c e an d dilig e nc e r e q ui re d for an A m is h farmer to educa te himself, given only an eig ht h- gr a de 145. Moore and Tumin, "Some Social Functions of I g n o r ­ ance," ojd. c i t ♦ . see e s pe ci al ly the s ection "As R e i n f o r c e ­ ment of Tr ad it io na l Valu e s, " pp. 791-92. Parsons -(Mitla, o p . c i t . , p. 5 1 1 ) points out that traits may be p r e s e r v e d merely because of Ignorance of a n y t h i n g different. Limit­ ation of educa ti on helps keep the k nowledge of "anything d i f ­ ferent" to a minimum. 146. In many c om mu ni ti e s they n o w have to co n t i n u e school until t hey are sixteen, e v e n if this takes them to high school for a year or more. In S t o n e y r u n they are no longer allowed to repeat the e i g h t h grade two or three times. 147. The A m i s h ne ve r exper ie n ce "School Life" as so vividly po rt r a y e d in Ro be rt S. an d Helen M errell Lynd, M i d ­ dletown (New York, Harcourt, B r ac e an d Co., 1929), PP* 21124. As L y nd points out, school life a d mi ra b ly p r ep ar es the children for the life they will lead as adults in Mi dd le t o w n and it w o u l d just as m a r k e d l y cause m a l a d j u s t m e n t if A m l s h children spent four years l e a r n i n g that life and then were thrust b ack onto the f ar m and into the "separated" chu rc h c ommunity. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Filmed as received ^ r'' without page(s) lot UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 156 - 1^9 churches. They are unique to the Old Order. Any of these facilities may be used wh e n necessary, b u t they may not be at hand to use all the time. Of the four only the 150 telephone is specifically p ro h ob it ed in a w r it te n dicipline. These prohi bi t io ns will be d i s cu ss ed in considerable detail to illustrate how the ordn u ng functions. tions given by the Amish w it h i n and outside Justifica­ the community will be mentio n ed as well as some of the n o n - v e r b a l i z e d c o n ­ ditions and attitudes that influence the en forcement of the ordnung. T e ] ^ e _ p h o _ n e _ s _ The p ro hi b i t o n of the telephone is perhaps the least important of the four prohibitions, by the family-centered Amish. but is is strongly felt One Amishman while v i s i ti ng us in New Haven felt h o m e s i c k for his children. He said, "I miss a telephone most.A telephone could mean more to 151 me than electric." Lack of a telephone isolates the Amishman from his family whe n he goes to help on ano t he r farm or to make a n e e de d tri p to town. He is keenly aware of the prohibition wh e n his wife is pregnant and close to 1^9. Small local schismatic churches like the Sam Yoders observe these prohibitions. 150. 1917 Discipline, 151. C0A23. - Article 10. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 157 - the time she will be delivered. The result is that during the last few weeks the husband hesitates to go further than a few minutes' walk from the farmhouse. The absence of a telephone occasionally has serious economic consequences. o'clock one morning. An Amish farmer was awakened at one A fire was discovered in his brooder house. The farmer ran as fast as he could to his nearest 152 neighbor's (about a quarter of a mile), woke them; their oldest son hurried out, hitched up the horse and drove another mile to the nearest English farm. He in turn woke the Anglish family and used their telephone to call the fire department. During the time lost by the lack of a telephone the fire spread rapidly. By the time the fire department arrived neither the building nor the birds could be saved. They were completely destroyed. Article Ten of the 191? Discipline decrees that Amish are not to have a telephone in their home nor in a house by the road. But, it continues, if there is a telephone in the outside community (hoheren Gemeinden) it may be used in case of Scriptural necessity or in moderation and temper­ ance, and the individual must pay for its use. In practice this means that the Amish do not have telephones in their homes, but use telephones quite frequently. 152. They may call OOA79. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 158 - a doctor, an ambulance, or perhaps an Englishman with whom they have business transactions. In the Stoneyrun area they try to make most of their calls from the telephone office or the new pay telephone that has recently been built on the corner of Main Street and Broad Street, But in case of emergency or mild necessity they use a telephone in an 153 English neighbor's home. This has led to some criticism of the Amish. A few English neighbors feel imposed upon and the Amish appear rather oblivious to the invonvenience it may cause the English families. On several occasions I had used the telephone in an English neighbor's home and they had come over to summon me to the telephone or to deliver a message to me. I felt that it was an imposition and mentioned this to my Amish host. He seemed rather surprised and did not think that I should worry about it. He said they were neighbors, that he was pasturing livestock on their land and paying well for it; they were not losing anything by the arrangement. Previous to another visit to the community I had telephoned or been telephoned by my Amish host several times, always through the medium of the same English neighbors. I was careful to bring a small 153• "Again for the Information of any friends who want to send a message to the section around me here, call Thompsontown 2203 (B. W. Wert) who is glad to see to it that we get the message. If no answer from the above number, call y 2203 (Charles Sigler)." Herald, April 1^, 1955, P° 7* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 159 - 154 present for* them, which again surprised some of the Amish, who explained to me that it was not necessary. The Amish would help such a neighbor in any way that they could and at much greater cost and effort than using their telephone involves. 'Therefore the Amish cannot understand that the English neighbors might resent sharing their telephone. Another possibility for misunderstanding arises over the fact that the Amish concept of privacy and community responsibility differs from that of the Englishmen. 155 One morning about seven-thirty some Amish children discovered that the brooder house was burning. They exci­ tedly called their father who took one glance and ran at top speed to the nieghboring English farm. door but no one answered. day. He knocked at the He assumed they had left for the He tried the door, but it was locked, so he pushed it in, tearing the frame from the wall and called the fire department. He acted so quickly that it was not until he was ringing the number that the sleepy owners arrived down156 stairs to see what w^s causing the commotion. When messages must be relayed quickly to other Amish 154. 00 A 2.8. 155. 00A34, OOA32, 00A27. 156. When I asked him what his neighbor thought about bis breaking down the door, he said they were pretty surprised, then he added that after the fire he fixed it for them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 160 communities, as in the case of illness or death, a rather devious but usually effective method has been evolved. Telegrams are rarely used because of the rural location of the Amish and their lack of telephones, telegrams reach them little faster than letters. Usually the Amishman who wants to send the message goes to the nearest telephone office or public telephone, puts in a call, and gives the message to an English neighbor of the person he is trying to reach or to the proprietor of a store in the community. This person in turn either goes to deliver the message or he tells the first Amishman he sees, who in turn delivers it to the correct person. When Reuben Mullet had a stroke, a member of his household went to an English neighbor and telephoned to an Englishman near ________________ (a town about thirty miles from Danny Mullet's and about four miles from Stoney­ run) . The Englishman sent word to his Amish neighbor that Danny Mullet had had a stroke and to tell his relatives. The Amishman walked to the home of Danny Mullet's stepson, delivered the message and told him to pass it along to the brothers and sisters. One sister happened to be there visiting at the time. They decided that the brothers and sisters could visit their sick stepfather the next day. She took the message back to the sisters that lived between her brother's home and her home. And they in turn passed on the message until all the brothers and sisters had been R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . notified. „ The next morning: at eight-thirty nine stepchildren 157 and stepchildren-in-law were on the way to his bedside. Occasionally something does go wrong in the involved communication system. At some point along the way an Im­ portant fact may get lost. One day last week a message came to the store that a man by the name of Noah Troyer died, but they could not find out where the message came from, I sure hope it was not my friend Noah Troyer from NadIson Co, 158 The only rea.sons I have heard advanced to support the interdiction against telephones are that they are worldly and that women might waste time talking to their neighbors, "When you go and visit someone you can both work, sewing or canning or caring for the baby while you talk, but when you 159 telephone you cannot do anything but sit there and talk," 157» A scribe in the Herald, February 25, 195^ s P describes the method he received a message and the action he took on It, "About 5 P.M. Saturday Tobe Bylers of _________ brought me a phone call from Fred Swartzentrubers, cheesemaker n e a r __________? that my son, Christ and wife of Chouteau, Okla, were there and wish for me to come too,, so I boarded a Greyhound at midnight and arrived at 8:20 Sun day mornine," 158 Herald, March o e S 95^. 159, 00A9, Joseph W, Yoder, Amish Traditions op cit,, p, 7 A ? states "a preacher John , , , said telephones are 'wrong because one man might talk to another ma n 's wife on the telephone, etc," Among the central Ohio Amlsh such a reason would not be verbalized, even if it were of any importance. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 162 - The Amish families I know do not c o ns id er ow n in g a telephone 160 wrong or wicked. They use telep ho ne s freely a n d ar e well aware of the c onvenience a teleph on e w o u l d b e in r u n n i n g the farm. However, they are w i l l i n g to do w i t ho ut this c o n ­ venience to keep peace in the community. The lack of a t elephone creates a f e e l i n g of isolation that can be a c h i e v e d in n o other way in the r e l a t i v e l y t h i c k ­ ly settled farmland of Ohio. By is o l a t i n g one family from another it helps to emphasize the family an d to make the members feel that they, as a unit, that arise. must cope w i t h situations It also s e pa ra t es the A m i s h from the world, for the only way an E n g l i s h per so n can initiate a con ve rs at io n 160. An Ami sh ma n speaks to another A m i s h m a n over the telephone so their telephone c o n v e r s a t i o n shows the same schizmogenic features as does their c on ve r s a t i o n w i t h strange Englishmen. On one occasion w he n a n Am i s h m a n I knew well unexpectedly te l ep ho ne d me l o n g d i s ta nc e I almost h u n g up on him, he talked so slowly and h e s i t a t i n g l y that it took me quite a while to d e t e r m i n e w h o it was. On a n o t h e r occasion my husband spoke to an Am i s h m a n w h o was a v e r y good friend of his and w h om he was not g o i n g to see for a l o n g time. My husband and this man have a joking r e l a t i o n s h i p s imilar to that which exists b e t w e e n A m i s h m e n w h o are close friends. Without thinking a n y t h i n g about It my h u s b a n d s t a rt ed joking over the t el e p h o n e in the same m a n n e r he w o u l d in face to face contact with the man. The A m i s h m a n r e s p o n d e d a bit hesitatingly, then r e p l ie d in kind. A few days la te r I a r ­ rived in the comm un it y for a visit. D u r i n g the ten days I was there this A m i s h m a n or his w i f e t ol d at least eight people in my presence, "David even jokes over the telephone." Everyone was prop er ly surprised. (The a b i l i t y to joke is a highly esteemed trait a m o n g A m i s h m e n ) . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 163 - with an Amishman is to meet him casually when he has come to town or to make a special trip to his farm. El.ec_t_ri_c.i_ty_ The pr o hi bi ti on a g a i n s t e le ct ri ct y is extremely i m p o r ­ tant as an isolating mechanism. This one p r o h ib it io n keeps innumberable conveni en ce s and luxuries out of the community 161 that would otherwise require specific limitation. It alone is largely responsible f or the d ifference b e t w e e n the Amish and the E n g l i s h w o m a n *'s patterns ly Influences the patterns of work, a n d it g r e a t ­ of far mi n g of the Amishman. The proscription of ele ct ri ci t y means that m il k can be cooled 162 only by spring water. Many A m i s h farmers are unable to meet the h e a l t h standards therefore set b y the d airy a s s o ­ ciation and thus they cannot sell to the fluid market. It also means that they cannot use m i l k i n g machines a n d so the 161. Such as radio, television, or e lectric mixer. 162. The enforc em e nt of the re gu l a t i o n r e g a r d i n g the production of milk for sale is b e c o m i n g stricter, e s p e c i a l ­ ly during the peak of the m i lk p ro du c t i o n season. During 1955 the Stoneyrun A m i s h church b e g a n igno ri ng the use of gasoline milk coolers b y their members. One of t h e ministers said that soon all A m i s h w h o sell f luid mi l k w ill probably have to use them. In the s p r i n g of 1955 a d v er t is em en ts for such coolers started to a p p e a r in the H e r a l d . "The S t a u f ­ fer Milk Cooler, now on display. Made to order in P e n n ­ sylvania especially for the A m i s h trade. Can b e driven by gas or diesel engine. A ls o can be h o o k e d up w i t h electric." June 30, 1955, p. 5- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 5;.: - 164 - size of the h er d is limited by the amount of hired help employed or the n um b e r of cows that the man, the children can milk. his wife, and Thus an A m i s h dairy farm can rarely compete with an English dairy farm wh er e the milking, arating, cooling, sep­ and perhaps even part of the feeding are 163 done electrically. One Amis hm an build up a good dairy herd said he w o u l d like to (he h a d a real f e e l i ng for fine cattle and enjoyed b r e e d i n g them) but w ha t could one do when milking and e ve ry th i ng must b e done b y hand. He and his family could manage only ten cows ment dairying with general so he had to supple164 farming and turkey-raising. The p ro hi b it io n against ele ct r ic it y a ls o affects poultry raiser. The man who raises broi le r s to brood them under kerosene b rooders by a coal or kerosene stove. the or turkeys has in a b u i l d i n g heated It is a great deal more d i f f i ­ cult to keep the temperature constant a n d ad j u s t e d to the age of the birds by this means than with electricity. 163. It 00A101. 164. M i lk i n g machines run by gasoline engines are not tolerated in central Ohio a l t h o u g h K ol lm or ga n reports their use in Lancaster County a m o n g the Old Order Amish. W alter M. Kollmorgan, The Old Order A m is h of L an c a s t e r C o u n t y . Pen n s y l v a n i a ; • Culture of a Contemporary Rural Community. Rural Life S t u d i e s t 4 (Washington, D.C. B u r e a u of A g r i c u l t u r ­ al Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture, September 1942), p. 89. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 165 - 165 also increases the danger of fire. Lack of electricity makes automatic f e e d in g and w a t e r i n g of birds more d i f f i ­ cult. Farmers that keep chicken or turkey hens for la y i n g purposes have the prob le m of pr o v i d i n g a r ti fi ci al light to increase the egg output. It is easy to install electric lights that burn as l ong as they are turned on, but it is very difficult to keep gasoline lanterns going or to get kerosene lanterns that are bright enough to simulate daylight. These lights give off heat and they too increase the danger 166 of fire. The r u l i n g aga in st electricity means that most of the chickens and turkeys sold must be sold a l i v e to large dealers or middlemen who process to the city markets. the birds and then sell them in turn I was originally to have worked for one of the farmers dressing turkeys, but when the A mi sh farmer looked into it carefully he disco ve re d that without electri- 165« Since I have b e e n in the community I persona ll y know of one man who was b u r n e d to death in his b r o o d e r house and of two other b r o o d e r house fires in the Stoneyrun church district. In one the build,ing was completely dest ro ye d and ^100 turkeys were lost. In the other the b u i l d i n g was ba dl y damaged and 2700 turkeys smothered. 166. Bot tl ed gas for ligh ti ng or h e a t i n g is a l s o f o r bidden the farmer. One farmer was l i g ht in g his turkey b rooders with bottled gas but there was talk against it in the church so he stopped using the b o t t l ed gas and retu r ne d to kerosene lights. A short time later his b r o o de r house caught fire from the lamp. He commented, "There are some people that wish the fire had started from the b o t t l e d gas." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 166 - city he could n o t dress them in large n umbers for there was no way to r e f r i g e r a t e them. on the farm One of the former members of the Stoneyrun church left the Old O rder A m i s h for this reason. He was a t ur ke y ra is e r and he w a n t e d to process the birds himself. He could not do this w i t h o u t electricity, so he joined the C o n s e rv at i ve Amish, and in about a m o n t h and 167 a half was p r o c e s s i n g up to 6 50 birds a day. In the wo ma n 's yreat difference. life the lack of e l e c t r i c i t y makes a It of course precl ud e s tricity or u s i n g electric clocks, important. B ut it also means that matic wash in g mach in e or a dryer. co o ki ng w it h e l e c ­ n e i t h e r of w h i c h is too she cannot use an a u t o ­ Even the r e g u l a r type of electric n o n a u t o m a t i c w a s h i n g m a c h in e cannot be used. Some 168 still use hand washers but most women have w a s h i n g m a c h ­ ines run b y gasoline motors. Once the motor is started the 167. He left b e c a u s e he w a n t e d a truck, a tractor, and a deep freeze. Oct ob er 13 he s t a rt ed d r e s s i n g turkeys in a plant built on his farm. It is c o m pl et el y m echanized. "They [ the t u r k e y s _ 7 a “ce taken from crates at a d o or where they are u n l o a d e d from producers' vehicles and p la c e d in a funnel-like a rr a n g e m e n t w h e r e they are ki ll ed and bled. From there they go to a scalder an d t h e n to a p l u c k i n g machine which removed all feathers. Then a g ro up of w o m e n e m p lo ye d from the area take over to c o m p l e t e c l e a n i n g a n d dress in g ." Detween October 13 and N o v e m b e r 31 he had d r e ss ed 6,000 turkeys. H e r a l d . December 3, 1953, Section 2, p. 1. 168. The machine is filled w i t h a hose or bu c k e t and worked by mo v i n g a h a n d lever b a c k a n d forth. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 167 “ agitator a n d w r i n g e r w o r k as well as electric machines, b u t the motor is often di ff i c u l t to s t a r t . If It Is t urned off while the clothes are b e i n g h u n g it may r equire fifteen minutes to start it again, wh il e if it is a l l o w e d to run an d there is a b i g w a s h i n g to be done it will run out of g asoline b e f o r e in all li ke l i h o o d the w a s h i n g is finished. small gasoline engines burn w i t h a distinctive, 169 odor. The unpleasant When it Is time to iron the clothes the A m i s h w o m a n again misses the conven ie n ce uses flat irons, of electricity. w h i c h are n e v e r hot enough, quickly, and may get the fresh, uses gasoline irons. regulated. She either cool off too clean clothes dirty, These Ingenious devices or she cannot be They are h a r d e r to light and to keep g o i n g than a Coleman lantern. The air press ur e in the gas chamber must be kept h i g h by means of a small pump, stops working. leap up a ro u n d or the iron If it burns t o o v i g o r o u s l y flames suddenly ones h a n d and sc o r c h the wo od en handle. The only way to cool the iron is to turn it off, and t h e n one soon has to go th ro u g h the wh ol e p rocess of l i g h t i n g it again. In l i eu of elect ri c lights the house is l i g h t e d at night with keros en e a nd g asoline lanterns. 169. to pregnant women. The Thus twice a week odor .seemed to be p a r t i c u l a r l y n a u s e a t i n g R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 168 - all the lanterns have to be disassembled, washed, dried, filled and reassembled, a time-consuming task. The lack of electricity is perhaps the best soporific; nothing could better encourage the habit of retiring early or discourage reading at the end of a hard day. The absence of electricity of course precludes the 170 171 convenience of electric refrigerators or deep freezes in the home. In other less important ways the prohibition against electricity affects the housework. vacuum cleaners cannot be used. It means that The Amish of central Ohio are not allowed to have carpets, only scatter rugs that can be washed. Vacuum cleaners are not really needed if there are no carpets, and carpets cannot be kept clean without vacuum cleaners. Each prohibition reinforces the other. The Amish housewife makes her cakes manually instead of beat­ ing them with an electric mixer and she puts baby food 170. Many 'of the Amish use iceboxes during part of thesummer. None of the families I knew cut and stored ice. Those that used it bought it in town and hauled it home in the buggy or had it delivered once a week by truck. The ice chest is supplemented by keeping food in a screened breezy porch, the root cellar, and in the springhouse. Some food is kept In the cool springhouse and other food is kept direct­ ly in the spring which is sometimes lined with cement in which shelves have been built. 171. The Amish of Stoneyrun make use of a freezing plant in the village. Families have two or three large lockers and put up quantities of meat in the freezer and a considerable amount of fruit and vegetables. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 169 - through a sieve instead of p u t t i n g it into the blender. When the family has toast, of the stove. it is made in the oven or on top Th es e are small matters, b u t they influence the types and quantities of food prepared. One w o m a n r e c a l l ­ ing the days she w o r k e d for E n g l i s h people commented several times, "I get so hungry for toast made with an electric 172 t o a s t e r ." The prohib i ti on of e lectricity is to some extent 173 counteracted by the use of gasoline engines, and batteries. windmills, These gasoline engines run the washing mach- 17^ ine and hay elevator, If there is no wind, perhaps turn a power saw or a reaper. they pump the water; h o w e v e r it is 175 usually p umped by windmills. 172. Batter ie s are t olerated for 00A2. 173° Many Amish farms have fairly large gasoline tanks on the farm. They buy the gasoline in bulk and it is de­ livered by a regular gasoline truck. 17^. A Soil Conservation Service man told me that he was watching an Amishman harvest his wheat with a modified reaper drawn by a beautiful team of horses. Then he noticed that even when he turned the corner and the wheels stood still the reel kept on turning. He looked more cl.osely and saw that although the reaper was being pulled by horses, the reel was run by a gasoline engine. 175» A man who has been dead perhaps fifty years (the first father-in-law of 00A103) said he would not drive past a certain farm where the farmer had erected a windmill. "I won't have anything to do with a man who makes God pump his water for him," the old man is reported to have said. Among the Ohio Amish, windmills are never used to generate electri­ city. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 170 - buggy lights and are permitted for flashlights and electric fences. Batteries are small, portable, and easily controlled. They seem to feel that there cannot be too much sin in such a small comparatively weak package; that does not depend on the world. Once it has been acquired, all physical connection with the world outside is lost, and so it can be safely in­ corporated into a Christian's life. It is conceivable that electricity might be generated on the farms for then the farmer could produce it himself, with God's help, and it would not make him in any way more dependent on the world outside. Amish construction gangs are allowed to own gasoline generators 1?6 that generate direct current. It was explained to me that the construction crews were permitted to use generators be- In discussing one of the Pennsylvania Amish churches, Yoder says, "The members may have electric lights IP they generate their own electricity, but they dare not have their lights connected to a big commercial line, because there might be some unbeliever on the line and so you would be con­ nected with him." Amish Traditions, o p . cl t . , pp. 73-7^° The Amish of central Ohio are not allowed to generate electri­ city, although the time may come when they will be allowed to use their windmills for that purpose. Although I have never heard them use the argument of the unequal yoke ("Be ye not unequally yoked together with unbelievers," II Cor. 6:1^) in relation to the prohibition against electricity, it is undoubtedly of importance. They turn from any real or physical connection with "the world" and from direct depend­ ence on the world. 176. The generators can not be used for most house­ hold conveniences that require alternating current. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 171 - cause otherwise they could riot compete with English crews. The ordnung relaxes or changes when economic pressures d e ­ mand It. The Amish clearly understand the Importance of a firm economic base for the church. It also relaxes or changes when economic pressures demand it. The Amish clearly under­ stand the importance of a firm economic base for the church. It also relaxes when the community as a whole will profit by it. The community needs a contractor and will make allow­ ances in order to support him. Dependency on a public power line is completely con­ trary to their whole orientation. The source of this energy Is mysterious. Electricity as a physical phenomenon is not 177 understood. They know that it is power and that the power comes from the world, but the power of the world Is of the 178 devil and not of Christ. Therefore the source of this 177. "No one can tell what electricity is, or where It comes from it is invisible and yet It's power and heat can be felt, and its light can be seen." A concerned brother from Florida, "Holy Spirit Like Electricity," Amish Mission Endeavor, (mimeographed), March-April-May-June, 1955? P° 5» 178. "The church is surrounded by the world. The world is following the wrong leadership . . John Horach, Worldly Conformity in Dress (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Pub­ lishing House, 1926), p. 26. "Kein Herrlichkeit ist in der Welt," P.Y., "Der Ausgang von der Welt," H d W , July 1, 1952, P« 389. The Amish attitude toward electricity is ambivalent. Some pow-wow doctors have electricity, but the better ones do not. The article "Holy Spirit Like Electricity" is indicative of this ambivalence, but such a comparison is extraordinary for an Amishman to make. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 172 - power must be sinful and if they admit this power, created in sin, In a d d i ­ into their lives may it not d estroy them? tion the electric line w o ul d be literally connected with non-Christians, c o n s eq ue nt l y they would b e yoked together 179 with unbelievers. E l e c tr ic i ty w o u l d make the Am is h c o n ­ stantly dependent on the w o r l d outside them for power they needed to make their l i v i n g and thus w o u l d in some measure destroy their sense of security built on community and family self-reliance. The i nterdiction a g a i n s t electricity ap pl ie s only to buildings owned by Amishmen. or is still mortgaged, the w i r i n g is not torn out would lower the market value) used. As long as the farm is re nt e d (as this and the el ec tr i ci ty can be Only those members w h o are low on the economic scale rent a farm. L an d is the f i r s t thing for w h i c h money is spent, it is the only real reason to acq ui re money. An Amishman who is still r e n t i n g is poor and needs financial h el p to b e ­ come an economic asset to the community. N ot only is he p e r ­ mitted to leave the w i r i n g in the house and use the e l e c t r i ­ city while he is renting, but t he re is a time lag of about a year or a year and a half a f t e r he has b ought the house dur- 180 ing which he may continue to use the electricity. 179o While II Cor. 6:1^. 180. One family has left the w i r i n g in the house for a little over a year. T hey are careful not to use it for R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 173 - the family is still deeply in debt and is adjusting to owner­ ship the electricity may remain. Changing over from electri­ city to no electricity means buying a new washing machine, new lamps and new irons. These are expensive items and therefore the church does not insist that they be bought im­ mediately. However, there is not complete unanimity over the length of time an owner should be permitted to use electri­ city. In the fall of 195^ the Stoneyrun church did not celebrate Communion because the church could not reach agree­ ment on this point. Permitting the renter and the very new owner use of electricity is an indication of the pattern of relaxing the ordnung slightly to help the young man or new farmer get established. I ^ r e d T r a c t o r s . In central Ohio the Amish are not allowed to have 181 rubber tires on any of their equipment. Sleds or steelrimmed wheels are used for all transportation. ception is for thrashing machines. The only ex­ The Amish owner of a thrashing machine may have a tractor with rubber tires to lighting the house, they only use lanterns. But they still use it to run the washing machine. I know of no Amish­ man who has owned an electric refrigerator even while renting. 181. farm equipment. See Appendix I, Part G, for photographs of Amish R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 17^ - haul the machine from farm to farm and to use as power for the operation of the machine. It Is explained that a thrasher is too heavy for horses to haul and belt power is needed for it. As some Amish farmers have no way of supplying the belt power the owner of the thrasher must supply that to. The simplest solution is to relax the ordnung for this "special­ ist" who has an essential community function. He supplies 182 a community need as does the Amish contractor and for both the ordnung i.s slightly relaxed so that they can compete economically with English and be available for use within the Amish community. Tractors with rubber tires are not absolutely forbid­ den, but they are discouraged. A few Amishmen have them to haul turkey roosts around or to use for belt power. The quasi-disapproval even of these was indicated by the dis­ paraging remarks that were constantly being made about speci­ fic tractors various Amishmen owned. beautiful new, red tractor. When it arrived it had large rubber tires with impressive treads. commented, One Amishman bought a The farmer's wife "How it hurt Chris to take off those tires and put on wheels with cleats!" There are many reasons offered for the prohibition against tractors. One I have been told 182. The Amish contractor or boss of a construction gang is allowed to own -a- gasoline generator. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 175 - 183 is, "They a r e n ’t m u c h good in these hills a nyway." This is true of the b i g tractors, but the little F o r d tractors can work most of the hills well. I have also b e e n told that a man does not farm as well w he n he uses a tractor. are plowing your field, w a l k i n g b e h i n d the team a n d you see a stone in the field yo u stoop down, over to the side of the field. a tractor, "If you pick it up a n d heave It But if you're f a r m in g w i t h s i t t i n g w a y up there r i d i n g along, sudde nl y you see a stone, are yo u g o i n g to stop the tractor, pick up the stone, climb down, t h r o w it to the edge of the field, start p l o w i n g a gain? No, climb back up on the tractor, and y o u ’ll just ride right along. It's h a r d e n o u g h to farm as good as you should w it h horses and it w o u l d b e even h a r d e r w i t h a 184 tractor." W he n I knew them b e t t e r a n d a s k e d the same question the a n s w e r was simply, "Tractors lead to cars." And of course they do. A y ou ng A m i s h m a n w ho is just g e t t i n g sta r te d may hire out to an E n g l i s h farmer and if the farmer Insists, boy will usually drive the En gl i s h m a n ' s thing be i ng said. However, the A m i s h tractor w i t h o u t a n y ­ this is not rea ll y a p p r o v e d of and might be h el d aga i ns t an individual if he is not f o l l o w ­ ing the other rules of the c h u r c h as he 183. 00A5. 184. 00A3. should. I k no w of R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 176 - one young man farming on shares for an E ng l is h m a n and u s i n g his equipment, w h i c h includes a tractor. been said about it. very careful said. So far n o t h i n g has I have been told that this p erson is in other ways and so prob ab l y n o t h in g will be However, if he should provoke some of the members, his sharecropping with a tractor will immediately be b ro u g h t 185 up against him. In contrast to the y o un g man who is g e t ­ ting started the Amis hm an w h o owns his farm is not al lo we d to sharecrop w i t h an E n g li sh ne i g h b o r w h o will use a tractor on the A m i s h m a n 1s land. He should share cr op w i t h an Ami sh m an or have an Amish tenant or h ired h a n d to farm his land and not an Englishman. This is not v er ba l i z e d and so there is some feeling a b o u t the a r b i tr ar in es s using tractors. of the rul in g aga in st A c t u al ly it has a sound sociological basis. The church is more liberal w i t h the y o u n g or poor man who must earn enough money to b u y his own farm and care for his family, while they are more strict w i t h the successful farmer who is supposed to help other Amish me n an d not i n ­ crease his own Income by g iv i n g work to an E ng li s h m a n w h e n 185. There are a n u m b e r of things in this category. A person does s om et h in g that is on the b o r d e r of b e i n g f o r ­ bidden but has n ot actua ll y b ee n made a point of. U s u al ly he can get by with it, but it is h e l d in reserve and may be used against him if it is felt that he needs disciplining. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 177 - '186 an Amishman could do it. 187 Two articles in the He ro ld der Wahrheit prohibition against tractors. discuss the As is char ac te ri st ic of the reasons advanced for the support on any non-Biblical part of the ordnung, they are a mixture of religious sanctions and sociological reasons. Paraphrased these reasons are: God made the horse for man to use and therefore man should honor God by using it. Farming with horses develops the virtue of patience. 188 The initial cost of a tractor and its asso­ ciated equipment is so great that it makes it difficult for young men to get started in farming. If some people can afford tractors and others cannot extremes of wealth are likely to develop within the church. Some will make money easily and quickly while others who can never afford a tractor will remain poor and perhaps never be able to buy their own farm. Once a man owns a tractor he has to make it pay for itself. This may mean that during the season in which the tractor can be used he will work such long hours that he forgets to be a good Christian 186. An Amishman who lives far from the center of the community put in one crop on shares with an English farmer, but church gossip forced him to stop it. .An Ohio Amish farmer could not rent his tenant house to an English man who would work the Amishman's land. The situation mentioned by Koll­ morgan, Lancaster, o p . clt.. p. 89, would not be tolerated. "He (one Old Order Amish farmer) had rented his tenant house to a tenant who owned a tractor and the neighbors alleged that this tractor was used to perform much of the work on the land farmed by the Amishman." 187- N. Stoltzfus, "Der Traktor," H d W , January 1, 1954, pp. 5-7 aud B.F.S., "Modern Bauergerfite," HdW, February 1, 195^, P . 79. 188. "Das aber auf dem gutem Land sind, die das Wort hflren und behalten in einem feinen, guten Herzen, und bringen Frucht in Geduld." Luke 8 :lk. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 178 - father. He has to spend so many hours in the fields because he has had to buy more land to keep the tractor busy and to make enough money to justify the tractor. Therefore farms either get bigger, or the successful farmer accrues farms for himself. This is specifi­ cally contrary to God's will. 189 .When farms become large, people live far apart and the church district becomes so large that either it is too far for all the members to attend church, or the people begin to say they must have a car to get to church. It is bad for the young men to work for English people (Welt-Leute) who use tractors, because when the young men work with a tractor all through the week, on Sunday they are not satisfied to hitch up the horses and drive to church. They soon want a car. If tractors were allowed it would take a man longer to get estab­ lished and therefore it would be longer before he could give sufficient money to the poor. This is bad because it is wrong to put off giving until one has everything himself. Tractors require less hard physi­ cal labor of the farmer than do horses and therefore tractors lead to a life of luxury or excess.190 Furthermore, tractors are dangerous and unhealthy. 191. 189• Isaiah 5 ;8: "Woe unto them that join house to house, that lay field to field, till there be noe place, that they may be placed alone in the midst of the earth!" 190. In case the reader does not fully realize the sinfulness of luxury (or Geiheit) the following Scriptures are given by N. Stoltzfus, Ibid., p. 7 5 to substantiate it. Amos 6:4,5; Luke 12 and 16; Job 24:2-4; James 5*5j I Tim. 5-6-11; Pso 49:11; I cor. 9:25; Isaiah 5:8; II Tim. 2:4. Some of these may seem, at first reading, to be a little farfetched, but it is possible to apply them. 191. "Auch glaube ich dass so viel Motorgerfite mehr gef&hrlich 1st und auch mehr ungesund. Nich allein 1st der Geschmack von dem Brennstoft nicht gesund aber der Auspuff davon noch viel schllmmer." Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 179 - The first five verses of a rhymed polemic written by 192 an Amishman decry the use of tractors. Ten dollar horse; Thousand dollar cow? Why must it so be going now? A workable horse goes for to feed The dog, we do not near so need. Man won't praise GOD for His beasts here, But thanks the brain-child of John-Deere.a The Lord's way upon the earth for man Is the beasts of burden on the land.® But man has made corrupt God's way;C And with inventions has gone astray The cluck way too small, no good at all; GOD's way for all, far way too small. With great complications man sows and reaps, To do It with ease, he's sold for keeps;e GOD commands us all to sweat our face;^ With hand labor simple, run the race.g We show faint love, the Lord to please And lose our crops, to a new disease Man treats it as a matter of course, Invents a machine to make it worse. a Hos. 9:10- b Gen. 9*2; 1:26- c Gen. 6:11d Gen. 6:5” e Rev. 22:11- f Gen. 3:19g I Thess« 11- h Amos it-:5- i Amos 4:9° Many Amish genuinely feel that they are a humble folk, and it is God's will that they not use tractors and other labor-saving devices as does the proud, 192. op. cit. lazy world. 1 9 3 R.C.W., The Dark Tribulation and Falling: Away ' 193• "Many might say that they are bringing it on themselves. Some say, if they would repent and put away the modern way of life, such as the tractors and power machinery, electric plants for power and dress more plainly, maybe GOD help them." John W. Martin, "A Review of the Mexican Mennonites," Herold, October 1, 1953, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 180 - Other Amishmen are willing to abide by the ruling against tractors to keep out cars and help hold their church to­ gether. These men usually find some way of farming or some speciality where tractors are allowed or where the lack of a tractor will not work too much hardship. One Amish farmer, discussing this prohibition with an English dairy farmer, smiled slightly and said, "I raise turkeys. A 19 *+ tractor doesn't make much difference to a turkey farmer." In his own life he was able to avoid the issue. When con­ ditions are such that the Amish cannot survive economically without tractors, tractors are allowed. Thus in the wheat- lands of the middle West even the Old Order Amish use 195 tractors. A_ut_o_mo_b^I^e_s_ The prohibition against cars is a vital, often touchy issue. For violating this one prohibition, many are banned 19*+. 00A1. 195• The Amish always adjust the ordnung in order that the church may rest on a strong economic base. Still another example of this Is pointed out by Kollmorgan, Lancaster. o p . eft., p. 3 5 . "The adoption of the tobacco culture by the Amish farmers and other sectarians did occasion a crisis among these people. But income had to be increased on their high-priced farms and tobacco ordinarily brought substantial returns from limited acreages. Attractive prices for tobacco silenced the objectors." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 181 - and many leave the church. To live in rural America and to be careless by choice effectively separates the Amish from their worldly neighbors. The Englishman cannot comprehend why a person would willingly give up the source of so much pleasure, would voluntarily give up a virtual necessity. Among the English, the first important possession of a young man is his car, and throughout his life his car helps to 196 indicate his status. Nor does the English neighbor under­ stand why the Amish should rule so violently against owning 197 a car and yet use cars so freely. They hire cars to go 196. My husband and I had a Plymouth Suburban. It was the only car like it in the whole region. We found it admirably suited for hauling small loads and driving large numbers of people. It seemed like an ideal car for small town or small farm living. Both the Plymouth and Ford deal­ ers commented, "We don't ever sell a car like that. We sell either cars or trucks." One of the Mennonite ministers ap ­ preciated the usefulness of our car as we hauled young people and church equipment around. We suggested that he might get one but he answered honestly, "People around here don't want a car like that. It shows you're too poor to buy either a car or a truck. You just are satisfied with some­ thing in between." 197. This lack of understanding, which the Amish do nothing to rectify, is in itself an important isolating mechanism. An Amish father commented when pressed about using cars, "It is funny, isn't it, that we are permitted to ride in a car but not to own one." (Social Worker's Report, Massillon State Hospital, August 15, 19^7)* As is typical he did not attempt to explain his beliefs to an English person. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 182 - to neighboring towns to shop, to go to the next state to visit another community, to go to Niagara Falls to see one of God's wonders« The only purpose for which they are not 198 to hire them is for pleasure. In other words the drive must have an object beyond that of being enjoyed in Itself. It Is alxvays to get somewhere, to do something. csr takes planning and forethought. Hiring a The Amishman must either write to a driver, find a telephone on which to call him, or hitch up the buggy and drive over to inquire about hiring a car for the specified time. He cannot jump In his 'own car on the spur of the moment and whiz off to wherever he pleases. It is all carefully regulated. In addition to this curb on spontaneity, the Amish family pays ten cents a mile for each trip. This means that the Amishman is paying for the car as he uses it; neither tying up capital by owning a car, nor going into debt to buy it on time. He is paying in exact proportion to the amount he uses it. R.C.W. in The Dark Tribulation and Falling: Away takes 199 an extreme position in his extravagant criticism of the car. 198. However, they are willing to hire a car to driv four hours for a half-hour visit and it Is obvious that they greatly enjoy the going and coming. They like to have the car windows washed so they can see out easily and the men take great pleasure In working out the route. The young children are most explicit about enjoying automobile travel. When I had to drive someplace I never went alone, but always took some of the eager children with me. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 183 - This threat to the church has become for the writer a thing completely evil. The car, counted w i t h necessities, More miles, bood works the Lord to be please?'1 The greatest mission, most n e 1sary plan Was done on foot by barefooted Man.e Only one thing possible 'neath the stars Could've kept GOD's Son from having carsf He couldn't've so please GOD, not true?g Can we now do what Christ could not, you! Inventors today from GOD have gifts? Hence GOD's will our numerous carnal lifts!11 The whore fulfills sin, has GOD's gifts too! Crucify the flesh, Christ told us do.^ Blood coach deluxe, a smart way to go; Step on the gas, fill the world with woe; Millions do! one guilty? Absurd! I go to church, I read GOD's word.j Enuff bloodshed on highways in one day,1* To stain the hands of all who go that way.l The tower of Siloah on eighteen fell, Yet all in danger of eternal hell.111 d I Sam. 15 :20- e Mat. 10:10- f John 5:30g Mat. 8:20- h Rom. 8:6- i Gal. 5;24- j Mat. 7:22k Psalms 9:13- 1 Zek. 23:45- m Luke 13:4. In contrast to R.C.W.'s violent outburst, N. Stolzfus 200 in "Warum haben wir nicht die Autos?" puts forward many of the commonly stated reasons against car ownership: There is nothing in the Scriptures specifi­ cally against cars, but neither is there 199. Verses 14-18. It should be pointed out that this "poem" does not do justice to the Amish literary ability nor logical powers. 200. HdW, December 15, 1953, PP* 742-33* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 184 - a n y t h i n g specific al ly a g a in s t radios, movies, slot machines, or infant baptism. Cars are e xpensive a n d they make the owner more like the w o r l d and thus furt he r from God. Cars b r i n g a tempta ti on to live a life of plea s ur e and ease. O w n i n g an a u t o m o b i l e brings the w o r l d l y invention of insurance and perhaps may mean the involvement in lawsuits. If one owns an a u t o m o b i l e he must pay needless money to the state, a n d as often as p ossible he buys a n e w automobile. Cars are dangerous a nd f i n a l ly cars may cause the community to be c o m e too large an d the members to live far a p a r t . An Amishwoman in a s ubsequent article, "Etwas mehr lllber 201 Autos," a gr e e d w i t h Stolzfus a n d e m p h a s i z e d two of his points. First a pe r so n does not get to heaven on "flowery 202 beds of ease" and secondly the church district m a y b ecome too large and the members live too far apart. She points out that it is b e t t e r to have more and smaller c h u r c h dis203 tricts than a fe w large ones. N e i t h e r of these articles m e n t i o n e d the e xp la na ti o n we heard most often: community." "Buggies help k e ep the yo un g peo pl e C er t ai nl y w i t h a bu gg y the y o u n g pe op le cannot 201. Ein Schwester, March 1, 1954, pp. 138-39. 202. in the "Etwas mehr ttber Autos," H d w , I b i d . . p. 139. 203. "A b s o n d e r l i c h w o er gem e ld et hat dass di e Autos die Ursach sand dass es zu viel g rosse Ge m e i n d e n gibt und die Gleider zu weit a u s e i n a n d e r w h o n e n wenn wi r doch wissen dass es b e s s e r wa r e fttr n a h e r bei e i n an de r b l e i b e n und r.icht zu viel Leute in ein grosse G e m ei n de haben, sondern mahr Gemeinden und n i c h t so grosse." Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. get far from the home of someone wh o knows them an d will notice w hat they are doing. A b u g g y keeps them from spending an evening in a city even if they could travel that far. How and w h e r e w o u l d they care for their horse while a t t en di ng a movie? The b u g g y makes the yo un g people more conspicuous and less likely to d:rike up casual a cquaintances w i t h w o r l d ­ ly youth who might lead them astray. It helps to keep the young people from ha vi n g a sense of fre ed om or exploration. One cannot "get a wa y from it all"' in a horse and buggy as one can by d r i v i n g sixty miles in a car. A b ug g y tied up in the street is n ot i c e d by every p a ss i n g Amishman who glances ar o u n d for its owner. If the y ou n g people are where they should not be it soon becomes obvious. W i t h a horse and buggy they are always under supervision. In the course of the last few years the n u m b e r of Old Order Am is h y o u n g p eople of central Ohio who to cars has b ee n growing. have had access These y ou ng people have not yet .joined the ch ur ch a n d therefore are outside its discipline. At the same time the parents are r e l a x i n g their discipline. The question of h o w to control the young people who are in such violent "unordnung" poses a considerable problem. The suggestion has b een made that the parents of d a t i n g girls refuse to let their daughters date a b o y with a car. would seem to be a good solution, but the parents girls claim they cannot do it. This of such If they forbid their daughters R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 186 - to date a boy wit h a car the you n g people will start out in a horse and buggy, horse, go to where the car is hidden, and proceed by car. tie up the They say they w o u l d r a t he r kno w when their daughters are goi ng in a car. The parents also comment that the community is too large. They point out that the church members hire a car to go the same distance that the young people must travel to at t e n d singings date. Therefore the a d u lt s should not b e or to too critical of the adolescents wh o want to travel simil ar distances by car. It is very difficult for an adolescent to hire a car. He rarely has e n ou gh money to be able to a f f o r d it, and where could he find a dri ve r w h o wo u l d be w i l l i n g to take a group of people out at eight or nine in the evening, another house a bo u t midnight or one o'clock, to an d finally 20U■ back home at daybreak? None of the members community want an E n g l i s h dr iv e r to know about people's social life. of the Amish their young Th e y do not want an E n g l i s h person at the singings nor do they want them to observe their courtship patterns. R a t h e r than permit an outsider such an intimate view, they r e l u c ta nt ly pref e r the young peop le to drive the cars. Most of the Old Order A m i s h boys of Stoney- ?0^. Most of the drivers ar ou n d Stoneyrun are retired men who now drive to earn a little money. They do not like to drive aft er dark. The only young men who drives the Amish also drive the a m b ul an ce and are no t available for general hauling. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 187 - run have driven a car at sometime before they church. joined the Du ri n g the last four years dri vi ng or owning a car has caused more young churchmen to be put under the ban than all other causes combined. 205 Owning a car is c onsidered a symbol of pride and as such should be v igorously avoided. A car is subject to changes in fashion, w i t h models chan g in g each year. advertisements emphasize newness and variety. The There is not the uniformity a m o n g cars that there is am on g buggies made by a member of the church well ve r s e d in all c h u r c h r e g u ­ lations. A car makes the owner more dependent on the world; on service stations, perhaps on mechanics. A private car would allow a w ho le family to escape from the community, to 205. Any of the large a utomobile a d v e r t is em en ts lustrate this. An adve rt i se me nt for Cadillac a p p e a r i n g in May 195^ reads, "A man has many private moods - and plays, the poets say, as many secret parts. But not w h en he sits at the wheel of his Cadillac and points its g raceful hood at the inviting highway! For then, to see him, is to read his mind! Pride shows in his face as he steps on the t h r o t ­ tle and takes the powerful engine through its paces. H e ’s relaxed and at ease for the car holds him in p erfect comfort, and his dr iv in g is as effortless a n d as enjo ya b le as human skill and ingenuity can make it. Confidence shows in his bearing - for he knows that, w h e r e v e r he drives, he will be recognized and a c c ep te d as a mem be r in g oo d s t a n di ng in the most distinguished fraternity of motorists in all the world • . . And never was this so true as it is today. For the 195^ Cadillac offers more of e ve ry t h i n g to make its owner proud and happy and satisfied." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. il­ - 188 - be beyond supervision a nd on their own for a while. having to rent a car a n d a driver, they always have an English person with t h em who knows some of the ways Amish, and they are always the church. By of the forced to be r e p r e s en ta ti ve s They can n e v e r r e l a x their w i t ne s s they are out from under a wa t c h f u l eye. of or feel that Not only is the Englishman w a t c h i n g them but u sually they share expenses w i th another Amish couple a n d thus e ac h family repres e nt s the c o n ­ trolling commun it y for the other. The owning of cars b y community members might the two arti cl e s po in t ed out, to a geo gr ap hi c al lead, as increase in 206 the size of the community. If the members could come to church by car they could bu y land f u r t h e r from the center of the community. This land is che ap er and so there w o u l d b e a great temptation to b uy it. would be large an d diffuse. Soon the church d i s tr ic t This could mean that more of an Amish individual's acquaintances, would b e English. perhaps even friends, It w o u l d a l s o m e a n that e a c h family could not be as closely superv is e d by its b r e t h r e n as possible in a more d e n s e l y settled district. be less pressure for c o n f o r m i t y w i t h i n toward confo rm it y to the world. is There w ould the group and more The w h o l e c o mm un it y w o u l d 206. It works the other wa y too; argues for the use of a car. a large community R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 189 - become less closel-y knit. clear limit on h o w far car, At the present time there is a "out" a family can live. With a the dist an ce could be greatly increased a n d w o u l d be much more va r i a b l e than whe n it is d e f i n e d by the distance a horse and b u g g y can travel befo re chur ch Sunday morn207 ing. The fact that cars b r i n g wit h them insurance, 208 which is b e l i e v e d to be sinful, an d extra taxes to the ■ 209 State is proba bl y of more importance than the initial cost of the car an d its upkeep. A regular top bug gy costs about |3 0 0 .0 0 , a good horse about $ 1 5 0 .0 0 , harness $*1-5.00. The horses have to be fed so that either money must leave the far for feed or land must be I have ar gu e d that Even though an set aside for pasture. in spite of this horse an d bu g g y t r a n s ­ portation is cheaper than a u to m o b i l e raan responded that about travel. The Amish- there was a l mo st no diffe re nc e in cost. old car can be bo ug h t for less than $500-00 more money must be spent for its u pk e e p a n d repair than for 207. Church usually Sunday morning. starts b e t w e e n 8:30 and 9:00 208. Insurance is c on si d e r e d to indicate a lack of trust in God., for it implies that the individual does not trust that Go d will take care of him. It is a l s o considered wrong to make money by dying. ". . . taki ng out insurance on o n e ’s life implies a lack of fait h in God and a desire to escape or mitigate His punish m en t. " H e r a l d , May 27, 195^, P« 1• 209. Bugg ie s wil l p ro ba bl y e v en tu al l y be licensed by the State. Such a move is a l r e a d y under way in Indiana. Some of the Amish have objected to this fee but most of them are accepting it. H e r a l d . May 20, 195^, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 190 - the upkeep of a horse a n d b u g g y and it certainly will not 210 last as long as a buggy d o e s . A fi ft ee n- y e a r - o l d bu gg y is not considered obsolete. The A m i s h w a y of life is closely rela te d to the "horse culture" of the last century. Not the least important aspect 211 of this culture is the use of manure. Every A m i s h m a n feels 210. Secondhand bu gg ie s range in price from about •f^5.00 to $250.00 d e pe n di ng on their condition. Surreys are so expensive that no one I know has bought a n e w one, nor have I ever seen a new one advertised, only rebuilt ones. Horses, especially when used by y o u n g men, w e ar out quickly on metaled r o a d s . Some last only about two y e a r s . However a family horse or an old folks' horse may last fifteen years. "The tendency is to exaggerate the saving from not o wning automobiles and t r u c k s . The road horses used are of good stock and most of them are bought in other parts of this country. It is not u ncommon to pay $15° for one and on the hard-surfaced roads they do not last long. . . Y o u n g u n m a r ­ ried men are particu la rl y h a rd on horses. A fine p acer may be 'reduced to dog feed' in eighteen months. Moreover, the young man must be supplied w i t h an open buggy, a good harness, ard blankets. A complete road outfit for the y o u n g man costs between $350 and $^-00. A fairly good car could b e bought for a similar amount . . .. However, full s el f- su f f i c i e n c y in transportation is r a r e l y ever realized for even part of the feed used by the w ork horse and other w o r k - s t o c k is bought." Kollmorgan, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t .. p. 53I found that when I first inquired about the use of bugg ie s Instead of cars they stressed the difference in cost, but a mo ng themselves and later with me the difference in cost was c onsidered i n s i g ni ­ ficant . 211. In d is cu s s i n g the iniquities of a hired hand, an Amish w oman said w i t h indignation, "They used our land and our manure and then they sold the t o m a t o e s !" The e m p l o y ­ er supplies land, a n d manure, for a garden and p a t c h for his hired help if they keep house separately, but t he y are not supposed to sell any of the produce. P.B. Sears, This is Our World (Norman, Okla.: U ni ve r s i t y of O k l a h om a Press, 1937), p. 2^. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 191 - it is his duty to b u i l d up the land, even if it is not his 212 own. Nei th er tractors nor cars produce ma nu r e and the use of manure is central to the Amish way of farming. An­ other point that cannot be overlooked completely is that cars an d tractors do not reproduce. Production and r e p r o ­ duction are of singular importance to the Amish. Probably one of the reasons for the ru l i n g a g a i n s t mules is that they do not produce young, a l t h o u g h the stated reason is 213 that man and not God supervised their conception. The car has b r o u gh t great changes in the life of the 212. A tenant, 0 0 A 4 $ , h auled the manure a n d straw from the sale b ar n to s pread on his fields. He does n ot pay for it nor is he paid for doint it. I comme nt ed that it must help his yields. Another A m i s h farmer interjected, "It really helps__________________[the man who owns the farm). Some of the reasons given for ra i si ng turkeys is that they are very good in r e s t o r i n g the fertility. A farmer may raise them for a bout five years to b u i l d up his land before switching to general farming. It is almost c o ns id er ed an act of kindness to run turkeys on a n eighbor's land. 213. "Auch erkennen wir es fur u n s c h i c k l i c h von einem Christenbekenner die Kr ea t u r e n Gottes vermengen, als Pferde und Esel, wod ur ch die Maulesel entstehen, weil Gott der Herr solches im An fa ng nicht geschaffen hat." 1865 Discipline, Artlkel mod O r d n u n g e n . o p . c i t . , p. 1^-. A few Am i sh keep ornamental peafowl. They are kept only because they are pretty, so I asked them why they kept the hens as well as the cocks. At first they d i d not un de rs ta n d my question, but finally one woman said "You wouldn't have any y oung ones if you only kept the cocks." It ap p ar e n t l y was i n c o n ­ ceivable not to keep a pair. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - majority of peop l e 192 in America. they live from their work, - It has chan ge d t h e distance the way they spend their Leisure time, the use they make of t h e i r vacations, of their income, the a l l o t m e n t their observance of Sunday, the patterns of courtship, to ment io n only a few of the more obvious 214 ones. These changes came so fast that t h e y wer e quite disruptive. The A m i s h still main ta in themse lv es as a pseudo-folk culture cultures in a mode rn world. T y p i c a l l y in folk "new items are not a p p e a r i n g w i t h any great f r e ­ quency and the society has o l e nt y of time to test them and 215 to assimilate them to its p r e - e x i s t i n g patter ns ." The Amish represent a self-co ns ci o us folk culture in that they refuse to a d m i t the n e w items that are a p p e a r i n g w i t h great frequency In the w o r l d a r o u n d them. ventions, slowly test them, They w a t c h these i n ­ an d if possible they e ve n tu a l l y integrate them into their p r e - e x i s t i n g patterns. The au to mo b i l e is still c o n s i d e r e d too great a change; they are not yet able to a s si m i l a t e it. ward assimil at i on has be e n taken. The first step t o ­ They hire and use a car and driver, but they do not yet feel a b l e to make the 214 See Lynd, M i d d l e t o w n . o p . ci_t. , pp. 251-63 for a good discussion of the effect of the a u t o m o b i l e on life in a Mid-Western city. 215. R a l p h Linton, The Study of Man A o p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1936), p. 283. (New York: R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 193 - hurdle to ownership of a car. It will p r o b a b l y come e v e n t u ­ ally, at w h i c h time the A m i s h c h u r c h will either be c r u m b ­ ling to the point where the r u l e s and reg ul a ti on s can no longer be e n f o rc e d or it will h a v e pr og re ss e d to the point where the ownership of an automo bi le by the members is no longer a threat to the church. A t t i t u d e T o w a r d M a c h i n e s_ 216 Some A m i s h m e n feel that e c on o m i c a l l y the ordnung puts them at a disadvantage. They say they can compete in hilly terrain, but that in flat country they could not c o m ­ pete because of the r u l i n g a g a in st tractors. Even in the hilly land of Stone yr un they said that m a t e r i a l l y t h ey can not do as well as the E n g l i s h farmer. T h e y firmly believe that no one can produce crops c h e a pe r w i t h machines. A ltho ug h the A m i sh oppose the telephone, tractors w i t h r u b b e r tires, and the automobile, be said that they are truly a nt i- m e c h a n i c a l electricity, it cannot or suspicious of everything that is m e ch a ni ca l in contrast to that w h i c h is "natural." Th e men are fascinated b y machines; though this may be the fa sc in at io n of the f orbidden a n d the w o r l d ­ ly. The gasoline engine is used extensively, the steam 217 engine has been used to r u n thras hi n g machi ne s and sawmills. 216. 00A9, 0 0 A 1 , OOA45, 00A113. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 19 ^ - I visited, a b ea u t i f u l w o o d w o r k i n g shop that was fully 218 e q u i p p e d with power tools, all run b y gasoline engines. Various Amishmen have w o r k e d out ingenious milk i ng machines 219 that do not use e l e c t r i c i t y and h e a t i n g devices u s i ng hot 220 water when furnaces were forbidden. The accounts that we heard of visits to N i a g a r a Palls revealed that the men were even more interested in the n e i g h b o r i n g locks than in the Falls. Most of the A m i s h farms have a great deal of farm equipment r a ng in g from electric fences to h o r s e -d ra w n culti221 vators to gasoline elevators. The individual who has 217. "'Thresher Jake' b o u g h t a n e w Avery wooden frame 36 in. cylinder th r e s h i n g machine and an 1 8 - h or se po we r u n d e r ­ mounted Avery steam engin e in 1907= There were over a million bushels of grain threshed w i t h that outfit a n d it is kept in such shape that it w o u l d still do the w o r k if desired. In fact the boys still use the old double cylinder w hi c h sounds much like a ra i l r o a d locomotive, to run their saw mill." Herald, March 18, 195*+, P- 6° 218. Shop of OOA55- 219. 00A101. 220. 00al07» Duri ng the winter of 195*+-55 furnaces were first a l l o w e d Stoneyrun church members. 221. See A p pe n di x I, Part H, for a list of the ty p i ­ cal farm equipment. Jane C. Getz, "The Economic O r g a n i z a ­ tion and Practices of the Old Order A m i s h of L a n c a s t e r County, Pa.," reprinted from the MQB, January and April, 19*+6, p. 25, lists the "farm implements of a n aver ag e farm as one or two plows, one or two cultivators, one welder, harrow, c u l t i v a ­ tor, seeder, drill mower, side deliv er y rake, hay loader, and one binder for ever y two farms." Kollmorgan, L a n c a s t e r , op. cit. , p. 88. "Except for tractors for field work, they use the latest an d b e s t farm machinery. They c o ns id er good farm machinery essential." The Old Order Amis h of Lancaster R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 195 - many machines a nd seems unusu al l y interested in them is mildly criticised by his fellow c hu r c h members. One y o un g 222 farmed died l e a v i n g a debt of $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . People explained his debt by s a y i n g that he was more interested in machi ne ry than in farming. His widow, who was a good manager, got rid of the needless machi ne r y a n d in three years reduc ed the debt to $2,000.00. The a m bi va le n t attitude toward m a ch in e ry was p a r t i c ­ ularly evident dur in g the autumn wh en the various families were husk in g corn. Hand husked corn is cleaner a n d there is a certain prestige value to doip g all the h u s k i n g b y hand. It is a way of saying, "I like things very clean, even c l e a n ­ er than necessary, and done the very best possible w a y even 223 if it does take more work." On the other hand me ch an ic al l y husking is faster and the corn makes just as good feed. A County would a p p e a r to use machinery more' freely than do the Old Order Amish of central Ohio. One A m i sh ma n (complaining about the strictness of the ordnung c on ce r n i n g the use of machines said_, "I w i s h some of our members wou ld visit P e n n ­ sylvania. .They'd see h o w they use all the new machines there. They think we should b e strict, like the y are in Pennsylvania, but we are the strict ones. They use lots of n e w machines." 222. Husband of 00A82. 2 2 3 .This is a c ha racteristic pattern of m a ki ng a virtue out of somet hi ng "the world" c o n s i d e r s unfor tu na t e or a disadvantage. It is also consistant w i t h work b e i n g c o n ­ sidered a virtue. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 196 - family husking corn m e c h a n i c a l l y usually has a h u s k i n g bee and finishes the job in one or two days family whi c h does it b y hand an d spends husking the same a m o u n t of corn. in c o n tr as t to the over three w e ek s One farme r w h o was h u s k i n g mechanically was d e l i g h t e d that so many of his E n g l i s h neighbors could come w i t h their tractors, would speed up the work. for the tractors Th e n e i g h b o r i n g Amis h farmers r e ­ presented the two atti tu de s toward machines: tent that he did things the b e s t way, one was c o n ­ usin g no machines, the other was pleased that he did things the most effici en t way making use of all a v ai la bl e machines. Machines are kept out of the commun i ty w h e n it is felt that they w o u l d do w o r k that the a do l es ce nt s can and should 224 do or when they wo u l d free the church members from the supervision of the comm un it y or lead t h e m from the h o n o r e d task of farming. They are a d m i t t e d when they b e c o m e an economic necessity, and once allo we d the A m i s h are most i n ­ genious at improv is in g n e w uses for the p e r m i t t e d machines. 224. This is p r o ba bl y one of the reasons for the ruling in the central Ohio churches a g a i n s t gasoline p o we r ed milking machines. 00A111 said of tobacco, "It keeps the young people busy the year round. There are no idle months in the winter." Kollmorgan, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c l t ., p. 3^, reported the same attitude: "More than one informant a m o n g the Amish said that t o b ac co is a good crop to raise b e c a u s e it keeps boys from b e i n g idle in the winte r. " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 197 - P i c t o r i a l The p ro h i b i t i o n o_ f_ P e_ o_ p. 1_ e .against p h o t o g r a p h i n g people a n d b e i n g photographed is of only m in o r importance as an isolat in g mechanism. It is an a s p e c t of the ord n un g that does not have 225 strong sociological support. This is probably one of the reasons why the A mish a t t i t u d e t oward it is c h a n g i n g so fast. The prohibition a g a i n s t p h o t o g r ap hy functions to limit the knowledge that the outside wo rl d has of the Amish, but numerous n e w s p a p e r articles a n d such books as "Meet the 226 Amish" illustrate that the pr oh ib it io n does n ot offer complete protection. The stated reason ag a in st p o s i n g for a p h o t o g r a p h is 227 the Second Commandment, but a m o n g themselves some argue 2 2 5 o In p o i n t i n g out that e a ch r eligious act has its place in some social scheme Malino ws ki wrote: "I can recall to my mind not one single act of religious na tu re without some such sociolo g ic al b y p l a y , . ," B, Malinowski, Crime and Custom in S av ag e S o c i e t y (New Y o r k and L o n d o n : Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1926), p, 44. V i r t u a l l y all of the A m i s h religion is social, 226 . Charles S. Rice and John B. Shenk, Meet the Amish: A Picto ri al Study of the Am is h People (New Brunswick, New Jersey: R u t g er s U n i v e r s i t y Press, 194?). 227, "Thou shalt not make unto or any likeness of a n y t h i n g that is is is in the earth beneath, or that is in earth; thou shalt not b o w down thyself them," Ex. 20:4,5. thee any graven image, heaven above, or that the waters under the to them, nor serve R e p r o d u c e d with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 198 - that the Second Commandment does not really ap p l y to p h o t o ­ graphs o L i kew is e the ar g u m e n t that it is w o r l d l y to be photographed is, in this case, not taken very s e r i o u s l y . It is an evidence of pride to w i s h to preserve an image of on e­ self, but If the print is kept hidden and not displayed, is very little p r i d e . Perhaps it is b e c a u s e a ph ot og raph arrests the natural cycles of grow th an d development, it birth, maturing and decay; b e c a u s e it preserv es only the appearance, the very part of a pers on important; that is not...e t e r n a l , that perhaps these cause the Amish to feel is u n ­ some h e s i ­ tation . Some may take pictures of their parents, families, or friends, for re mem bran ce sake, but is this in acc or dan ce wi t h the spirit of the scriptures? It wou ld we l l bef it the children of this world, who seek honor only for the mortal flesh to pr es erve the image of the mortal bo d y „ . . after we ar e gone, the only thing w o r t h re m e m b e r i n g w ill be the influence we have left f o r the cause of Christ. 228 Possibly there is a r e m ne nt of the old "German superstition 229 that if you have your por trai t pain te d y o u will die." 228. David Wagler, What About Images? (Saint Joe, Ark.r. Martin Printers). It must have b e e n wri tten bet w ee n 19^+7 and 19 5 ^ for at the time of the w r i t i n g the author was a member of the PIketon, Ohio church. 229 • Frazer, Tab oo and Perils of the Soul ("The Golden Bough," /_New York: M ac Mi l l i a n C o . , 1953 _/) ? P» 100. John U m b l e , "The Ami sh Menno nit es of Uni on County, P e n n s y l v a ­ nia." MOB, April, 1933? PP« 89-90 relates an instance of an R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 199 - In spite of the reasons aga inst p h o t o gr ap hs the adoles- 230 cents photograph one another and exchange p i c t u r e s . Ea ch family has its bo x of photographs or ph ot og r a p h al bums that on very special occasions may b e bro ug ht out an d enjoyed. These photographs are of places the parents have v i s ited in their travels either as y o u n g pe ople or since their marriage; there are pictures of the parents as children and school pictures of the pr esen t children. or two of some relative that Perhaps there is a picture "went high" and joined a church that did not forbid photography. There is n o t h i n g in a pr inte d or dnung a b o u t p os i n g for a picture or ph o t o g r a p h i n g a person al t h o u g h these req uire a church confession. The only wr it ten prohib ition states that photographs of people are not to be car ried nor are p h o t o ­ graphs of people to be used to decorate the walls of the 231 houses. Amish daughter wh o after co nfessi ng the sin of h a v i n g b een photographed, handed her father the picture com me n t i n g that he could do what he w i s h e d wit h it, he could t h r o w it in the stove. He replied, "That looks too lifelike; I c a n rt put that into the stove." John Umble, "The Old O rd er A m i s h of Lancaster County, Pen ns yl vani a." M Q H . October, 19^3, d i s ­ claims any connection betw e e n the father's actio n and the G e r ­ man superstition. 230. These pictures are p ast ed in pho to g r a p h albums (one had a music box in the hinge) or put on the dresser. The subjects are often d r e ssed E n g l i s h in the photographs. 231 - "Ebenfalls die photograph!schen Bilder nach des Menschen Gleichnis gemacht erborgen zu tragen Oder in den Hasern an den Wanden zum anachuen aufzuh&ngen." Discipline of I8 6 5 . Artikel und Ordnungen. o p . clt.. pp. 13-1*+. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 200 - A.t the present time in Stoneyrun there i.s little real 232 opposition to children b e i n g photographed. Ev e n ch u r c h members are occa sio na ll y photogra ph ed w he n they are outside 233 the community and there is little criticism of this, e s ­ pecially if the ph otog r a p h was taken aga ins t the subject's will. There remains photograph, an a m b i b a l e n t attitude tow ard the one moment they wan t they fear it. it very muc h a n d the next When an adu lt is ac ci de nt ly ph ot o g r a p h e d the typical response is to treat it as a joke 23 ^4is not s e r i o u s ) . (i.e. pr e te nd it 232. E ac h chil d has a yearly picture taken at school and occasionally they will be p h o t og ra ph ed at school by n e w s ­ paper reporters or visitors. Ten years ag o the paren ts o b ­ jected to their children b e i n g p h o to graph ed and ref u s e d to give them per miss ion or to ignore it. N o w they rathe r enjoy being able to get prints on t h e i r children's pictures. In 1953 the editor of the Her a l d refused to print photo gra phs of Amish children. In 1955 he pu bli shed some and received, to my knowledge, no complaints. 233. As w he n they are in I-W service or w er e In C i v i ­ lian Public Service. The Amish that a t tende d the revival m e e t ­ ing were ph ot og ra phed in the audience. 23^. I sent one Ami shw om an a. snapshot of her house. She was on the po rch g o i n g in the door and could not be r e ­ cognized. She wrote: "The b oys are very fond of the snap shots, and we al so like them, except for one of the house pictures w hich seems to be r a t h e r a joke." Pers on al c o r ­ respondence, V I I / 21/ 5 5 ° Th ere was a sim ilar response to the photograph of the woman in the "patch." See App end ix I, Part H, the p h o t o g r a p h of 0 0 A 1 ^ 5 ’s farm. The subject is a very 'steadfast' woman a n d some of her ne ig hbor s re all y e n ­ joyed the fact that she was photographed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 201 - Changing B o u n d a r i e s - H o w the O r d nu ng Is Mo d i f i e d This chapter has b e e n de vo ted p r i m a r i l y to the boundaries of the A m i s h community. defined in terms These bo und a r i e s were of a b a s i c value system that has b ee n supported b y more or less formal rules. S p eci fi c rules that pe rtaine d prim a r i l y to i so la ting mechan isms were d i s ­ cussed in detail in an effort to dr aw more cle arly the limits of the comm un it y a n d to illustrate the b a rr ie rs e r e c t ­ ed by the A m i s h themselves to serve as boundaries. The c o n c l u d i n g sec tion of the ch ap ter is d e v ot ed to a discussion of h o w the b o u n d a r i e s are h e l d sta tio na ry and ho w they are moved. It is no t intended to be a full exp la nat ion of why the b ou nd ar ie s change supposes a disc us si on of h o w the Am ish cu lture functions, what extent the culture shows or do not change for that p r e ­ internal integration, to consis­ tency and capabil ity an d to what degree it satisfies the need of its members. This is the substance of the subsequ ent chapters. The A m i s h are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a con se r v a t i s m in areas outside of agr iculture, an d sta b il it y that can easily be con- 235 fused with a lack of ada pt ab ilit y. The ir b a s i c ideology 235 ° F o l l o w i n g K e s s i n g s d is cu s s i o n they could be characterized b y th eir lack of adapta bi li ty . Felix M. Keesing, "Some Notes on A c c u l t u r a t i o n Study," Proce ed in gs of the Sixth Pacific Sci ence C o n g r e s s , IV (Berkeley, Calif.: U n i v e r ­ sity of Californi a Press, 19^0), pp. 59-63 • Al t h o u g h the Amish often do not adapt by ea sily a c c e p t i n g aspects of the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 202 - and value dimen si on s e mp ha si s stab il ity a n d their rigidly institutionalized social homeostasis, structure has p r o v e d favorable to in spite of constant pre ss ur e to adj ust to tech- 236 nological and social changes Amish are str ongly Biblica l. in the larg er culture. The They b e li ev e that everything, especially every n e w or u n t r a di ti on al act, s h o u l d have a scriptural basis. Wen n o Simon wrote in 1555 to a church in Friesland Meine a u s e r w & h l t e n Brilder, hilit eu ch vor Neuerungen, f<ir welc he ihr keine gewis e Schriftgrilnde h a b t . 237 Four hundred years later the Ami s h still a t te mp t every change w i t h scripture. to justify As n o t e d abo ve the use of the Scripture may be quite in d i r e c t an d in some instances almost indistinguishable from s o c i o l o g i c a l arguments, b u t the at- 238 tempt is made for every r e c o g n i z e d innovation. this problem of f i nd in g B i bl ic al Usually support for n o v e l t y is c i r ­ cumvented by ign o ri ng an innovat ion until it is no longer remembered as so me t h i n g new. Not only do the Am i s h rely impinging culture, they do modify their b e h a v i o r in relation to the changes in that cult ure and this is one level of adaptation. 236. California: 237- Felix M. Keesing, Culture Change (Stanford, Sta n fo rd U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 5 3 ) 7 P* 83* Menno n Simon, ojo. c i t ., 1926, Part I, p. 383* 238. For e x am ple ownersh ip of a te lep ho ne was f o r b i d ­ den by the Amish community, but its use was p e r m i t t e d "in a Scriptural case of n e c e s s i t y or in m o d e r a t i o n an d tem pe r­ ance . . . " Ap p e n d i x III, Part A, Article Te n of the 1917 Discipline . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - heavily on the a ut ho ri ty w r i t e r s , but 203 - of the Bi bl e a n d their early church their who le orientation toward the paste They 239 have retained the An aba ptis t measurer And with the early Anabaptists "the nor m is the past." "not to in2L0 troduce so meth ing new, but to restore som et hi ng old." 239. Littell, op their object is . clt. , p. 55- 2M0. I b i d ., p. 50. This imm ediat el y suggests that the Anabaptists were a na ti v i s t i c movement. However, alt houg h the time of their origin was ch ar acte riz ed by considerable social upheaval, the movement did not start as the result of contact bet we en two very differe nt cultures, nor as a r e ­ action to sever repression. In d i s c u s s i n g the history of the Amish Gillin, oj0 . c i t . , pp. 210-11 states, "In Europe the people bel onged to the peasantry and were thus bo t h rural and lower class in b a c k g r o u n d . . . It appears, therefore, that the original mov em ent repr es en te d a revolt by lower class, unde rpr ivileged people against the culture of their day in Europe, w h i c h ha d proved too pu ni s h i n g and too devoid of satisfactions to be followed longer." Some recent Mennonite research would ind icated that the mov eme nt st arted in the cities and only r e ache d the peasants af te r several years. Then severe persecutio n kept the mov eme nt outside the cities and confined to the peasants. "Out of the aca demic and theologic m i l i e u in w h i c h the An abaptist concept arose, the movement passes first through the bou rg eo is classes, then quickly to the peasantry, an d wit h the rise of persecution, the course of a few years becomes a rural phenomenon." Paul Peachy, "Social B a c k g r o u n d and Social Phi lo so phy of the Swiss Anabaptists, 1525-15^0," M O B , April, 195^, P- 105- _Paul Peachy, Die Soziale Herkunft der Sc hweizer Tae ufe r in der Reformationszelt (Doctoral dissertation, Zttrich, 1953• Avail­ able from the Men nonite Pu bl i s h i n g House). The de vel op me nt of Swiss Ana ba pt is m into a rural type is touched upon by Ernst H. Cornell, Das schwelzerische T & u f e r m e n n o n i t e n t u m (Tttbingen; J.C.B. Mohr, 1925), PP- 10-2^. The origin of the Amish, in co ntr as t to the Anabap tis ts would more closely resemble a na tivi sti c movement. The Amis h arose during a per io d of intense per se cu tion and Ammon was attempting to lead them ba c k to the practices of th e early Mennonite leaders. A c c o r d i n g to Linton's cl as sification the Amish of today can be co nsider ed a r a t i o n al- pe rp et uitiv e movement. Ra l p h Linton, "Nativistic Movements," American Anthropologist. 19^-3, PP° 230-L0. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 204 - The Amish are always tr yi ng to go back: b ac k to the age of the apostles, early Mennonites, call b a ck to the an abap t i s t leaders back to t h e i r own, something n ew is to condemn it, of the sinless childhood. To the fact that it is old, is sufficient reason to continue to support it. alt G e b r a u c h t ," the old w a y - - i f e v e r y t h i n g can b e "Das done in the old way many Am is h b e l i ev e their problems wil l be solved. Things were bette r in the past than they are now and be tte r now than they will be in the earthly future. is expressed over and over again. ing: his eighth decade, This attitude An old man, w r i t i n g d u r ­ describ es the c hur ch of his yout h and 241 shows how it has de te ri or ated du r i n g his life time. The mother of a large family explains eag er ly what a fine spirit 242 they had in her family ' w hen she was a child, a nd sadly co n ­ cludes that somehow her own family does not have the same unity. Even the six year old, comments, "This one's no good. d e s c r i b i n g the watermelons, Last wee k we had a good one. You should have been here last w eek to eat a really good 243 melon." Altho ugh the w a t e r m e l o n season was in its height he was sure that th ere could not be ano ther melon as good as the one that was past. 2 4 1 . David Beiler, Eine V e r m a h n u n g Oder A n d e n k e n , pp. 4-13. The article was w r i t t e n in 1862. 242. OOA83• 243. 00A27. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 205 - The pa r a d o x i c a l l y p a t te rn of justify ing ev er y t h i n g by reference to how things were done in the past is occasionally used to instigate change. Thus a successful Amishma n said, "When my father was a young man the way he farmed wasn't much different from the w a y his E n g l i s h nei ghbo rs farmed. Today there is a lot of differe nce b e t w e e n the way I farm and Hoyt farms. I think we' ve changed too muc h by not far ming like the E n g l i s h people a r o u n d here. We ought to go b ack to the way it was in my father's time wh en there w a s n ' t so muc h 244 difference bet we en Amish and English. Here an obvious a t ­ tempt is made to overlook the no velt y of a. vation, to place it in p r e - e x i s t i n g p a tt er ns pos si bl e i n n o ­ justifiabl y by reference to the p a s t . Not only are the A m i s h oriente d toward the past, but their church org an iz atio n is such that it is di ff i c u l t to Implement change in custom. The A m i s h do not b e l i e v e in the majority vote. If two or more mem bers are opp osed to a sug245 gested change, the old w a y must be followe d an d the new way rejected. The min ist er 's role is not to lead forward but to reflect the opinion of the group, e s p e c i a l l y the conser246 vative opinion. The leaders are gu ar dia ns of their ch urch 244. OOA95» 245. Matt. 18:16, II Cor. 13:1. 246. H.G. Barnett, Innovation, the B a s i s of Cultural Change (New York, Mc G r a w - H i l l Book Company, 1953), PP= 6572, 307-12. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 206 - 247 and as such it is their duty to stand fast in the old way. When Old Orde r A m i s h m in is te rs meet t o gethe r mlungen) the new. it is often to proc la im (Dienerve rs am - the old custom and condemn Durin g the last cent ury most of the pr on ouncemen ts resulting from these mee ti ngs have re it e r a t e d the old wa y and specified what was not to be p er mi tted to ent e r the community. I know of no formal a n n o u n c e m e n t s to the effect that now what 248 was formerly forbidde n will be permitted. Ra th er change 249 slips in quietly and unannounced. In central Ohio an other factor i n h i b i t i n g change is the size of the community. All thi rty -t hr ee churches that 24p„ This concept of "leader" is at v a ri an ce w i t h the common concept tha t implies change. The A m i s h leaders a t ­ tempt to prevent a c c u l t u r a t i o n and to enforce the status q u o . To this extent their role p a r al le ls that of the -Zuni priests. John Adair an d Evon Vogt, "Navaho and Zuni Veterans: A Study of contrasting Modes of Culture Change," Am e r i c a n A n t r h o p o l o glst. O c t o b e r - D e c e m b e r , 1949, pp. 5 ^ 7 - 6 1 . It is said of the Zuni priest "They 'hold their chi ldr en fast.'" Benedict, o p . cit., p. 60. The steadfast Ami s h pre ac her s als o try to hold their members fast. 248. Nor are a n n o u n c e m e n t ge ner ally made s up po rtin g the introduction of ele me nts of the materia l culture that previously had b e e n i g nore d or u n d e c i d e d upon. Perhaps an exception to the ge n e r a l i z a t i o n that innova tiv e changes are never announced, w o u l d be the a c ti on of g r oup of Amish, p r i ­ marily laymen, but also some ministers w h o met together b e ­ cause they felt they s h o u l d support mi ss io n a r y work. 2.49. This is in strong contrast to some societies that are eagerly str ivin g for a c c u l t u r a t i o n (at least in certain areas). Here the p r o c e d u r e is g eneral ly reversed. The i n n o ­ vation is loud ly p r o c l a i m e d a n d the old wa y dies of neglect or lack of respect. This has b e e n the recent patt ern a m o n g the Manus. (Conversations w i t h Th eo dore Schwartz). Ma rga ret Mead, New Lives for Old (New York: W i l l i a m M o rr ow a n d Company, 1956). In Turkey Atatttrk often followed the patt ern of a n ­ nouncing the ne w and l o w e r i n g the status of the old extralegally. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 207 - form a geograp hic al unit att empt to be of one mind. community of this In a size there almost certainly will be several churches that are more con servative than the rest and thus keep out changes 250 a ll ow . Ami.s_h that the maj or it y of the co mmun ity w ou ld IQ.e.t.hodg^ u_se_d t_o_ p_ f. Soc__ial_ t,Hhi.h3^t_ C. o_ n t_ r o_ 1_ i ^ r i o v a t i O T i An Important factor that mitigates ag ainst change is 251 the isolation, either phy sic al or social, The Amish consci ous ly att emp t isolation from the of a culture. to maintain their society in sur roun di ng culture. One of the t e c h n i ­ ques they employ for m a i n t a i n i n g the separation is the p r e ­ vention of ideas an d objects of the su rr oundi ng material culture from coming into the A m i s h community. It is a c y c l i ­ cal reaction, the isolation is ma in tain ed by the inhibiting 251a of acculturation and the opportunities for b o r r o w i n g are 250. "Our community is too big, conservative." 00A23• 251. m o , p. Gillin, op. cit., p. 5^8. that's why it is so Keesing, op. cit., 61. 2 51a. "Ac culturation comprehends those ph en omen a which result when groups of individuals h a v i n g different cultures come into continuous first-h and contact, vith su bs e­ quent changes in the original cultural patterns of either or both groups." M e l vi lle J. Herskovits, Acculturation, the Study of Culture Contact (New York: J.J. Augustin, 1938), p. 10. Although the A m i s h culture is a subculture of the larger North American culture, I use the term "acculturation"." I feel justified in do in g this for others have used the term to refer to changes r e s u l t i n g from contacts b e t w e e n two groups that do not differ as m uc h from one an oth er as the Amis h d i f ­ fer from their E n g l i s h neighbors. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 208 - reduced by the isolation. Innovation, as synonmous with borrowing from the sur­ rounding culture, must be distinguished from innovation, as it pertains to new uses of articles already admitted by the Amish. Innovation of the first type is much more strongly inhibited than is that of the latter type, but even this is in some distances discouraged. Innovation that involves borrowing from the external 252 culture is generally considered harmful to the Amish society. Therefore this type of innovation is regulated by the same methods of social control that are used to punish any anti252a social a c t . 252. This attitude is usually relaxed in relation to certain types of innovation in the practice of agriculture. Although today the Amish are a little slower than some of their English neighbors to adopt new practices they adopt them faster than some of the other English farmers. They are more likely to adopt a new fertilizer or a new feed than a new machine. They were rather slow to take over hybrid corn and contour plowing by comparison with some of their neighbors, but they adopted such practices more quickly than did farmers in other parts of the country. See Eugene A. Welkening, "Social Isolation and Response of Farmers to Agricultural Programs," American Sociological Review, Dec­ ember, 1951, P P • 836-37* Social Isolation in this study refers to individual families, not to a community. 252a. See Appendix III, Part F for a chart showing the Amish methods of social control. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 209 - The first inhibition against innovation is the indi253 vidual's own conscience. He has been taught that the in­ troduction of new items is dangerous and disruptive to the unity of the church. since he was a child. "We Amish don't do that" he has heard The second inhibitory mechanism is gossip or public opinion. The Amish decry gossip, but it continues to exist as a powerful, though fairly well control­ led, means for achieving uniformity within the group. Gos­ sip starts with the slightest sign of deviation and continues until the individual has shown "Scriptural improvement," in other words has illustrated by his behavior, his speech and his attitude that he is humbled, and submissive to the group, or has been removed from the community. If mild gossip is not sufficient to induce the deviant member to chansre his ways, one of the brethren takes it upon himself 253a to admonish the erring one. If this is insufficient the first brother returns with one or two more, generally one of whom is the deacon or a preacher and the individual 253I am omit ting a discu ssi on of the patterns of child rearing that tend to curtail individual, imaginative activity and also a d i s c u s s i o n of the positive satisfactions the culture offers that tend to pr even t a strong desire for change. ?53aDi scipline of 1838, Articles II and III. Artikel und O r d n u n g , o p . c i t . p . 7 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 210 - 05/4. is admonished does not church repent end. h a Standing if important nity of he the is it is Tf is not a individual the chance small sin matter to and. on does not back" from communion of his their it only is set church ways an avail he a his is from error knees himself by still 'brought public the district. important back in is make he in If the '-rays, his a membership but If given is "set community. he of sin. communion ing strain. it is ruling member but opportu­ barred a communion an action considered the is this united He in confession. if of up member he of is is from the break­ expel- 255 led from the community and "rnited." All social inter- 256 course with 2 5*+• a nerson Lev. under 19:11, the Matt. Ban is forbidden until he 18:15-16. ? 5 5 . This is Pennsylvania Dutch for the German verb "meider" meaning to shun or avoid. The various terms used are "mite," "meid," "miting," "meidung." "Hite" is also used synonymously with "Bann." See Chapter VII for a des­ cription of the ceremony of confession and placing the ban. ""his procedure is based on Matt. 18:15-12* "Moereover if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault, between thee and him alone: if he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more that in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established, And if he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church: but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a. publican. 256. Such an Individual is outside the patterns of reciprocity and mutualities, in which he normally serves. Malinowski, Crime and Custom, o p ♦ c i t ., especially chapters IV and IX. " . . . ostracism from the community is widely re ­ garded as the direst of punishments and that its threat serves as the ultimate inducement to cultural conformity." George Peter Murdock, Social Structure (New York: Macmillan Co., 1969), p. 82. See also his article "Feasibility and Imple­ mentation of Comparative Community Research," American Sociological Review, December, 195°, PP • 713-20. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission - 211 - is permitted to make a public co nf es s i o n on his knees an d go through the ceremony of r e i n s t a t e m e n t . If the individual does not show the r e q u i r e d im pro vement he remains outside the community and therefore b e y o n d their control. ing of the ban and the rei nstat em en t B o t h the p l a c ­ of the me m b e r requires action of the who le co ng re ga tion a n d the services of a b i ­ shop . This is the g e n e rali ze d p at t e r n of social control used by the Amish. E ach measure be co me s p r o g r e s s i v e l y more formal and more severe. All stages are not emp lo yed in the p u n i s h ­ ment of a single transgression. If an individual commits a 257 "gross" sin he is immedia tely put u nd er the ban. If the sin was committed sometime in the past an d is not an act 258 that is continuing, the ba n is of lim ited duratio n but Sins that are spec i f i c a l l y m e n t i o n e d in the Bible: I Cor. 6:9-10; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 5:5; I Joh n 2:3-6, 3:^-10. "Murder, witchcraft, incendiarism, theft and other like criminal deeds . . . " M enn o Simon, The Complete Works of Menno Simon (Elkhart, Ind.: John F. Funk and B r o ., 1871), p. 283. "Fornicator, or covetous, or idolater (image w o r ­ shipper), or a reviler, or drunkard, or a thief;" D. P. o p . cit., 1910, p. 233* In practic e the only cases I know of in which the individual was pl ac ed un der the ban immediately without previously b e i n g a d m o n i s h e d were instances of p r e ­ marital intercourse and owning a car. The minister spoke to the erring in dividuals first. To my kn owledge all other cases of the ban result from the e r r i n g one not r es pond in g to admonition. E x t r am ar it al sexual re l a t i o n w o u l d immediately call for the bann, but I have n e v e r he ard of such a case. If a member stole or told a flagrant lie he w o u l d immediately be placed under the bann, but a drunkard is not ba nn ed until he has shown that he will not r e s p o n d to admonishion. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 212 - the individual is not informed as to what the length will 2 59 be. An individual's own conscience may direct him to re­ quest that he be placed under the ban so that he may be punished and forgiven his transgression. In an individual, at the promptings of his conscience, does not take communion, he is not considered to have been "set back" (which requires action of the whole membership) and he does not have to make a public confession unless his conscience so directs him. A public confession in church is required for the breaking of specific rules. If, however, the individual refuses to make the confession then tlqe stronger forms of coercion are used to correct him. In all instances gossip is supposed to stoo at the time an erring individual shows Scriptural 260 improvement and must stop with the celebration of Communion. Although an individual's past misbehavior is occasionally mentioned after he has repented, I have never heard such behavior gossiped about. Any reference to it is counter- 258. An example of the first instance would be a case of premarital intercourse, any behavior that the individual stubbornly refused to relinquish would be classed in the second category. 2.59. Individuals who have been under the ban say that the unknown length is one of its trying aspects. 260. This is one of the important functions of com­ munion. It means that a person's behavior during only the previous six months may be gossiped about with immunity. Any one who gossips about the pre-communion behavior of a brother with whom he has broken bread is believed to "eat R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - ?13 - acted with a comment com men di ng the individual for the way he behaved while b e i n g di scipline d or pr a i s i n g him for his improvement. An individual's lapses in re sp ec t i n g the mechanisms of isolation are usu ally considered minor sins. In most instances if he corrects his b e ha vior p rom ptly the matter is not raised in church. However, if he persists ation he may eventually be banned. serious offence than, dress regulations. for example, in the d e v i ­ Dri ving a car is a more not a b i d i n g by all the For this a public confess ion is required. Having ones p h o t o g r a p h taken w ill i n g l y require s a public confession, and many individuals are set back from communion for introducing new elements from sur roun di ng material c u l t ­ ure into the community. In the Stoneyr un ar ea d u r i n g the past five years mem bers have b ee n set b a c k for us ing kerosene 261 262 refrigerators, b o t t l e d seas, hot w ater heaters operated 263 ~ 26^ with gasoline engines, an d m i l king machines similarly operated. In about half the cases the individ ual hi mself abstained from communion until he had given up the offen din g and drink distruction upon hi mself 'f or it illustrates that when he took communion he did not have "a genuine love for Christ and his fellow-man." D.P., ojd. cl t . . 1910, P- 88. 261. OOA39. 262. OOAI 5 5 . 263- 00A107. 26^. 00A101. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 214 - innovation. This avoided a church confession. The others persisted until the community formally required them to return to the time honored methods. In general the Amish are least opposed to innovations 265 that will relieve economic pressures. Although the accu­ mulation of money has little significance to the Amish, they appreciate the importance of being financially secure. They realize that they can continue as a separate group only if they are able to maintain a firm economic base. When it is evident that even with longer hours of work and the added hands of many children they cannot compete with their nonAmish neighbors because of limitations imposed by the ordnung, they change the ordnung. Thus tractors are permitted the Old Order Amish in the wheatlands. Specialized farming was at first discouraged but as the pressure on the land increases 265a it is permitted. Hiring and driving a truck is considered 265It is a common phenomenon for patterns of a c ­ ceptance and rejection to unequally affect different parts of the culture. In discussing the Mexican Indian, Beals points out'that in areas pertaining to religion, kinship relations, wedding customs and so forth the Indians show strong patterns of rejection. In contrast to this in the area of productive economy and toward these things which have practical value the Indian does have sharp rejection patterns. Ralph Beals, "Notes on Acculturation," Heritage of Conquest, ed. Sol Tax (Glencoe, 111 .r Free Press, 1952), pp. 230-31. 2 6 5 a. In the central Ohio Amish community the special­ ized farmer is still considered not quite as good as the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. only sensible w h en there are large quantities be transported. Since the Amish have b e e n have adopted the metal plow, cultivators, of pr odu ce to in A m e r i c a they ho rse dra wn rakes 2 66 and threshing m a c h i n e s . and although there are They ha ve a l l o w e d the wi ndmill still limita tions on the use of gaso- 26 ? line engines, these are fast dying. In the previous section I m e n t i o n e d that "specialists" generalized farmer. When several farmers who are specializinp gather together they often .joke about their not being "real" farmers. The wives of these men occasionally express concern over the fact that they do not farm as their fathers did. Stoneyrun has an unusually small proportion of old members and it is on the edge of the larger community. Both of these characteristics tend to make it a progressive church, however, reference to the chart of occupations by family heads (Appendix I, Part C) will show how few of the men are engaged in specialized farming - and only one of these could really be considered specialized in that he does little general farming on the side. In contrast Kollmorgen, Lan­ caster . o p . ci t ., p. 88 reports for Pennsylvania, "Amish farmers have long ceased to register nostalgia for a selfsufficient form of farming . . . Amish farmers do not seek to escape commercial agriculture, but definitely want to participate in it." It should be remembered that the central Ohio Amish live on the edge of a general and self-sufficient farming area. Loomis and Beegle, ojo. c i t . , pp. 270-72, while the Pennsylvania Amish are closer to highly industrial­ ized areas and their farms are on less rugged terraine. 266. neiler, Vermahnunp., op . c i t ., p. U-. 2 6 7 . During the five years that I have been visiting the community the rulings against varied uses of gasoline engines have steadly relaxed. However, the Amish of central Ohio do not approach the Amish of Pennsylvania in their a c ­ ceptance of farm machinery. Kollmorgen reports "Except for tractors for field work, they use the latest and best farm machinery." This certainly could not be said of the central Ohio Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 216 - were permitted to use electric generators and rubber-tired 268 tractors. The reason given freely and frankly is that without generators Amish contractors could not compete with other contractors. The same argument was used to explain the use of a rubber-tired tractor by the Amish threshing crew. When any aspect of the ordnung causes a disproportion­ ate economic drain on the community as a whole it is modi­ fied. Even though the Amish make these concessions to economic conditions they make them slowly and only when it is obvious that they must be made in order to hold their members or to enable their members to stay on the land. The purpose for limiting innovation is to keep the community separate from the world. If that separateness is threatened, as it would be if the Amish could not maintain themselves in agriculture, innovation is permitted. They will use the ways of the world in order to withdraw from the world. Another pressure for innovation comes from the indivi­ duals within the church who want greater freedom or self expression or for some reason are in a position where the 269 ordung requires greater sacrifice than for most members. 268. The reason is discussed freely and frankly within the community, but not with outsiders to whom they do not bother to give reasons. 269. For example the poultry farmer and to some ex­ tent the dairy farmer make a greater financial sacrifice to abide by the ordnung, as it pertains to electricity, than does the general farmer. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 217 - Individuals who go too far are expelled from the community, but there remain many who are constantly p u s hi ng at the boundaries. Most of the straining occurs mic behavior but it is also evident in areas of e c o n o ­ in other areas. There are always those w h o see how much they can deviate from the dress regulations: women w e a r i n g b r ig ht er colors w i t h the hint of pattern or stripe in the material, just and pl ea ti ng their Kaops in slightly different ways, childre n b e i n g 270 dressed In sculptured cotton and babies w i t h nylon aprons, men wearing br ow n shoes and having their hair cut just a bit om 1 shorter. There are individuals w h o want to have group meetings for B ible study and say that the sermons sh ou ld be more inspirational. Some want to read scriptural literature produced by churches that differ greatly from the Amish. 270. Rayon is now permi tt ed for some clothing, but nylon is not. At a German R e a d i n g I n o t ice d that the apron on a baby of about two months stayed muc h fresher than most. 00A2 fingered the mat eri al and commented that it was a nice piece of rayon. I said n o t h i n g until we ha d left the r e a d ­ ing then I said, "It's such a good Idea to make the babies' aprons of nylon." "You mean the rayon apron the baby was wearing?" "Yes," I replied, "But I'm sure it was nylon." 00A2 settled back co mf ort ably and said, "We call it rayon." Needless to say I joined the game of ignoring and from then on it was a rayon apron. Nyl on stockings are also called nayon stockings to di s t i n g u i s h them from cotton stockings. ?71. It is expecte d that yo un g men will w a n t their hair as short as the church permits. One very con servative young man did not react that way. It was said of him, "He wears his hair lo nger than his father. It isn't nice for a son to have longer hair than the father." OOA157* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 218 - There are als o those who wa rt as m u c h decoratlor as is pe rm i t t e d in the house f u r n i s h i n g s . One woman puts a small m o l di ng 271a of flowers in an upstairs bedroom, a n o th er longs to have an outdoor scene pai nte d in the b a t h r o o m by the local sign 272 painter. These pri mar il y involve small changes, but they are very important to the individual and eventually they move the boundary. Since com ing to Ameri ca A mis hmen have red caps in favor of bl ac k hats and women have put 272a on prayer c o v e r i n g s . But by the time the new item is a d ­ abandoned mitted to the w o r l d outside has mo ved on. The fashion that is new to the Am is h community is n o w passe in the world. A new style has crept in but at such a late date that it is just as effectiv e an is ol atin g mech an is m as was the older style. In the eyes of the world the A mi sh are always peculiar and out of date. ?71a When ever the A m i s h b u i l d or remodel a house to be used by E n g l i s h they al ways put figured paper on the walls. 272. One Amishwoman, OOA82, h a d h i m paint a clump of cattails and a bu tterfly. She is a fairly yo ung w i d o w who was left with a heavy debt, no one has criticised her bit of frivolity. 2.72a. H. Frank Eshleman, H i st or ic Ba ckgr o u n d and annals of the Swiss a nd Ge r ma n Pi oneer Settlers of S o u t h ­ eastern Pennsylvania, and of t h e i r R em o t e Ancestors, from the Middle of the Dark Ages. Down to the time of the R e v o l u t i o n a r y War. Lancaster, Pa.: 1917, p. 2 0 8 . The men have ch ange d from knee breeches to trousers and the women from hats to bonnets. John Christian Wenger, Histori cal and Bib li ca l Position of the Mennonlte Ch urc h on Attire (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1 9 ^ ) , pp. 2^-27- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - D i f f e r e n t i a l 219 - Enf_o_rc_e_me_nt_ o. f. t_he_ 0_ r d n u n g. In the section on "Specific Mechanism s of Issolation" it was re cu rr en tl y noted that the ord nu ng is not e n fo rc ed 273 uniformly for all members of the church. The youn g men and women who have not yet jurisdiction. joined the ch urch are outside its The o r d n u n g only app lies to them t h r o u g h the medium of their parents, gossip, and adm oni tion. They c a n ­ not be compelled to a d h e r e to the chu rch rules until they voluntarily sig nif y th ei r w i l l i n g n e s s at the rite of baptism. An adolescent is pho tographed, pos si bl y he dr ives a car or goes to a carnival; in a c t iv it y that wou ld be i n ­ he engages novative if he p er s i s t e d in it af te r his baptism. church member in good s t an di ng Is te mp orari ly munity the or dn un g is sl ightly relaxed. beyond community s u r v e i l l a n c e at this outside the c o m ­ He is to some extent time too he may engage in some ac ti vi ty that w o u l d b e innovative the community. Whe n a if p u r s u e d wi th in The individuals w ho eco no m i c a l l y are not yet established are a l l o w e d more fre edom from the ordnun g than are those wh o own their land. will take over ma ter ial Just as the co mm u n i t y inventions from the wo rld in order to remain isolated from the world, so t h e y o u n g man who is not 273 • See A p p e n d i x III, Part P for a chart d e p i c t i n g the differential a p p l i c a t i o n of the ordnung. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 220 - yet established on his own land is perm i t t e d to make use of some of the things of th e w or ld in order to wi t h d r a w from the world. The or dn u n g is r e l ax ed in specific ways for specialists wi t h i n munity. the community w h o are nee d e d by the c o m ­ Thus the contractor, the sawmill operator, the cabinet maker and the owner of the th r a s h e r are permitt ed machinery that is forbidd en the general farmer. with young children, w h o own their farms to enlarge the l i m i t i n g bou nda ries, unreservedly to them. Members, often try har dest but the ord nun g applies If they are too pe rsis ten t the ordnung is enforced by means of the pr ev io usly desc ri be d social c o n ­ trols. For all members wh o are es t a b l i s h e d e co no mic all y ordnung is a p p l i e d uniformly, but for the older members, the the preachers and the b i s h o p there is usually little ne ed to enforce it. They are often more e x a c t i n g of themselves than 2 7U the ordnung w o u l d require. For couples that are very old, (whose children have joined the c hu r c h and married) 274a nung is again sl i g h t l y relaxed. the ord- 274. Th ose wh o have a c hi ev ed status and b ee n s u c c e s s ­ ful under the system (as the pr each ers an d bi shops invariably have before they are ordained) see no reas on to change. They managed in spite of the limitat ions a n d others can too. Their behavior sometimes ap pe ar s to be an act put on for less c o n ­ servative you nger membe rs showing them that it is possibl e to live under even str icter rules. 274a. Keesing, Culture C h a n g e , o p . c i t .. p. 84 s u g ­ gests the need for studies to in ve st ig at e reg ular it ies of stability and change in p a r t i c u l a r zones of individual d e ­ velopment and g r o u p pa rt ici pation. The dif fer enti al R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 221 - The stereotype of an Amishmar, selves, held b y the Ami sh t h e m ­ is of a mar li vir g with his large family or a f r u i t ­ ful farm of his owr w o r ki rg the lard with his childrer ar d praisirg God. The closer a mar gets to ore aspect of the stereotype the more he must corform to the other aspects. Before he joirs the church the o rdr urg does rot b i r d him. After he joirs, but be f o r e he marries he must abide by most of the rules, but rot all. As soor as he marries he must follow the ordrurg carefully, however, if he does rot yet owr his lard he is a l l o w e d a little leeway. his lard, he has become a complete churchmar, Orce he owrs a true Am ish- nar, ard as such he is expected to stard steadfast the ways of the church. ir all At the very erd, af te r he has r e ­ tired from farmirg ard his childrer have es tabl ish ed families of their owr, he has pa ss ed be yo rd the stereotype ard is 2?5 agair allowed more freedom. There are three maj or areas are effected b y irrovatior. mic behavior, of the Am ish culture that The first is the a r e a of ecoro- the secord the realm of i sol atirg mecharisms, ard the third that which is more d i r ectly corcer re d with religious behavior. Ir the first area wo uld b e ircluded erforcemert of the ordrurg w ithir the Amish commurity car be used to illustrate Keesirg's suggestior. 275By this time the old couple is completely c o n ­ vinced that t he ir way of life is the good way ard gererally they have little desire for the gre ater freedom^the church would allow them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 222 - attitudes and practice related to a g r i cu lt ural l e n di ng and borrowing money, a n d no n-agr ic ul tu ral employment. Wi th in the second are a would be attitudes a n d practic e related to telephones, clothing, newspapers, au to mobi le s and mules. Examples p e r t a i n i n g to the third a re a would be att it ud es t o ­ ward Sunday School, mis sion wo rk a n d Bible study meetings. Although these three areas are clo sel y int errelated it is riot unusual for an individual to b e sympathetic toward in­ novation in one area and rigidly ag ainst innovation other areas. As m e nt ioned pr evi ou sl y there less negative reaction to novel ty in the is, in the in general, a r e a of economic behavior than in other a r e a s . There are two m aj or routes b y w h i c h innovation enters the community. One is the slow process by w h i c h the i nno­ vation is gradually accepte d by incr eas in gl y con servative members. the first. The other process though slow, is more dir ect than The primary agents for change young and mi ddle -ag ed families who, in this case are pre ss ed by the demands of a large family and the desire to buy a farm for e ach child, are constantly en d e a v o r i n g to modify the ordnung, pecially in areas The long, es­ of economic restriction. slow p at h an innovat io n must follow stretches from the adolesc en t who is outside the c h u r c h to the bi s h o p I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 223 - 2-76 xfho epitomizes the co ns er va tive element in the church. The a d o l es ce nt s try s o m e t h i n g first. disruptive, the parents a n d the ch ur ch ignore the matter. Then, perhaps the community, it is s ome th in g that can be e n j o y e d outside or in some limited practice sli gh tl y m o di fi ed form. is not c a u s i n g trouble, stop preachin g ag ai nst the mi nis te rs will Then the po in t the individual who is b r e a k i n g the rule is r e a ched wh ere involve d in not kept from communion by his own conscie nc e Finally the pra ctice If the it but if ques ti on ed w i l l still point out that it Is forbidden. ministers. If it is not too or b y group opinion. is wi d e l y a c c e p t e d by ever yo ne but the Now, w he n the min is te rs are questioned, it is not really wrong, b u t som e peo ple b e l i e v e avoid trouble th e y themsel ves do not ac cept it. they say it is, so to Eventually the preachers and eve n the b i s h o p ad op t the practice. And the Amish have cha nged slightly. At the pre sent time all In the Stoneyrun church. of these stages are ob servab le An example of so me t h i n g that is ignored for the ad oles ce nt s is pho tography. In fact d u r i n g the last few years the pr a c t i c e of a d o l es ce nts graphs of one a n o t h e r has b e c o m e tak i n g p h o t o ­ so ac c e p t e d that a l t h o u g h it is not done b l a t a n t l y it is b a r e l y ignored. The families 276. See App endix ITT, Part F. for a chart i l l u s t r a t ­ ing differential res is te nce to innovation. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - even enjoy the prints. 2 .2 b Si mil arly the typical r e j e c t i o n of photography b y ch u r c h members is c o n s id er ab le we ak er when they are outside the community. ators had in 1953, - The use of kerosen e r e f r i g e r ­ reached the poi nt where the mi nis ters did not preach a g a in st them, but the individuals wh o used them did not take communion. In 1955 owners ators ce leb rated communion. of ke rosene r e f r i g e r ­ C o n t i n u e d use of b o t t l e d gas still keeps a m e m b e r from communion, but the pr eachers do not mention it w h e n they are a d m o n i s h i n g the congregation. 277 In Stoneyrun almost e ve ry family uses a storm front on their buggy in win t e r and many families hav e lamp shades on their kerosene lamps an d a few have s t an ding kerosene lamps w i t h shades. None of these articles are used b y the preachers. The Stoneyrun pr ea cher s do not feel that they are wrong, but in some of the chur ch d i st ri cts ly forbidden and these art icl es are s t r o n g ­ in an effort to rem ain of one mind the ministers v o l u n t a r i l y forgo them. A m ini ster wh o refuses use a storm front on his b u g g y in spite wife has rheumatism. to of the fact that his an d they have many y o u n g children, considers that it w o u l d not b e good for him to drive up to communion in a n e i g h b o r i n g church w i t h a storm front on his 277. A storm front is a b la ck oilclot h pari ti on wit h an isin-glass window. It snaps on to the front of the b u g g y and protects the riders from snow, rain and to some extent the cold. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 225 - when in that chu rc h a me mb er with a storm front w o u l d be barred from the service. The se co nd route by w h i c h innovation enters the c o m ­ munity is the more important one. In fact even those p a t ­ terns that were first introdu ced by the adolescents, tried by members tempora rily outside the community, married members, then by u n ­ and perhaps by a yo un g landless couple, often reach a thresho ld w hen some you ng ma rri ed farmer who already owns his farm takes over the novelty. This is the crucial point. If the la nd ed farmer is a l l o w e d the innovation 27?a the others will eventuall y accept it. Wi th in the community there is constant pressur e to expand the boundaries. It is not an active noi sy effort rather it is as th oug h many of the young and middle a g e d members were all lea ning against the wall, quietly, k n o w i n g that eventually their weight would move it. They are patient, many years, but they n e v e r stop, they kn ow it may take they continue their efforts to move the boundaries. The use of b o t t l e d gas illustrates this route novation. of i n ­ In the autumn of 1952 a me mb er of Stoneyrun church was set back from communion until he gave up u si ng bo tt l e d 277a. "However, it seems that the constant change which is normal in every cul ture is chiefly ini tia ted not by Its adolescents, but b y its mature Individuals, especially by the younger hal f of these mature individuals." Kroeber, 0£. c i t . , p. 2 7 5 • R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 226 - 278 gas. In 195^ a diff er en t mem ber started using b o t t l e d gas' in his b r o o d e r house. There was ch urch gossip about so he stopped, b u t he was pe rmi tted to take communion. it In the summer of 1955 an Amish ho us ewi fe asked me, "Do you know 279 why w e ’re li v i n g in the cellar?" I a n s we re d "Because i t ’s so nice and cool down here." "My kerosene stove upstairs "Not at all." She replied. is so ba d I have to bu y a ne w one. But I w o n ’t spend money till we can have bo tt l e d gas." She is confident that bo tt le d gas will be permitt ed in a year or two, at the most three, an d until that time she will do her 280 summer cooking in the can ning kitchen. The constant effort to ex pand the boundaries continues. 278. Bo tt l e d gas is very conve nie ntly used for cook stoves, lights, bro o de rs and refrigerators. In Sto neyr un it was completely forbidden. 279. The Ami sh generall y have a summer kit chen that they can use du ring the hot we at he r without he at in g up the house with the cook stove. In most homes the summer kitchen is in the basement, but in this house it was in a w i n g off the first floor. 280. She has two kitchens on the first floor and two kitchens in the basement. On each floor one kit chen is e q u i p ­ ped with a coal stove and the other with a kerosene stove. The basement kitchens are us ua lly used for large coo ki ng p r o ­ jects such as ser vi ng ch u rc h lunch, feeding eight or ten families, canni ng and butchering. At earlier periods summer kitchens or summer houses were used extensively in rural Pennsylvania. Henry J. Kauffman, "The Summer House," Pennsylvania D u t c h m a n . Summer, 1958, pp. 2-7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 227 - A successful Stoney run farmer had a large field of good b o t ­ tom land lying on either b a n k of a stream. He was busy w i t h more specialized far ming and felt he did not h a ve time to farm the acres himself. On the other h and he d i d not have enough land to n e e d a tenant an d he h a d not b e e n able to l o ­ cate a suitable hired man. He had no Am ish n e i g h b o r s wh o lived close e no u g h to sh are crop wi t h him. So Me nn o agr ee d to let one of his E n g l i s h neighbors, w h o used tractors e x ­ clusively, farm the land on shares. The fi el d was pl an te d in hay and the E n g li sh farmer cut and ba i l e d it w i t h his power equipment. That caused m u c h comment wi thin "an Amishman w h o had his hay bailed; the church: an Amis hm an wh os e hay making was done for him by a man w i t h a tractor." Menno responded that if people felt that way he w o u l d use the land for pasture. pastured but And for the next two years the good land was the hay ne ve r cut. Menno bo u gh t hay. He said little about it, but it d is tu rbed his wif e wh o th oug ht it was wasteful for the good acres to lie p r a c t ic al ly unused. the meantime ano the r member of the Stoneyr un church, In a younger man wh o was less well es tabl ish ed an d ha d a smaller farm, began sh a r e c r o p p i n g w i t h his E n g lis h neighbor. the son of one of the steadfast, He was old men wh o usu al ly was among the first to b r i n g a ny deviati on to the a t t e n t i o n of the church. The yo ung man's father said nothing. There was very little gossip about the wa y the young man farmed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Menno - 228 - watched quietly and the next year again sharecropped his hayland with an Englishman. everyone is watching. Little has been said about it, but I was asked, "Have Hennos made their hay yet?" by a woman whose husband and daughter were working from dawn to dark bringing in their own hay. end of my visit Menno inquired, our hay?" And toward the "Did anyone ask you about Possibly he will get away with it, but probably he will have to give it up; wait another year or two, during which time perhaps still another member will sharecrop with an English farmer, and Menno will observe the reaction of the church. Perhaps the church will rule sharply against the practice, but more likely they will continue to criticize it in a semi-official fashion, bringing the issue up and dis­ cussing it, but not requiring a person who allows an English­ man to sharecrop his land to make a confession nor insisting that ne be set back from communion. If the consensus of the church is that it really is not such a wicked thing to do, Menno will try it again. Eventually such a practice may be ignored just as the church has recently ignored the practice of young members Who do not own their own land) sharecropping on English land and using the Englishman's power equipment. Ey the time Menno1s son is farming the land such a practice may be openly allowed and more equipment is permitted their ♦ may be no desire to sharecrop w i t h an E n g l i s h m a n . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 229 - The Amish do change, but compared with the world around them, they change very slowly, and in the eyes of the world the Amish are always out of date. Their very out-of- dateness buttresses the boundary that the change may have weakened. The typical pattern of change making its first inroads with adolescent revolt behavior, then being tried by Amish members when outside the community, then gradually being tried out by more and more church members and finally being accepted by the preachers and at the very last by the bishop, may take three generations to complete. This gives the community a long period to adjust and minimizes the dis­ ruptive influences. The Amish attitude toward innovation is to ignore it, to pretend that nothing they can do or think is new; they imply this is the way it always has been and always will be. They never proclaim a change, rather they underline in what ways they will resist change and remain steadfast. And while they talk about their steadfastness in the ways of their fathers, new ways, creep in around the symbols of separate­ ness. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. CHAPTER IV INTERACTION AMONG RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES The old Order Amish have constructed complicated but sociologically effective barriers between the church and the world. These boundaries have been drawn in accordance with their basic value system, or in the terminology of Albert"*" the directives that are responsible for the boundaries of the community are logically dependent on the value-orientations of the Old Order Amish,, The Amish believe that a definite line separates the church from the world, but in spite of this the Amish classify religious groups according to their degree of worldliness„ The more a church differs from the Amish church the more worldly it is believed to be, The de­ gree of interaction between the Amish and members of other church groups reflects the varying shades of worldliness. It is as though the Old Order Amish were the true church surround­ ed by increasingly worldly churches until the final boundary was passed beyond which even aggregates known as churches are believed by the Amish to be completely worldly. Between the Amish and the world could be visualized a series of fences 1. Ethel M. Albert, "The Classification of Values," American Anthropoligist, April, 1956, pp. 221-48. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 231 - that marked off the boundary of each increasingly worldly church and each fence would further interfere with freedom of move2 ment and therefore would further inhibit interaction. The first fence surrounds the single church district. Among the members within the home church there is intense and continual interaction. The next fence surrounds the larger community of the geographically continuous church districts, then a wall separates the Old Order Amish churches that are still Amish but not Old Order. Further fences separate the various Amish churches from the other Mennonite groups, then from the other historic peace churches and finally from the world. DEGREES OF INTERACTION WITH CHURCH GROUPS The first boundary delimits the church district. Only within the home church may lay members celebrate communion. If, for instance, a minister's wife should visit another church during the communion service she does not partake of the bread and the wine. Likewise, only the home church can discipline a member or determine the grounds for disciplinary action. No outsider may decree punishment, nor is there any recourse outside the community for the punished member. To 2. See Appendix IV, Part A for a graphic representa­ tion of these boundaries. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 232 - this extent each church district is isolated from every other. The second boundary is drawn around the geographically contiguous Old Order Amish church districts. These churches, that form one community, try to keep their ordnung fairly uniform. This prevents embarrassment that might otherwise arise when ministers from different church districts join to celebrate communion. If the visiting minister were enjoying some freedom that would keep a member of the host church from communion, it would cause friction within the larger community. Thus there is an effort to maintain uniformity, the ministers themselves, for the sake of peace, often adhere to stricter, regulations that are required by their own church. The thirty-three church districts of central Ohio are generally said to be of one mind, to form a single community, a group of churches that will commune together. this ideal is rarely reached. In practice There is often one church district that will not commune with another church district, even though both may be willing to commune with a third. Since about 1953 there has been a growing difference of opin­ ion among some of the churches. Certain ministers feel that the differences are important but most of the lay members ig­ nore any differences. There is no limitation on visiting, dating or marrying across the lines of disagreement — is as yet no real division. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. there - 233 - In spite of this lack of unity the Amish themselves con­ sider the thirty-three church districts to form one community. R&ber^lists them together without any distinction, and G-ingerich does likewise. The purpose of this directory is to familiarize each other with the Amish settlement . . .4 "Each other" refers to communing Amish, Therefore G-ingerich does not list a "few congregations in _______ Go. that do not fellow— ship with us . . . " a n d consequently are outside the Amish settle­ ment . Among the thirty—three churches there are minor variations in the ordnung, hut none of these is sufficient to make the members feel they are not of one mind. The women's "halsduch" is worn slightly differently from one church district to the next and there are variations in the pleating of the "Kapp," but these are largely overlooked. Even the variation in attitude towards drinking and smoking has not been important and the ministers of the few districts that allow storm fronts on buggies have pre­ vented friction by voluntarily giving up this convenience while 3. Johann R&ber, Per Neue Amerikanische Calender (Baltic, Ohio)„ 4. Forward to Ervin G-ingerich, Ohio Amish Directory (Millersburg, Ohio, 1955) ° 5° Personal correspondence, October 12, 1953- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 234 - members of their congregation enjoy it. There is cooperation among the thirty three churches in disciplining members. When a member is placed under the ban by his own church, the other churches respect the excommunication and no member will eat with him<,^ If a member is set back from communion in his own church and then moves into another church district, he usually may not partake of communion there, even though his offense was not con­ trary to the ordnung of the church into which he moved. "first make it right" with his former church. 7 He must When a member of a church district falls into gross sin unbeknownst to his own church, ministers who know of the sin will visit his ministers and inform them of it. Thus if a member of one church confesses 6. OOA95 described to me how he could not persuade a close friend of his from another district to eat with him even though his friend agreed with OOA95's theology and believed in mission work. The major reason OOA95 was under the ban. 7. If a member is having trouble abiding by a minor part of the Ordnung, or if he feels that he cannot take communion be­ cause the Ordnung is too lax, he can move to another district where the Ordnung is more in line with his beliefs. If he moves before his attitude becomes an issue in his home church there will be no carry-over into the new church. For example one man felt that his district judged him too severely, made right the issue that was brought against him. Then, when he felt that he might be set back from communion for something else he did not go to Council Meeting, and before the next communion he sold his farm. He is now looking for a farm in one of the more liberal church districts,_but still within the Central Ohio Community. "Because of this /cli.saigreeinen1:; about the 0rdnung7 preacher __________ is talking about leaving and moving some other place." Personal correspondence, August 18, 1954. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 235 - premarital sexual relations with a member of another church and if the partner does not confess the sin simultaneously, the min­ isters of the first church inform the ministers of the second church so that they may speak to the erring member to arrange for the confession and punishment of the sin. The third boundary includes all the Amish of Worth America who call themselves Old Order. communion together. Theoretically they will celebrate These churches subscribe to the same Confes­ sion of Faith and follow the Artikel und Ordnungen. In spite of this there are many variations in the ordnung of these churches; variations that would be sufficient to keep members from their own communion. Because of geographical distances these differ­ ences are overlooked. An Amishman is supposed to abide by the ordnung of his own church even when visiting Amish whose ordnung 0 differs. However, as soon as an Amishman moves to a new geo­ graphical location that church district becomes his home church and he must abide by its regulation. One woman was being baptized in a neighboring church, but not the one in which she had been raised or eventually settled. For baptism the applicants must be dressed strictly in the ordnung of the church where they are being baptized. is customary. For the ceremony she made a new halsduck, as She cut it according to the locally prescribed 8. Weiter ist es angesehen wenn die Jugend in die umliegenden Gemeinden gehen, dann sollen sie gehen nach der Ordnung von der Gemeinde, wo sie daheim sind. . . . Ein Ordnungsbrief ger beschlossen worden ist in Holmes County, Ohio, den 26teh pctober, 1917. After visits to geographically distant Old Order Amish communities differences in the Ordnung form a considerable part of the discussion of these trips. I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 236 - pattern. Shortly after her baptism she moved to her former home g and never wore the halsduch again. Had all her halsduch been of that pattern she would have worn them until they wore out, but her new ones would have been made according to the pattern of her present church. Ceremonial Interaction As well as the boundaries which separate the increasingly liberal branches of the Mennonite church, there are also cere­ monial boundaries that to some extent coincide with community and church boundaries but other times may cut across church lines.^ The first of these boundaries is coterminous with the home church district. It encircles the lay members who may celebrate communion together. The next boundary includes what are referred to as "community churches," churches among whom the ministers visit for communion s e r v i c e . B e y o n d this are Old Order Amish churches with whom the Amish ministers visit to assist the local ministers with council meeting or at a wedding, 9. The Amish serving the baptismal as a shroud. Fredric Macmillan Co. , 1951), I knew had never heard of the custom of re­ halsduch nor the wedding halsduch to serve Klees, The Pennsylvania Dutch (New York: p. 54. 10. See Appendix IV, Part A for a graphic representation of the ceremonial boundaries. 11. The lay members of communing churches do not celebrate communion together, only the ministers. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 237 - but with whom they would not celebrate communion. This is usually a temporary and unstable relationship that is resented by one of the churches involved. "We were good enough to go up there and help in church when they needed us, but we aren't good enough to commune with them. from Pennsylvania." 12 Por communion they get a bishop There are quite a few Old Order Amish churches who will "hold church together" but not communion. Beyond this are churches, different Amish churches or Amish Mennonite churches with whom the Old Order would not hold church services but with whom an Old Order Amish preacher would be willing to participate in a funeral service. Id And finally there are churches in which Old Order Amish lay members may partici­ pate in weddings, but Old Order ministers will not act in an official capacity . ^ Beyond this there is no ceremonial inter­ action. 12. 00A1. 13. Usually an Old Order Amish minister only participates in the funeral of a person who was formerly Old Order Amish or had been raised in an Old Order Amish family and many of his relatives had remained Old Order. The churches with which the Old Order may join for a funeral service are the King churches, the Stutzman churches, the Beachy Amish, and the Conservatives. See Chapter VII. 14. The lay participants in the weddings are usually so young that they have not yet joined the Old Order and technically are not members. These participants are always closely related to either the bride or groom. -' R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 238 - INTERACTION AMONG THE OLD ORDER AMISH CHURCH GROUPS The Old Order Amish of North America form one brotherhood within which the members move freely and confidently; they all know they are members of one body, of the Body of Christ. The brotherhood is held together by ministerial visiting within the church and by social visiting within the community. The channels of communication are well developed and the community approaches economic self-sufficiency. 15 -I Ministerial Visiting To demonstrate that the community is of one mind, min­ isters visit the various churches and celebrate communion with the different congregations. There may be as many as twenty- ministers present at a communion service. 17 Each minister is a representative of his home community, and as such he can­ not partake of communion in any other church until his home church has had its council meeting and found that they are ready to have communion. 15. As channels of society and the economy If they are not of one mind among themselves the Amish community is a part-society some of the communication makes use of services of thelarger the Amish community interacts to someextent with of the whole country. 16. This includes visits of all church officials: bishops, preachers, deacons. 17. Herald, May 20, 1953, p. 1. See Appendix VIII, Part E for a chart showing the ministers attending a specific Stoneyrun communion. I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 239 - obviously they cannot be of one mind with the larger group and so no individual from that unfortunate community may partake of communion anywhere„ Ministers not only visit the other churches for commun­ ion services, but they also visit for regular church services,, The visiting minister is usually given a part of the service 18 unless there are so many visiting clergy that all cannot parti­ cipate o If a minister comes from afar, from another state, a special church service may be held for him: On Tuesday afternoon we had church at John J. Millers for the strange preachers, Dan King and Dea. John Yoder from Belleville, Pa., and Pre. Andy Lapp from _______ Co. were p r e s e n t .19 These special services are usually well attended for the members enjoy hearing different preachers. 20 Any time a minister visits another Old Order Amish church, any place in the country, he 18. "Bishop ________ of R-2 was with us and had the main part. _______ of the anfang, Bishop read the scripture." Herald. January 7, 1954, p. 5« . .we were priv­ ileged to have two visiting ministers and their companions, _____ of ________ Co. brought the opening message and _______ of _____ Pa. the main, sermon. Both sermons were brought forth in earnestness and sincerity and quite evidently through spiri­ tual leading. Herald. August 26, 1954, p» 7° 19. Herald, December 3, 1955, p. 5. 20. " . . . three strange preachers /from Pennsylvania/ attended . „ . _______ /three bishops from neighboring church districts/ also attended in our church on account of the strangers." Herald,"December 17 j- 1953V'P* 5= "I'm so glad we didn't miss church. There was a strange preacher from 0-eauga oo." 00A104. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 240 - may be called u p o n to take part of the service, and w h e n so re­ quested he cannot refuse. Ministers make special trips to visit other churches to help with any disagreements or questions of the o rdnung that the individual congregation seems u nable to settle itself. 21 They may also help with a council mee t i n g and at a n ordination. As mentioned above they visit the m inister of a n o t h e r church dis­ trict if they know that one of his members has fallen into gross sin. Ministers are invited to many weddings outside their own distinct and they frequently participate in the w e d d i n g service. They travel even further to attend funerals. Sometimes the dying man has requested that a certain p reacher be informed of his death. In this case the v i s i t i n g minister will have a part in the service. 22 A type of specialized v i s i t i n g is the minister's con­ ferences that are occasionally held. The A m i s h are so completely congregational that these meetings do not have strong church support and the individual m inister decides w h e t h e r or not he 21. "Sonntage, der 1. August, gede n k e n etliche Diener von hier und auch v o n Lancaster Co., in Holmes Co., Ohio sein, auf G-emeinde Arbeit," HdW, August 15, 1954, p. 85<> 22. Herald, January 29, 1953, p° 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 241 - wishes oi* is able "to attendo In Pennsylvania some of the Old Order A m i s h m inisters gather for a semi-annual ministers' similar meetings, conference. 23 ^ In Ohio there are but they are held less regularly and do not seem to be too well attended., The bishops make a greater effort to go than do the preachers. During the course of this study there have been a series of five yearly conferences w h i c h were attended by Old O rder Amishmen who were sympathetic to m i s s i o n activity. The conferences aroused a great deal of strong f e e l i n g as is reflected in one letter to the H e r a l d . "We are also aware of the oppos i t i o n of some of our people and we all k n o w that the devil is always ready to h i n d e r in any way possible the spreading of the Gospel, and spiritual meetings. . . I am not attem p t i n g to say that our conference is of the Lord and the best for our church at pre­ sent, and that we should press on, or not, but we do know the m i s s i o n p r o g r a m and w i t n e s s i n g for Jesus was His personal divine command to His fol­ lowers. . ."24 K i s s o f P e_ a _c _e Visiting ministers, e specially from distant church districts. 23."Bishop Johnny Fishers and Pre. Isaac from St. Marys Co., Md. were in our council m e e t i n g last Sunday. They had come to Lancaster Co. to attend the semi-yearly ministers Confer­ ence held at Pre. A b r a m L. Beilers. Four of the oldest mini s t e r s were not able to attend due to old age infirmities. Namely: Bishop H enry Lapp, Pre. Jacob Lapp, Pre. Christ Glick and Pre. John S p e i c h e r . " H e r a l d , April 22, 1954, p. 1. 24. H e r a l d . April 9, 1953, p. cussion of the m i s s i o n movement. 6. See C hapter VI for a dis­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 242 - usually greet one another before the service wi t h the Hol y Kiss or the Kiss of Peace cheek. 26 b e stowed simultaneously on one another's The Kiss of Peace is n e v e r exchanged betw e e n the sexes, It is extended to all new memb e r s f ollowing their baptism, 27 ' 28 to members who had been excommunicated u p o n the i r reinstatement into the church, 29 and f ol l o w i n g foot- w a s h i n g the two people who have washed one another's feet extend the kiss of peace to each other. 30 Except among mini s t e r s the kiss of 26. "Greet all the brethr e n w i t h a holy kiss." I Thes. 5:26. "Greet ye one another wit h a kiss of charity." I Pet. 5:l/!o "It was the customary e xpression of fraternal charity among the Christians of Aposto l i c times." Pius Parsch, The Lit­ urgy of the Mass (St. Louis, Mo„: H e r d e r Book Co., 1 9 3 7 ) 9 p. 297. It united "all the faithful most intimately a m o n g themselves and with Christ." p. 298. 27o "o o .the persecuted church m a n i f e s t e d its peace w i t h ­ in itself by the exchange of the kiss of peace enjoined i n the New Testament, the bishop w i t h the clergy arou n d the t h r o n e , and laymen with laymen, w o m e n w i t h w o m e n in the c o n g r e g a t i o n , " Gregory Dix, The Shape of L i t u r g y (Westminster / E n g l a n d / : D a c r e Pressjl945)» p° 104. 28. "The Bishop h i m s e l f gave the kiss to each new C h r i s t i a n whom he admitted to the order of laity. . .Until that moment the neophyte had never been p ermitted to exchange the kiss of peace with any of the faithful, because he was not yet of the Body of Christ, and so had not yet received the Spirit, and by consequence could n e ither give no r receive the peace of Christ." Dix, L i t u r g y , op. c i t .. p. 107. 29. Members who are u n d e r the ban in the Amish church are denied the kiss of peace for they are outside the Body of Christ during that period. 30. "Justin . . . states that the kiss is the preli m i n a r y to the offertory, where we find the kiss placed also by Hippolytus at Rome. . „0n the whole it seems more likely t h a n not that in pre-Nicene times A f rican practice, like that of Rome, con­ formed to the universal use elsewhere and pla c e d the kiss before the offertory." Dix, L i t u r g y , o p . c i t . . p. 108, 109. The Amish exchange the kiss just before they give alms w h i c h is after taking communion. M o d e r n R o m a n usage (since c. A.D. 595 or earlier) placed the kiss of peace immediately before communion. Ibid., p. 108. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 243 - peace is usually restricted to baptism, communion and reinstate­ m e n t . ^ This may be due to the fact that a minister is k n o w n to be in good standing if he is f ulfilling his m i nisterial duties, 32 while a lay member's standing is only kno w n at communion time. The importance of the kiss of peace is illustrated by "An Apology" written by a m a n suffering from tuberculosis. I want to take this means of apologizing for refusing the natural kiss in greetings during this fall's conference since I do not want to discourage anyone from u s i n g it . . . So I will apologize for not u s i n g the natural kiss, but hoped to have greeted y o u all wit h a holy kiss, which is peace, love, good will and esteem­ ing everyone above oneself and in fact all fruits of the spirit*54 31. "Der Petrus s a g t , Griisset all Brdder; und wir grfisen nur e'in Brilder am Nachtmahl." N„ Stoltzfus, "Der Heilige Kuss," HdW, March 15, 1954, p. 166. This seems to be the case among the Mennonites at large. Paul M. Roth, "Christians Greet in Love," GH, August 3, 1954, pp. 721-722. Mary Ply, "Neglected Ordinance." GH, August 16, 1955. 32. If he is not in good standing he will be "silenced by the church" which means that a l t h o u g h he remains a minister, he is not allowed to act in that capacity. 33c Amos S. Miller, "An Apology," Ami s h M i s s i o n Endeavor Bulletin. October, 1952, / n o page/. 34. Because of his illness he felt that he could not actually kiss the brethren. The use of "natural kiss" in contrast to "holy kiss" is not typical. Usu a l l y kissing among the Amish is of two types only; the holy kiss w h i c h is exchanged w i t h members of the same sex as part of a religious observance and the kiss exchanged between sexes during courtship or after marriage. They never kiss members of t h eir family (other than the feet and hands of tiny babies) and rarely friends. A Mennonite writes, "Sisters nullify the ordinance by partic i p a t i n g in the society kiss - in ­ discriminately kissing worldings who hap p e n to consider them­ selves their friends." George R. Brunk, Ready Scriptural Reasons (Scottsdale, Herald Press, 1954), p. 70. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 244 - The importance of minist e r i a l visiting, the most important ceremony of communion, especially at is reflected in a comment in the Herald: Communion services were observed in our church district on Saturday, December 4, with suffi­ cient m i n i s t e r s ’ help, We are truly thankful for the assistance rendered bv Bishops and m i n ­ isters from other d i s t r i c t s . 35 Social Visiting Social visiting forms strong bonds that hold the commun­ ity together. The church district can be considered a primary group characterized by frequent face-to-face contacts but soc­ ial visiting is not limited to the church district. Old Order Amish families visit all over the w ider community and travel to distant communities to visit there. Within the Amish community cliques and groups distinguished. 37 can be These groups may consist primarily of close relatives, but it is difficult to describe them solely as kinship 35 = H e r a l d . December 16, 1954, p» 7° 36. "________ is headed East on a visiting trip w h i c h will includ most of the Amish colonies in that part of the country." 37o Charles P. Loomis and J. A l l a n Beegle, Rural Social Systems (Hew York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1950), pp. 133-171= All i s o n W. Davis and John Dollard, Children of Bondage (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1940), pp. 261-62. A llison W. Davis, B. B. Gardner and M. R. Gardner, Deep South (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1941) pp° 138, 210. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 245 •Z O groups for almost all the members of the community are related.,, Although the nucleus of the clique may be formed by brothers and sisters not all the brothers and sisters are included and ge n ­ erally some first cousing and more distantly related persons are included, A g a i n although much of the v i s i t i n g is w i t h i n a two mile radius the clique group is not a n A m i s h n e i ghborhood group, for near neighbors may rarely visit one another. 39 The proportion of vis i t i n g w i t h i n the hom e district de­ pends somewhat on the lo c a t i o n of the farmstead, w h e t h e r it is located near the center of the church district or on one edge of it, and on the l ocation of brothers, sisters and. parents. In a few instances a clique may cross church lines, but this is rela­ tively rare and the non-Old Order members are usually relatives that have left the Old Order to join a n o t h e r A m i s h or Mennonite church. Even though these members are relatives they tend g r a d ­ ually to be lost from the clique. 38, See Appendix VIII, Part C for a chart giving the fre­ quency of family names. Two families may be related to one another in four ways. Thus the wives are related to each other, the husbands are related to each other and each wife is also related to the opposite husband, 39o Appendix IV, Part B has two charts that show something of the visiting patterns amon g the Old Order Amish, The families are classified in relationship to the host family, by place of residence, and by blood relationship. These two charts show that kinship, location of residence and church membership are all factors in clique formation, but that there are also other factors involved. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 246 It is sometimes difficult ial and social visiting,, to d istinguish b e t w e e n ceremon­ EVery two weeks the whole church dis­ trict gathers for a religious service and luncho The l u n c h is prescribed by custom and differs from meals that are enjoyed on purely social occasions, yet it serves m u c h the same function in tying the community together. Before and aft e r the lun c h all the church members have time to talk and gossip together,, ' "About mid-afternoon families start g o i n g home, often leaving with other families who will have supper together. of the church district is met on a social, Thus every memb e r as well as a reli­ gious, basis at least once every two weeks. The church district is characterized by frequent face-to-face contacts but w i t h i n this group and reaching out from it, are smaller clique groups. In contrast to the married members of the church who are fairly closely identified with the i r church district, the late adolescents, and to some extent all the unma r r i e d you n g people, identify themselves w i t h t h e i r age group. Older people, speaking of someone who lives in a church district on the other side of the larger community, will describe h i m with the comment, "We were in the same group as y o u n g people," mean i n g that they were in the same age class and as y o u n g people shared many gatherings t o g e t h e r . ^ 41 The young people are free to go to a w e d d i n g or singing 40. It may simultaneously m e a n that they w e r e in the same clique as young people. For they may say of another, "We didn’t know him very well w h e n we were young." 41. Adults may go to a wedd i n g only if they are specifi­ cally invited. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 247 any place in the community without any special invitation. are encouraged to visit neighboring church services. 42 They They often visit another family for the weekend in order to attend church and a singing in a n o t h e r church district and thus wid e n their circle of acquaintances. Within the group k n o w n as the young people there are also cliques. However, of their home lines these are but little affected by the loca t i o n or siblings. Usually the young people related to the degree of devoutness contrasted to the de ­ gree of rowdiness. 4 <-»!/•>4- U divide along <—»A ta /-r*4 v-. . —*« Thus one clique may predominate at a Saturday ■+* V* <—.4- 4 o -Li 1^3 4. O i i a u _LO *1 «—i -v» /-s tt m 1 "1 r~> -Vi O C U U J .a i t.tV* 4 ~i /-\ Wj.1J.XC- n v\ V-» *v> CXXl O U l i O l U 4 rin O _I_ U.O rrio t r predominate at a Sunday night singing that is slightly more re­ ligious . Among the adolescent girls there is a n institution kno w n as "heart sisters." A group of girls in the same clique have a name exchange once a year. E a c h girl draws the name of a friend and during the ensuing y e a r the girl whose name is w r i t t e n on the slip of paper is the heart sister of the girl who drew it. Each girl sends h e r heart sister mementoes during the year: birthday card, a valentine, a n Easter card. a If she should get sick she sends her get-well cards or small gifts. During the year each girl tries to guess who h e r heart sister is. Just 42. Except during their own instruction period prior to their baptism. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 248 - before the drawing at the end of the year, w h e n all the girls are gathered, each guesses who her heart sister was and everyone confesses the relationship before they draw names for the next year., The young girls enjoy the game a great deal,. It is a happy surprise when a note or a card arrives fr o m one's heart sister and the receiver enjoys puzzling over the postmark and the handwriting trying to figure out who h e r sister could be„ The heart sisters extend the horizons of the young girls and help them become acquainted with their age mates who are not close relatives and often live in another church d i s t r i c t 0 The young people take every o p portunity to t r a v e l . Sometimes they make trips with their u nofficial fiances before they are married. 43 Often a group of young people hire a car and go to another c o m m u n i t y . ^ There special singings may be held for them so that they may meet more you n g people. 43 It is customary for the boy or girl who has finished school 43o 00A89 and 00A90 with three other people went on a trip to Niagara Palls and Washington, D.C. before they were married.00A104 made a similar trip just before their marriage. "Bishop Samuel Yoder's daughter, Nancy, and Jacob K. Zook, went west on a trip prior to their marriage." John A. Hostetler, "The Life and Times of Samuel Yoder," MQR. (October, 1948), p. 239° 44. Herald. November 19, 1953, 1954, p. 1. P. 5« Herald, August 19, 45o "Some of the young folks of this church will go to — _____ to get acquainted with the girls before they leave for their homes in Ind". Herald. May 27, 1954, p. 3, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. _ The - family is careful to see that the adolescent has varied and rewarding home contacts within the community„ As he approaches his circle of friends is widened and he grows to feel maturity at 249 wherever there are other Amisho It is not only the adolescents who travel„ Within the state families visit relatives in more distant communities about three or four times a year. anotherstate, such as parents, once a year. If they have close relatives in they generally see them at least In addition, Amish people may stop in at another Amish community unannounced to visit for a few daysn Sometimes a group will hire a bus0 Tuesday a bus load from Lancaster Co., Pa., arrived in our county and stayed over night a t . David E. Millers and at our place,, They were: John F„ G-lick and daughter, Sarah, Aaron Stoltzfus, Samuel P. Lapp, Abe P. Stoltzfus, and daughter, Annie Mae, Josiah Mo Beiler, John S. Glick and wife, Katie, Mrs. Mose E, Stoltzfus, Aaron H. Glick, Aaron R. Glick, and Samuel P c Stoltzfus, all of R 1, Gap, Pa., Abe L c Beiler, Sam L. Pisher, David G„ Stoltzfus, Jacob K c Beiler, Chris K„ King, Henry K„ Beiler, .all of Kinzers, P a „ , John Ko Pisher of Rt„ 5, Lancaster, Pa., Samuel L. Pisher and wife of Gordonville, Miss Malinda Lapp of Bird-in-Hand, Daniel L„ Zook and wife. Susie and Levi S. Zook of Gordonville„46 In another place in the same issue it was stated that Mose P D Miller who put up half the bus load of twenty-nine people^Zt his home "was so surprised when they drove in at his place 46. Herald. August 12, 1954, p„ 8. 47. Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 250 AQ that he lost a year's growth0" He undoubtedly enjoyed showing them around and getting to know more Amish from another com­ munity. The same day two more car loads were visiting the community from Lancaster County, and one from Kansas,, The hosts do not mind being surprised by numerous visitors for they always manage to feed them bountifully from their well stocked cellars and to find places for them to sleep* The desirability of know­ ing in advance when brethren will arrive is that arrangements can be made for them to meet more people* One scribe writes gently: Say, dear Friends, if you come again by bus load please let us know 2 or 3 days ahead, so we can tell our friends* Just any number of men say they wished they knew you were coming so they could get acquainted with you people* Never-the-less I'm unable to tell you how glad I am that you did come*49 When the hosts are forewarned of the visit they often arrange a singing so that more people can meet the visitors* An Old Folks singing was at Enos Beachys Sun* eve for Beiler and King families which are visiting around here* They are from Paradise, pa.50 48* Herald. August 12, 1954, p. 6. 49* Ibid*. August 26, 1954, p. 8. 50* Ibid* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 251 When two couples were being driven East by my husband they decided they would like to stop in .Lancaster county as none of them had been there. It was already getting dark when they arrived, so they stopped at a country store .and inquired in which region the Amish livedo The store keeper indicated the general direction and they, started off. One of them had the address of a bishop- he had once met who lived in Lancaster county0 When they got to the Amish territory,- they drove slowly, reading the names on the mail boxes, looking for an Amish name and a house with lamps still burning. drove in. Finally they found both and The owner-ox the house came out to greet them, they introduced themselves. Then they asked the way to the home of the man they were looking for. The host said it was a few miles on, was hard to find after dark, and was so late that the bishop * would probably be in bed. instead. He .insisted that they stay with him *» So ail five climbed out and 'spent the night. The next day, after a hearty breakfast,51 they visited around the community. As is customary the hostess presented each woman with a small gift, 52 to thank her for coming. ; ..51. The breakfast included bacon, eggs, cooked cereal, fried 'mush’,* shoofly pie and coffee. 52. A tiny replica of a spinning wheel to one, a small stool for the other and a handkerchief for each. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. One evening when I was at a revival meeting with an Amish family, another Amish family came up and said, "I'm surprised to see you here, I thought you'd be home with Abe." The speaker further explained that he thought a visiting minister from another county was planning to spend the night with them. assured him they had heard nothing about it. They After talking to several other Amish for a few minutes, still another Amishman came up and queries, "How come you didn't bring Abe with you?" They too had heard he was to spend the night with my host. When we arrived home we learned from the children that the little boys had moved into the older boys' bed and the minister was asleep in the boys' room. 53 Family visits are greatly enjoyed and keenly anticipated0 On one occasion a group of five families planned to spend Sunday together. During the course of the preceding week every single member of the family, from the first grader to the father, expressed individually how much he or she was looking forward to the day. Previous to this, one of the school girls had been invited by an English child, picnic that day. (the principal’s daughter), to a She had told me about the invitation, how the principal of the school had said he would come and get her and bring her home at any time. The child obviously wanted to go, for she mentioned it to me several times, but she never said 53o The visiting minister had never been to their home before, nor had he previously met his hostess. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 253 - anything about it to her parents0 One time she told me about it in such a way that her mother would be sure to overhear, but her mother ignored her indirect request„ When, a few days later, plans were made for the Sunday gathering, the child forgot about her picnic, and frequently mentioned, with quiet anticipation, the family gathering„ Not only do nuclear families visit one another and brothers and sisters and their families gather together, but also family reunions are common,, They vary greatly in size and may only Include cousing, or they may be so large that some of the members do not know one another„ There are other types of gatherings and reunions, all of which include the families„ In Indiana there may be a gatherine of families that formerly lived in Ohio, and former members of Civilian Public Service and I-W service gather with their families for reunionso Sometimes these reun­ ions are for all those who served, and other times only for those who served in certain areas„ Some of the rural one room schools also have reunions to which former pupils, and their families, may travel hundreds of miles„ Reunions are an excuse for large numbers of nuclear families to visit together0 Another indication of the importance of the family and the interrelatedness of the kin group is the incidence of geneologieso The largest single area in which the Old Order Amish have published, or contributed to specific publications, has been in the area of R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - geneologiesc 254 - 54 Hostetler, in his Bibliography. l i s t s fifty-eight geneologies which compares to only twenty-one titles under the head "Amish Admonitory and Miscellaneous Writings." When two strange Amish meet, they begin to discover not only what acquaint­ ances they have in common, but also what relatives. A strange Amishman may visit a home in a distant community, explaining when he arrives that he is a relative of the husband's father's cousin. Immediately he is accepted as a member of the family. Most husbands and wives can explain how they are if not related, "connected", and will tell y o u their nearest co m m o n relative. Most of this knowledge is gained informally, but there are always members of the community who enjoy f ormulating it, a nd many fam­ ilies have several geneologies in t h e i r libraries. It is almost impossible for some one who has been raised in an impersonalized, urbanized environment to understand what visiting means to the Amish. It is the sole recreation. It takes the place of sports, or movies, of plays, and concerts; it re­ places restaurants and dances. Instead of settling down to a good novel or a detective story, the Amish go visiting. Visit- m g is their great and constant pleasure. 54o John A. Hostetler, Annotated Bibliography on the Amish (Scottdale, P a . : Mennonite Publishing House, 1951). : 55o The pleasure is not without obligation. Most Amish families feel that they are behind in their visiting; that there are many families whom they ought to visit, and others whom they ought to visit more often. The obligation is felt by the visitor, not by the host. Thus no Amish family feels that they should entertain more, but rather that they should leave their home oftener to go to visit others. In keeping with this attitude the gift is not given to the hostess after an over­ night visit, but to the visitor. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 255 - Channels of Communication Outside of personal visits, and verbal chains,, 56 letters and postcards are the most commonly used means of communication,, It is customary to drop a post card to the family one is going to visit on Sunday, or to send a postcard invitation to a fam­ ily that is being invited over. In spite of this, families often arrive unannounced. Some families have round nobin letters that keep going indefinitely. Round-robins may be used even when six of the eight children live within two miles of one another, and the furthest one lives ten miles away. These letters are passed on quickly and are a great help in keeping the brothers and sisters in close touch with one another. A group of friends may also form a similar letter circle. 57 Many aging parents fill much of their time corresponding with their children and grandchildren. 58 56. hews passes quickly by word of mouth from Amish farm­ stead to another. See Chapter II. If it is an important message a child may be sent to the neighbor, or one of the parents may drive over in the buggy. That neighbor in turn passes on the word. The message carrier does not dismount from the buggy to visit. Messages also pass quickly among the Amish who are marketing, or going to the doctor in Sweetwater. 57. Joe J. and Simon J. Beachy and wives attended a gettogether of circle letter pals at the Ben Coblentz home near Berlin, Ohio. Herald. September 6, 1956. 58. "In her last years, she enjoyed and spent much time writing to her /ten living/ children and /one hundred and fortytwo living/ grandchildren, always with some scriptural admoni­ tions." Herald. February 19, 1955, p» 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 256 Some invalid Amish carry on a tremendous correspondence, They 59 help disseminate news, and in turn are reassured by .the letters. Many of the adolescents engage in extensive correspond­ ence with their friends in other c o m m u n i t i e s T h e y are fre­ quently visiting or working in the various church districts, and they keep in touch with members of their age group by mailo The younger children often write to a cousin or have a pen palo A section of the Herold der Wahrheit is devoted to "Our Juniorso" In this section children under fourteen years of age write in to "Aunt Mary" and report Bible and hymn verses they have learnedo In one letter Aunt Mary explains the system.; You can learn Bible verses and religious songs, and prayer verses, and work out the pies and the Bible questions in the Jungend Abtheilung in the German part of the Herold, to get credit. You can get all kinds of religious books, birthday books, Bible games, pencils, mottoes, etc,, with your credit. If there is anything else any of you Juniors would like to know, please feel free to ask, I am here to help you and want to do what little I can with the help of God, I need your prayers, - Aunt Mary°-*- 59» One such woman commemorates her feeling in verse, "Will you, dear friend, remind me/That your love for me goes on,/ It may be just a line or two/ That’s written by your hand,/ ’Twill prove a God-sent blessing/ To cheer me on again, Sarah Weaver, Green Pastures. (Sugarcreek, Ohio, Budget Printing Office, 1951)» 60, One adolescent girl, OOA36, was taking a new job in an Old Peoples Home, She was looking forward to finishing work at four-thirty so she would have the rest of the afternoon and evening to write letters to her friends. She has been out of school two years and has a wide circle of friends all over the state, and some in distant states, 61, Aun.t Mary, "Our Juniors," HdW, March 15, 1955, p. 90, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 257 More credit is given w h e n the children memorize Germ a n verses than when they memorize English. In addition to encouraging the children to memorize religious materials, it also helps them learn to write letters according to the A m i s h form. They often ask for twins or p e n pals and thus start a correspondence wit h children in other communities. Dear Aunt Mary and All Herold Readers: Greetings in our dear Lord's name. It is really rainy down our way. We had a nice time over Christmas. I (Johnny) am 7 years old. My birthday is April 2. I (Janet) am 10 years old. My birthday is August 24. If we have a twin or someone near our age, please write. We will gladly answer. Pray for us. W i t h 'love, Janet and Johnny Miller.^^ The adults' letters generally follow almost the same pattern as the childrens' letters. The salutation is followed by a religious greeting such as St. Paul used in his e p i s t l e s . ^ This may be followed.by Scriptural quotations of v a r i o u s lengths. The body of the letter usually mentions the weather, happenings, how the family is and any visitors. any unusual The compliment­ ary close is preceded by a salutation similar to those with which St. Paul closed his l e t t e r s . ^ exactly-. The form is not followed Sometimes one of the religious salutations may be omitted or there may be no scriptural quotation. 62. HdW, February, 63. I Cor. 1:2, Gal. 1:3-5, II Cor. 1:3-5, Eph. 64. Eph. 6:23-24, The following 1954, p. 120. Phil. 4:23, II. Tim. 1:2. 4:22. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 25>8 - letter is t y p i c a l : Dear Mrs, Huntington, A friendly G-reeting in our Lords Name, Be of good comfort, thy faith hath made thee whole go in peace, Luke 8:48, Want to thank you for your Christmas card, you was so thoughtfull to think of me, I did not get to send cards to all I would have liket to. Wonder so how you and David are by this time, Hope just fine. Hope your health is good and you enjoy life. Had for our company on the 6th /Old Christmas/ Ammon Beachy’s and two sons and O r a ’s sister Sara & Family also - a few others enjoyed the day very much. Wished you were here to, I would like to cook a good meal for you and David, That may be some time if you come back to "Stoneyrun," Amanda’s children were sick last week with stomach disorders, Roman is going to _______ Hospital tomorrow for Rupture oparation, Card is full and is bed time, ans. Sincerely.°5 Letters written not to a single individual or to one family, but for the whole Amish community make up the major 66 portion of the Herald, These letters differ only slightly from the personal letters the Amish exchange. They are writrten by interested individuals in various Amish communities all over North America, 65, the only name, I and this The writers are referred to as scribes. They■ Personal correspondence, January 12, 1953° This is Amish person with whom I correspond who uses my last knew her before I became a part of the Amish community, distinction has remained, 66, See Chapter I for a general description of the Herald and its history. In 1956 the circulation of the Herald was well over 8,000, Herald, May 1956, p, 6, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 259 - rj are not paid, nor are they formally chosen,. Most of them are conscientious and submit articles regularly. One man who died in May, 1956, had written for the Herald ever since it began in 1 8 9 0 , Many of the early scribes contributed regularly until their death. Both men and women act as scribes. Several young girls who are not yet married are writing regularly, and a few boys in I-W service sporadically send in letters. The scribes' letters are referred to as "columns", even though they are usually only about forty-four lines long9 and are identified by place: 69 "the Bird-in-Hand column," y For the 70 period of one year i analyzed all xhe columns from the area of the central Ohio community, and classified the material reported by topic. This gave me a basis for determining what was news­ worthy, and what was important to the Amish, I was interested in the frequency with which each topic was mentioned, in other words, in how many different columns it was mentioned, and also the amount of space, or number of lines, devoted to it. 71 67, "The new 'Herald' scribe, Amon Allgyer for Kinzers, Pa, is my first cousin and we advise him to keep it up, as we believe thru it, new acquaintances can be made, not only in our settle­ ment, but in other Amish settlements as well. We heartily welcome him to the "Herald" family," Herald, May 19? 1955? p. 6, This statement also indicates how important in-group acquaintances are both in ones geographical regions and all over North America, 68, "Grandfather was a 'Herald' scribe from the first year the 'Herald' was printed until the few weeks before his death," Herald. June 28, 1956, p, 6„ 69, See Appendix IV, Part B for a copy 70, August 3, 1953 - July 27, 1954, 71, See Appendix IV, Part B of atypical column. for a tabulation of these R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. results. - 260 - These columns represent the interests of the Amish quite accurately, I believe,. The editor of the Herald exerts little influence over the columns„ He is anxious to please his Amish subscribers and interferes very little,, His major act has been to delete Bible quotations unless they directly and obviously are related to the subject reported„ 72 Periodically he makes pleas that the scribes include fewer reports of who visited whom, but he dare not omit this material and as can be seen, the scribes have paid little attention to his- suggestion,, About fifty-nine percent more space is devoted to visiting than to any other topic * This includes social visiting, clergy visiting church and visiting outside the state,, percent of the columns mentioned social visiting,, Pifty-five Church acti­ vities are mentioned in seventy-two percent of the columns and seventeen percent of the space is devoted to these activities,, The only items mentioned more frequently than visiting or church activities, were items having to do with agriculture and economics073 Seventy-three percent of the columns mentioned these topics and twelve percent of the space was devoted to it„ An­ other twelve percent of the space was devoted to reports of 72o "A correspondent asks why we refuse to print scripture quotations in news letters. . . . " Editors Corner, Herald. April 16, 1953, P. 6. 73o This includes items such as barn raising, and who is working for whom. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 261 - "birth, weddings, deaths and funerals* Sixty-two percent of the columns mentioned these demographic changes«, Reports of health, illness or accidents accounted for another twelve percent of the space and were mentioned in fifty-eight percent of the columns* Although comparatively little space was devoted to the weather, six percent, it was mentioned in seventy-one percent of the col­ umns* There is little discussion of theology or ideas, and al­ most no effort is made by the scribes to influence their readers5 opinions. The columns report briefly and factually items that are of most interest to the Amish community,, They notify the readers where the different church districts will hold church services, where the young people’s singings and relief sewing will be held, and who will be host for German reading* They report on agricultural conditions and sales and the weather* The rest consists of details of many individual's activities: who is born, baptized, married and dead; who is sick or has had an accident; who is working for thorn; who is visiting whom; who is having a barn raising, and who is moving* 7A Most of the Amish in Ohio subscribe to the Herald* It keeps them informed on national and local laws that may effect them: the draft laws, social security and school attendance regulations. And by reading the various columns they can see 74. See Appendix IY, Part B for the circulation of the Herald by state. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 262 - how other Amish communities have ,met these same problems,, Herald serves as a channel for buying and selling,, The Through its classified advertisements are sold buggy and surreys, driving horses and shoats, kerosene irons and old stoves, honey and cider, pick-it-yourself fruit and innumerable items, large and small, that are used in Amish living,, Herald In the columns of the appear repeated warnings not to be misled by specific men who prey on the naivete of the Amish. Thus the readers are 7 fs warned against men posing as state inspectors, men selling furniture and food at exorbitant prices,77 and against men who pose r~f/—\ as solicitors for various religious causes , lc> The columns of the Herald are used to exchange personal messages and to locate lost acquaintanceso 79 The Herald enables individuals to keep in touch with de­ tailed happenings in distant communities and with fellow church men all over North America. own publication 80 Although it is not strictly their it is the most important periodical in the Amish community. 75° "Rc C. B a h l e r o f 'S t o n e y r u n * a d v e r t i s e d a u s e d s i n k a n d it was sold b e f o r e w e w e r e h a l f t h r u t h e p r e s s r u n o f t h a t issue and c o u l d h a v e s o l d h a l f a d o z e n s i n k s . " H e r a l d . M a r c h 19. 1953, p. 6. S ee t h e s a m p l e s o f a d v e r t i s e m e n t s A p p e n d i x IV, Part B. 76. A p r i l 17, 19 5 2 , 77. F e b r u a r y 12, 78. A u g u s t 27, 79. M a r c h 19, 80. T he p. 6. 1953. 19 5 3 , 195 3 , p. p. 6. 6. editor and p u b l i s h e r is a Lut h e r a n . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 263 - The next most important publication for the whole North American Amish community has been the Herold der Wahrheito The 81 history of the Herold der Wahrheit can be sketched most succinctly in the words of A. J. Beachy, president of the Amish Mennonite Publishing Association and shining light and guiding hand of the Herold der Wahrheit, In 1910 or thereabouts, some 10 or 12 Old Order Amish Mennonite brethren became very much inter­ ested in starting a publication among our brother­ hood to awaken more interest and talent in spiri­ tual activities, such as relief, missions and in­ doctrinating our youth in the peace principles which our church has stood for, for centuries0 Through correspondence it was decided to form an association. Several meetings were held in the vicinity of Kalona, Iowa, and in Jan. of 1912 the first issue came off the press, printed at Elkhart, Ind., with Eli J. Bontreger of Exeland, Wis., as editor, and S. D. G-uengerich of Wellman, Iowa as Secretary-Treasurer. Guengerich, who was the Manager and also serving as editor for a number of years, passed on in 1929, in his 9 0 's. Bontreger, and Old Order Amish Bishop, still active, now in his 90's, lives near Shipshewana, Ind. It was part German and part English right from the start. In 1920 the Association was incorporated under the laws of the State of Iowa, with 5 members on a publication Board, who were Old Order Amish and Conservative Amish-Mennonite brethren. J. B. Miller a Conservative Minister of Grantsville, Md., was appointed as editor of the English part and served acceptably for many years. 1. A. Miller of Arthur, 111., was German editor and from 1930 on was manager for many years, or as long as health 81. The Amish Herold der Wahrheit should not be confused with the earlier Mennonite journal of almost the same name. "Der .qerold der Wahrheit. edited by John P. Punk, was published in an<^ German. It was published in Chicago from 1864 to 1867, and then moved to Elkhart, Indiana. The Last German edi­ tion appeared in 1901 and the last English issue in 1908 when it was combined with the Gospel Witness to appear as the Gospel Herold,," Melvin Gingerich, The Mennonites in Iowa (Iowa City, lowa: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1939), p. 382„ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 264 - permitted. The Herold has had its ups and downs9 and because of opposition from within the church, it has failed to reach the number of homes it was expected to. For a number of years the Conservative Brethren advocated doing away with the German lan­ guage altogether. And failing in this they decided to withdraw their support from our publishing in­ terest. They as a Conference asked the Old Order Brethren to take over the full responsibility. In 1954 arrangements for a full transfer were made. Another Amish-Mennonite Group, quite generally known as the "Beachy" Amish have since, from various sections, given evidence of being willing to give the Herold their full support in a number of ways. As you have probably noticed, the size of the Herold was reduced last year, because of financial difficulties. This situation cannot be improved much -until our subscription list increases consider­ ably. We ask all our friends to help towards this end, and crave an intez'-est in your prayers. . At t h e A m i s h M i s s i o n plained t h a t because the the Conference i n 1955.* A. J. B e a c h y e x ­ Amish Mennonite Publication Board was "Old" M e n n o n i t e s suspended their last formed German period!- O'? cal. The founders felt the need of a German publication for the Amish. During the early years of the periodical it was sponsored solely by the Old Order Amish who then invited the Conservative Amish to join them. In spite of the convictions of the founders, A. J. Beachy reported that the language problem has been a matter of continual concern almost from the beginning.^ 82. Personal Correspondence, July 26, 1 9 5 5 o 83. Eli J. Bontreger, Daniel E. Mast, L. A. Miller and several others. 84. "Remembrances from Conference," Witnessing. SeptemberOctober, 1953, p. 4. --------- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 265 - This history is continued, perhaps concluded, with "A Special Notice" in the June 15, 1956 edition* In view of the present situation of costs ex­ ceeding income, due to increased printing costs and a reduction in the number of subscribers*®5 We find it necessary to suspend publication of the Herold der Wahrheit, for the time being* We, the Board, assembled at a special meeting on this 15th day of May, 1956, regret that this action becomes necessary in order to avoid going deeper into debt, A plan to resume publication as soon as possible is still in the development stage* So if you do not receive the July 1st issue, or it may be a number of issues, you may rest assured that we are putting forth every effort to resume publication as soon as possible* We sincerely thank those of you who have helped us with freewill offerings in this period of financial stress, and we hope that very soon such assistance will not be necessary* We deeply appreciate your co-operation and forbearance, and implore your prayers and counsel to the end that our God and Father, and His Son Jesus Christ may be praised and glorified* Suggestions will be welcome* The Publication Board: A* J* Beachy, Pres* Kalona, Iowa* During the five years I have subscribed to the Herold der Wahrheit it has been fighting a losing battle* erous pleas from the editors for material, 86 There were num- especially original material, but even selected material was requested* Sometimes 85* December, 1954 the circulation was about 2500 paid subscriptions* HdW, December 15, 1954, p. 635o July, 1956, it was between 1800 and 1900. Herald. July 12, 1956, p* 7o 86* HdW. June 15, 1952, p* 361; July 1, 1953, P° 403; November !5, 1953, p. 688, December 1, 1953, p. 706-7, December 15, 1953, P° 739; January 1 5 , 1954, p. 45, February 15, 1954, Po 54, June 1, 1954, p. 323, October 15, 1954, p* 562* The list is incomplete* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 266 - Many of those who are in sympathy with its views do not read German well enough to struggle through it. Added to this, the aura of rejection that still clings around it discourages many individuals from making the effort to read the German, Another member of the Stoneyrun community, an Amishman who things deeply about the problems of the church, and who knows German well enough to teach it at the German Readings, apologized that he could not write an article in High German,, The source of German articles is drying up as High German is lost„ When the Conservatives withdrew their support of the Herold der wahrheit„ many Conservative families cancelled their subscriptions and the Herold der Wahrheit was in dire financial straitSo (The Beachy church has less than half the membership of the Conservatives)o Finally, the new publication Witnessing has somewhat usurped the position of the Herold der Wahrheit, After it became financially impossible to have the Herold der Wahrheit printed in Scottdale, Pennsylvania, the SecretaryTreasurer of the publication board, Enos H, Miller of Kalona, Iowa, began printing it privately on his Vari-Typer Composing Machine„ He and his wife, with the help of some volunteers, have been printing and addressing the Herold der Wahrheit, Although some issues have been a little late, not a single issue has O Q been missed, A new plea was made for the original material, 89., Apparently the Herold der Wahrheit, like Witnessing, in the German section, will publish only articles written by Old Order Amishmen (or selected articles by individuals who were never Amish) , At least neither Noah Keim nor Andrew A, Miller wrote for the German section of the Herold der Wahrheit after they left the Old Order, July 15, 1956, p, 210, "Scheinbar waren unsere Schreiber auch auf die Meinung dasz die Er~ scheinung von dem Herold aufhoere'n wird mit Nr, 12 fuer ein ^eitlang," Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 267 and one scribe in the Stoneyrun Herald suggested that each church take a collection for the Herold der Wahrheit to pay the deficit and keep it going. 90 At the time the publication of Herold der Wahrheit was taken over by Enos H. Miller (July 1, 1956) s there were between eighteen and nineteen hundred subscribers; Raymond Wagler was the editor of the German section, Ervin N. Hershberger of the English. The Herold der Wahrheit certainly does not have strong support in the Old Order Amish community. Almost every mention I have heard of it was accompanied by mild criticism and many subscribers do not read it thoroughly. j -P -P 4 4- -I ~ ~ d i i i i C u i u i c o laC cu . uj 4-"U^ o n e TJ~ *1 A ucxui.u. u c i A- yvct ux i j l o - l o «-> a i c The increasing ~ ^ ^ ~ A3 C a u o c u ^ ^ 4- n u o only by the rising costs of printing, but also by the fairly rapid loss of high German that limits both the readers and the authors. Its days would appear numbered unless there is a change in policy and it should merge with Witnessing. In almost every Amish home in central Ohio is found Der Neue Amerikanische Calendar. This calendar is published by Johann R&ber, an Old Order Amishman of Baltic, Ohio. As well as the typical material that appears in most almanac s ^ i t gives 90. July 12, 1956, p. 1. 91. Bor each month the two German names are given, plus a summary of the weather and a short statement of the qualities of people born under that particular zodiac sign. For each day the holiday or nameday, the time of rising and setting of the sun and moon, the place and age of the zodiac is given. In the introductory part of the calendar are listed the eclipses of the sun and moon, the ember days, the four seasons, chronological eras and cycles, the planets, moveable church holidays, church days and holidays, the centennial calendar, and an explanation of the signs and symbols used in the calendar. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 268 - a listing of the Scripture readings and hymns to be sung at the various Amish church services throughout the year, with places to fill in where church was held, who had the different parts of the service, and the time church "was out." Through the cal­ endar run a series of articles of a religious or practical nature interspersed with poems. 92 At the end of the Calender is a Ministers’ List which gives the bishops, ministers, and deacons for each Amish church district in North America with the date of birth and ordination of each official. The Calender also lists the Hutterian Brethren ministers in the Western Hemisphere and England, and the Mennonite preachers in Mexico. This is followed by a price list of German and English books sold by J. A. Raber. The most important aspect of the Calender is the service manual which is followed by the various Old Order Amish 93' churches in Ohio. ^ Order. Raber’s Calender is conservatively Old He is not trying to introduce any new ideas as are the Herold der Wahrheit and Witnessing. As well as the publications, there is mimeographed mat­ erial that circulates among the Old Order Amish. Occasionally an Old Order Amishman will take it upon himself to make a 92. 1952: "Aug. Herm, Frankens Bericht wie man die Hailige Schrift lesen sol," "Einige Worte bezfiglich auf das Missionswerk," "Luthers Grundsatze fiber die Kinderzucht," "Zum Danksagungstage Weihnachts Lied" 1953: "Liebe." 1954: "Betrttbte Wittwen schiitten ihr Herz vor Gott aus," "Gesang," "Neujahr Gesang, " "Man kann doppelt sparen," "Nachsicht mit Eindern," "Der aufrienden Baiter," "Woher die Hundstage ihren Namen haben, " "Die Erbschaft," "Recept ffir die Houshalturng," "Etwas ffir Aberglaubige," "Herbst-Gruss," "Die Betze iiber das Loos der Weiber," "Zum Danksagungstage," "Weihnachten. " 93. This list is also published separately. See Appendix II. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - directory.^ 269 - For 1953, 1954, 1955 and 1956, such a directory has heen made for the central Ohio Amish churches that commune together. 95 It lists the bishop, ministers and deacon for each church district and the name and address of ifhe family heads. Unmarried church members are not listed unless they have a home of their own and apparently will never marry. The forward to the directory states: The purpose of this book is to familiarize the /Amish/ people with the Amish settlement, as to how many families there are in each district, their addresses, and the ministerial body of each district. In a letter the compiler further explained i t : The map was primarily made for visiting ministers of other states to acquaint them with our congrega­ tions which they find helpful in traveling from 1 district to another.96 94. H. N. Troyer, Ohio Amish Directory ^Millersburg, Ohio* 95. Ervin Gingerich, Ohio Amish Directory, op. cit. In 1956 he added a second volume to his directory. This volume included the King and Stutzman churches and all the Old Order Amish churches in Ohio that are outside the central Ohio community. 96. Personal correspondence, October 12, 1953. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 270 - During the late forties a Catholic factory worker became acquainted with two Amish bishops. When he expressed an inter­ est in joining the Amish they pointed out that he did not know German, and directed him to the Mennonite Church, where he be­ came a member. % He soon learned that most of the leaders of the Amish church were opposed to active mission work,- which grieved his heart, as he was pointed to the way of salvation by them - the Amish.°7 He felt called upon to do something about this and in 1952 he wrote, "/"~I would/give you an Idea of the Struggle I have waged Q O (with God as the leader & director) to awaken the Amish Churches." At first he sent mimeographed -letters to every minister, bishop and deacon in the United States. These six page letters were replaced in 1952 by a mimeographed bulletin at first called Amish Mission Endeavor Bulletin and then (after October 1952) called Mission Endeavor Bulletin. Beginning with the September- October 1954 issue, it was called the Amish Mission Endeavor. It was sent free to every minister and to any other member of the Amish faith who requested it, 99 the expenses being defrayed by 97. Herald. April 9, 1953, p. 6. 98. Personal correspondence, November 9, 1952, from R. Maniaci. 99. "Notice to all Amish Christian Believers - (regardless of branch). The July issue of the Mission Endeavor Bulletin has such articles as, ’Why do Churches Drift into the World’, 'Denominational Confusion', 'Question of the Hour’, and other interesting items. Profitable to read. Mail 4 names and addresses for 4 free copies, to the Mission Endeavor Bulletin, 522 E. Indiana, Elkhart, Indiana." Herald. October 8, 1953, p. 8. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 271 the editor and freewill offerings., ceived, even as a gift. - However, it was not well re­ Most of the Old Order Amish do not be­ lieve that their church should participate in active mission work; and they did not like an outsider running their affairso10^ All issues after the May 1953 issue had printed just over the address, ally, "Please do not tear this until you have read it." Fin­ in the August 5, 1954 Herald appeared a small notice. To all Amish Christian Believers - who have received the Mission Endeavor Bulletin: - Due to lack of finances, this publication is indefinitely suspended until contribution will make it possible to resume publications. If you want it continued, mail your contribution to „ . There was apparently sufficient response to this notice to enable the Amish Mission Endeavor to appear sporadically. Between September, 1954 and July, 1956 there have been five issues. In the last issue Maniaci stated that the account was overdrawn $73.07 and that the "AMISH MISSION ENDEAVOR is published quarter­ ly whenever it is financially possible. The only source of in- come is from your free will offerings . . . " 102 100. This feeling was prevalent. Those sympathetic to the mission work being performed by the Old Order Amish squeezed R. Maniaci out of the Mission Conference by conducting it in Pennsylvania Dutch. One of the .Herald Scribes explained that, "since the last conference R. Maniaci has nothing to do with it anymore, and it is entirely under the supervision of Amish Brethren." Herald. April 9, 1953, p. 6. For a further dis­ cussion of the mission movement see Chapter VIII. 101. Herald. August 5, 1954, p. 8. 102. January - February - March, 1956, p. 12. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 272 Maniaci is having a diminishing influence on the Amish. He is not of the "chosen generation" and yet he is trying to challenge their customs. 103 Another, much more successful, mimeographed publication came into existence in 1953® It was started by a group of Old Order Amishmen and produced by an Amishman in Ohio who had a small bookstore and a mimeograph machine. written or selected by Old Order Amish. All the articles were It was most fully des­ cribed in the third number: WITNESSING-. A by-monthly mission paper published by the Mission Interests Committee with tire pur­ pose of making known the Gospel of Jesus Christ to all mankind, with a special emphasis on person­ al work. Subscriptions, changes of address, and correspondence should be addressed to the secre­ tary, David L. Miller, Partridge, Kansas. Mater­ ial for publication should be sent to the editor, Harvey Graber, Goshen, Ind., Rt. 1. Distribution of this paper is free as the Lord provides. Mission Committee: Andrew A. Miller, Holmesville, Ohio, chairman; Daniel H. Beechy, Goshen, Indiana, vicechairman; Eli Helmuth, Hutchinson, Kansas, treas­ urer; David L. Yoder, Kalona, Iowa.104 With the September, 1955 issue, iodical and since January, 1956, W i t n e s s i n g became a m o n t h l y per­ it ha s b e e n prin t e d p r o f e s s i o n ­ ally. 103. For further discussi o n of M a n i a c i see Chapter VIII. 104. July, August, 1953- W. W. W a g l e r was the c o ntributing editor. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 273 - Although Witnessing reflects the concerns of only one segment of the Old Order Amish church, it is truly an Old Order publication. It is the only publication that the Old Order does not share with another group. The editorial board is strict in observing certain traditions or regulations of the church. Thus when the former chairman of the Mission Interests Committee of the Amish Church and the producer of the first issues of Witnes­ sing, was put under the ban for joining the Conservative Church, members of the staff severed all connection with him. His articles were not published, and his subscription to Witnessing stopped abruptly. He commented with considerable feeling that they no longer would have anything to do with him. In December, 1955, Witnessing was being sent to approx105 imately fifteen hundred Amish homes; the first few issues in 1956 were sent as an introduction to approximately six thousand Amish addresses. 106 The producers attempt to send copies of their paper only to families who indicate that they want it. The influence of Witnessing has been growing, but iir represents only the opinions of a small segment of the Old Order Amish in America. A larger number of different Amishmen (and women) have written for Witnessing since it started than for the Herold der 105. Witnessing. December, 1955, p. 7. 106, See Chapter VIII for further discussion of Witnessing, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 274 - Wahrheit during the last three years, hut Witnessing is also having the problem of too many articles w r i t t e n by the same per­ son. Witnessing appears to be fill i n g a need within the commun­ ity, but it is still too early to determine ho w long it will sur­ vive . Occasionally an individual Amishman will bring out a mimeographed bulletin, or a small printed periodical "that has a rather haphazard distribution. tend to be atypical Amishmen. The producers of such publications The man who published Amish Christ­ ian Fellowship Bulletin~*~^eft the Old Order Amish Church three years later. The man who published Der Schmale Weg was formerly a Mennonite who joined the Old Order Amish. At the present time his is the only Old Order Amish family in Mexico. Publica- 1 A O tions such as these have little influence. A final and rather specialized type of communication among the Amish should be mentioned: tracts and small publications that are little larger than tracts. These leaflets address themselves to a variety of concerns and may be answered by other printed tracts. Thus C. J. Schlabach of Hubbard, Oregon, wrote a tract on Bann and Shunning. It was answered by N. Stoltzfus 107o One issue, 1952. The producer commented that he had discontinued it for the time being. "Perhaps when I retire from farming I'll start it up again." 108. As further comment on the language problem, John Martin has recently received requests to print Der Schmale Weg m German. Herald. August 30, 1956, p. 2. 109. C. J. Schlaback, Bann and Shunning, ^Hubbard, 0re_.7 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 275 - of Piketown, Ohio wi t h a tract An A n s w e r to C, J„ Schlabach regard­ ing Shunning. Tractors, Autos, and Elect r i c i t y ^ 10 Schlabach res­ ponded with Banning and S h u n n i n g , Revi s e d o 111 A n o t h e r important topic is courtship. ing. Various recent tracts have condemned bun d l ­ Others w a r n against p r o g r e s s i m a g e s ^ ^ a n d Tracts often contains accounts of dreams, and other admonitions. -Biblical teachings. 119 117 idolatry'}1 '* death bed w a r n i n g s 110 Some tracts discuss the Bible "11 R and Others commemorate specific events or 110. N. Stoltzfus, An Answer to C. J. Schlabach regarding Shunning. Tractors. Autos, and Electricity. (Martin Printers, nT r - - QcLluu ouy, a -_i_ AfK*, n A r ’n V r ' 111. C. H. Schlabach, Banning and Shunning, Revised. (Hubbard, Ore.). 112. D. J. Stutzman, A Call to Repentance (Millersburg, Ohio: 1955). Ervin Hershberger, Devotional Covering and Immoral Court ship (printed'by John W. Martin, Est. Manuel, Tamps. Mexico, 1956). This is apparently a reprint of two articles that appeared in the Herold der Wahrheit. January and February, 1937. R. C„ W„, The Dark Tribulation and Falling Away(Saint Joe, Ark.: Martin Printers). 113. Sanford G-. Shetler, Progress (No place, no publisher, no date). 114. David Wagler, What About Images? (Saint Joe, Ark: Martin Printers)(written at Piketon, Ohio). 115. C. J. Schlabach, Ancient and Modern Idolatry (No place, no publisher, no date). 116. Barbara Stutzman, Die Qffenbarun der verstorbenen Barbara Stutzman an alle Menschen (Saint Joe. Ark.: MartinPrinters). John W. Martin, Abomination of Desolation (Saint Joe, Ark.: Martin Printers). Eil T. Hochstetler, Eine wichtige Erfahrung (Mesopotamia, Ohio). Vision and Prophecy (Selected by J. A. Raber, Baltic, Ohio: J. A. Raber. 117. Johann W. Martin, G-ottes Bild und Ehre (Martin Printers, ^oe’ Ark.). Johann W. Martin, Ninive. Eine Stadt G-ottes. Rnd Ihre Zerstreuung (Martin Printers, Saint Joe, Ark.). R5 C7 lckey, Nineveh. City of God is Dashed in Pieces (cont’d next page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - people. 120 276 - These tracts have a fairly wide circu l a t i o n among the Ohio Amish and contribute to the common fund of knowledge. 121 With the exception of R & b e r ’s C a l e n d e r , b o t h the published and mimeographed communications of the Old O r d e r Ami s h tend to represent the attitudes of those who are p u s h i n g at the bound­ aries and attempting to instigate various changes. They repres­ ent individuals who have be e n more greatly influenced by other Protestant denominations than is characteristic of the majo r i t y of the Old Order Amish. Most of the Old Order A m i s h continue on conservatively, forming their opinion in the council meetings of their own congregation, schaft. and i n discussions w i t h the Freund- They are little influenced by publications. 117. (co n t ’d from prev. page)( M a r t i n Printers, Saint Joey Ark., 1953). This is a transl a t i o n of the p r e c e e d i n g tract to vfhich has be e n added "The Contented Farmer and the Horse: The Discontented Farmer and the Tractor." Jacob' A. Miller, Vermahnungs Schreiben An seine Kinder ( H o l m e s v i l l e , Ohio: A. A. Miller, 1949). W o n ’t God Like M e ? (Martin Printers, Saint Joe, Ark. Selected by L, B. Tract Service, Atmore, Ala.). 118. N. Stoltzfus, Saint Joe, Ark., 1953y. The Two Testaments (Martin Printers, 119. Three tracts by D. J. Stutzman of Millersburg, Ohio. The Second C o m i n g . Why I Want to Co to H e a v e n , The Song; of Death. N. Stoltzfus, D i s c i p l i n e . 120. Henry Swartzendruber, The Tale of Doris Dean (John W. Martin, Est. Manuel, Tamps. M e x i c o . ), w r i t t e n in Millersburg, Ohio. C. S. Miller, History of Bishop Moses J. M i l l e r of Plolmes County. D. J. Stutzman, In Memory of our Beloved Wife and Mother. Frances H. Stutzman /Millersburg. Ohijo/. D3 Jh S t u t z m a n , Memoriam (Millfirshurg, O h i o ) . Memorials are often printed aft er a person dies and given to members of the family and friends. Usually they are quite short, consisting only of one page or one side of a fairly large card. 121. Various tracts that are not of A m i s h origin are also circulated by Old Order Amish individuals.. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. = 277 - Despite the pr o h i b i t i o n against the telephone the A m i s h have a suitable system of comm u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n the central Ohio community, and among all the Old Ord e r Amish. by verbal chains, They communicate through post cards and letters, t h r o u g h the columns of the H e r o l d . and to a l e s s e r extent by means of tracts, the Herold der W a h r h e i t . and the n e w perio d i c a l W i t n e s s i n g . Economic Interaction The central Ohio Ami s h community is knit t o g e t h e r not only by ministerial visiting, social v i s i t i n g and the w r i t t e n word, but also economically. It is a community of consu m p t i o n tied together by patterns of employment, sharing of capital and mutual a i d . C o m m u n i t y C^n^umjot.jLo.n In order to exist, strong economic base; hold its children. 122 the Old O r d e r A m i s h church must have a it must rem a i n isolated; These and it must essen t i a l s for the conti n u a t i o n of the church can best be achieved by farming. the Amishman does not farm to make money; Unlike worldly people he makes m o n e y so that he can farm and support himsel f an d his family with the m i n i m u m of interference from the world. A l t h o u g h many y o u n g A m i s h m e n 122. See Chapter I for a d e s c r i p t i o n of basic attributes of their economy. A descripti o n of t h e i r phys i c a l environment, agricultural system, present land holdings, market towns and farmsteads. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 278 - begin their economic life worki n g for wages or in some occupation r e l a t e d to farming, the ambitio n of m o s t of them is to own a farm.^^^ Even those who have greatly enjoyed their previous occupation, are willing to give it up because far m i n g is bet t e r for the family., A m a n cannot be a good hus b a n d and fat h e r if he goes away from home wife and children, each day. As a farmer he is always n e a r his ready to care for them and help them. Great sympathy is expressed for the w o m e n whose husbands wo r k away from home. And such a woman's life is h a r d e r th a n average, for usually the father cares for the p r e - s c h o o l children who are more than twenty-four m o n t h s old, duri n g the morning, an d leaves the m o t h free to care for the baby and attend the hous e h o l d chores. In Stoneyrun most of the you n g m e n who are not doing farmwork, work in the brickyards. This is considered heavy, un ­ desirable work, but is tolerated because the pay is fairly good and the money earned can be u s e d toward b u y i n g a farm. the men mine coal, w h i c h is also dirty but profitable. A few of 124. One of the reasons these occupations are so disliked is that a m a n is not his own boss. He must wor k for a n o t h e r man, be controlled 123. "Most A m i s h end up on the farm to be n e a r ho m e w i t h their family. That's the best way to live y o u know." OOA45 A community involving a commun i s m of p r o d u c t i o n or consumption was a characteristic of the early Anabaptist. P. H. Littell The Anabaptist V i e w of The Church (American Society of Church History, 1952), p. 59. 124. 00A89 said he earned $23.00 a day m i n i n g coal. At the same time he was running a 69 acre fa r m w i t h no help other than that furnished by his sons, the oldest of w h o m was nine. i R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - by a clock 125 279 - and cannot arrange his work so he can visit a sick relative, attend a wedding or help his wife with the canning,, An outside boss and a ruling clock interfere with his role as a husband, father and community m e m b e r . Quite a few of the young m e n work as carpenters for sev­ eral yearso This is considered good training for a farmer, who usually has considerable carpentry wor k to do around the house and barn. Generally the carpenter gangs are Amish, English member who owns and drives the truck,, with one This means that the working program is more flexible than it is f or m e n who are employed in the brick yards or coal mines. The whole carpentry gang can arrange its work to participate in community activities such as barn raisings and funerals. member of the gang to miss work, lities, for the boss of the gang, It is also easier for a because of family responsibi­ being Amish, basically feels that a man's obligation to his family comes above his obligation to his job. Unless a carpenter reaches the place where he can have a home shop he generally gives up carpentry for farming by the time he has two children. carpentry to farming, wife farm. but it One m a n said he m u c h oreferred was not nice for his family. His added that she was m u c h happ i e r now that he was on the 126 Another woman described the difficult days after they 125. This feeling harkens bac k to the time of the early Anabaptists. Time as measured by clocks and years in this world has little meaning and one's only m a s t e r should be Christ. "...as time is telescoped betw e e n their groups back to the 'Age of Heroes', so it is shortened b e t w e e n them and the end of history. . .When asked their trade and location in court many replied, 'no M a s t e r ’ (kein vorsteer), for in the Hew Age only Christ was Master. And an economy had been introduced in whi c h all were equal and all were to share to need." (cont'd next page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 280 - were first married w h e n h e r husband traveled around the state with a carpenter gang. 127 The wife of the black s m i t h was very- pleased when her husband sold the shop and they moved to a 1 po farm where he would not have to be away all day. Most of the men in the Stoneyrun church have done some other work tha n farming during part of their life. Those m e n who continue to be employed in non-agricultural pursuits generally do considerable farming on the side. Their wives have a garden and a patch that is large enough to produce the vegetables eaten by the family during the year. They usua l l y have one to three cows, and of course a buggy horse is essential. They often have a few chickens and p o s s i b l y a couple of hogs. With some men it is difficult to determine w h e t h e r mor e of their income comes from the farm or from their outside employment. Men who hold down a job other th a n farming the g r e a t e r part of the year, I have listed u n der that source of income, even though they make more money on the farm. Those that did not w o r k side the farm, or w o r k only during the slack farming season, listed as farmers. out­ are Of the forty-nine m e n who were family heads in the Stoneyrun Church in 1954, thirty-one were farmers. Of these, twenty-six were general farmers and five were specialized 125. (cont'd fr o m prev. page) Franklin H. littell, The Anabaptist View of the C h u r c h . (American Society of Church History, 1952), p. 60. 126. 00A23 and 00A24. 127. O O A 2 6 .• 128. 00A108. She works harder now that th e y are on a farm, but she is happier and feels that it is a good life. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - farmers. 281 One general farmer also sells lime and the specialized farmers do a considerable amount of gen e r a l farming. family heads are not primarily farmers. Sixteen Two of these are retired 129 farmers who continue t h eir f o rm e r non-fa r m i n g profession, their land is being farmed by a son. Nine of the m e n wor k in the brick yards, two work for the coal mines, and one works as a hired hand. was not definitely determined. while two are carpenters The o c c u p a t i o n of two family heads 180 Many of the farms of the central Ohio A m i s h are not com­ pletely self-sufficient in themselves. There is a n e w but g r o w ­ ing tendency towards specializa t i o n on the family farm. However, of the thirty-one farms r u n by members of the S toneyrun Church district, only five of th e m could be called specialized farms, and even these show a great deal more d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n t h a n is characteristic of most specialized farming. The first farmers to specialize started raising turkeys in 1942. few years they each had a very small flock, and continued to be . general farmers who raised turkeys on the side. tion to specialized farming has b e e n gradual. is still the accepted way, F o r the first The i r tran s i ­ G-eneral farm i n g a n d is foll o w e d by the more conservative 129. The profe s s i o n they followed before they started to farm and in these two cases continued oh a supplementary basis during the years they did farm. 130. One of these m e n works in the brick yard, and also has a truck farm. I do not k n o w what p e r c e n t a g e of the y e a r he is employed outside this farm. The other m a n is^ I believe, a hired hand. See Appendix I, Part C f o r chart g i v i n g occupa­ tions. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - memberso 282 - The specialized farmers take a great deal o f " k i d d i n g " from the general farmers. They in t u r n tease amo n g themselves to help bolster t h e i r confidence that t h e i r sp e c i a l i z a t i o n is all right. The wives of the specialized farmers s ometimes worry that their husbands are not farming as the i r fathers did, wonder if this new way can be right. and Most of the specialized farmers in the Stoneyrun church district seem to be p r o s p e r i n g and this they take as an indication that the Lord is bles s i n g them. An effort is made to keep the community, on a self-sufficient basis. have its own fruit orchard, if not the farm, A l t h o u g h each A m i s h f a r m does not there are A m i s h m e n who speci a l i z e 1 -^1 in various kinds of fruits and church members buy from them what they need. The same thing applies to hogs, turkeys and eggs. Although the Old Order A m i s h no l o n g e r g r o w their own wheat to be ground into flour and made into bread, all their own vegetables. they still produce It never occurs to an A m i s h family to buy commercially canned foods f r o m a store.1 ^^If their g a r d e n is poor, they do wi t h less that year. 131o They are really gene r a l farmers who also have large fruit orchards. 132. Other than fruit juice. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 283 - We sure need rain0 Corn does not look so well. And garden vegetables are very, very poor. Never since we are married did we have so poor a garden. Still have a lot to be thankful for, our health! and I think there will be enough to eat too. We do have plenty of beans and tomatoes look good too.133 They will eat more beans and tomatoes and less carrots, peas and corn, filling in the menu with some of the home canned food left over from, the year before, and perhaps they will can extra fruit if it is plentiful. One family 134 was severely criticised, for it was rumored that they bought some vegetables to supple­ ment those they had raised. Economically the community of thirty-three churches is quite self-sufficient. 135 ^ The horses are shod in Amish black­ smith shops, they pull buggies made and repaired in an Amish buggy shop. The members build their houses and barns with the help of an Amish contractor, using lumber cut at an Amish lumber mill, or cut on the Amishman's own farm with a portable saw-mill owned by another Amishman. Then the building is put up by Amish carpenters and masons, and furnished by articles produced by 133. Personal correspondence, VIII 2, 1954, from 00A1. 134. 00A115. 135. In spite of this unusually well-developed self-suffi­ ciency, the Amish community is dependent on the outside world for all factory made commodities: For machinery and cloth, for shoes and hats. Their kitchen equipment is bought from stores, catalogs or traveling salesmen. They buy quite a few of their spices and most of the families buy bread. They also buy chicks, poults and usually horses as well as some of the feed for their s’*7oc^t ^ wou^ ^e possible to raise or make these within the community, but at the present time it is more economical to buy them outside the community. For a more complete dis­ cussion of the ways in which the Amish community is economically dependent on the outside world, see Chapter V. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - Amish cabinet makers,, 284 - The throw rugs on the floor are made of rags saved by the Amish housewife and woven into rugs by an Amish woman. Most of the clothes that are not made by the wife are made by seamstresses in the community„ repairs the clocks. An Amish jeweler Much of the seed is grown by Amish farmers, some of whom raise seed corn, seed wheat and clover seed. Crops may be harvested with the help of a crew of corn huskers and the Amishman who owns a threshing machine brings it over, and a gang of threshers take care of the wheat. Some families have an Amish butcher put up their meat for them, and there is con­ siderable buying of fresh foods and even some home canned foods or preserved meat within the community. There are several cider presses that press apples. The economic development of the Amish man or woman takes place within the Amish community. It is complemented by a brief sojourn of working in the world that may vary from a few weeks to a few years. The glimpse of a worldly economic system probably functions to make the developing Amishman more satisfied with work­ ing conditions within his community. The Amish boy's entrance into economic life starts early, but is very gradual. Little boys help their fathers around the farm, and boys as young as nine and ten may hire out to neigh­ bors for chores after school, or may work at a relatives for a R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 285 few weeks during the heavy farming season in the early summer. 156 There is little change in this pattern until the hoy finishes school (at sixteen). He generally works on his father's farm for a period, and when he is fully trained he may hire out to relatives, or to other Amish farmers on a full time basis. How­ ever, his father often has increased his farming operations, and so the son continues with his father where he is obviously needed. 157 works. When he hires out he lives at the farm where he There are almost no standard working hours. He starts work in the morning when the farmer rises, which may be anywhere between four o'clock and six, and he is finished when the chores are done for the evening. He is usually free from the time chores are finished Saturday morning until chore time Monday morning. 158 Until he is twenty-one, his father determines where 156. In the summer of 1955, the second son in a family of seven boys, a child of ten, OOA159, spent about three weeks on his uncle's farm "until harvest is over." Although this uncle lived two church districts distant, it was arranged that the child would see his parents at least once a week, and would spend several nights at home. The experience seemed very good for him. He was going through a rather difficult stage that was relieved by being the oldest son at his uncle's (instead of the second son at his father's), he had the feeling he was really helping and he was reassured by the tremendous welcome his family gave him on his visits home. 137. When a boy who has been working for his father starts 00 hire out, his father may decrease the number of cows he milks or reduce the number of acres planted. This expresses tangeably to the boy how much his work has contributed to the family. The expansion of farming activities to keep the sons at home is con­ sidered laudatory. "Tobe was farsighted enough to buy a bigger place than he first had, so that he and his five big, husky boys can stay out of mischief better." Herald. November 15, 1951, p° 3» 138. He receives, in addition to his room and board, care lor his clothing. One woman complained that a hired hand meant a lot of extra work because they were at the age when they were fussy about their clothes, and they always wanted their good suits cleaned and pressed each week. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 286 139 he vail work, what his age will be and receives the wage-.,-' The father usually returns some of the money to his son to be used for spending money and on clothes„ 'The amount returned varies with the economic status of the parents, as does the use of the balance, which may be spent for family expenses, or may be banked for the child. The period of working within the community is usually followed, after the young man is twenty-one, by a period of work­ ing on an English farm or in the brickyards, coal mines or as a carpenter or mason. This type of work is usually more remunera­ tive than working a.s a hired hand on an Amish farm. About the time a young man marries, or sometime during the first five years of his marriage, he returns to employment within the com­ munity, and if he can find a farm he works as a share-cropper, then as a renter, and finally buys his own land. If his father has been successful enough to have a farm to start his son on, the son may not work outside the community, but start farming immediately on one of his father's farms, usually following the pattern of share-cropper, renter, owner. He borrows enough money from his father to buy the farm from him, gradually paying his father back,"^^as he works his land. In this case the stage 139o Except when.he is in I-W service. 140. A low rate of interest is charged in order to reduce the income tax of the lender. The young people pay a small rate of interest on the money borrowed from their parents in order that the parents may deduct the amount from their income tax. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 287 - of share-cropper and renter may be greatly shortened and sometimes even omitted. 141 While a man is buying his farm, or if his farm is small, he may work outside during the slack farming season. 142 When a man retires from active farming and has turned the farm over to one of his chi]dren, he may return to cabinet making, or carpentry, or lime m a k i n g ^ ^ o n a part-time basis. The economic development of the Amish woman follows a similar pattern. The Amish girl tends to hire out at a younger age than her brother, I have talked to girls who started hiring out at eight^^and ten^^years of age. When a little girl hires out, she generally lives with the family she works for, while a 141. Although the children will eventually inherit the parents' land and money, it is considered good for them to buy the farm rather than have it given to them outright. This is supposed to encourage the habits of thrift and industry in the young couple. However, it sometimes causes resentment on the part of the young people, 00A105 rented a farm from his father in 1940 and bought it from him in 1941, 142, Ideally, the farm is owned, free by the Amishman, and is large enough and productive enough so that it takes all his time, and can bring in sufficient income so that he does not need to do any other work than farming. In reporting an acci­ dent, a Herald scribe implied that it would not have happened if the man worked full time on a farm. "Melvin is living on a farm, but evidently the farm is not big enough to take up all his time." May 1, 1952, p. 1, 143o Twenty years ago many Amish farmers made their own lime. Today there are very few Amishmen who burn lime. Most of the fertilizer used is bought from commercial firms, 144o 00A22, 00A12, When I asked 00A22 if the drawing she made was of her house, she responded "No, that's where I work," She understood clearly that she was working, and not merely living there. 145o 00A4, 00A2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 288 - little boy who hires out may work at a neighboring farm doing morning and evening chores. Until he r daughter is twenty-one, her mother makes the decision as to when and where, long she will work, and for how and the money earned is returned to her fam­ ily, who give some back for her to u se as spending m o n e y and to buy some of he r own clothes. rest is saved for her, If the family can afford it, the otherwise, as with he r brother's money, it is used for family e x p e n s e s . A b o u t is joining church, English family, the time the daughter or after she has joined, she may w o r k f o r an and a few Amish girls are allowed to be employed in various business establishments, though usually in a capacity where they will not meet many people. 147 When young children work out an effort is usually made to let them visit their homes frequently. One woman said that w h e n she became unbea r a b l y hom e ­ sick, the woman she worked for would ask her to take a plant, some other small gift to her mot h e r after school, "you don't need to come back until dark." or and w o u l d add D u r i n g the summer girls may work for relatives for a few days to a week at a time. 146. A fifteen year— old girl writes to her grade school teacher: ", „ .we have so many debts and all, we just feel we have to spare when we can. Y o u know Father is alone to earn money to support the family, wh i c h takes quite a bit of money to keep us going. And Father is quite old. Of course the girls bring money home but if just one of them works out why its not much money." 1952. One of the teachers asked his seventh and eighth grade pupils how man y of them had bank accounts oi their own. Most of the Ami s h children raised their hands. November, 1953. 147.(00A) CA6 managed the canning factory until he r marriage. fu9 Old Order Amish shortly before her marriage to join -he Conservative church to which her fianc£ belonged. The daughter of OOA94 worked in a hotel that sold liquor. She did not have contact with the patrons, but her mot h e r is criticised tor allowing her daughter to hold such a job. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 289 - The mother choses the situation carefully and the child is gently introduced to working away from home,, One child of thirt e e n told me with a radiant face, how much fu n it had been those three days her mother let her work at her a u n t ’s home, economically successful families, In the more girls do not work away from home steadily until they are about seventeen,, The first year a girl finished school h e r mother likes to have he r at home. The mother enjoys her help ano finishes h er training, her take over more of the responsibility of the home, planning and cooking the dinner, clothes. making dresses, letting such as and washing This is also the time the girl starts to date, family likes to have h e r in her own home. working away. and the She gradually starts First with neighbors or aunts for only a day at a time, then for a few days, for several weeks, then perhaps for a week. Then maybe but she returns home each weekend. Finally, she may stay away the whole working period, but she returns to the family between jobs. It is very u n c o m m o n for a girl to be away for more than two or at the most, three weeks without a visit home. Working away from home is part of a c h i l d ’s education. The only Amish woman I met who had not worked as a hired girl felt strongly that h e r education had bee n incomplete, not adverse to mentioning this fact to he r mother, that the daughter was correct, and was who admitted but at the same time explained why she had needed the child at h o m e ^ ^ Parents who have 148, This mother had never bee n ve r y well, h e r old fatherin-law lived with them and she had only this one child, whose help she had always needed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 290 children who are old enough to help are considered fortunate and they should share the i r go o d fortune w i t h members of the commun­ ity. "Tena" /a g e l / 7 is w o r k i n g at the / o l d folks/ home, and likes it. She is just any where they need her, painting, cleaning, serving, ironing and so on. This is what she prefers. H e r love for people make it easy fo r he r to enjoy it. There are around 8 to 10 other A m i s h girls w o r k ­ ing there. She also like that. I am concerned that she might be w o r k i n g too hard. She does a lot of over time work. "Marie" / a g e 1 6 / is w o r k i n g for "Atlee Yoder" they have a new baby since Thurs. Its a bo y named Myron and a v e r y pretty babv. Mar y is quiet fond of him. "Gertrude" / a g e ll/ h a d stayed at Atlees before school starts. So that M a r t h a was not alone, while Atlee worked. . . I surely miss the girls wh e n they are gone, but I guess other mother's m i ssed their daughters too w h e n they helped me. So it seems only right to help out. The girls need to lea r n that too, they like it at A t l e e s . -'-49 The Amish have found that sometimes an adolescent is h a p ­ pier and more tractable w h e n wo r k i n g away from home t h a n work i n g for his own parents. "Rachel" and "Naomi Beachy" are here . „ . O ur three oldesb girls are calling at the "M. R. Beachy" home, its sort of swapping girls not so, any way it works and kee p s p e a c e . 150 After a girl is twenty-one, She generally saves i t ^ ^ t o the mon e y she earns is hers. contribute to he r marriage, whi c h 149. Personal c orresponden c e , I X / l 2 / 5 5 . 150. Personal correspondence, II/7/54. 151. If she comes from a p o o r family who have not b e e n able to take care of her physical needs, she may spend the m o n e y on having her teeth fixed, buying glasses, and be able to save very little. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. _ 291 - typically takes place about a y e a r later. After she is m a r r i e d she never works outside the home unless she and her hus b a n d are hired as a couple by a n other Amish family, usu a l l y a relative. 152 She may go to her mother's or one of her s i s t e r ’s to help for a short time, changed. 155 but this is not h i r i n g out, as no money is ex­ After the birth of her first child a w o m a n is not em­ ployed outside h e r home at all, except in the case of a family emergency, or the death or lo n g illness 154 of h e r husband. The Amish community is self-sufficient as far as a labor supply is concerned. Only A m i s h are employed by Amish. There is a general feeling that A m i s h y o u n g people have b e e n trained to work harder than non-Amish, and that they kno w h o w to do the work and what is expected of them. I k n o w of no E n g l i s h p e r s o n (other than myself) who was w o r k i n g for a n Amish family dur i n g the time I was in the field. I h e a r d of one E n g l i s h m a n who had been employed as a hired hand. and his employers felt that to have him around, He was middle-aged, unma r r i e d it was not nice fo r their hir e d girl so they got rid of him. They also said he was 152. 00A101 and 00A102 hired as a couple to 00A1 right aft e r their marriage. O O A l ’s wife is the older sister of 00A101. The couple w ere paid $20 a month, h a l f the profit of the cash crop, and given board and room. 155. "Last M o nday I left for Ft. Wayne, where my sister met me and I didn't come home u n t i l Friday. I went out to help my parents move. They retired and mov e d in w i t h my brother Owen at Ohio." P e r s o n a l correspondence fr o m 00A10, November 5, 1953. "Daughter Susie (Mrs. ______ ) and bab y of Lafayette Ind. are here since Thurs. eve. to help he r m o t h e r get ready for church. 154. For example 00A110 who has a son and whose hus b a n d is permanently committed to a state mental instit u t i o n works as a hired girl. She keeps her son w i t h her. If the husb a n d owned a iarm the widow continues on the farm and mana g e s it wit h the help of a hired hand. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 292 very dirty. I never heard of any Eng l i s h w o m a n or girl being employed within the home. 155 Within the community there is a reciprocal pattern of em­ ployment that mitigates against the use of outsiders and strength­ ens interdependence with i n the community. A person und e r twenty-one hires out where his parents tell him to. uncles. 156 The first o bligation is usually to the child's aunts or If none of the aunts or uncl e s or brothers or sisters need him, then he may hire out to someone else. Usually it is to a family for wh o m one of his parents worked. Eor instance, if Leona worked for the Dan Stutzmans whe n she was a girl, then when Leona needs a hired girl one of the Dan Stutzman girls is supposed to come and work for her. Thus a pattrern of recipro­ city is established wi t h a difference of a h a l f ’gener a t i o n between the employer and employed. 157 A similar but less consist- ently followed pattern applies to the boys working out. 158 155. Joseph Yoder, Rosanna's Boys (Huntingdon, P a . : Y o d e r Publishing Company, 1948) mentions the E n g l i s h w o m a n who worked for his mother. I learned of one case of an Engl i s h w o m a n who worked 1/8 time for an A m i s h family. It was during World W a r II. The farmer was away in Civilian Public Service camp, as were many of the young men. Hired hands were almost unattainable. There­ fore many of the girls worked at home as hired hands, and did not hire out. This A m i s h woman, with three pre-school children and the farm to run, came do w n wi t h a skin disease that required her to keep her hands out of water, and prevented h e r milking. During this period she employed an E n g l i s h w o m a n to work part time. 156. "The letter we got today sounds as if we would get a girl of 18. If ehe does as her m o t h e r wants he r to." Personal correspondence, IX/53. 157. The ideal is only to have sisters and nieces wo r k as hired girls. "She hasn't been v e r y lucky with he r hired girls. never ^iac^ anyone work for me except one of the sisters." 0OA9O. 158. This pattern has been partially disrupted by the I-W (cont d next p a g e ) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. i S h a r i n g o. f 293 - c a p i t a l Although, the Amish, in a ttempting to restore the Early Church, developed a communism of consumption rather th a n a com­ munism of production as did the Hutterites, there are still cer­ tain elements of a communism of p roduction to he found in the Amish community. Each member is urged and helped to produce. The ordnung is slightly relaxed to help the new farmer reach a point where he will be a p roduc i n g member of the community instead of merely a w a g e - earnin g member. Money is kept with i n the community where it is either used to finance farming operations, erect farm buil d i n g or buy land. It does not leave the community to be invested i n stocks and bonds and outside business enterprises. M o n e y that is not needed 159 by the family is generally loaned at a moderate rate of interest within the brotherhood for the purchase of land. However, it is not loaned to enable a brother who has a farm to make more 158 (cont’d from prev. page) program. "One by one the boys leave us and will probably continue for some time yet, therefore, it will cause a serious shortage of m a n p o w e r on the farm." Herald . December 31, 1953, p. 3. 159. Contrary to the general opinion of their English neighbors, there is little excess capital w i t h i n the Ohio A m i s h community. The debt free family is the exception rather than the rule. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 294 - money. In other words, a successful A m i s h m a n feels duty bou n d to help a young A m ish f a rmer onto the land and to keep land from being sold outside the brotherhood, purpose, such as strip mining; or for a non-productive but he does not feel any compulsion to lend money to a farm e r to use to buy a flo c k of turkeys to raise or a herd of cattle to fatten. case, the money would enable a m a n to produce, would merely increase his income. In the first in the second it There is also the factor that a greater risk is involved in m o n e y put into animals than in money put into land. As an example of the first type of loan, young Amishman who was quite depressed, the ministers. a was talk i n g to one of In the course of the c o n v e r s a t i o n the young man mentioned that he certainly wished he had some capital, for he had heard that the fa r m next to his was b e i n g sold to the strip mine. The m i n i s t e r said, it to _______ "If y o u want that farm, m e n t i o n (naming a m e mber of the congregation) it go to the strip mines. he w o n ’t let W h e n an A m i s h m a n needs mon e y to build a new house or barn, he may b o r r o w w i t h i n the community or outside it. Wh e n he needs money for a commodity such as beef cattle or turkeys or chickens, he u s u a l l y borrows from outside the church, from a bank or ev e n fro m the government .-^1 160. OOA25. 161. See Chapter V for a d i s c u s s i o n of the A m i s h and g o v e rn ­ ment loans. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 295 The Amish community credit system, a l t h o u g h insufficient to cover all types of borrowing, is of tremendous importance to the stability of the community,, Extra mon e y stays w i t h i n the community and even w i t h i n the community it is only invested in certain ventures. Thus the money is rarely lost, with added interest, but continues, to circulate w i t h i n the community, bei n g used and reused to add more land and more homes to the church. Even the informal restrictions on b o r r o w i n g w i t h i n the community are probably salutary and help protect the community fro m over­ dependence on the national b u si n e s s cycle. and to some extent buildings, As money for land, comes from w i t h i n the community, bank failures and business failures do not force A m i s h families off the land, nor are there any f o r eclosures w h e n a deb t o r is unable to pay his brother. In the case of severe illness or di s ­ aster, the community cares for its own w i t h outright gifts, the family does not have to bor r o w for these needs, so n o r does the family head fear that the b r o t h e r who holds the mortgage will insist on prompt payments. Short loans made to finance special crops are more hazardous, as they largely depend on the success of the crop. These are made outside the community. the individual absolutely cannot meet the payments, If rather than 162, For a good d iscussio n of this see Walt e r M, Kollmorgen, Culture of a Contemporary Rural Community; The Old Order A m i s h of Lancaster County, P e n n s y l v a n i a . Rural Life Studies: 4° United States Department of Agriculture, September, 1942, p. 51° See also Jane C„ G-etz, "The Economic O r g a n i z a t i o n and Practice of the Old Order Amish of L a n c a s t e r County, Pennsylvania," M Q R , January, 1946, PPo 59-8O, April, 1946, pp. 98-127° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 296 - lose his land, he can borrow mon e y at a lo w interest f r o m a church member, for in a successful settlement the whole church, if n e c ­ essary, rallies behind one of its members to keep land from being lost to the community. The extra capital of individuals is in the final analysis available to the whole church to protect its basis of production and u ltimat e mea n s of production, the land. V/ithout land of their own they cannot main t a i n t h e i r community or practice their religion. M u t u a l A i d (fire insurance) The Amish do not believe in worldly insurance, do believe in mutual aid. to his immediate family, but they A n individual in distress turns first if more aid is needed t h a n they can give him, the immediate family turns to the extended family; then to the community. does not need money, If a farmer cannot do hi s work, but his neighbors and fellow church members volunteer their labor. 163 J Sometimes they give some money to needy individuals in the brotherhood^~on a n u n o f f i c i a l b a s i s ^ ^ 163. When a y o u n g farmer in S toneyrun (00A117) had a series of accidents during the first y e a r he was rent i n g a farm, the neighbors had a frolic to husk his c o m and do some of the other farm work for him. 1 64 . "I feel we should also give to _ s w h e n he can't work and have now / n o / f a r m and 2 children. _____ Z h er h u s b a n d / and I have given them a little. Think it would be gone this long time." 00 A 2 , July 8, 1954. 165. Another type of unoff i c i a l gift that does not have the complete sanction of the church is the g i v i n g of "showers." The showers are announced in the H e r a l d . A letter* fells the need of ne individual, often d escribin g in considerable detail his sorry plight, then there is a suggestion to send dimes, dollars .^ a3?y"thing y o u wish" to the ill person. I n some instances individuals who did not need the money have b e e n greatly em— R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - If an Amishman needs money, 297 - the church m a y mak e up a purse or, -j acting formally through the deacon, will help him. ever, an individual has lost a building t h r o u g h a n such as fire., lightning or tornado, 1f \ fs r-t If, how­ 'act of G-od' , he is p rotected by mutual aid. Mutual aid or fire insurance has b e e n systematically worked out. is without. It is a type of protection that no A m i s h community * If the community is small, it may combine wit h another community in order to protect the members. Almost all 165. (cant'd from prev. page) refused to publ i s h such notices without the signed consent of at least one of the m i n ­ isters in the recipients' home church. H e r a l d . July 7, 1955, p. 5. Ibid., February 16, 1956, p. 4 . 166. "The church had made up some money fo r the Kansas couple." Ibid. In this case the church has a special volun t a r y collection for a young couple who had come to help one of their sick members. They did not receive m o n e y f r o m that g i v e n at communion because they were not from the church district. 167. The alms giv e n after communion are all u s e d for re­ lief within the home church district. The dea c o n keeps this money and distributes it as needed. "The Lord has provided a treasure box in every church district and that money is to be used only for the sick who cannot help themselves and in every church district there is someone who takes care of this matter where money is needed." H e r a l d . June 17, 1954, p. 6. 168. Melvin Gingerich, "Amish Aid Plans," The Mennonite Encyclopedia. I (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1955), p. 89, and Ira D. Landis, "Amish Aid Society of L ancaster Co., Pa." I b i d .. pp. 89-90. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. = 298 - the church districts of all the Old Order Amish. communities in Ohio have combined to protect one anot h e r from loss through natural disaster or theft. Each church district has an assessor who has been chosen by the church, sarily a member of the ministry. but is not nec e s ­ He is not chosen by any ritual, but rather someone who is good at finances and accounts is sug­ gested, and if the church agrees he becomes the asse s s o r from that time on until he moves away or dies. The essessor 169 has a list of all the church members and "what t h e y are worth." knows the value of their property (as asse s s e d for tax purposes), the value of the livestock and equipment, usually have in the bank. He and the balance they No account is m a d e as to w h e t h e r the property is debt free or hea v i l y mortgaged. There is a central man, who has also b e e n chosen informally, to coordinate the program for all the m e m b e r churches. To this man each church submits the nu m b e r of their members and the total value of their property. 169. The assessor for Stoneyrun church district is OOA125. Three generations ago, when the mutual aid plans were b e c o m i n g formalized, there were some members of the Amish church who felt the plans were too similar to worldly insurance, and were an attempt to mitigate G-od's punishment. These individuals were not forced to pay the assessments, and were also covered by the insurance, which was offered them w h e n they needed it. I know, of no Old Order Ami s h today who are conscientiously opposed to the Amish aid plans. In the H e r a l d . October 6, 1955, p. 1, there is a short article relating an incident i nvolving an Amishman who had not participated in the aid plan. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 299 - Every church m e m b e r knows what items are covered, by insurance. 170 A n object is covered the moment it is p urchased by an Amishman; he does not have to file any form, n o r is there a processing period during whi c h he is uncovered. The insurance covers livestock and agricultu r a l products as wel l as buildings. It does not cover such losses as 1000 turkeys b e i n g smothered v/hen frightened by an owl, through disease, or the loss of a herd of cattle or crops that are lost because of insects, Y/eather or blight. V/hen an accident occurs a group of the assessors from the home and neighboring churches, usua l l y about five to eight in Stoneyrun, go to the scene and estimate the damage. take the tax evaluation into account, but they do not follow it strictly as they .know it may be inaccurate. of the damage has been determined, central man. They V/hen the extent they report back to the He th e n decides what the assessment will be. 171 Each member is assessed in pro p o r t i o n to his economic standing and by this means all the m e mb e r s of all the participant churches 170. Raising broilers is a n e w o c c u p a t i o n for the Ohio Amish. The first brooder houses were built in chu r c h districts at the edge of the larger community; they have slowly diffused in toward the center, so that now there is no q u e s t i o n of i nsurance for them, but at first chur c h districts that had none did not want to assume responsibility for structures that bur n so easily. 171. Contributing members are not assessed fo r every fire, rather periodic assessments are made w h e n the central funds are low or vrhen a large sum is needed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 300 - combine to contribute loss. seventy-five percent of the individual's This money is turned over to the i ndividual who has suffered the accident, and the community members volu n t e e r the i r labor to help h i m rebuild. but is free to make Although the He does not have to rebuild exactly, any improvements he A m ish are satisfied w i t h the i r program, are criticisms made of it. one man said, I was married I had "When 172 wishes. The bank balance is assessed. a horse there As and b u g g y and $10,000 in the bank. I d i d n ’t really have a n y t h i n g to protect, ] 77 but I paid each time just the same." J (If m o n e y is lost through a bank foreclosure, it.) the community does not automatically replace Another criticism is that some people have their assets in forms that can be easily liquidated, while others have little free cash, and find, it difficult to meet t h e i r assessments. 174 172. The operation of Mutual aid, as described by Getz, Lancaster, op. c i t . is slightly different fr o m the Ohio plan. "The House Amish plan. . .covers sect members in Lancaster, and Mifflin Counties ne a r Dover, Delaware. If a b u i l d i n g burns down, for example, the farmer who suffered the loss appoints a man, the church appoints another man, these two m e n appoint a third man; the three determine loss caused b y the fire. If the estimate does not "suit" the loser, he c a n so state and another committee is nominated in the same m a n n e r and this can be repeated as often as desired." 173. 00A63. 174* Theseotwo criticisms are directly opposed. E a c h was made by a man who felt that those in his own p o s i t i o n had the roost difficulty. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 301 - There is the criticism that some assessors underassess the damage and others overassess. One man said, ence which assessors come." "It makes a lot of differ­ A criticism I expected, but did not hear was the practice of ignor i n g the degree of debt of the members being assessed. They did not seem to object to being assessed on the full value of their farm, even w h e n it was heavily mortgaged, for they realize that they are being protected for the full value* The functioning of mutual aid can best be illustrated by describing a specific case. At one o'clock on a summer morning, Roman was awakened by his ten y e a r old daughter calling "Daddy there's a fire, the brooder house in on fire." rushed into their clothes. nearest neighbors, He and his wife While he ran a quarter mile to his she and the older children tried to drive some of the range turkeys away from the fire. At the neighbors Roman managed to awaken one of the boys, who hitched up a horse and drove a mile and a half to the nearest telephone to call the fire department. and children, The wind was fairly high. Rom a n and his wife and the neighboring Amish family, ignored the flaming building, whi c h was just 4 years old, and tried to save the live stock. By the time the fire trucks arrived, ing was destroyed, the b u i l d ­ and the wind had changed so that the other buildings were in less danger. The account in the Heral d des­ cribed it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 502 - A disastrous fire early Saturday destroyed a poultry house and 4-000 turkey poults on the ______ farm two and a half miles east of "Stoneyrun" and 100 turkeys in an adjoining roose perished from heat. . . . The brooder house was completely destroyed, but the adjoining turkey roost was saved* Cause of the fire has not been determined*^75 Roman had had considerable difficulty heating the brooder house. He had put in a new heating system, but during the windy, cold spring had lost three thousand turkey poults when it did not work properly. Therefore he wanted to make some changes before he rebuilt. It was rather late in the season to start a new flock of turkeys, so he thought he might wait until fall to put up a new building. This would give him "time to decide what changes he wanted to make and determine how much these changes would cost him. Earlier that year he had bought a neighboring farm, and his son had needed considerable treatment for a broken leg. Roman also thought that financially he might be able to manage better if he postponed building the brooder house. As is typical, he talked it over with the Bishop, who pointed out that if he rebuilt right away virtually all the labor would be donated, everyone was anxious to help him and share his burden. However, the Bishop went on, if he waited until that fall or the following spring to build the brooder house, the fire would have been forgotten, the men would be busy with other things, and he would get very little free labor. A letter from his sister-in-law, written about five weeks after the fire, describes what happened. i 175. Herald. June 10, 1954, p. 1. The fire was caused by ^erosene brooders setting fire to the corn husus that covered the■floor. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 303 They have a new one about ready to use again,, Neighbor friend, even "Roman’s” cousins from ________ C o 0-*-76came to helpo /My husband/ also helped four, five days, was sick with tonsillitis, not right„ . . /he/did help a few days. So did _______ and his /carpenter/ gang. 0-77 In August the sister-in-law continued: "Romans" have builded a nicer turkey house than the other was with hot water furnace and pole barn which was there confined pen. The church paid also for part of there turkeys "Roman" said they had a $2000 loss for them .0-78 s e l f With the help of the whole community, in a little over a month and a half a new, improved brooder house was in use. By and large, this system of mutual aid works smoothly. It is an excellent form of insurance in that every member is always covered completely, each member pays in proportion to what he can afford and to what he has insured, and there is no overhead. Although mutual aid, as an organized system, does not ex­ tend beyond the member churches, all the Old Order Amish are loosely tied together by some economic interaction. In times of severe distress, one community helps another, fina.ncially as well as spiritually. Young people move all over the country working in various Amish communities. Members will sometimes 176. A community within the state, but outside the central Ohio community. 177. Personal correspondence, VIl/54. 00A2. 178. Personal correspondence, VII/2/54. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 304 - travel from one community to another to help with a barn raising, or to help rebuild after a fire or storm. Certain commodities are sold from one community into another. Buggies, beds or dres­ sers made by a favorite cabinet maker, and a special milk cooler designed from the Amish. 179 However, the economic links between the distant communities are small compared with the spiritual and social bonds. Many informal expressions of mutual aid, tie the Amish community together. When a family moves, large numbers of rela­ tives and friends gather to help. If it is a short move within the community, they help scrub the new house before the furniture arrives, and the old house after the furniture has been removed. The ideal is to spend only one day moving. While I was in the community, one family with four pre-school children, moved about two miles. That evening I was told, "They are pretty well moved, but we didn't get their curtains hung." By evening everything should have been in place and the house should look as though the family had been living there for months. tradition of sharing work is very strong. The A woman never ties a comfort or quilts alone; she always invites friends to help. 1 fifl 179. A Georgia scribe writes ". . .they expect to bring some chairs that they had made in Lancaster." Herald, July 14, 1955, p. 7. 180. The men may help at a comfort knotting too. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 305 - The women gather to sew carpet rags in preparation for weaving scatter rugs. Several families help each other butcher. The men have corn huskings, and help one another with threshing and. silo filling. 181 Around Stoneyrun a frolic usually is held eadh year before school begins, and the parents of the school children gather at the rural school houses to mow the weeds and clean the school, so it will be ready for the children. Families baby-sit for one another, leaving the pre-school children at one another's homes when they must be away shopping or at the doctors, or attending council meeting or communion. j^ej3££nj3€! t o t h e P o. 1 i £ The strong feeling of community that exists among the Ohio Amish was expressed in their reaction to the poliomyelitis epi­ demic that swept the community during the summer of 1952. It was firmly and widely believed to be a plague delivered of God. As the Amish believe that children are sinless, their innocent suffering was believed to be a chastisement for the whole commun­ ity. 1810 Around Stoneyrun, when corn is husked mechanically, the farmer pays for the services of the corn husker and its two operators; the rest of the labor is donated. Similarly, the farmer pays for the thresher and its operator, the rest of the labor being donated. There are still threshing rings around Stoneyrun. Herald. August 26, 1954, p. 1.. The cornhuskers and threshers are always feasted at noon. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 306 - Must our children suffer again for our wicked ways of living? They had to suffer in Moses’ tiraeD We wonder at times what’s wrong. Are we forgetting God or are we forgetting Christ ’s teachings? . . . "Seeing thou hast forgotten the law of thy God, I WILL ALSO FORGET THY CHILDREN." 182 You hear of many different opinions as to the cause of this polio, but after seeing the innocent child­ ren going through all this suffering, who can say it is not part of the pestilence promised us. . . Who can say God is satisfied with conditions as they are today? I feel this polio is just a re­ minder to us to better ourselves or it might come seven times worse„183 I firmly believe God sends this on us and there is nothing to do to stop it except to lead a better life.l84 G-od is chastening us with a plague; by this we know God still loves us, for whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth and scourgeth every son whom he re— ceiveth. Heb. 12:6. Bugs and pest have been damaging our crops and fruit, but when it strikes our precious children it hurts. Are we going to heed Him?18-5 Only one of these comments was written by the parent of an af­ flicted child. The community as a whole and each individual adult responded to the children’s illness as a warning and a pun­ ishment. 182. Herald,,July 17, 1952, p. 6. 183o Herald. July 24, 1952, p. 4. 184. Herald,July 24, 1952, p. 2. 185. Herald.July 17, 1952, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 307 I truly hope the people will better their living. God sends this plague among his people to remind them. We should not fear such plagues. G o d ’s great love is reminding us to slacken the pace we are going, so i t ’s our spiritual duty to ask God to help us all. He is the only one that can heal us. The response was not one of hopelessness, but of the felt need for the whole community to re-examine itself. The community could save its children by remembering that they were God’s people and by living as His people should. In no case were the parents of the sick children felt to be any more responsible than the community as a whole. Wot only do the members share one another’s burdens, but they share responsibility for the sins they as a people may commit. Any disaster, storm, illness or oppressive law, increases interaction within the community. The individuals respond by feeling a greater need for the community, and the community is strengthened. The Old Order Amish of Worth America form one brother­ hood. The ordnung 'iffers slightly from one church district to another, and lay members celebrate communion only in their home district, but they are all members of one body, of the Body of 186. Their conviction that polio was a plague that could be stopped only by "leading a better life," mitigated against full preventive measures being taken. Judging from my observa­ tions two months after the epidemic, I would say that consid­ erably less than half of the suspected polio cases were report­ ed to medical authorities. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 308 - Christo Within the extended community, the individual may move about freely; his home church is the one in which the land he i works is located. He may have "been born in Pennsylvania, married in Ohio, settled in Indiana, but if he has not broken any of the church rules, he will never have been outside the community. Idealogically, the Old Order Amish are he®d"'-,t'd'g^t??eir be­ cause they are of one mind, standing steadfast against Satan and the world. Sociologically they are held together by a well- developed system of communication and economic inter-dependence. There is a constant stream of visiting; ministers representing the home church go from one district to another; relatives visit in different communities, and Amish travel just to see and meet one another. Extensive personal correspondences are maintained and such publications as the Herald. the Herold der Wahrheit, and now Witnessing, help the members of the different districts to know what is happening in distant churches. Economically the brotherhood is tied together by patterns of employment, sharing of capital, and mutual aid. As one of their early leaders wrote, in true brotherly love they "cheerfully bear one another's burdens, not only in spiritual matters, but also . with temporal gifts," ~|Q7 for they are "as the natural body. . . in harmony and peace with all its members, "^^while "'without 187. Originally written before 1600 by Dietrich Philip, EnchiridionT A. B. Kolb, tr. (Elkhart, Ind. Mennonite Publish­ ing Company, 1910^p. 393» lb id.. p. 80. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - are dogs, and sorcerers, 309 and w h o r e m o n g e r s , and murderers, idolaters, and whosoever loveth and m a k e t h a l i e 5 (Rev. and 22:14, 15)".189 INTERACTION W I T H O T H E R A M I S H CHURCHES The Sam 'Yoder Chu r c h (Schwartzen t r u h e r Districts) In Ohio there is one group of Amish churches w h i c h will have no social or ceremonial intercourse w i t h the Old O r d e r 190 because they consider the Old Or d e r too liberal and worldly. These churches are k nown among the Old Order as S a m Y o d e r churches 191 and are listed as S w artsentruber Districts in RSber's Calender . The Mennonite Y e a rbook classifies t h e m as Old Order Amish. 192 The Sam Yoders live w i t h i n the boundaries of the Central Ohio A m i s h community. 193 ^ 194 They have five or six church districts and a m ember- ship of almost four hundred. 195 189» Originally 'written before 1600 by Dietrich Philip, Enchiridion. A. BY Kolb, tr. (Elkhart, Ind. Mennonite Publishing Company, 1910), p. 407. 190. "There are few congregations in __________ Co. that do not fellowship with us..." Personal correspondence, X/12/53. OOA93o . ' 191o R&ber, Calender, op, citt-, 1955, p= 31« 192. Ellrose D. Zook, ed., Mennonite Yearbook ahd Directory, 1956( Scottdale, Pa.v- Mennonite Publishing House, 1956, p. 84o 193. See appendix I, Part B for a map giving the approximate location of the Sam Yoder churches in relation to the central Ohio Old Order Churches. 194o Rfiber Calender. O p . cit., lists five congregations, the Mennonite Yearbook, op., cit., lists six congregations.. 195. Ibid. Prom the lising, of individual districts the tota embership could be calculated to be 394. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 310 - The Sam Yoders have exactly the same confession of faith as the Old Order Amish, but they are distinguished from the latter by substantial ially as it differences in the ordnung. is related to dress, house decoration and the use of the bann, is exceedingly strict. strongly disapproved. drinking. Any missionary activity is There are no regulations about smoking or The women wear plain, dark colors. wear a matching apron or a black one apron. The ordnung, espec­ 196 On weekdays they and on Sunday a white The Sam Yoder women usually wear their halsduch, while the Old Order women only wear them when going visiting or to church. The Sam Yoder women wear a dark waistband that resembles that found on some Austrian dirndels. 197 The Sam Yoder girls stop braiding their hair when they put on adult dresses. They wear high black shoes and black coverings tied under the chin. A Sam Yoder girl is never seen with a head scarf instead of a bonnet.-*-98 The boys wear dark shirts and their hair is cut in a Dutch bob.'1'-^ 196. The Old Order women in Ohio never wear black aprons un­ less they have on a black d r e s s . 197. This was probably once worn by all the Old Order Amish in Ohio. The only Old Order Amishwoman I have seen wearing it was the old widow of a bishop, 00A102. She would have been conserva­ tive on account of her age and as the wife of a bishop, she was expected to reflect the most conservative element in the church. In spite of her great conservatism in dress she was liberal in that she went out of her way to welcome me - but only in Pennsyl­ vania Dutch. 198. Old Order girls rarely tie their coverings except at church. The ribbons of their school coverings are not even cut, but hang down in a "U" across their shoulders. They enjoy wear­ ing brightly colored head scarfs. 199. The boys hair resembles that of the boy in "Dutch Boy Taints." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 311 - V/hen seen as a group they give the appearance of being darker and less well scrubbed than a similar gathering of Old Order children. A derogatory term that is sometimes used for them by the Old Order and the English as well, is "Knudelwooler."200 The Sam Yoders use the ban more harshly than do the thirtythree churches of this study. When a member leaves the Sam Yoder church he is put under the ban until he returns. If he never re­ turns to the fold, he is shunned by his family and brethren for the rest of his life. 201 One couple moved outside the geographi­ cal area served by the Sam Yoders and later joined the Old Order church in whose district they lived. They were put under the ban; it has never been raised, and their children never visit any Sam Yoder people. There is almost no visiting between the Sam Yoders and the Old Order, An Old Order Minister had an uncle who joined the Sam Yoders to marry a Sam Yoder girl. He knew where his uncle 200. This was first translated for me as "tousled hair" but when my daughter's hair was mussed up, I tried substituting "Knudelwooler" for "strudlich" when I talked to her. I was hastily given the correct translation. I was then told that it meant hair messed up with dung - with the individual’s own dung, and was also used to refer to the fur at the base of the tail of dom­ estic animals. It apparently comes from the word "Knddel" mean­ ing dumpling. 201. Formerly all Old Order churches banned this severely. Today the Stoneyrun church and many of the others being studied, limit the length of the ban. It is rarely more than three years if the former member affiliates with a church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. _ 312 - lived and had met him at family funerals and weddings, but he had never visited him. The minister and his family have talked about calling on him and seeing how he lives, but they never have. Many Old Order Amish are mildly curious about the strange ways of the Sam Yoder people and they ask what they are really like. When­ ever they chance to see Sam Yoder people they watch them with interest, but they do not talk to them as they do to strangers who are Old Order. Occasionally the Old Order will say of the Sam Yoders, "They are more Amish than we." In the sense of holding on to the past, they are. The Sam Yoders operate one parochial school. children attend this school. No Old Order Their parents would not consider it nor would the Old Order children be accepted by the Sam Yoders. The school is a one room cinder block building with a furnace in the basement and no electricity. It stands directly across the road from an abandoned brick, one room school house that the Sam Yoders tried in vain to buy from the school board. The school board was angry with them for opposing consolidation, and refused to sell to them, so the Sam Yoders built their own. POP The school 202. If the Amish are able to wait for a few years until tempers have ccoled off the school boards are willing to sell • them abandoned school houses. "__________ purchased the Mast school building at public sale, June 5th for $1800. The school has been abandoned for eight years. . Herald, June 17, 1954, p. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - building was so new 203 313 - that when I visited it in the spring of 1952, it stood like a dead-white cube in a sea of mud. no playground' equipment. There was The only interruptions in the sur­ rounding muddy plain were two. white outhouses. on the porch were rows of overshoes. was aseptically plain and neat. Neatly lined up Inside, the school house There was not a curtain at the window, nor a picture on the wall. A, single calendar hung from a nail over the blackboard, but the picture was obscured by a yardstick that hung on the same nail. The walls were the dull white of whitewash, broken only by the wooden pegs on which hung the black bonnets and shawls of the girls and the black jackets and hats of the b o y s . ^ ^ The- children sat in rows, by grades, at stationary desks, the boys on one side of the room and the girls on the other. At the front of the room was the teacher’s desk with a few books arranged across the top. paper and pencils. Each child had his own books, his own There was no other school equipment. The only subjects taught are writing, arithmetic, English reading, German reading, English spelling, German spelling and German Bible.2°5 203. Built in 1951. 204. Everything about the school seemed to be either black or white and to reflect the attitude that something is wrong or it is right, that there is almost no in between and no compromise. 205. Statement of teacher and students, also a check of tneir books. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 314 - The children study no history, no geography; nothing that would relate them to the world outside their church. The only state requirement was that an attendance record he sent to the county seat once a week. The children had no work hooks, no art, o r\ a hut they sang from the little German hymnhooks. When the children were not husy with the lesson, reciting or taking part in a spelling bee, they sat at their desks quietly filling in the coloring hooks that their parents had sent to school with them - even their free time consisted of coloring within the boundaries. As soon as the strict discipline relaxed and the children had marched in single file to get their wraps, the school seemed to burst with friendly activity and pentup energy. They ran and played hard and showed a shy hut eager in­ terest in us as visitors. The teacher was a Sam Yoder girl who had finished eighth grade two years ago, and without having had any further training started teaching. She received $48.00 a month. Although there is no social interaction' between the Old Order and the Sam Yoders, the relationship between these two 206. Ein Unnarteiische Lieder-Sammlung zum Gebruch( Scottdale, la., Mennonitischen Verlagshaus, 1954). The children had various editions. 207. Grace Goulder, "Amish Schools," (in "Ohio. Scenes and 1951 ZenS" ^’ (^ eve-*-and- Pla-lfl- Dealer Pictorial Magazine;. April 29, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - churches Order do can he 315 illustrated by the way the ban is usedo The Old feel that the Sam Yoders are more strict than they, and thus not put the ban on one of their members who joins the Sam Yoders. In contrast the Sam Yoders ban forever one of their mem­ bers who joins the Old Order. The Sam Yoders separated from the Old Order 208 in an effort. to live by the strictest possible interpretation of the ordnung. They represent a small isolate that at the present is holding its own but is not growing. 209 They have no geographically separated churches with whom they can visit and exchange. offer- no threat. The Sam Yoders They are too small a group and too strict to be noticed with more than, passing interest by the Old Order. The Kins; Church and the Stutzman Church There are two small Amish churches in Ohio that are slightly more liberal than the Old Order. These churches separ­ ated from the Old Order over disputes about the ordnung; they in­ terpret the ordnung a little less severely. Thus the King people 208. Within the Amish community they have been considered a separate group since before the first World War, but this dis­ tinction was not crystallized until about 1930. 209. I have been told that they have suffered various in­ ternal divisions. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 316 - are allowed to have electricity and to use tractors but cars are still forbidden. The King church has two districts that are lo­ cated in the northern part and just beyond the northeastern edge of the Old Order community. They have a membership of 193« are also two Stutzman churches. There These are located in -the north and western portion of the Old Order Amish community, and have a total membership of 135• Sometimes members of these churches are called "Peewee Amish” by the English, who use the term loosely and apply it to any Amishman who is only partly observing the ordnung, as followed by the Old Order, or even to an Old Order Amishman who has left the church. The name "Peewee" is a cor­ ruption of P. V.,the initials of a former leader. The Old Order Amish ministers will not celebrate communion with the King or Stutzman churches nor do they help in church business such as baptism, council meeting or a wedding. However,, these are the only churches that are not strictly Old Order that are consid­ ered close enough to the Old Order to be listed in the Ohio Amish Directory. pi o They are listed by Raber in his Calender 211 and are classed 210. Ervin G-ingerich,. pp., cit. . 1956, Vol. II, pp. 1-5o 211. Op. c i t . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 317 - as Old Order Amish in the Mennonite Yearbook. O l d Order Amish­ man who joined a Zing or Stutzman church is shunned for a limited period by the Old Order. When such an individual dies, an Old Order minister will preach at his funeral if he is so requested. These two churches are small and localized and although the Old Order churches lose an occasional member to them, they offer little threat to the Old Order community. The Beach.y Amish Ch u r c h Since its origin in 1927, the Beachy Amish church has grown 213 primarily by the transfer to it of families who have become dis­ satisfied with the Old Order Amish church. The Beachy Amish do not have a missionary program to the Old Order, but they will help establish a new Beachy church when so requested. Since February 1955, they have cooperated with the Old Order Amish in the publication of the HeroId der Wahrheit; the Beachy Amish are responsible for the material printed in the English section of the periodical. Preacher Jacob J. Hershberger writes a weekly article in the Herald under the heading "lynnhaven Gleanings" that is widely read by the Old Order Amish. (He formerly lived in Geauga County, Ohio and is himself a convert from the Old Order.) One of the Beachy Amish bishops, Eli D. Tice of Grantsville, 212. On. cit. 213. The best account of the Beachy Amish I have seen is Alvin J. Beachy, "The Rise and Development of the Beachy Amish Mennonite Church," MQR, April, 1955, pp. 118-140. See also, Alvin J. Beachy, "Beachy Amish Churches," The Mennonite Encyclopedia, l (Scottdale, Pa. : Mennonite Publishing House, 1955), pi 254. /m 1 Mast, Facts Concerning the Beachy A. M. Division of 1927 vMeyersdale, P a . : Published by Menno J. Yoder, 1950). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 313 - Maryland, was responsible for the 1955 printing of an EnglishGerman Bible that was widely subscribed to by the Old Order, The Beachy A m i s h differ f r o m the Ol d Ord e r in that they do not place the ban on m e mbers who w i t h d r a w to join other Mennonite churches, and they have Sunday School on the i n t e r v e n i n g Sundays between the bi-weekly church services. primarily German language classes. These Sunday Schools are The c h i l d r e n lea r n to read German, while the adults read the Mew Testament in German. Beachy Amish believe in m i s s i o n a r y activity. ownership and use of electricity, tractors, The They a l l o w the an d automobiles. However, they still m a i n t a i n the A m i s h dress regulations quite strictly. Church services are all in G e r m a n except funeral sermons which are i n English. Singing is in u n i s o n and i n German except at young people's gatherings. Within the central Ohio c ommunity there is only one Beachy Amish church. It was quite small, 21*5 and the mem b e r s a p p e a r e d to be less well off financially t h a n did the Old Order. instance of conflict b e t w e e n the two churches that The only I came across was one case h i story of a w o ma n who had b e e n a patient i n the state mental hospital. Her b r e a k d o w n was beli e v e d by some to be due to her family's oppos i t i o n to h e r Beachy A m i s h boy friend. 214* Yearbook, op. cit., 1955, p. 98. In 1955 the member­ ship was 28. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 319 - A c c o r d i n g to the cousins, almost all the rela­ tives, neighbors, and friends believe that the source of conflict is the f a m i l y ’s opposition to ___________ He is the boy friend with w h o m / s h e / has b een going for five or six years. The parents object to /he r / a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h h i m because he belongs to the Beachy ch u r c h . 214 Daring the course of my study the influence of the Beachy Amish on the Old Order has b ee n steadily growing. I heard no mention of the Beachy A m i s h on my early visits except on occasions when I brought the subject up myself. On my most recent visits specific members of the Beachy Amish were often spoken of and the church was frequently mentioned. Of all church groups the Beachy A m i s h offer the greatest potential threat to the Old Order community. At the present time individuals and families are not being lost from the central Ohio community to the Beachy church (as they are to the Conservatives and the "Old" Mennonites), but there is a great likelihood that if tensions increase wit h i n the community and d i s s a t isfaction grows that the central Ohio community could suffer a great div­ ision with large numbers affiliating w i t h the Beachy church. Such a move would be easily accomplished, for a l t h o u g h the Beachy Amish accept aspects of the material culture such as automobiles, tractors and electricity, their p atterns of worship, dress regula­ tion and social patterns are so similar to those of the Old Order 215o Social Workers report of a visit, July 27, 1947. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 320 - from which most of their members have recently come, of membership requires little readjustment. that a change It is true that the Beachy Amish have Sunday School, w h i c h most of the Old Order churches do not permit, but their Sunday school differs but little (primarily the time of meeting) f rom the Old O r d e r German Reading. And there are elements within the Old Order A m i s h church that support the mission interests of the Beachy Amish. The B eachy Amish are a homogeneous group of Amish families that have accepted most of the material convenience of the surrounding culture, and have pi still been able to m a i n t a i n their strict separation f r o m the world. " The Old Order are w a tching them w i t h interest. Even if families and congregations are not lost from the Old Order to the Beachy Amish, their successful integration of m o d e r n conveniences, may be an important factor in leading to similar innov a t i o n among the Old Order. INTERACTION W I T H O T H E R MENNO N I T E CHURCHES The Conservative Mennonites During the course of this study, the conservative church has severed its connection w it h the A m i s h and affiliated w i t h the "Old" Mennonites. Thus the Conservative Mennonites, formerly 216. The Hutterites have introduced certain m o d e r n m a t e r ial elements of the surrounding culture without endangering their group cohesiveness. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 321 - the Conservative Amish have followed the p a t t e r n of many Amish 217 churches that gradually move away f rom t h e i r A m i s h t raditions to fuse with the "Old" Mennonites or to f o r m even more liberal churches of their own„ Most of the Conservatives are p leased with their new affiliation, but one m e m b e r who was a fairly recent convert from the Old Order said, soon be just like the others, words are fast proving true. "It is a mistake; we w i l l swallowed by the Mennonites." His The Conservatives terminated their support of the Her o l d der W a h r h e i t , w i t h the J anuary 15 issue, 1955. Simultaneously they were w ooed by the "Old" Mennonites. As one of the conferences eligible for membership in the Mennonite General Conference, we cordially invite and urge the Conservative Conference to make the Gospel Herald its organ, and we solicit news, contributions, and a r t i c l e s . 218 In 1956 the Conservatives achieved full status as one of the con­ ferences of the Mennonite General Conferences, and as such are listed in alphabetical order w i t h the other "Old" Mennonite con­ ferences. Within the area of the Old Order A m i s h community there are two Conservative churches and one small Conservative m i s s i o n 217. The Ohio and Eastern Conference, The Ontario A m i s h Mennonite Conference, the Defenseless Mennonites, The Central Conference of Mennonites. 218. G H . . January 25, 1955, p. 84. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 322 - church, with a total membership of 390. 219 One of the largest Conservative churches in the c ountry is located near the center of Old Order community. The Conservative church is a very real threat to the Old Order community. More members are lost to the Conservatives than to all other churches combined. Some of the most able members of the Stoneyrun church have become Conservatives. join the Conservatives 220 tractor or a deep freeze. Whole families leave the Old Order to because they want a car, a truck, 221 a Quite a few y o u n g people leave the Old Order to marry a Conservative. 222 At least h alf the Old Order A m i s h I know have relatives as close as cousins who belong to the Conservative church. The ordnung of the Conservatives is considerably less severe than that of the Old Order. The Conservatives allow the four items that cause the most trouble among the Old O rder Amish: electricity, tractors and cars. cameras. telephones, They also allow ownership of The dress regulations permit more variation, are sufficient to distinguish the women, at least, 219o Mennonite Y e a r b o o k , op. c i t ., 1956, 220. (00A)CA7, (00A67)CA1; (00A68)CA2; but still from the world. p. 60. (00 A ) C A 8 ;(O O A 1 3 7 ) CA6. 221. These reasons were g i v e n by (00A68)CA1 for leaving. He said he needed these conveniences to be able to make more money. 222. (00A)CA6, (00A)CA4, (OOA)CAIO. r R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 323 - The children sometimes are dressed quite "high" 2 2^ J so that in school it may he difficult to tell that t h e y are C o n s e r v a t i v e . The women wear brighter and lighter colors t h a n do the Old Order, and they wear many plisses that do not need ironing. Instead of a halsduch they often wear a mat c h i n g cape sewed onto the bodice of their dress, services. and their aprons m a t c h t heir dresses even at church The only time I saw Conservative w o m e n w e a r organdy aprons was when they were actin g as table waiters at a n Old Order Amish wedding. Conservative wo m e n wear white coverings that are unpleated and if there are ribbons on them, loose instead of being tied u n d e r the chin. stockings instead of black, they usu a l l y h a n g They m a y w e a r brown but still w e a r black shoes. wear plain black coats without lapels, ite frock coat t h a n an A m i s h coat. The m e n but cut more like a Mennon­ They wear p l a i n black trousers which usually close with a regular fly opening rather t h a n being of the broadfall type. their trousers. The m e n are also allowed to w e a r belts on Beards are not a test of membership, some still wear them 224 and the h a i r is not w o r n long. although Usually 223c The t erm "high" is opposed to "humble." It is u s e d to describe any behavior that is m o d e r n or worldly, or is not in strict accordance with church regulation. 224. It has b e e n interesting to w a t c h the beard of one Old Order Amishman who has joined the Conservatives. He has not shaved it off, but he is constantly trimming it so that it has become shorter and shorter. On my last visit it was more like a Vandyke than an A m i s h b e a r d 0 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 324 - the men wear shirts with no necktie, a lthough a p l a i n b l a c k tie is permitted by some churches. In spite of the fact that they speak Pennsylvania Dutch in the home, the church services are in English with no Pennsylvania Dutch being used, except to emphasize a word or phrase or occasionally a paragraph. The ministers are chosen in the same way as the Old Order Amish. also twice a year, and is preceded by a council meeting, lowed by foot washing and the kiss of peace. ments are used; Communion is and fol­ No mu s i c a l instru­ they follow a song leader and sing from Mennonite hymn books that have shaped notes. 225 The church services are A held every Sunday instead of every other S u n d a y ^ ^ a n d are preceded by Sunday school. Although the church service proper is consid­ erably shorter than the Old Order service, by the time Sunday 225. The Old Order Amish consider it worldly to sing from notes or to sing in harmony.' The Conservative Amish sing from shaped notes, which are considered less worldly t h a n round notes. During the services we visited the congregation fol­ lowed the song leader, and did not follow the notes. There was no counterpoint. 226. Because of the custom of ho l d i n g church every Sunday, Old Order Amish individuals who are in the process of changing their membership may start unobtrusively. They attend all the services of their home district, but on alternate .Sundays, they go to the Conservative church. Before breaking w i t h the Old Order, they have already made arrangements to affiliate w ith the Conservatives, so there is n e v e r a period w h e n they hold no church membership. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 325 school has been added (everyone attends both) the total time spent in church is almost as long„ The church buildings are simple meetinghouses,, visited consists of an almost square room, The one I with benches facing three sides of a slightly raised pla t f o r m on which the ministers site At the back of the women's side is a glass e d - i n nursery with four bunk beds, two bassinets- several chairs for the mothers and place for This small room is closed off from the assembly room, but the side toward message is transmitted to the m inisters is made of glass and their the nursery by a microphone so the mothers can hear and see what is going on while they care for their babies, without disturbing the other worshipers- In the basement of the church is a k i t c h e n well stocked w i t h canned goods, that the women of the church have put up and there are tables and benches for meals. However, the members u sually go home for the noon meal instead of staying at the church- The Conservative Amish have a small cemetery a djo i n i n g the church instead of u s ­ ing family burial plots. In contrast to the stress conversion, Old O r d e r Amish, the Conservative revivals and missionary work. They also Amish empha­ size the importance of Sunday Schools and the early par t i c i p a t i o n of children and young people in the church. to get their young people converted that, They are so anxious although they too be­ lieve in the sinlessness of children and adult bap t i s m only, they allow children as y o u n g as t hirteen to "give themselves to R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 326 - Christo" 227 This is in contrast to the Old O r d e r Amish; no one I spoke to had ever heard of anyone joining before he was six228 teen and most do not. join u n t i l s e v e n t t e n to nineteen, or occasion­ ally as late as the middle twenties. The ordnung is similar to that of the Old Order in that the Conservatives forbid all mu s i c a l instruments, radios (on the ground that they are musical i n s t r u m e n t s ) , television, up for women, grade. make­ and most of them oppose e ducation beyond the eighth The relation of the two churches is indicated by the dir­ ection of the ban; and Old Order A m i s h m a n who joins the Conserva­ tives is shunned b y his fellow c h u r c h members, while a Conserva­ tive who joins the Old Order is not shunned. The attitude of the Old O r d e r community toward the Con­ servative community is one of m i n g l e d fear, eous confidence. envy and self-right­ They fear the C onservative church for it lures away ambitious members and some of the Old Order y o u n g people. They envy the Conservatives for they have an easier life, w i t h 227. The Conservative y o u t h loses no privileges or freedom by joining church, and he and his parents g a i n status w h e n he joins, so there is little to make h i m postpone the step. One child of Amish parents who had joined the M ennonites w h e n she was a baby, commented, "I became a m e m b e r of the church at seven, and yet we say we d o n ’t believe in infant baptism!" 228. "At the age of 16 he a c c e p t e d Christ and un i t e d w i t h the Old Order Amish Mennonite church." H e r a l d . August 26, 1954, p. 6. The early age of joining was poss i b l e due to the influence of the draft for the boy joined the church in 1947» Sickly individuals who do not participate regularly in the young p e o p l e s ’ a c t i v i ­ ties also tend to join church w h e n they are about sixteen. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 327 - fewer restrictions and yet are close enough to the Old Order not to be seen as strangers and foreigners. a fleeting moment, vative. Many an Amish individual in has thought of the advantages of b eing a Conser­ In spite of this, most Old O rder A m i s h m e n have the con­ fidence that they are living the good life. have made the road a little broader, The Conservatives and not quite as straight; therefore, their road cannot lead as directly to heaven as the path the Old Order follow,, The Conservatives are a n e w group that has not yet developed the hol i e r - t h a n - t h o u attitude to the extent that some of the other Mennonites have. T hey are interested in the Old Order, for almost all t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p trace t h e i r lineage back to the Old Order, and the Old O r d e r contributes a constant stream of converts to the n e w church. There is considerable v i s i t i n g b e t w e e n the Old Order and the Conservatives. W hen memb e r s of a family b e l o n g to b o t h these churches, the differences are ignored after the m e i d u n g period, and they may visit t o gether quite happily. Conservative children may live in the home of t h e i r Old O r d e r parents, or they m a y take into their home a retired parent who has remained steadfast in the faith of his fathers. A Conservative n e p h e w may visit his Old Order uncle for a w eek or two. for each other, B rothers and sisters work even if the y b e l o n g to different churches ooo and they not only attend weddings and funerals in the sister church, but they take part in them w h e n asked. 229. (00A)AM3 employed his 00A brother, and (00A)AM5 em­ ployed an 00A tenant. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 528 - I have been to a Conservative w e d d i n g in w h i c h an Old Order A m i s h girl "stood-up for" the bride and to an Old Order w e d d i n g in which Conservative girls acted as table waiters. 280 The young people of the two churches mix fairly freely. They know one another because they usually have cousins in the other church w h o m they have met at family gatherings. The Conser­ vative youth do not attend the Ger m a n singings of the Old Order young people on Sunday evening, singings. but they may come to their Eng l i s h Late adolescence is a period of relaxed discipline for the Old Order Ami s h youth, while the discipline of the Conserva­ tive youth is not at all relaxed. Therefore, the activities engaged in by the A m ish and Conservative youth are similar. There is not the gulf the ordnung creates between adult members of the two churches. cars. Conservative yout h are allowed to own and drive This is a great advantage. The Old Order young people have little money of their own unt i l they are twenty-one, difficult for them to hire a car to go any place. they have a Conservative friend w i t h an automobile, so it is However, if they can travel together as a group for less money t h a n they would spend renting a car. The father of one Old Order Amish girl who married a Conservative, was blamed because he did not get extra buggies 251 for his adolescent children soon enough. 230. Wedding of 00A86 and of (OOA) CA4. 231. A complete rig and a good horse cost b e t w e e n $300 and $500. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 329 - The c h i l d r e n s t a r t e d g o i n g a r o u n d w i t h a C o n s e r v a t i v e had a car, and eventually Old Ord e r A m i s h g i r l m a y drives a c a r i n s t e a d one of the consider of horse on two i m p o r t a n t v e n t u r e s . until F e b r u a r y , 1955, children of t h e t w o school. they not to t h e i r taught by, They Conservative along well object teachers. Mennonites religious There to the Conservatives. And become m o r e M e n n o n i t e less of a t h r e a t Amish have schools and running expenses, f o r t he m o s t part and other more and less but being contact church. are their even social interaction be seduced As the they will of by the c o n s t a n t l y w o r k i n g to church. Amish, with However, an u n d e r l y i n g f e a r o n the part into The t o g e t h e r i n the of t h e i r m e m b e r s w i l l to t h e O l d cooperated der Wahrheit. Central Ohio have Conservatives members o f t he O l d O r d e r a m a n who 233 interaction, the Old O r d e r t h a t m o r e and than w i t h any is a l w a y s date An 232 the H e r o l d child r e n m i n g l i n g with, the C o n s e r v a t i v e is limited. e x c i t i n g to shared parochial shared The O l d O r d e r A m i s h o f there is no it Conservative churches get O ld O r d e r p a r e n t s d a u g h t e r s m a r r i e d him. and b u g g y 0 The Old O r d e r A m i s h and boy who bring Conservatives probably constitute Order. 232. This has b e e n r e p o r t e d to me by v a r i o u s E n g l i s h w o m e n who have h a d A m i s h h i r e d g i r l s , b u t t h e y a l w a y s a d d e d t h a t t h e girl ended u p w i t h a m a n w i t h a h o r s e a n d b u g g y . The parents especially do not a p p r o v e o f t h e i r d a u g h t e r ^ g o i n g w i t h a b o y who has a car. T o d a y it is m o r e f r e q u e n t f o r y o u n g A m i s h m e n to have t h e i r o w n c a r f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d b e f o r e s e t t l i n g d o w n . 233. See C h a p t e r V f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a jointly b y t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s a n d t h e O l d O r d e r . school run R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 330 - •4. 2 3 4 nther Mennonites The O l d O r d e r A m i s h a r e but they do n o t They share t he think same of t h e m s e l v e s confession same l i t e r a t u r e . The A m i s h Philips a n d M e n n o Simons; but never r e a d the world, 235 them. but other b r a n c h e s 236 ideal for t h e read All Mennonites many extent do not of the other Mennonites, in Old hold own although are Amish. Dirk these Amish books, feel that themselves would of life they the separation from Mennonites the A m i s h way They Mirror, believe The church, same heritage, the M a r t y r s in v a r y i n g degrees. some the of th e M e n n o n i t e s of the M e n n o n i t e s To Mennonite as M e n n o n i t e s . of faith, Many enough f r o m t h e w o r l d a n d the Amisho a b r a n c h of the are the separate agree with remains the conscious of its limitations. There is v e r y branches of t h e little visi t i n g between the Mennonites. Mennonites t h a n to m e m b e r s not ex p r e s s e d s o c i a l l y . ers are, a nd i n S t o n e y r u n The A m i s h of o t h e r The one feel a bit denominations, Amish kn o w who of A m i s h and them has 234o T h i s s e c t i o n d e a l s w i t h a l l viously d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . closer but to this the M e n n o n i t e had churches is minist­ considerable Mennonite other influence not pre­ 235» J o h n J. W e n g e r , S e p a r a t e d u n t o G-od (Scottdalue, P a . : M e n n o r ite P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 5 2 ) . T h i s b o o k w a s w r i t t e n at t h e r e q u e s t of the church. E d ward Yoder, "Need for N o n c o n f o r m i t y T o d a y , " M Q R , .(April, 1937) pp. 1 3 1 - 1 5 1 * What the Bible Teaches on Separation (Scottdale, P a . ? H e r a l d Press). 236. When o r i g i n a l l y I w a s t r y i n g to study t h e w h o l e M e n n o n i t church, v a r i o u s M e n n o n i t e s sai d : " I f y o u w a n t to k n o w w h a t w e a r e really l i k e g o a n d s ee t h e A m i s h . " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - with the A m i s h . However, sonality as to h i s religious most l i b e r a l b r a n c h in common. They his of t h e respect 331 influence - is d u e a s m u c h affiliation, for he c h u r c h w i t h w h i c h the h i m as a p e r s o n and to h i s p e r ­ belongs to Amish have a farmer the little rather than as a M e n n o n i t e . W i thin the central Ohio Mennonites g e n e r a l l y say that do not how and w h a t she but teaches from the Those i n d i v i d u a l s w h o which they n o w b e l o n g . Mennonite in the church, the general s t r i c t e r to the become more former and area time are join the of t h i s from an Old its m e m b e r s h i p in she belongs. direction liberal liberal The A m i s h interested of m o v e ­ often anxious branch study to is a n "Old" confer- Order Amish has g r o w n steadily, 237. The Old Order Amish share parochial schools with the Beachy Amish and the Conservative Mennonites. They do not share them with the Sam Yoder Amish. 238. In one instance a Lutheran woman was much preferred to a Brethren Minister’s wife. The Lutheran woman had lived in the community all her life and spoke Pennsylvania Dutch fluently, while the Brethren teacher was a newcomer who did not know Dutch. 239. In 1955 they dropped the words Amish Mennonite, and be­ came simply the Ohio and Eastern Conference of the Mennonite Gen­ eral Conference. 240. Nettie Glick, Historical Sketch Mennonite Publishing House, 1 9 - 3 3 p. 5® 238 branches. Eastern Amish Mennonite organized that more church also W i t h i n the are mor e 2 37 by a Mennonite c h u r c h to w h i c h 239 2 40 ence, ^ t h a t i n 1 8 5 2 was Since children taught than c h u r c h of the O h i o church district.. schools. they have that others f r o m t h e i r their the A m i s h a nd t he in practice W ithin the M e n n o n i t e ment is u p w a r d community, share parochial they p r e f e r to h a v e or B r e t h r e n t e a c h e r , Amish (Scottdale, Pa.', R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - largely b y t h e had three sponsor. Union C h u r c h w i t h t h e the m o t h e r c h u r c h . .and finally, Mennonites. Two 241 Later church are not c a l l e d present one Most the and the individuals (dedicated Old in 1937) exclusively it "missions to other church church was a in own church organization liberal General Conference churches are no served hold membership church. is v e r y a c t i v e of O r d e r Amish. families The third with a con­ that have b e e n Although these mission churches the A m i s h , " that is i n fact, what the is. of the Amish families cals seem to h a v e is r e a d m o r e some I visited Those most Youth's C h r i s t i a n C o m p a n i o n a n d . 242 more o ne O r d e r Amisho holding membership or a n e i g h b o r i n g M e n n o n i t e Mennonite p u b l i c a t i o n s . ion its and Old fourth other three mission gregation m a d e u p a l m o s t converted f r o m t h e this members it f o r m e d f r o m t he churches For a while joined of the in the m o t h e r c h u r c h "mission" Mennonite in 1920, longer o p e r a t i n g , and newest - c o n v e r s i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s This c h u r c h h a s that it h e l p e d 332 the influence. completely subscribed frequently Gospel to v a r i o u s read were H e rald. These T h e Y o u t h ’s C h r i s t i a n t h a n the Gospel H e rald. It the periodi­ Companis a short 241. John S. Umble, Ohio Mennonite Sunday Schools (Goshen, Ind.: Mennonite Historical Society, 194l), pp. 322-343» 353-357. 242.."Each week brings the subscriber eight pages of stories, articles, features, reports, book reviews, poems, and editorials. They portray the excellency of the Christian way of life.- The reader is inspired to give Christ supreme loyalty. The many op­ portunities for Christian service are presented. Church-wide interests such as MYF, church conferences, voluntary service, and relief programs are promoted. Guidance is given in the areas of social conduct, vocational choice, and Christian witnessing. Illustrated." 1953 Herald Press Catalog( Scottdale, Pa., Mennonite Publishing House, p. 19. The masthead reads. "YOUTH'S CHRISTIAN COMPANION, An illustrated Christian weekly devoted to the interests and welfare of youth." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 333 - magazine that English, tion. is p u b l i s h e d an d p r e s e n t major Things are w r o n g if the her o is p r o p e r l y printed f r o m o t h e r , every week. or right, are for m a t u r e tory and do no t non-Mennonite Christians, Slowly t his Amish. constant repetition support m i s s i o n s . " "life" evils quickly re­ The a r t i c l e s few The descriptive stories of tobacco and schools and one Both these and liquor, i m p l y the v a l u e Sunday effect schools. on some Amishman feel pretty articles or expostula- in a nutshell. is h a v i n g a n you wins stories are magazine. activity on missions, these M e n n o n i t e m a g a z i n e s m a k e always of the a n adult of m issionary During a d i s c u s s i o n in easy slightly better than those th e Bible right and g e n e r a l l y the the y are more magazines c o n s t a n t l y h a m m e r at programs, are c h u r c h periodicals. are generally present of young p e o p l e ' s the Many stories G-ospel H e r a l d ^ ^ i s stress the i m p o r t a n c e and dedicated. actually w r i t t e n b y M e n n o n i t e s The stories issues with a Pollyanna oversimplifica­ are a l i t t l e b e t t e r t h a n t h e selected. The small said, of the "All if y o u d o n ' t 244 243. "The v o i c e a n d p u l s e o f t h e M e n n o n i t e c h u r c h . Twentyfour pages c a r r y w e e k l y n e w s o f m i s s i o n s , e v a n g e l i s m , l o c a l c h u r c h activities, m a r r i a g e s , b i r t h s , a n d d e a t h s , a n d w o r l d n e w s i t e m s . Feature a r t i c l e s , s i g n i f i c a n t e d i t o r i a l s , d e v o t i o n a l h e l p s , a n d other items s t i m u l a t e , e n c o u r a g e , a n d e n l i g h t e n t h e r e a d e r . The Gospel H e r a l d a i m s to: 1. h e r a l d t h e G-ospel o f C h r i s t . 2. g i v e a denominational w i t n e s s e m p h a s i z i n g t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t r u t h s f o r which our c h u r c h w a s f o u n d e d . 3. "be t h e v o i c e o f t h e M e n n o n i t e church. M e m b e r s a r e e n c o u r a g e d to e x p r e s s t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s i n its columns. 4. h e l p m o l d t h e t h o u g h t a n d l i f e o f t h e c h u r c h and i n c r e a s e t h e s e n s e o f b r o t h e r h o o d . 5. c r e a t e a d e n o m i n a t i o n a l intelligence of l o y a l t y b y g i v i n g t h e m e m b e r s a w i d e r a n g e of i n ­ formation. T h i s d a t a b e c o m e s a v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n to future h i s t o r i a n s . " I b i d . T h e m a s t h e a d r e a d s , " T h e G-ospel H e r a l d is a r e l i g i o u s w e e k l y p u b l i s h e d i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e M e n n o n i t e church by t h e M e n n o n i t e P u b l i c a t i o n B o a r d , S c o t t d a l e , P a . " 244. 00A23. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Some A m i s h m e n house at S c o t t d a l e , 334 order books from the M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g Pennsylvania, although most to buy t h e m f r o m A m i s h b o o k s t o r e s of their s t o c k evangelists the Old O r d e r A m i s h and in the a r e a o f t h e Tent E v a n g e l i s m a n d the attended their own, U n i t much conducted by the revivals 2 45 for that Mennonite the A m i s h had camps. camps. Three 247 The of Camp have are Revivals been attended were s p o n s o r e d by not Central of in Christian Laymen's to of n o A m i s h ­ one Committee was do w i t h some the Old support Order Amish operated Twenty-four, o ne of farm of Hagerstown, 245. E o r a f u r ther d i s c u s s i o n of the effect Old O r d e r A m i s h c o m m u n i t y , s e e c h a p t e r VI. 1940, Civilian and 1947 for the organ­ it u n t i l of t h e 1941 to t h e M C C No. campaign. I know little Old on from attending Christ. Between the years $345>408.79 influence church districts there community that i Order A m i s h d o n a t e d members i n C P S bought tend Order Amish churches evangelistic over the administration Public S e r v i c e the each Crusade groups. Old their members Order central Ohio were ized i n 1 9 2 o f ^ b u t Old oppose by Old O r d e r A m i s h , of the M e n n o n i t e Many discourage in all members who v i o l e n t l y when it t o o k in turn have are having a growing community. strongly these r e v ivals, men who h a v e that individuals from Scottdale. Mennonite central Ohio - Maryland. of r e v i v a l s on 246. H a n d b o o k o f t h e M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l Committee. ( 4 t h e d i ­ tion) ( A k ron, P a . ; M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e , 1954), p. 7. M. C. Le h m a n , T h e H i s t o r y a n d P r i n c i p l e s o f M e n n o n i t e R e l i e f W o r k (Akron, P a . M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e ) 1 9 4 5 , pp. 2 2 - 2 6 . 247. M e l v i n G-ingerich, S e r v i c e Mennonite C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e , 1 9 4 9 ) , f o r P e a c e . (Akron, p. 121. Pa.i R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - The M e n n o n i t e Central per m a n f o r t h i s Committee camp, but 335 - gave a otherwise certain amount it w a s of money financially independ- Q A O ent of M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l youth w e r e in camps the church, without they the were called up have c h o s e n to I-W Mennonite agencies. Central 249 now have a n y their Most from the support accustomed. some of the A m i s h y o u t h do control. with Mennonites and were community to w h i c h Committee by the but more are of a During the p resent Selective Service auspices working Central camps a d m i n i s t e r ; it still acts as a serving with I-W. are time Program of the for other approved the M e n n o n i t e office f o r a l l M e n n o n i t e s w h o of strong homogeneous Although to the A m i s h other branches service under the Committee, of Committee does not clearing 250 248. M e l v i n G i n g e r i c h , S e r v i c e f o r P e a c e , (Akr o n , P a.: Mennonite C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 1 7 7 - 9 . In spite of t he small size o f t h e U n i t , t h e i r c a m p p a p e r , T h e S u n - B e a m . h a d t h e largest c i r c u l a t i o n o f a n y p a p e r p r o d u c e d i n M e n n o n i t e C P S camps. The p e o p l e i n t h e h o m e c o m m u n i t i e s w a n t e d t o k n o w w h a t was h a p p e n i n g to t h e i r m e m b e r s a n d f u t u r e m e m b e r s i n C i v i l i a n Public S e r v i c e . 249. Th e i n c o m p l e t e l i s t o f I - W m e n i n t h e M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r Bulletio: O c t o b e r , 1 9 5 3 a n d J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y 1 9 5 4 , g i v e s 3 7 0 Old O rder A m i s h m e n i n I - W s e r v i c e , o f w h i c h o n l y 2 a r e w i t h M e n ­ nonite a g e n c i e s . 2,800 m e n from the Mennonite Central Committee constituency w e r e i n I - W s e r v i c e i n J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 4 . The name, place, e m p l o y m e n t a n d c o n f e r e n c e a f f i l i a t i o n o f 2 , 4 0 9 w a s k n o w n . Of these, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 0 I - W ' s w e r e s e r v i n g i n M e n n o n i t e Church a d m i n i s t r a t e d p r o g r a m s . H d W , 4 3 ( F e b r u a r y 15, 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 121-22. 250. P. 22. . Hand book of the Mennonite Central Committee, op. cit., R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 336 - The Mennonite Central Committee acts as a central office for relief to non-Mennonite communities. the other Central Ohio Ami s h churches, In Stoneyrun, and most of the w o m e n meet for relief sewing once a month. . They make quilts and comforts or sew up clothes that have b e e n cut out at the Mennonite Central Committee cutting rooms. The finished products are then sent to Akron, Pennsylvania, to be bailed for shipment overseas. A few Amish women go to A k r o n for two or three days to help pa c k bundles to be shipped abroad. 251 Some of the churches can food i n the local processing plant, w h i c h is then g i v e n to the Mennonite Central Committee to distribute. 252 The A m i s h church also contributes money to the Mennonite Central Committee fo r foreign relief. The amount of money contributed by the A m i s h has g r o w n steadily in +. years. 2 5 3 recent 251. 0 0 A 2 6 a n d 0 0 A 8 8 s p e n t t h r e e d a y s 00A88 has g o n e t w i c e . S h e is n o t m a r r i e d her to get a w a y . in A k r o n p a c k i n g clothes. a n d it is e a s i e r f o r 252. "3 o f t h e A m i s h c h u r c h c o n g r e g a t i o n s c a n n e d 1 0 5 7 c a n s of beef f o r r e l i e f l a s t w e e k . 'Fo r G-od l o v e t h a c h e e r f u l giver.'" H e r a l d . Jan. 28, 1 9 5 3 , p. 1. "Th e ___________ A m i s h c h u r c h of n e a r _____________c a n n e d 4 0 0 c a n s o f b e e f a n d t h e ___________ churches w i l l c a n p o u l t r y n e x t w e e k . All the supplies are b e i n g sent to the M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e h e a d q u a r t e r s at A k r o n for d i s t r i b u t i o n a b r o a d . " H e r a l d . M a r c h 12, 1 9 5 3 , p. 1. In Lancaster C o u n t y t h e M e n n o n i t e , A m i s h a n d B r e t h r e n i n C h r i s t canned 67 t o n s o f m e a t f o r r e l i e f . T h e y m a d e u s e of the M C C portable c a n n e r t h a t w a s i n o p e r a t i o n f o r 26 d a y s i n L a n c a s t e r county. H d W ( M a y 1, 1 9 5 4 ) p. 280. 253» S e e J o h n D. U n u r h , I n t h e N a m e o f Pa.j He r a l d P r e s s , 1 9 5 2 ) , pp. 377, 379, 81. Christ (Scottdale, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 337 - On May 7, 1955 the Eastern Ohio Division of the Mennonite Disaster Service was organized. This group is ready to volunteer their services in any disaster in the area. ite churches all cooperate: The following Mennon­ Beachy Amish, Brethren in Christ, Conservatives, General Conference Mennonites, Oak Grove M e n n o n i t e Church, Old O r d e r Amish, and the S o n n e n b e r g M e n n o n i t e s . on the c o u n c i l a r e P r e . of Millersburg. This and the M e n n o n i t e s Abe is a t y p e world o u t s i d e t h e i r Old Order Mennonites Order Amish of Hartville of aid excel. The and representatives and Daniel Kline in w h i c h the Old O r d e r A m i s h Amish membership a f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of the i r tion w ith o t h e r M e n n o n i t e s closer their growing awareness in coopera­ of the community. The M e n n o n i t e colonies during t h e i r m i g r a t i o n s of these M e n n o n i t e s from the m a i n b o d y J. Y o d e r in general this o r g a n i z a t i o n is The O l d "Old" Mennonites, in Mexico from Russia do not held ordnung d i f f e r s from that ciate its s t r i c t n e s s . fact that th e m i n i s t e r s Th e are during their tightly. of the Amish, 254 time Most They had been isolated in Europe o n to t h e p a s t had a difficult C a n a d a to M e x i c o . know English. of M e n n o n i t e s Russia and h a v e to have sojourn in Although their the Old Order Amish appre­ feeling of k i n s h i p is i n d i c a t e d by the listed in R&ber's Calender.^^Various 254. Prom Russia to Canada in 1874 and 1876 and from Canada to Mexico in 1924 and 1926. 255. Riiber, Calender, op- cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 338 - tranches of the Mennonite church have given money and lent money to these colonies to alleviate the terrible conditions caused by years of drought. During the six weeks following an appeal made 256 especially to the Amish, over twenty-two thousand dollars were 257 donated to these colonies. .The interest in the Old Colony Men- nonites in Mexico has continued. A few Amish have 258 visited the colony and it has been suggested that several Old Order Amish min­ isters go down to help them with some of their social and religious problems. 259 Articles on the Old Colony Mennonites are published periodically in the Herald. The Amish have also contributed to the support of the Mennonite colonies in Paraguay. 260 256. " H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e s e p e o p l e s c o m e o u t of a v e r y s i m i l a r background a s do o u r A m i s h f r i e n d s . . .am w r i t i n g t h i s a c c o u n t chiefly f o r o u r A m i s h b r e t h r e n w h o w i l l r e a d it to a p p e a l to them for h e l p i n t w o a r e a s . " H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 19, 1 9 5 3 , p« 1. Written by a M e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r w h o is i n f l u e n t i a l a m o n g t h e Amish. 257» " O f f i c i a l r e p o r t s c a m e f r o m t h e M C C A k r o n , P a . , b y o n e of the c o m m i t t e e m e n , t h a t o v e r t w e n t y - t w o t h o u s a n d d o l l a r s h a s been d o n a t e d u p to l a s t w e e k f o r t h e M e n n o n i t e s i n M e x i c o , a n d there are s t i l l m o r e c o n t r i b u t i o n s c o m i n g i n . " H e r a l d , A p r i l 9, 1953, p. 1. "MCC notes. During recent weeks Amish brethren living in states s t r e t c h i n g f r o m K a n s a s a n d I o w a t o P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d Delaware h a v e m a d e g e n e r o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r r e l i e f n e e d s i n Mexico. H e r o l d , A p r i l 2, 1 9 5 3 , p. 2. 258. P r e a c h e r A b e Y o d e r o f S t a r k C o u n t y is o ne men who v i s i t e d t h e c o m m u n i t y d u r i n g t h e d r o u g h t . 259. H e r a l d . O c t o b e r 1, 260. Herald, March 26, 1953, 195 3 , p. p. of the A m i s h - 6. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 339 - In spite of the m a n y branches of the Mennonite church, the strong feeling that and sometimes develops b e t w e e n the branches, in times of need and times of stress, the var i o u s segments of the church are usually w i l ling to forget their differences to come to the aid of their fellow M e n n o n i t e s . has known no national boundaries. This feeling of kinship In the e ighteenth century the Dutch. Mennonites helped the Swiss M ennonites to emigrate to Amer­ ica. In the twentieth century the A m e r i c a n Mennonites helped the Dutch Mennonites rebuild their churches and the P a r a g u a y a n Mennonites to get established. Mutual aid grows from the church district to the larger community, whole Mennonite church, to fellow communicants, and w h e n they are aware and able, to the their aid goes out to any others in need. INTERACTION WITH O T H E R HIS T O R I C P E A C E CHURCHES The Mennonites, the Society of F riends and the B r e t h r e n are all considered historic peace churches, existences they have refused to support war. for throughout their Following their unfortunate experiences during the first World War, the h istoric peace churches renewed their efforts to w o r k together. During the twenties the Friends had a series of conferences to w h i c h all the peace churches were invited. D u r i n g the t hirties the three peace churches attempted to acquaint the government with their attitude towards war. On January 10, a joint memorandum to the president. 1940, they p resented On October 5> 1940, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. the - National 340 - Service Board for Religious Objectors (NSBRO) was organ­ ized to act as a representative body of the peace churches, which a l l matters could be cleared by Selective Service. through NSBRO has continued as an active organiz a t i o n prote c t i n g the rights of the conscientious objector. 2 61 The M e n n o n i t e Central Committee has continued as one of its strong supporters. The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors its services to Mennonite conscientious objectors, 262 extends but is not form­ ally affiliated with the Mennonite Central C o m m i t t e e . T h i s committee works directly w i t h the individual and rarely through the church. They have helped va r i o u s Amishmen, help has been limited, as it is difficult a l t h o u g h this for some of the com­ mittee members to grasp fully the A m i s h be l i e f that it is w r o n g for them to go to court, or to accept legal aid w h e n they are forced into court. The three peace churches form the m embership of a small A organization k n o w n as the Rural Life Association. This group is interested in p r omoting rural residence for t h e i r members and improving their rural communities. To my knowledge the Amish had no contact with them. 261. NSBRO published a small m o n t h l y paper, for Conscience1 S a k e . 262. The Repo r t e r 2006 Walnut Street, P h i l a d e l p h i a 3 9 Pa. 263. Monthly or bi-monthly reports are issued: News Notes of the Central Committee for Co n s c i entious O b j e c t o r s . ; 264. Quaker Hill, Richmond, Indiana. i a R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 341 - The historic peace churches cooperated with the Fellowship of Reconcilliation in the prepar a t i o n of a testimony to the World Council of Churches,, 265 The A m i s h did not contribute any members to the committee. It may be seen that although there is cooperation b etween the historic peace churches, there is relatively little interaction. The Amish relation to the Friends and B r e t h r e n is most tenuous. was the first Quaker the Stoneyrun A m i s h had met. heard of the Friends They had and were sympathetic towards them, little of what they did or stood for. Brethren are similar, 266 but knew Their relations with the except that there are several Brethren churches in the region, so most of the A mish had at some time met a Brethren, a l t hough they knew almost nothing about them. The various patterns of i nteraction reflect the social structure of the Amish subculture. At all points, the structure is modified and reinforced by their religion. units are the nuclear family, district. or the household, The two most basic and the church These two units generally reinforce one another, but there are important points of conflict at w h i c h the church is always pronounced the primary unit, I but functionally the family 265. Peace is the Will of G-pd, October, 1953® 266. One Amish child, 00A28, said "We often play the game, 'No more laughing, no more fun, Quaker mee t i n g has b e g u n 1 but I never thought about Quakers b ei n g r e a l . " 267. On one occasion I mentioned the Epi s c o l a l i a n church. None of the A m ish I .was talking w i t h had heard of that church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - may prove to be stronger. 268 342 - " The u n i t y of the family is expressed in social visiting that generally involves participation of the whole family. 269 At social occasions the families are seated as units at the dinner table. 270 One family will sit at one end of the table, perhaps a second will sit clustered at one side, while at the other end, family. along the remaining side will sit the third Within the home, the family gathers t ogether while seven times a day the father leads them in prayer. When the father is absent at a meal the m o t h e r will lead the prayer, father is absent in the morning or evening, usually omits reading prayers. However, but w h e n the the incomplete family if the father is dead, the mother may'take over the reading of the prayers at family wor­ ship. Within the family there is continuous and intense inter­ action. The structure of the church district is based on that of the family, in that the family terms "brother" and "sister" are used to express the r e l ationship of all the members of the c hurch to one another. And many emotional responses are directly carried over from the family to the church. In each complete church 268. See Chapter V I I for a d i s c u s s i o n of the ban b etween husband and wife. 269. Except absent. on certain occasions w h e n the adolescents may be 270. For a diagram of this seating arrangement see Appendix 17, Part D. f R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 343 - district, four of the br e t h r e n have b e e n selected from the congrega­ tion to minister to the church. and one deacon. two preachers They remain brothers, but in status they are ritually older brothers, for at the church lunch the ministers, even though they be young, men. There are one bishop, eat at the first setting with the old As in the Amish family, the older b r o t h e r partially re­ places his father in his father's absence, so the ministers in an older brother relationship to the congregation, God's will to them. stand r e p r e senting 271 The posi tion of the church as preeminent is i ndicated by the separation of families during the service and at the church lunch. The brethren sit and eat b y age-grade and sex. bi-weekly church service, At the the u n i t y of the church is expressed and the nuclear family is largely ignored. The u nity of the community is most vividly expressed and reinforced at the semi­ annual communion service. Each church district is part of a l arger structure, Old Order Amish church. the Geographically close church districts express their relatedness ritually by constant m insterial v i s i t ­ ing, especially for communion service. These churches cooperate 271. This is not to be u n d e r s t o o d as indicating that an Amish minister is an intercessor b e t w e e n the individual and God; such a belief is completely foreign to the Amish. Ra t h e r the ministers carry out God's orders i n caring for the co n g r e g a t i o n as the older brother carries out his father's directions w h e n caring for the younger siblings. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - in a mutual aid plan, most uniform. 344 - and they attempt to keep the i r ordn u n g a l ­ T h e i r structure is reinforced by social visiting, constant communication, economic inter a c t i o n and unif i e d reaction to external threats or hardships. These same patterns uni t e the geographically distant Ami s h community, limited scale. hardship. a l t h o u g h on a somewhat Mutu a l aid is only extended in cases of unus u a l Effort is made to keep the ordnung u n i f o r m on m a j o r issues, but not on m i n o r points. Al l the w r i t t e n ordnungs have been signed by m inisters from geograp h i c a l l y distant communities. Ministers travel all over the country and celebrate communion with distant churches, but for practical reasons, these occasions are more infrequent than celebrations with n e i g h b o r i n g church districts. Weddings and funerals furt h e r integrate distant com­ munities. The network of Ami s h relationships 272 lead out f r o m the family and the church district to.' Old O r d e r A m i s h communities all over North America. In spite of the geogra p h i c a l distances, mesh of this network is small. the Wh e n two A m i s h meet they soon identify acquaintances they have in common and often kinsmen. Almost every path eventually leads back to the place it began. The network of relationships barely extends beyond the ideologi­ cal limits of the A m i s h church. There are some mesh e s lead i n g 272. I am u s i n g B a r n e s ’ image of a m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l n e t ­ work as described in J. A. Barnes, "Class and Committee in a Norwegian Island Parish," Hum a n R e l a t i o n s . February, 1954, pp. 43-44 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 345 - out to other Amish churches and some to conferences of the "old" These are u s u ally built on kinship ties and, Mennonites. com­ pared with the density of the m e s h w i t h i n the Old Order church, are very loose, a few of course extend out into the world. Each A m i s h adult is a me m b e r of a family, and the Old Order A m i s h church. pressed ritually, one another. a church district His member s h i p in each is ex­ and the three areas are ritually related to The individual prays daily with his family, he cele- brates communion w i t h his church district and he attends church, 27S weddings and funerals in Amish communities throughout North America. The family is ritually related to the church, for only within the church can an A m i s h family be established and p e r i o d i ­ cally the family acts as host for the services in his church district. The church district is related ritually to the larger communityby ministers from the different districts sharing commun­ ion services, and exchanging the kiss of peace. Thus it is seen that w i t h i n the boundaries established in Chapter Three, the Amish community is clearly structured. these boundaries in t e r a c t i o n suddenly falls off, ships are more tenuous. Beyond and r elation­ The only ritual expression of relation that exists beyond these boundaries is the occasional p articipa­ tion of an Old Order A m i s h m i ni s t e r in a funeral service in a 273. Neighboring churches meet alternate Sundays, which facilitates church visitation. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 346 closely related Ami s h Mennonite church. - The Old Order A m i s h join with other Mennonites in various relief projects, and w i t h the other peace churches in their oppos i t i o n to milit a r y entanglement. Although this cooperation is based on religious values, there is no ritual cooperation. The Amish can be placed within the structure of the larger society, but a l t h o u g h the world impinges upon them, the Amish conceive of themselves as being outside its structure „ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. CHAPTER Y INTERACTION WITH THE WORLD RELATION TO THE WORLD The Amish community is in the world,1 hut not of the ? world o'" Geographically the community is surrounded and even penetrated hy the world, hut the value orientation of its members keeps the community from being of the world.^ They 1. "The world" is used to signify the aspects of the culture that surrounds the Amish that are at variance with their own culture. A Mennonite, Edward Yoder, in M,The Obli­ gation of the Christian to the State and Community - 'Render to Ceasar*" M Q R , April, 1939, p. 107, illustrates what is meant by the world when he writes "Whatever among men was not oriented toward God, He Jesus referred to as the 'world' . If men were hostile to God or to the things of Sod, they were of the "'world'". 2. S. Schlabach, "Die Welt in ihrem Zustand", H d W , November 15, 1953, pp. 686-7. Dietrich Philip, Enchiridion or Hand Book of the Christrian Doctrine and Religion, compileled (by the grace of God) from the Holy Scriptures for the benefit of all lovers of the Truth (Elkhart, I n d .: Men­ nonite Publishing Co., 1910), p. 402. 3. "The Christian, while he sojourns here on earth, must not forget that he is in the enemy's territory and that he must maintain that consistent watchfulness without which one can not stand against the world, the flesh and the devil. A.A.M. , "Christian Walk and Life, Watchfulness", H d W , October 15, 1953, p. 629. Written by an Old Order Amishman. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 347 - withdraw f r o m a w o r l d l e d by Satan^ into the c h u r c h b u il t with Christ as the c h i e f c o r n e r s t o n e . desire f o r g r e a t n e s s 5 T h e m e m b e r s h a v e no in this w o r l d , ^ f o r t h e y are c o n f i d e n t that they h a v e a c h i e v e d i m m o r t a l i t y w h e n t h e i r n am e w a s w r i t 7 ten in the ’’b o o k of l i f e ” o . T h e y are but p i l g r i m s w ho have 4. ” ...ich leider im reich des Satans, mit dem Werken der Finsterniss, dem Ftlrsten dieser Welt gedienet, ja dass der bdsse Feind sein Reich in mir gehabt und mich gefangen gehalten durch die Stlnde, zu seinem Mitwillen. Die ernsthafte Christenpflicht enthaltend Schdne geistreiche Gebete, womit sich fromme Christenherzen zu alien Zeiten und in alien NOten trdsten kdnnen (Scottdale, Pa.: Minnonitesche Verlagshandlung, 1 9 4 5 ), pp. 8 1 - 8 2 . 5. Confession of Faith, article VIII. 6. ’’Hat sich ihnin zum Beyspiel vorgestellt, als welcher vor aller Hohelt dieser welt ist geplohen." Thieleman J . van B r a g h t , Der Blutige Schau-Platz, oder Martyrer Spiegel der Tauffs-Gesinnten, Oder wehrlosen Christen, Die urn des Zeugnisses Jesu, Ihres Seligmachers, willen, gelitten haben, und getddtet worden sind7 von Ciiristi Zeit an, bis auf das Jahr 1660 (Lancaster, P a .: Josepn Ehrenfried, 1814), P° 333. "...der Heiland ein Beispiel gegeleen hat, als ein sulchu, v/elcher vor der Hoheit dieser Welt geflohen ist,..." P.Y. "Kdnnen wir die weltlicht Uemter Helfen bestimmen?" HdW, January 15, 1954, p. 39. "...the worldling starves his higher nature. He gives all of his attention to this life that perishes and none to the life beyond." Nelson Kauffman, "Our Conflict with the World," GH, October 19, 1954, p. 985. 7. "This is a nice time of the year, especially to appreciate that it was made possible to have our name written in the Book of Life. May yours and ours be found therein." 00 A 8 . or an Easter message 1953. 8 . " . . .encouragement and consolation to my fellowpilgrims toward the Land of Rest." A.A.M. "The Christian Life and Walk, Our Cares," H d W , October., 1953, p. 5 97 . Evan J .. Miller, "Strangers and Pilgrims," H d W , September 15, 1954, pp. 537-8. Martyrer Spiegel- op. c i t . 1814, p.333 "...die Nachfolger Christi, als Fremdlinge und Pilger..." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 348 - "no abi di ng p l a c e h e r e . ” g The r e l a t i o n of the A m i s h to the w o r l d is d e t e r m i n e d by the A m i s h c o n c e p t secular. of the r e l a t i o n of C h r i s t i a n i t y to the W h i l e the C a t h o l i c church places under G o d , " ^ t he A m i s h b e l i e v e curely u n d e r God. devil. 11 all of S o c i e t y o n l y t h e i r o w n s o c i e t y is se­ Th e rest of the w o r l d is b e i n g le d b y the G i v e n this d i s t i n c t i o n and this be l i e f of Amish s o c i e t y b e c o m e s e ve ry a s p e c t r e l i g i o u s and it is p o s s i b l e to i n ­ terpret a n y i n f l u e n c e f r o m the o u t s i d e w o r l d as a n i m p i n g e ­ ment of the s e c u l a r u p o n the sacred, area that is not t y p i c a l l y d e f i n e d as r el ig io u s. To the A m i s h the B i b l e t e a c h e s world; 12 e v e n if it is i n a n s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the the D o r t r i c h t C o n f e s s i o n of f a i t h d e m a n d s separation 9. "The community w a s ...reminded we have no abiding place here..." Herald, March 15? 1951» P« 6 . "Unser Leben," HdW, XLIII January 15, 1954? p. 45. P.Y. "Unser Wandel ist in Himinel" , H d W , December 13, 1953, pp. 740-2. 10. Gustave Weigel, "Catholic and Protestant Theolo­ gies in Outline," American. Scholar, Summer, 1956, pp. 516. 11. Inspite of the early Anabaptist belief that only members of the true, visible church could go to heaven, to­ day many Amish believe that heaven is available to a few select people who do not belong to the Old Order Amish church. 12 . John 15:19 - R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 349 from the world; 13 J and the ordnung enforces separation. In spite of this the Amish realize that complete separation from the world is i m p os si bl e. ...As is also made plain in I Cor. 10:27, which all goes to show that we d o n ’t need to shun the world as Paul says we c a n ’t. We should nevertheless as James says, Keep ourselves unspotted from the world...We can use the world insofar as necessary to providg^for our natural needs, using of course lawful means. The A m ish m u s t use the world, but in e x c ha ng e t h e y aid the w or l d . As we u s e salt to p r e s e r v e o u r food, to s e a s o n and to f l a v o r it, so does God use us C h r i s t i a n s to en­ l i g h t e n and r e s c u e the d e p r a v e d and t h o u g h t l e s s h u ­ m a n race f r o m p e r d i t i o n and d am na t i o n . The Amish a c ce pt the fact that there m u s t be c o n s i d e r a b l e interaction b e t w e e n t h e i r c o m m u n i t y and the v/orld. that they cannot p r e v e n t all contact, Knowing t h e y a t t e m p t to co nt ro l it as f ar as jjossible f o r the life of the c o m m u n i t y depends on the successfulness of controlled interaction. The d i f f u s i o n of ideas f r o m the w o r l d into the A m i s h community is u s u a l l y a s l o w p r o c e s s f o r as a g r o u p t h e y are 13. A r t i c l e XVI. 14. N. Stolt zf us , A n A n s w e r to C. J. S c h l a b a c h re­ garding Shunning, T r a c t o r s , Autos, and E l e c t r i c i t y ^ (Saint Joe, Ark.: Martin P r in te rs , 1951;, p. 12. 15. Daniel E. Mast, Lessons in the Sermon on the Mount (tr. John B. Mast) (Scottdale, Pa.: .Mennonite Pub­ lishing House, 1953), pp. 45-46. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - advocates of conservatism. 35 0 - They accept new ways, hut they prefer not to accept them until they have become old ways in the world outside of the Amish community. RELIGIOUS INTERACTION Religious i n t e r a c t i o n The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y has no c e r e m o n i a l i n t e r a c t i o n with the world. In spite of this, religious ideas and forms are d i f f u s i n g f r o m the outs id e w o r l d into the A m i s h community. B e f o r e these f o r e i g n ideas are a d m i t t e d t h e y are recombined, r e w o r k e d and i n t e g r a t e d into the A m i s h jjattern until in t h e i r n e w co n te xt t h e y h a ve become t r u l y Amish. 17 If this is not p o s s ib le t h e y are rejected. 16. H. G. Barnett, Innovation: The Basis of Cul­ tural Change (New York: MeGraw Hill Book Co., 1953), p7 307. An Old Order Amishman, P.Y. "weltliche Uemter” p. 39: "...und wenn eine Sache schon lang irn Gebrauch ist dann ist es wo hi schwer um es zu flndern. Wir als amische Leute sind im ganzen mehr Oder weniger sehr streng um alte Gesetze und Gebrauchen afzuhalten, aber wenn eine Sache schon lange verloren gegangen ist, vielleicht schon etliche Geschlechter zur&ck dann neinen wir es war irarner so; aber das imraer raeint nur so weit zurttch als wir uns bestimmen kdnnen, und so kOnnen rnache Sachen in die Gemeinden einschleichen wo frtiher micht waren. 1 7 . Tor a discussion of the tensions caused by in­ filtration of new ideas, that are incompletely integrated see Chapter VII. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Amish religious 3 5 1 - c e l e b r a t i o n s are u s u a l l y a t t e n d e d only by m e m b e r s of the A m i s h c h u r c h and t h e i r child re n. The most impor ta nt to o u t s i d e r s . celebration, that of commun io n, is c l o s e d No one o t h e r t h a n a m e m b e r in g o o d standingi of the home c h u r c h or a v i s i t i n g m i n i s t e r of a n Old O r d e r Amish c h u r c h m a y join i n the ser vi ce Breaking of the bread. of r e m e m b r a n c e and the Nor would an Amishman ever celebrate -j O communion in a n y c h u r c h o t h e r t h a n his own, f o r to h i m the celebration is as i m p o r t a n t f o r his r e l a t i o n s h i p to his comrnunity 19 as f o r his r e l a t i o n s h i p to God; be me an ingless therefore it w o u l d ou t si de his o wn communi ty . The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y is n e v e r r e p r e s e n t e d at a n y i n t e r ­ church c o nf er en ce s . I n d i v i d u a l s m a y s u p p o r t v a r i o u s no n- Amish relig io us p ro gr a ms , 20 or through r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , but the c o mm un it y, does not for a d i s c u s s i o n of c o m m o n p r o b l em s The B i b l e is the basis 18. as a unit join w i t h o t h e r c h u r c h e s or programs of ac tion. of the A m i s h m a n ' s life, it D. Philip, erg. c i t . 1910, p. 425. 19• Millard Lind ’’W h a t ’s a Community” , Christian Living, March, 1954? P* 3» " f o r it is impossible to be a Christian without also being a member of a Christian com­ munity” . 20. The Bible Society and various mission programs. Occasionally a letter will be closed with stamps of the Am­ erican Bible Society (00A25, XIl/ 22/ 53. 1954 and OO A93 , X/12 /53) or with mission stamps (Holy Land Christian Approach Mission,) OOA93 , X/12/53 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 352 - contains the a n s w e r to e v e r y problem., though n e v e r r e pl a ce d, Mennonites be f o r e dion 21 It is su p p l e m e n t e d , by f o u r b o o k s that w e r e w r i t t e n b y the A m i s h d iv i s i o n . , Mennon Simon's Fundamentbuch 22 D i r k P h i l i p ’s Enchi'ri, T h e i l m a n v a n B r a c h t ’s 21. Dietrich Philip, Enchiridion, / Oder/ Hendbuchlein,/ Von der/ Christlichen Lehlehre und Religion./ Zum Dienst von alien Liebhabern der Wahreheit (durch die Gnade Gottes) aus der Heiligan/ Schrift g e m a c h t . / Mit einem schonen und fasslichen Register. Durch Dietrich Philip./ I Thess. 5» 19«/ Den Geist dampfer nicht; die Weissagung verachtet/ nicht; prufet aber a l l e s , und das Gute behalt et./ Meider alien desen Scoin./ (Zuvor gedrucht zu Harlem, (in Holland) jetz aber auf das treueste ubersezt in hoschdeutsche Sprache,/ durch die liebhaber der Wahrheit./ Lancaster,: Pa.: Gedrucht bey Joseph Ehrenfried./ 1811.) Frequent editions. Harold S. Bender, Two Centuries of American Minnonite Literature 1727-1928 (Goshen, Ind.: Minnonite Historical Society, 1929), p. 11 (German edi­ tions: 1811, 1851» 1857, 1872, 1917; English edition: 1910). 22. Die/ vollstandigen Werke/ Menno S i m o n ’s/ ttbersetzt aus der/ Originalsprache,/ dem Holiandischen;/ enthaltend, seinen Ausgang aus der ROmischen Kirche; Fundament und klare Anweisung/ von der seligmachenden Lehre unsers Herrn Jesu Christi; Eine klare Beantwortung der/ Schriften Gellius Faber’s; Eine demhthige Bitte dar a m e n , verachteten Christen;/ Sine Entschuldigung; Excommunication; Antwort auf A'Lasco; die Minschwerdung Christi; Bekenntniss des dreieinigen Gottes; Christliche Taufe;/ die Ursache, Warum u. s. w.; Ein Vekenntniss; Antwort auf Zylis/ und Lemmekes; Eine Epwiderung; Die Menschwerdung; Eine Ent-/gegnung auf Martin Micron; Jesus, der vahre schriftliche David;/ Briefe und Andere mehr./ Der Mund des Gerechten redet die Wahrhe und seine Zunge lehret das Recht; das/ gleiten nicht,” P s . 37 , 30, 31■>/ Gedenket an eure Lehrer, die euch das Wort Gottes gesagt haben, v/elcher Ende schauet/ an, und folget ihrem Glauben nach.” Heb. 13 7./ Funk Au sgabe, 1876/ Rfiber A u s g a b e , 1926. Printed for J. A. Raber/ Baltic, Ohio. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Martyrer Seele 24 . 353 - 23 S p i e ge l J an d J o h a n n P h i l i p p S c h a b a l i e ' s W a n d e l n d e In t he h o m e w h e r e v/ere read in the a b o v e read by f a r the l e a s t . I spent the m o s t time t hese bo ok s o r d e r w i t h the W a n d e l n d e I n the o t h e r h om es Seele b e i n g I v i s i t e d the 23. Per/ B l u t i g e S c h a u - P l a t z ,/ op. cit 0 pp. 14, 15, 3 6 , 50 for editions of Minno Simon's works/ Oder/ Martyre? Spiegel/ der Tauffs-Gesinnten,/ oder wehrlosen Christen,/ Die urn des Zeugnisses Jesu, ihres Seligmachers, willen, gelitten haben, und getodtet worden sind,/ von Christi Zeit an, bis auf das Jahr 1660./' Vormals aus u.nt erschiedlichen glaubwhrdigen Chroniken, Nachrichten und Zeugnissen gesamrnelt,/ und in Hollandischer Sprache herausgegeben von/ T „ J. V. Bracht./ Hun aber sorgfaltigst ins geb r a c h t ./ Arbeite und Hoffe./ Zweyte Americanische A ufl age ./ Lancaster: (Pennsylvanien) Gedrucht bey Joseph Ehrenfried./ 1814. German editions printed in America, 1749, 1814 , 1849, 1870, 1915, 1951. See Bender, Two Centuries, _ojo. c i t . p. 3- Eng­ lish editions 1837, 1886, 1939, 1951. The importance of the Martyrer Spiegel is indicated by its being mentioned in many wills, "To my well-beloved son...I give and bequeath my Mar­ tyr Book." Daniel Pl . H eat wol e, "The Ephrata Martyrs Mirror," Mennonite Community, October, 1949, p. 13. 24. Die/ Wandlende Seel,/ Das ist;/ Gesprach/ der/ Wandelnden Seelen mit Adam. Noah und Simon Cleophas;/ verfasset die/ Geschi Geschichten von Erschaffung der/ Welt an, biss zu und nach der/ Verwustung Jerusalems./ Darous ordentlich zu ersehen, wie eine/ Monarchie und Konigrieich auf die andere gefolget,/ und auch der ausfuhrliche Yerlauff der/ Zerstohrung Jerusalem./ Durch/ Johann Philip Schabalie/ in Niederlandischer Sprach Beschrieben;/ Anjetzo aber in die Hoschteutsche Sprach ubersetzet/ von B.B.B./ De Zweyte A u f l a g e ./ Germantown: Gedrucht und zu finden, bey Christoph Saur, 1771. See Bender, Two Centuries, o p . c i t ., p. 4 . "Bender lists nine­ teen editions betv/een 1763 and 1919. In 1834, an English translation was achieved b y . . ,I.D. Rurjp, and this translation was five times reprinted by 1874." There is at present some agitation to have another English reprint. Herald, May 17, 1956, p. 4 . Robert Friedmann, Mennonite Piety Through the Centuries (Goshen, Ind.: Mennonite Historical Society, 1949), P • 115. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 354 - Martyrer books. Spiegel w a s the most frequently read of these four The first two books w e r e w r i t t e n by early l ea de rs the M e n n o n i t e s in Hol la nd . monk and M enno of D i r k P h i l i p had b e e n a F r a n c i s c a n Simons had b e e n a p a r i s h priest. Y a n Bracht: and Schabalie were b o t h m i n i s t e r s of M e n n o n i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n s in Holland d u ri n g the s e v e n t e e n t h century. Since the time of the A m i s h d i v i s i o n there has b e e n a tiny trickle of A m i s h r e l ig io u s p u b l i c a t i o n s . are the le tters of the A m i s h division. letters to s i s t e r c h u rc he s 25 L a t e r there were e x p l a i n i n g re li g i o u s cer e mo ni es , and fr om time to time rules f o r c h u r c h m e m b e r s been dr awn up. 27 The ea rl ie st 26 (ordnnng) have Some m i n u t e s of o c c a s i o n a l m i n i s t e r s ’ 25. Eine Begebenheit, die such in der MinnonitenG-emeinde in Deutschland und in der Schv/eiz von 1693 bis 1700 zugetragen hat. (Arthur, 111., A.M. Publishing Association, 1936). Johnnes Moser, "Eine Verantwortung gegen Daniel Musser's Meidungs Erklrung, welche er gemacht hat in seinem Buch, betitelt" Reformirte Mennonite (Lancaster, Pa.: J. E. Barr and Co., 186 9)• John B . Mast (ed.), Eine Erklarung tlber Bann und Meidung: Beschrieben zur Zeit der Amisch Spalt von 1693-1711 Weatherford, Oklahoma : 1949. John B. Mast (trans. and e d .) , The Letters of the Amish Division of 16931711. (Oregon City, Oregon, piublished by Christian J. Schlabach, printed by the Mennonite Publishing House, 1950). 26. Hans Nafziger, "An Amish Church Discipline of 1781" MQR, IV April, 1930, pp. I 4 0 -I 4 8 . John U m b l e , "An Amish Minister's Manual" M Q R : April, 1941» PP« 95-118. Joh. D. Hockstetler (trans.) Ein alter Brief (Elkhart, Indiana: Mennonitische Verlagshandlung, 1916). 27. See Chapter III. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - meetings have "been p u b l i s h e d , 28 355 - as w e l l as l e tt e rs f r o m p a r t i - cipahts . T h es e have b e e n f o l l o w e d "by hoo ks essays that could hav e b e e n sermons, letters to c h il d re n. 29 of s e r mo ns o r collections of p oe m s and P e r i o d i c a l l y t r a c t s are p r i n t e d ' b y 28o See H. S. Bender, "Amish Church Discipline of 1779" M Q R , April, 1937, pp. 163-8. H. S. Bender, "An Amish church discipline of 1781", M Q R , April, 1930, pp. 140-8. H. S. Bender, "Some early American Amish Mennonite disciplines", MQR, A^ril, 1934, pp. 90-8. H. S. Bender, "The Minutes of the Amish conference of 1809 probably held in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania", M Q R , July, 1946, pp. 241-2. Bericht der Verhandlungen der jahrlichen Zusammerkunft der Amishen Mennoniten Diener und Bruderschaft, 1862-187 8 . Printed annually as ’ f ol­ lows: Lancaster (Pennsylvania), 1862-5, 1869; Chicago (Illi­ nois), 1866; Elkhart (Indiana), 1867, 1869-78. John A. Hos­ tetler, "Amish problems at Diener Versammlungen", ML, October, 1949, pp. 34-8. "Eine Abschrift von einem Schreiben von Dienerversammlungen gehalten in Pennsylvanien und Ohio" and "Lancaster County, April den 20ten 1 8 6 4 " (Resolutions passed at the conference). See David Beiler, Eine Yermahnung Oder Andenken, no place, no date , pp. 15-2"8"i 291« 29. Por example, "Eine Vermahnung an meine Kinder" in David Beiler, Das Wahre Christenthum (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonitische Verlagshaus, 1951), p r>. 3-5-31. Eine Betrachtung und Erkl&rnng fiber Bann und Meidung und der Grund in Gottes Wort, fiber welche er soil ausgesprochen werden. Kinzers, Pa.: 1948 . George Jutzi, Ermahnung von George Jutze an seine Hinterbliebenen, nebst einem Anhange fiber die Entstehung der Amischen Gemeinde von Sara. Zook (Somerset,Pa.: Published by Alexander Stutzman, l'B53 3 • Sem Kaufman, Instructions to my Children (Davidsville, Sorners -t County, Pa.). Daniel E. Mast, Anweisung zur Seligkeit (Baltic, Ohio: J. A. Raber) 1930 . Mast, Lessons, o p . c i t . Jacob A. Miller, Vermahnungs-Schreiben von Jacob A. Miller an seine K i n d e r . Holmesville, Ohio: A.A. Miller, 1949. Sam­ uel W. Peachey, Last writings of Samuel W. Peachey (Belle­ ville , P a .: Samuel H. Peachey, 1941) . Noah T . Schrag, Eine herzliehe Vermahnung an alle Liebhaber der Wahreheit (Pheonix, Arizona: 1911) . D. -Stutzman, Der schmale Verleugnungsweg, Einge kurze christliche Yermahnung an Meine Kinder (Millersourg, Ohio: 1917) . David A. Treyer, Hinterlassene Schriften von David A. Treyer von Holmes County, Ohio (Arthur, 1 1 1 .: L. A. Miller, 1925. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 356 - different individuals.^ In g e n e r a l the A m i s h r e l i g i o u s writing is e x p o s t u l a t o r y r a t h e r t h a n d e v o t i o n a l o r i n s p i r a ­ tional. The m o r e of Dirk P h i l i p . l i t e r a r y w o r k s f o l l o w the p a t t e r n of w r i t i n g Th e heen d e v o t i o n a l was Knowing that only A m i s h h o o k I k n o w that m i g h t h a v e one w r i t t e n by a c r i p p l e d A m i s h w o ma n. I was m a k i n g this s t u d y she d e c l i n e d to s e n d me a copy of the b o o k . ^ M o s t A m i s h h o m e s have r e l i g i o u s b o o k s ite origin. 32 Pilgereisen. ^ P e r h a p s the m o s t p o p u l a r of these Some is B u n y a n ’s of the o t h e r f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d book s are: Der Fttrst aus D a v i d s H a u s ^ 30. of n o n - M e n n o n - , In Hi s S t e p s '^, H u r l b u t ’s ^ , See Chapter I Y . 31. Sara Weaver, "Green Pastures" (privately printed at the judget Printing Co., 1951). I later obtained a copy of the book. No distinction is made between selected and original material. It is rather a reassuring collection than a devotional book. The authors wish is that it may bring hope, strength, comfort and renewed faith and courage by directing the thoughts of the weary pilgrim to Him. 32. H. S. Bender, "The Literature and Hymnology of Lancaster County, Pa.", MQR July, 1932, p. 156. "The small stock of books brought along from Europe by the immigrants Amish and Mennonites were chiefly non-Mennonite in charac­ ter." 34 • Der Ptirst aus English The Prince of the Davids H a u s , J. H. Ingraham, in House of D a v i d . 35. Charles M. Sheldon, In His Steps: "What Would Jesus D o ?0 (New York; Grosset & D u n l a p , 19--.) 36. Jesse L. Hu rlb ut, Hurlbut*s Story of the Bible for Young and O l d . (Philadelphia. Pa.: J. G. Winston, c. 1904). Johann Habermann, Doctor Johann Habermanns, Christlichefs Gebat-Buehlein enthaltend Morgen und Abencsegen aug alle Tage in der Woche (Lancaster, Pa.: J. Baer, 1838). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 357 - Egerraeier1s ^ , F o s t e r ’s^®, or Aunt Charleote 1 ■book. Bible story First Steps for Little Peet^ r Pox's Book of Martyrs^ 42 and Mennonitische Mar t y r e r . man- English An English dictionary, a Ger­ dictionary, and a concordance or a Bible diction­ ary are found in most homes. Some of the recent Mennonite books, such as the stories of Christmas Carol Kaufman 43 and Me Caramon5s We Tried to S t a y , are widely read by the Amisho Today M o o d y ’s Colportage Library is popular, J. F. Funk, who was the founder of the Herald of T r u t h , a magazine sub­ sequently combined with the Gospel Witness to form the Gospel Herald, was greatly influenced by D. 1. Moody 44 and through his publications Moody's works reached the Mennon­ ites and in turn the Amish. 37. Elsie E. Egermeier, Egermeier's Bible Story Book, (copyright 1927). 38. Charles Foster, sis to Revelation. Story of the Bible from Gene­ 39. Charlotte M. Young, Aunt Ch arlotte’s Stories of Bible History. 40. Charles Foster, First Steps for Little Feet in Gospel Paths . 41. W. B „ Forbush (ed.) P o x ’s Book of M a r t y r s . 42. A. A. Toews, Mennonitische Ma rt y r e r . 43. Lucy Winchester, Dannie of Cedar C l i f f s , Life with Life Not R e g i n a , all published at Scottdale, Pa. 44. A. C. Kolb, "John Fretz Funk, 1835-1930; preciation". MQR, July, 1943? p. 144-155. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. An Ap­ - 3-58 - T h e r e is a s p e c i a l type of n o n - M e n n o n i t e b o o k that the Amish c l a s s i f y as r eligious; the a n t i - C a t h o l i c p o le m ic . 45 Host of these b e i n g r ead t o d a y o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d e ar ly in the last c entury. received, One f a m i l y s h o w e d me d e s c r i b i n g M a r i a M o n k , and The P r i e s t , T h e W o m a n /L& and the C o n f e s s i o n a l . books were true. owned it. some tra ct s t h e y had T h e y a s k e d m e if I k n e w w h e t h e r the T h e y ha d read M a r i a M o n k ', but ha d n e v e r W h e n I v i s i t e d a f a m i l y that asked to see it. able to f in d it, We h u n t e d o w n ed the book, I e v e r y w h e r e f o r it, but were u n ­ and the o w n e r said he c o ul d not r e m e m b e r to whom he had lent it. W h e n I was at a n A m i s h b o o k s t o r e one of the c u s t o m e r s b o ug ht a c op y of a n old a n t i - C a t h o l i c book but u n f o r t u n a t e l y I was u n a b l e to get the r e f e r e n c e f o r I did not k n o w the c u s t o m e r v e r y well, one of h i d i n g the b o o k f r o m me, and his a t t i t u d e was an o u ts i d e r . M o d e r n b oo ks 4-5. Maria Monk, Maria Monk, or Secrets of the Black Nunnery in Montreal, Canada, Revealed (Toledo, O h i o , Book and Bible House, 1948)• Originally published a s : Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Lieu Nunnery of Montreal (January, 1836). ---------- Father C.P.T. Chiniqui Chiniquy, 1809-99 ? The P r i e s t , the Woman, and the Confessional. (Toledo, Ohio: Book and Bible H o u s e , 1947). 46. See Appendix V, Part A for photostat of part of the tract on Maria Monk. Tract published by the Book and Bible House, Toledo., Ohio. Many tracts of non-Amish origin circulate among the Amish. I am constantly being sent them with book orders and in letters. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 359 - by Catholic converts to P r o t e s t a n i s m ^ are also read, al­ though they do not seem to be as popular as the older antiCatholic w o r k s . The reading of non-religious literature is discouraged by the Amish. fiction is not to be read as it is a waste of time and it is slightly sinful to read anything that is not true. This attitude is well illustrated by a Russo-Canadian Mennonite’s experience. Later when I came to Canada and in my broken English tried to make plain to a Mennonite bishop that I was a "novelist” (that being the translation for "Schriftsteller" in my dictionary), he was very much surprised. He then tried to make plain to me that "novelists" were fiction writers and that fic­ tion was a lie, I surely would not want toprepresent myself to him as a professional liar. I ran into this same attitude when I was trying to dis­ cover to what extent Prince of the House of D a v i d , a book frequently advertised by Amish booksellers, was read. Every­ one I asked knew of the book, but no one had read it. One minister said, " I t ’s just a story. is it? It i s n ’t really Biblical Some man just took some facts from the Bible and made up the rest."^^ His whole attitude implied that "it 47. B. H. Pearson, The Monk who lived a g a i n . Garrido Aldama, Prom Roman Priest to Radio Evangelist. 43. J. H. Janzen "The Literature of the RussoCanadian Mennonites", Mennonite Life, January, 1946, p. 22. 49. 00A1 ! R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Man - 360 - is exceedingly sinful to either add to or take away from GOD'S w o r d " N o t only is fiction forbidden but the Amish are not allowed to read the supposedly true accounts that appear in such magazines as True Romance or True Story as these are worldly, immoral, and have lustful pictures to illustrate them. Therefore the only exciting or escape literature available to them is anti-Catholic literature. Most of the Amish people do not know any Catholics per­ sonally 0 Almost the only thing they know about them is what they have learned from the stories in the Martyrer Speigel, where the Catholics appear as cruel, insensitive tormentors who tortured and killed the ancestors of the Amish who stood fast in the true faith. written as true experiences 51 The anti-Catholic books, , contain descriptions or il­ lusions to every imaginable crime against society. After Maria Monk had described seduction, sadism, and murder that took place in one convent, she describes going through a locked door. What she observed on the other side was "too horrible" to mention. This leaves ones imagination free 50. N. ^toltzfus, 0£. c i t .; An Answer to C. J . Schlabach regarding Shunning, Tractors, Autos, and Electricity TSaint Joe, Ark/: Martin Printers, 1951) P* 6. 51. Soon after Maria Monk was published it was com­ pletely and accurately refuted by W. L. Stone, J h r i m M o n i . .. and Refutation of the "Awful Disclosures11 (New Y o r k , 1836 ) . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. to postulate what crime could possibly be worse than those she had a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d . The a n t i - C a t h o l i c b oo k s c o n t r i b u t e a note of e x c i t e ­ ment to the r e l a t i v e l y calm, p l a c i d l i ve s fearing s aints and h e l p t h e m to d r a w m o r e against the s i n f u l n e s s tha t m a s q u e r a d e s world at large. T h e y als o of these G o d ­ closely together as r e l i g i o n in the s a f e l y h e l p to f u l f i l l the A m i s h - rnan's c u r i o s i t y a b o u t the w o r l d o ut s i d e t h e i r c om m un it y, this world, as p a i n t e d in the a n t i - C a t h o l i c for books, m a k e the Amish w i s h to w i t h d r a w e v e n m o r e f r o m a n y contact w i t h it. In e v e r y A m i s h hom e is f o u n d the old book, C h r i s t e n p f l l o h t church s e r v ic es 54- 53 . This rjrayer book, and for family worship, 52 German prayer- u s e d in the A m i s h illustrates vividly 52. First published in 1727 (C. Henry Smith, Mennonite Immigration, p. 350) or 1739 (Friedman, op. cit ♦, p. 139)« American editions 1770, 1785, 1808, 1810, 18267; [two editions) 1839, 1841, 1846, 1852, 1862, 1868, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1886, 1892, 1894, 1904, (two editions) 1907, 1908, 1914, 1915, 1924, 1927, 1937, 1939, 1941, 1945. Bender, Two Centuries, o p . c i t . p. 3o 53. Bie ernsthafte/ Christenpflicht/enthaltend/SchOne geistreiche Gebete,/ womit sich fromme Christenherzen zu alien zeiten und/ in alien NOten trbsten kOnnen./ Nebst Glaubens/ und das/ Glaubens-Bekenntniss der wehr-und rachlosen/ Christen Revidierte und vermahrte Ausgabe./ 1945 . Mennonitische Verlags handlung,/ Scottdale, Pennsylvania./ For an excellent discus­ sion of this book see Friedmann, ojd . c i t ., pp. 189-202. 54. Friedmann, p. 195 states that "it is a prayer book in the projjer sense, intended for private devotion and edification, and is in no way a formulary for ecclesiastical purposes such as, for instance, the Anglican Book of Common Prayer." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 362 - their accepting attitude towards selected foreign religious material. Van Sittert in the introduction to his translation of the Mennonite confession of faith, in I 6 6 4 , expressed the attitude, common today among the Amish, that religious ex­ pression of members of other churches could he edifying. As the e v e n i n g and the m o r n i n g p r a y e r a n d the p r a y e r b e f o r e an d a f t e r m e a l s of the R e f o r m e d D u t c h P r a y e r b o o k are s c r i p t u r a l an d u s e f u l f o r e d i f i c at io n, o u r f o l k in th is c o u n t r y use t h e m o f t e n a n d t e a c h t h e m to o u r y o u n g p e o p l e . . .Many of o u r f o l k who spea k or u n d e r s t a n d Germ an , or k n o w h o w to read or sing i t , use v e r y m u c h the s c r i p t u r a l h y m n s by L u t h e r as we do not like to reject o r t h i n k lit t le of a n y t h i n g we u n d e r s t a n d to be i n a c c o r d a n c e with' ““ Go d ' s Word, it m a y come f r o m w h a t e v e r C h ri st ia n, it m a k e s no d i f f e r e n c e to us. W h o s o e v e r has s o m e t h i n g t r u l y right a n d p r a i s e w o r t h y to g i v e , we like to share it, a n d we care m o r e f o r the g l o r y of God t h a n f o r the f a v o r of me n. . . When I o r d e r e d a s p e c i f i c prayer book from an Amish book­ seller I r e c e i v e d the f o l l o w i n g note: We do not ha v e "D e r H e r r is M. Hir t" bu t a m s e n d i n g a n o t h e r one p r o b a b l y just as g o o d but a bit cheaper. He enclosed "Gegetbtlchlein ftlr die K l e i n e n " , a L u t h e r a n children's p r a y e r book . 56 In the C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t f o u r prayers are f r o m J o h a n n e s A r n d t ' s P a r a d i e s g & r t l e i n 57 and 55. Ibid., p. 120. 56. Geo.. L. Conrad, Gebetbtlchlein ftlr die Kl e i n e n . Columbus, Ohio, Lutheran Book Concern, 1909* 57. "Gebet urn die Reinigkeit des Herzens", Gebet urn. die Nachfolge Chr ist i", "Gebet urn das Reich Christi", and "Gebet frommer Eltern ftlr ihre Kinder" . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 363 - at least five prayers "are lifted verbatim from the representative prayer hook of Casper Schwenckfeld" 58 . Friedmann states that "the brethren seem not to have noticed any difference between their own and foreign prayers»" 59 Some of the remaining prayers were collected from earlier Mennonite religious books and pamhlets, 60 or appear to be new com­ binations and reworkings of standard elements that appeared in the earlier prayers. Others are primarily biblical pray­ ers . Today for use outside of church the Amish have many prayer books that were written by non-Mennonites, but in times of s t r e s s ^ and for their family devotions they usualally rely on the Christenpflicht. The non-Mennonite prayer books are sometimes used to teach the children short p r a y e r s ^ and occasionally may be 58. Friedmann, op. c i t ., p. 193* 59. Ibid., p. 192. > 60. Das Geb&t von Hans R e i s t , samt einem Lied "Es • ist eine WunderschOne Gab." (1700) Ein Send-Brieff (1715)? jj formulier etlichen Geb&tte (I6 6 4 ). \ 61. 0A24 mentioned that one thing she disliked about? hospital deliveries was that the nurses kept turning off the | light so she could not read her prayer book. She added, re- | ferring to praying from the Christenfplicht, "It certainly j helps me get through labor." j I 62. Little Folded H a n d s . Der Herr ist Mein H i r t , j Gebetbtlchlein ftlr die K l e i n e n . Mary Alice Jones, Prayers f o r i Little Children, and Suggestions to Fathers and Mothers for | Teaching their Children to Pray (Chicago, 111., Rand, McNally! 1937). | R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 364 - used in family w o r s h i p , ^ While I was visiting one family they showed me consideration by reading the morning and even­ ing prayers in English. prayer book at a sale. The father had bought an English The cover and first few pages had been torn off long ago so none of us knew what the book w a s , but morning and evening he would open the book and read a prayer. Apparently this was the only time the book was used, and although we looked for it sporadically it never turned up. Another family asked if it was all right if they used their regular prayer book because they did not have one in English. The fact that they would consider using an Eng­ lish prayer book showed not only a genuine politeness but also an accepting attitude toward foreign devotional 63. Johann Habex-mann, Doctor Johann Iiabernanns, utnxbinchefs Gebat-Buchlein enthaltend Ilorgen und Abencsegen auf alle Tage in der Woche (Lancaster, Pa.: J. Baer, 1 8 3 8 ). Occasionally prayers for family worship are selected and sent in to the Herold der Wa hrheit. "Erwahlt und eingesandt von ein Bruder, N app a n e e . Ind. ’Gebet ftlr hausliche Andacht. Morgenbet a m Sonntag.’ December 15, 1954 pp. 628-9." "Abendgebet am Sonntag," Ibid., January 15, 1955 p. 24. This incomplete series, of a morning and evening prayer for each day of the wreek ran until June 15 , 1955 . In addition the Amish use Johann Friedrich Starck's T&gliches Handbuch in guten und bbsen T a g e n . I have found both German and English copies at Amish booksellers. Johannes J. Amstutz, Heues Gebet-Btlchlein Oder Tagliche Seelenspeise frommer Pilger zur himmlischen Heimath (Arthur, 1 1 1 »: L. A. Miller, 194679 Some editions have part of the Geistliches LustG&rlein frommer Seelen ("Heilsame Anweisung und Reg ein eines gottseligen L e o e n s ) included at the back, others do not, but Lust-Gd.rle.in is still available as a separate book. Johann Habermann's Gebet Bucklein is also used (Friedmann, p. 205) but I did not see it at the Amish booksellers in central Ohio nor did I notice it in any homes. (This does not mean, however, that it was not available.) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - literature. 64 - ^ T hi s 365 - is d o u b t l e s s a n o u t g r o w t h of the h a b i t of reading p r a y e r s r a t h e r t h a n . o f p r a y i n g s p o n t a n e o u s l y 6 ^ w h i c h in turn is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the A m i s h b e l i e f t h at should be the m i n i m u m of s u b j e c t i v e Vord".^6 i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of "the The B i b l e s h o u l d be a p p l i e d to e v e r y d a y but not i n t e r p r e t e d . there living, *7 6 4 . The 1954 catalog of the Mennonite Publishing House in Scottdale, Pennsylvania, had forty-eight titles listed under the section "Devotional". Of these only three v/ere by Mennonites and the only spontaneous work by a Men­ nonite was Menno Simon's The Cross of Christ (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing" H o u s e ). The other two are com­ pilations S. C. Yoder, Poetry of the Old Testament (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House), and Mrs. Charles' L. Shank, Daily Prayer G u i d e . The remaining forty-five titles were by non-Mennonites. 65. Private spontaneous prayer has always been per­ mitted, but vocal prayer in groups was read. Recently there is a movement to reintroduce spontaneous prayer. See Chapter VII. At one Amish family worship I heard the use of one spon­ taneous English prayer. (It was actually a compilation of fami­ liar phrases from known prayers.) 66. In an article about ministers in The Martyrs Mirror (1837, p. 313) it was stated that "they do not speak their own word but their Lord's word." R. L. Schlabach, January 15, 1955, "Das Wort derPredigt ." HdW, |jp. 18-19. 67. The Iiutterites carry this attitude even further. Lee Emerson Deets, The Iiutterites; A Study in Social Cohe­ sion, Gettysburg, Pa.: Times and News Publishing Co., 1939, p. 20 and p. 23 points out that their "only task is uncom­ promisingly to interpret the present situation with reference to the cent rad. beliefs." He goes on to point 'ou+ +:hat "since their system hes reached the institutional stage, the Hutterites have never sought mystical religious experience". How­ ever, there is not a complete lack of religious mystical ex­ perience among bhe Amish. It is in fact fairly common, but such an experience is always subject to verification by the Bible and the community and it is not specifically sought after R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 366 - Although the Amish do not write their own prayers and most would not he so proud as to use one of their own works in a group worship service they do write poems (even within the family group), (Gedicht) that are really prayers. Such a poem was written by D. A. Troyer: 0 grosser Gott! von E w i g k e i t , Vir lohen Dich von Herzensgrund, Der Du uns hast geftthret h e u t , Bis an die finstre Abenstund. Durch Deine starke Gnadenhand Hast Du gemacht die ganze Welt, Ja a l l e s , was da lebt im Land, Auch a l l e s , was der Himmel h a l t . Wir, als Deine arme Kinder, Bekennen unsere Nichtigkeit, Und bitten Dich als arme Stinder Vergib was wir gesttndigt heut. Ach Gott, der Du die finstre Nacht Uns zur sanften Ruh gegeben, Beschtttz uns nun rnit Deiner M a c h t , Leid und Seel wir Dir befehlen. Wir bitten Dich, Herr Jesu Christ, Bewahre uns vor dem bdsen Feind, Der Du das Licht der Menschen bist Wenn schon die Sonne nicht rnehr s che int . Der Mond steht jetzt am f irm ame nt, Da er die finstre Nacht regiert, Der jetzt noch fiber alle Welt Durch deine starke Hand wird g'ftlhrt. Die Sterne pranger ohne Zahl In der dunklen finstern Nacht, Yon dem blauen Himrnelssaal Und zeigen ihren Glanz und Pr a c h t . Ach! dass wir doch den Sternen gleich Dort in der langen Ewigkeit, Ja gianzend in dem Himmelreich In einer unerhOrten P r e u d . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 367 - Wo d a n n a l l e s tlberwunden D u r c h e i n e n w a h r e n K a m p f ira St re i t , Dann kommen Erquickungsstunden I m m e r w & h r e n d in E w i g k e i t . N u n w o l l e n w i r zu B e t t e g e h ’n Gott, dein e E n g e l Sende Du, D a s s sie uns a n d e r Seite s t e h ’n D a n n s c h l i e s s e n w i r die A u g e n zu. U n d s c h l a f e n u n t e r D e i n e m Schutz In g u t e r s a n f t e r L ei be s r u h , D e n b O s e n F e i n d zu s e i n e m Tru tz K e i n S c h a d e n k a n n er uns stlgen zu. Nun, w i r uns zu R u h ' b e g e b e n In des H e r r n J e s u Daman, B e f e h l e n uns m i t Le if un d S e e l e n gn In G o t t e s Schutz und Segen, Amen. The C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t shows the A m i s h w i l l i n g n e s s to not onl incorporate f o r e i g n r e l i g i o u s m a te ri a l, it also i l l u s t r a t e s the se le c t i o n an d r e m o d e l i n g of m a t e r i a l to f o r m a n e w c r e a ­ tion that is m o r e i n the n a t u r e a spontaneous e x p r e s s i o n . of a p a t c h w o r k quilt t h a n T h e t h i r d p r a y e r in the C h r i s t - enpflicht^^ is a r e w o r k i n g of a M e n n o n i t e already a p p e a r e d in t h r e e d i f f e r e n t forms, p r a y e r that ha d each time the prayer b e i n g s l i g h t l y c h a n g e d by p a r a p h r a s i n g and r e g r o u p i n g of elements. T h e f o u r t h p r a y e r i l l u s t r a t e s the same m e t h o d 6$. HdW, September /p i c . Novembe2j7l, 1953 p. 6 4 2 , reprinted from HdW 1921. I am not sufficiently familiar with German prayers or hymns to comment on the degree of originality this poem exhibits. 69. "Ein schOnes, allgemeines Gebet. Anliegen und Nttten taglich zu gebrauchen.” In vielen R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 368 - of creating new prayers "by recasting certain standard elements. This same pattern is found today in the Amish obi­ tuary poems. Certain standard phrases are combined with other standard phrases so that each poem is different though composed of oft-repeated l i n e s . An example of this are two poems, one commemorates the death of a fifty-seven year old man. Precious darling, he has left us Left us, yes, for evermore. But we hope to meet our loved one On that bright and happy shore. Tender flower, too tender to stay, God in his mercy took little Mervin away, In a tiny coffin he lay so still, Oh! it was hard, but 'tis God's will. Friends may think we have forgotten When at times they see us smile, But they do not know the heart ach^Q The smile- hides all the while. Dear father you have left u s , And our loss we deeply feel, But ’tis God that has bereft us, He can all our sorrows heal. Yet again we hope to meet Him, V/hen the day of life is fled, When in heaven with joy we'll greet him, Where no farewell tears are shed 'Tis lonesome here without you, And sad the weary way, 70. Herald, March 6, .1952, p. 6 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 369 - For life is not the same to us, Since you were called away. When the evening shadows fall, At the close of a weary day, Often our thoughts and minds will stray, To your grave not far away. Friends may think we have forgotten, When at times they see us smile, But they little know the heartaches™-. That the smile hides all the w h i l e . Occasionally there are original obituary poems, which are usually of a biograichical nature or are descriptions of the manner of death, but even these generally incorporate a few familiar lines. Elements that fit into the Amish way of thought have been selected from the outside culture and then used and reused in various combinations even as they use, reuse, select and combine various j^3-333^ 03 'th0 Bible. In their church services, the Amish sing from the AusDund 72 , a noteless hymnal that has been little changed 71. He r a l d , January 6, 1955? p. 6. 72. Ausbund/ das ist:/ Etliche schbne / Christliche Lieder,/ v/ie sie in dem Gef&ngnis zu Passau in dem Schloss von den Schweizer-Brhdern und/ von anderen rechtgl&ubigen Christen/ hin und her gedichtet w o r d e n ./ Allen und Jeden Christen,/ Welcher Religion sie seien,/ uncartheiish sehr/ ntitzlich./ Nebst einem Anhang von sechs Liedern./ 13. Aufl a g e ./ Verlag von dern Amischen Gemeinden/ in Lancaster County, P a ..'/ 1949. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 370 - 7^ since its first printing in 1583. 3 Most 74 of the I 4 6 hymns are rhymed outpourings of Anabaptists who were being martyred for their faith. Fifty-one of the hymns were written by Swiss brethren while they were imprisoned in Passau between 1535 and 1537. Some were written by the martyrs themselves be­ fore their execution and others were written by friends of the m a r t y r s to c o m m e m o r a t e 7S long- , epic po e ms g i v e sufferings t h e i r s u p r e me in d et a i l the court trials, and the d e a t h of the s t e a d f a s t i n c lu de the m a j o r a r t i c l e s and are h y m n s of pr a i s e sacrifice. brethren. These the They of b e l i e f of the A n a b a p t i s t s , to G o d f r o m the l ip s of his c h il dr e n. 73. Priedmann, _op>. c i t ., p. 170. The very first edition known of the Ausbund apjoeared in 1 5 6 4 . Harold S. Bender, "The Pirst Edition of the Aus.jund", M Q R , A p r i l , 1529, p. 147. It differed from later editions which have even retained the same pagination. When J. P. Punk added an ap­ pendix of six new hymns to an edition he printed for the Amish they returned the copies to him and demanded their money back because it was not their book, John Umble, "Re­ search on the Amish and Source Materials for the Study of the Amish" MQR, April, 1951, p. 129« American editions 1742, 1751, 1767, 1785, 1815, 1834, 1 8 4 6 , 1856, 1868, 1830 (2 edi­ tions), 1903, 1908, 1912, 1913, 1922, 1935, 1941, 1951. See Bender, Two - Centuries, o p . c i t . , p. 1. 74 . Sebastian Pranck issaid to be the author of the first song and John Huss is said to be the author of another. Smith, ojc. c i t . , 1929 p. 339. The 40th song is believed to be Waldensinn. A. J. Ramaker, "Hymns and Hymn Writers Among the Anabaptists of the Sixteenth Century", MQR, April, 1929 , p. 113. and 75. Very few of the hymns are of less than 15 verses one has seventy-one verses, Das 125. Lied. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 371 - T he h y m n s h e l p cre at e a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the m o d e r n A m i s h raan w i t h his m a r t y r e d a nc e s t o r . T h e y .r e i n f o r c e the a u t h o r i t y of the c h u r c h by t e a c h i n g the same l e s s o n s and d i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s that are s e l e c t e d f r o m the B i b l e , told in the M a r - t.yrer S p i e g e l and s t r e s s e d by the m i n i s t e r s today. They H t e a c h the A m i s h m a n the h i s t o r y of h is c h u r c h ; that he should observe footwashing as part of the communion service 77 ^8 and even that he should not shave his beard , 1 The w o r l d l y it crept i n f l u e n c e i s —not to-.he. f o u n d in the words; in w i t h the tunes. Th e A u s b u n d has no notes, at the h e a d of each h y m n there sa cr ed or secular, but is some i n d i c a t i o n of a tune, to w h i c h it can be sung. 79 76. E. H. Gorrel, "Value of Hymns for Mennonite History", M Q R , July, 1930, pp. 215-219. 77. Au s b u n d , p. 361, Das 6 7 Lied, verse 7. 78. Ibid., p. 544, Das 102. Lied, verse 10. 79. Dor example: Las 1. Lied. Und geht im Ton, "Es ist das Heil uns kommen her," u.; Das 2. Lied. Wird auf vielerly Melodeyen gesungen. Das 3» Lied, (no indication of tune); Das 4 . Lied. Und geht im Ton Herzog Ernsten.; Das 5- Lied. Im Dannheuser Ton.; Das 6. Lied. Im Ton: "Ich stund an einera Morgen."; Das 7- Lied. Im Ton: "Christe der du bist Tag und Licht"; Das 8. Lied. Geht im Ton, wie man die sieben Wort singt. Oder im Jacoos Ton. Oder: Oder liejer Water, wie bist u .; Das 9. Lied. Geht in Geog Wagners Melody; Das 16. Lied. Wird gesungen, wie man von KOnig Lasla singt. Oder "es gingen zwo Gespielen gut". Oder: "Es ging ein Frahlein rain dem Krug." f R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. Received without pare(s) r" 7 . Filmed as received. University Microfilms, Inc. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 373 - "Ein Versammlungsgedicht nach der Predigt." g^_ In der Melodie: Wir glauben all an einern Gott. The tunes to which the hymns in the Ausbund were writ­ ten were borrowed from the world. Some of the tunes were al­ ready old, such as the "Hilderbrandlied" which has been sung Q^ since the ninth century and the plain song tune which was composed for Thomas A q u i n a s ' hymn for the Feast of Corpus Q .-j Christi, "Pange lingua gloriosi corporis mysterium". Other tunes seemed to be ones that were at their peak of popularity during the sixteenth c e n t u r y . ^ However, the tunes used today in the church services are no longer the simple folk tunes of the sixteenth century. The original 8l. David A. Treyer, ojo. c i t . , Hinterlassene Schriften, Arthur, 111. 1. A. Miller, 1925, pp"( 85-£'« 8 2. "The Amish still sing a direct offspring-tune of the song which, in various guises, is now at least 1 1 0 0 years old." "Das 119. Lied...Im Ton, wie der Hilderbrand". Ausbund, George Pullen Jackson, "The Strange music of the Old Order Amish", Musical Quarterly, July, 1945» P» 285. 8 3 . Bachmann, Lancaster, o p . c i t . , p. 225 . "Das 55® Lied. Eine ander Lied vom Brod’ o rechen oder Abendmahl. . d m Ton Pangelingua." A u sbu nd, p. 302. 8 4 . Jackson, p. 282-3, (using Ludwig Erk and Franz Magnus BOhme, Deutsches Liederhort, Leipzig, 1925) dates most the songs he analysed (those transcribed by Joseph Yoder in Amische Lieder) between 1535 and 1560 with some as early as the thirteenth century and others as late as 1840. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 374 - melodies have been embroidered and magnified during hun­ dreds of years of singing without notes or musical instru­ ments. They have developed into highly complicated, emo­ tionally charged means of worship, that have a prominent place in the church ritual. from the world; F5 The Amish music was selected in the course of incorporating it into their culture they modified the tunes and made them uniquely and completely their own. The slow tunes that the Amish sing today, express their way of hanging on to what they have found to be good and elevating it to a religious concept. The Amish have a second hymn book, the Liedersamm86 lu n g . ' The worldly influence in the Liedersammlung is more 85. The service manuals are called, "Ein Register von Shriften und Liedern..." indicating the importance of the h y m n s . 86. Ein Unparteiische/ Lieder-Sammlung/ zum/ Gegcrauch/ beim/ Oeffenplichen Gottesdienst/ und der/ H&uslichen E p b a u u n g / Redet mit einander in Psalmen und Lobges&ngen und greistliohen Liedern, singet und/ snielet dem Iierrn in euren Herzen./ Enh. 5.19./ Gedruckt vom/ Mennonitischen Verlagshaus,Scottdaa.^ , Pa./ 1954. The Lieder-saromlung was composed by selecting texts from the Ausbund and from the Lancaster County Unpartheyisches Gesang-Buch. Burkhart, op. cit., The edition used and reprinted by the Amish is referred to as B a e r ’s A u f g a b e , (first published in 1924). It is called "das kleine Liederbuch1 Bender, Two Centuries, o p . cit., pp. 27 lists the following editions of the Liedersammlung: i860, 1864? 1867, 1870, 1876, 1891, 1892, 1900, 1905, 1907, 1917. The Unparteyisches Gesangbuch was first printed in Lancaster in 18047 The hymns were selected from old Swiss hymnals, Re­ formed hymnals, the psalms and other sources as well as some of the most frequently used hymns from the Ausbund. Bender, "Lancaster," o n . cit., p„ 166-7. There is also another hyiuns-l designated "Liedersammlung G." Allgemeine Lieder-Sammlung zum gebrauch ftlr der privaten und Offentlichen Gottesdienst. (Sechste Au f l a g e , Elkhart, Ind.: Mennonitesche Verlagshandlung, 1839). The first edition was published by John R. Punk in 1871- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 375 - obvious to contemporary eyes, than the sixteenth century in­ fluence that is evidenced in the A u s b u n d , for the hiedersamm­ lung , having developed in this country has incorporated as­ pects of the surrounding American culture. The book is smal­ ler than the Ausbund and the hymns are shorter: 328 pages are devoted to 1 4 8 hymns in contrast to 812 pages being de­ voted to only 140 hymns. The hymns in the Liedersahimlung are sung to a minimum of 43 tunes while those in the Ausbund Orj could be sung to a minimum of 25 tunes , indicating that the older hymns have less variety of wr:-;e length and meter than do the newer, more widely selected hymns. The old sx^elling in the Ausbund has been modernized in the Liedersaiiimlung. Forty-four of the hymns appear in both song books, but often only part of the hymn is printed in the newer GO book. This was probably a matter of expediency for the 87. "Melodien-Register", Liedersammlung, pp. 329-38 and "Ein Register, Solcher Lieder, welche auf einerley Iielodie kbnnen gesungen werden." A u s b u n d , pp. 819-22. Actually 75 tune-title suggestions appear throughout the book and many newer tunes are used with words from the Ausbund at social gatherings. 88. First Line Gott ftihrt ein recht Iierzlich thut mich Herkt auf, ihr Menschenkinder Von Herzen woll'n Vo kommt das her or Es sind zween Veg Lied No. 5 64 Aus bund page verses 33 35 22 341 Liede rsammlung page verses 30 20 1.8 78 94 119 492 692 29 20 63 246 20 11 125 738 71 156 10 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 376 - 89 c o mp il er s were a n x i o u s that the h o o k not he too l o n g „ E v e n the shortened hymns c o n t a i n m or e v e r s e s t h a n are sung during a c h u r c h s ervice. The d i m i n i s h i n g i nf l u e n c e of the story of the h ym ns is i n d i c a t e d hy this w i l l i n g n e s s to omit part of a h y m n w i t h o u t an y note of the deletion. Generally the only hymns f r o m the liedersaramlung w h i c h are sung d u ri ng 90 c hu rc h service are t ho se that also a p p e a r in the A u s h u n d . On all o t h e r o c c a s i o n s a w i d e r s e l e c t i o n of hy m ns m a y be sung. T he r e l a t i o n of the r e l i g i o u s to the s e c u l a r in any g a t h e r i n g of c h u r c h m e m b e r s is c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d by the tunes used v/ith the A m i s h hymns. Th e r e g u l a r c h u r c h service is completely r e l i g i o u s . o n l y old t un es that have evol ve d Here from the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r o t o t y p e s are used. p r i m a r i l y religi ou s, vities are also A w e d d i n g is 'out a f t e r the c h u r c h service the f e s t i ­ secular. As the g u e s t s sit a r o u n d the table they s in g t r a d i t i o n a l h y m n s f r o m the A u s b u n d and t h e n c o n ­ tinue w i t h o t h e r h y mn s not long n a r r a t i v e s ung in church, i n c l u d i n g the songs that f o r m a n arjpendix to the A u s b u n d and the n e w e r hymns f r o m the L i e d e r s a m m l u n g . 89. Bender, " L a n c a s t e r " , op. At G e r m a n cit ♦ , p. 166. 90. In his C a l e n d e r , RSLber i n d i c a t e s the hymns to be sung ea c h ser vi ce l i s t i n g th o se f r o m the A u s b u n d first, and those f r o m "Bar" (Liede rs a mm lu ng ) last, However, in his p u b ­ lished r e g i s t e r of S c h r i f t e n u n d Liedern, he g i v e s the list of the h y m n s in the A u s b u n d only. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 377 - R e a d i n g and at the y o u n g p e o p l e ' s S i ng i ng s on S un d a y e v e n ­ ing the L i e d e r s a m m l u n g is u s e d exclusivelyu German words may be sung to E n g l i s h h y m n tunes, or e v e n to m o d i f i e d E n g l i s h folk songs s u c h as "A P r o g Went A - c o u r t i n g " , "Bonnie D o o n " , and " A b e ry st wy th ". 91 p a r t i a l l y a ccepted, not felt in m o st The G e r m a n R e a d i n g s are a new, development in that the n e e d f o r t h e m was c o m m u n i t i e s u n t i l a f t e r the P ir s t W o r l d W a r when G e r m a n was d i s c o n t i n u e d It is not in the pu b l i c sc ho ol c u r r i c u l u m . surxcrising that in a n e w c o m m u n i t y a c t i v i t y t h e y use the n e w e r h y m n book. E v e n the G e r m a n sing in gs of the young pe o p l e are as m u c h so ci al as r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s n e w e r h y m n book and n e w e r tunes are used. night s i n gi ng s songs are Saturday sung. in the A m i s h service "The Word" m u s t not be altered, vices has a h i g h d egree of d e p e n d e n c e o n p a g e n t r y or on p h y s i c a l props. portant, On the so the still f a s t e r t unes are u se d and m o re E n g l i s h W ords are v e r y i m p o r t a n t ship. o nl y the ri tu a l of the on wo rd s The words of w o r ­ ser­ rather than one u ses are im­ ea s i l y o b s e r v e d and l ia bl e to censure by the c o m m u n i t y . The tune one sings is less ea si ly c l a s s i f i e d . 91. Prog Went A-courting - Vom Hiromel hock Bonnie Doon - Als Christus mit Aberystwyth - In der stillen Jackson, o p . c i t . , pp. 287-8. The w o r d s of a Liedersammlung Ausbund 153 — 135 46 176 — R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 378 - h y m n n e v e r change, - hut the tune may, 92 M a n y of the h ym ns in the A u s b u n d give a ch oi ce of two o r e v e n t hr e e t u n e s to w h i c h e ach can be sung and in a d d i t i o n at the b a ck of the h y m n a l is "Ein Re gi s t e r , S o l c h e r Lieder, Me lo di e k O n n e n g e s u n g e n w e r d en " can p o s s i b l y be sung to the w e l c h e au f e i n e r l e y in w h i c h al l the h y m n s that same tune are The s e v e n t h g r o u p l i s t s t w e n t y h ymns t hat the same tune, listed t o g e t h e r , c a n be s ung to e v e n t h o u g h v a r i o u s t u n e - t i t l e s had b e e n i n ­ dicated at the h e ad of the d i f f e r e n t h y mn s Thus it is not s u r p r i s i n g that tunes in this group. s li p f r o m one h y m n to a n o t h e r and that tu ne s are c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d f rom the outside, T h e i n c o r p o r a t e d t u ne m a y be m o d i f i e d slightly as w h e n a f o r e s i n g e r said to m e , "We can sing this to one of y o u r hymns, the f o u r t h al l line t w i c e ( i t we have to do is to s ing was the f o u r t h line of the E n g l i s h tune that was r epeated, hymn,) The not the line of the A m i s h same f o r e s i n g e r said, of d if f er en t ways" "We s i ng one h y m n lots a n d o p e n i n g the A u s b u n d he co nt in ue d, 92, The hymns are sung slightly differently in the different Amish communities even though the intent is to sing them as they were sung by their fathers, in the old way, 93* Ausbund, pp. 819-22. 94. 00A117 . .v ? R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 379 - "This is h o w t h e y s i n g it in P e n n s y l v a n i a " first two lines v e r y slowly. "At w e d d i n g s we sing it to t his w a y . " lish h y m n t u n e . this way." somet im es , the same way, but and at S i n g i n g He sang the f i r s t v e r s e to a n E n g ­ "And s o m e t i m e s the y o u n g p e o p l e T h e n he s a n g the f irst v e r s e a v e r y l i v e l y tune t ha t sang the "This is h o w we s ing it here" and he r e p e a t e d the f i r s t two lines a l m o s t s l i g h t l y fa st e r . and he of the sing it same h y m n to" s o u n d e d l ike a g o o d f o l k dance m e l o d y . V/hen the A m i s h d is c u s s a song t h e y u s u a l l y are disc uss in g the words. u n i m po rt a nt , vice, It does not f o l l o w that the tune is e s p e c i a l l y as it is s u ng d u r i n g a c h u r c h ser- w h e n v e r y l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n is t o l e r a t e d . the m o r e ing . 95 conservative the c o n g r e g a t i o n the In the a r e a of this It is said, s l o w e r the s t u d y one d i s r u p t i v e 96 sing­ division that split the c h u r c h came to a h e a d o v e r the m a n n e r of singing the Loh song 97 a n d the f i n a l h y m n d u r i n g the c h u r c h s e r vi ce 95. An Amish parent (OOA4 6 ) objected to the songs that the children sang during a school program. She said they should not waste their time learning such foolish v e r s e s . Another woman (00A2) said she remembered the verses to a folk song, because it had such a good lesson to teach. 96. 00A117. 97. M0 Gott Vater, wir loben dich," Aus bund, p. 770 This hymn is the second to be sung in every church service. For a transcript and translation of this song see Appendix VIII, Part A. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 380 T he o r i g i n a l and m o st h a l l o w e d h y m n s of the A m i s h were w r i t t e n hy e a r l y A n a b a p t i s t s to be sung to t unes f r o m the world. T h e s e tu ne s h ave b e e n so m o d i f i e d by the A m i s h that they n o w have d e e p r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s Amish. Th e n e w e r h y m n s t h e y sing are p r i m a r i l y b o r r o w e d words and b o r r o w e d t u n e s . The n a s a l s i n g i n g and the oc­ c a s i o n at w h i c h t h e y s ing t h e m are Amish, was o u t s i d e the c o m m u n i t y . m od i f i e d , an d i n c o r p o r a t e d but not in nat ur e, but t h e i r o r i g i n T h e i r r e l i g i o u s mu si c C u r r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s that lig io us and are c o m p l e t e l y is selected, c reated. effect the A m i s h are r e ­ o r c o n s i d e r e d r e l i g i o u s by them. Thus they are n o w w o r r y i n g o v e r and f i g h t i n g the t h e o r y of e v o ­ lution. ^ h e y are a f r a i d science m e a n s evolution. of the w o r d "science", One of the f e a r s f o r to t h e m of h i g h s ch o o l is that t h e i r c h i l d r e n w i l l be taught to b e l i e v e in ev ol u t i o n . The sc ho o ls w o u l d h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l y less t r o u b l e if they w ould g i v e the c o u r se s nature s c i en ce s t ud y o r p r a c t i c a l e n g i ne er in g , them science. One of the m o s t cated A m i s h m e n I m e t q animal k i n g d o m 98. a n d Co., i n s t e a d of c a l l i n g i n t e l l i g e n t and best s h o w e d me a b o o k he had bo u g h t ed u ­ on the O and t h e n d i s c o v e r e d that r efere nc es to e v o l u t i o n . [Use s u c h n am es as ag ri c u l t u r e , it h a d s e v e r a l A f t e r e x p r e s s i n g surp r is e that E. G. B o u l e n g e r , N e w Yo rk , 1950). W i l d Life t he W o r l d O v e r R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 381 - that a n y p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e w o u l d a l l o w "su ch stuff" published, to he he a s k e d me if I t h o u g h t he s h o u l d t e a r out the pages on e v o l u t i o n so that the c h i l d r e n w o u l d not read them. Those w i t h w h o m I d i s c u s s e d e v o l u t i o n had n e v e r read any objective a c c o u n t of it. To t h e m the t h e o r y of e v o l u t i o n said "Hen come f r o m m o n k e y s ” an d the B i b l e t e a c h e s that Go d created m a n in his image and t h e n c r e a t e d E v e f r o m the rib of Adam. and, T h e y f e e l that these two b e l i e f s are i n c o m p a t i b l e as t h e i r v/hole life is b a s e d on the Bible, lently reject the th e o r y of evolut io n. 99 The d e p t h of this r ea c t i o n w as i l l u s t r a t e d by a t r i p to the zoo. the zoo w i t h a f a m i l y of ten, the zoo before. they vio- I went to none of w h o m had e v e r b e e n to In the m o n k e y h o u s e tv/o b a b y c h i m p a n z e e s were r o l l i n g and t u m b l i n g like two l i t t l e A m i s h b o y s . parents r e f u s e d to w a t c h them, and q u i c k l y d i r e c t e d the chil dr en to s u c h safe exhibits as the z eb r a and elk. Amish w o m a n who had b e e n to the zoo once keys were h o r r i d f u r r y things. The said, An "The m o n ­ I c o u l d n ' t b e a r to l o o k at them."'*"^ T h e y are still f i g h t i n g D a r w i n i s m and h a v e not yet heard of E r e u d . L i b e r a l i s m and m o d e r n i s m i n r e l i g i o n are e q u a t e d and 99. 100. Barnet, op., cit., "Repercussions." pp. 373-377. 00A24. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 382 - are b e l i e v e d to be of t h e w o r l d and the devil. sel e ct ed f o r p u b l i c a t i o n in the Her al d, Soliloquy" called An article "Satan's reads: "That y o u n g m a n ' s S u n d a y Sc ho ol c lass seems to be intensely interested. T h e y have a v e r y f i ne l o o k i n g y o u n g m a n f o r a teach e r. But l isten, he is q u o ti ng P o s d i c k but, l i ke m ost of the l i b e r a l s , he is shr e wd e n o u g h not to g i v e the n a me of the a u t h o r w h o m he is q u o t i n g . . .Hope t h e y k e e p that t e a c h e r f o r this class. He c e r t a i n l y is a g o o d a g e n t f o r me. Poor boys! t h e y do not r e a l i ze t h a t ^ l ^ b e r a l i s m is s im pl y s u g a r - c o a t e d i n f i d el i ty . L i b e r a l i s m and m o d e r n i s m have b e e n c o m p l e t e l y rejected, but f u n d a m e n t a l i s m is at the p r e se nt a v e r y influence. Because t h er e are p oi n t s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m and A m i s h d if fe rences has m a d e is not a l w a y s beliefs, disruptive of a g r e e m e n t between the jjrofoundness of the reali ze d . W he re fundamentalism inroads the A m i s h c h u r c h is g r e a t l y w e ak e n e d . 102 The G e r m a n e d i t o r of the H e r o l d de r W a h r h e i t w r o t e a n e d i ­ torial on "Ein Z w e i f l e r ist u n b e s t a n d i g i n a l i e n s e i n e n V/egen" ,-*-03 w h i l e the E n g l i s h e d i t o r p o i n t e d out in an a r t i c l e on M o d e r n i s m that: 101. M a y 8, 1952, p. 3. 102. See C h a p t e r V I I f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of some a s p e c t s of this problem. 103. pp. 481-2. R a y m o n d Vag l er , " Zweifel", H d W , August 15, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 1953 - 383 - an A m i s h n e i g h b o r wh o m a y o r m a y n o t a c c e p t « Th e S t o n e y - run G a r d e n Club, w e l l a w a r e of l o v e l y f l o w e r s the A m i s h w o m e n raise, did 107 a s k e d s e v e r a l to join. I k n o w of only one wh o ■; a n o t h e r one w o u l d ha v e l i k e d to b u t h e r h u s b a n d *ia O wou ld not c o n s i d e r it. N o w h e r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s come over to get h e r f l o w e r s a n d s o m e t i m e s h e r v a s e s to use in flower arrangements that often win prizes. A m i s h an d E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s w i l l e xc h a n g e l a b o r f o r corn h u s k i n g o r t h r a s h i n g w h e n t h e y w i l l not v i s i t The E n g l i s h p e o p l e say the In a l ar g e 10 9 bish o ps w i l l not let the A m i s h visit w i t h t h e i r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s . be true. s o ci al ly . I did not f i n d this to c o m m u n i t y the A m i s h ha v e so f u l l a v i s it in g p r o g r a m that t h e y are a l w a y s b e h i n d and s i m p l y do not have a n y tim e le f t o v e r to s p en d v i s i t i n g w i t h non- Amish a c q u a i n t a n c e s . Worldly forms hardly m i s s e d , of a m u s e m e n t ar e f o r b i d d e n a n d are f o r a m o n g the A m i s h s o c i a l v i s i t i n g w i t h t h e i r own p e o p l e f u l f i l l s a l l t h e i r r e c r e a t i o n a l needs . 107. T h e y do 00A122. 108. ’’Y o u t o l d t h e m no. Y o u h a v e b e t t e r wa y s to spend y o u r tim e t h a n s i t t i n g a r o u n d a whole afternoon putting f l o w e r s into v a s e s . " 0 0 A 1 . 109. C h a r l e s P. L o o m i s and J. A l l a n B e e g l e . R u r a l Social S y s te ms (New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1950.) p. 37^ points out tha t in I l l i n o i s e x c h a n g i n g of w o r k cross es class lin es m o r e t h a n v i s i t i n g does" . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 384 - not a t t e n d movi e s, or read novels, l i s t e n to rad io s, hut "what c a n I do now?" w a t c h t e l e v i s i o n 111"1 one n e v e r h e a r s a c h i l d c o m p l a i n n o r a n ad ul t a dm it h o r e d o m . 1 1 1 T h e y do not a t t e n d f a i r s , c a r n i v a l s o r f e s t i v a l s . 1 1 "^ organized f o r m s of w o r l d l y a m u s e m e n t the zoo a n d to c i r c u s e s . 1 1 ^ mals are G o d ' s c r e a t i o n s . These The o n l y p e r m i t t e d are v i s i t s to are p e r m i t t e d since a n i ­ T h e y are not m a d e o r c o r r u p t e d 110. J o h n C. W en g e r , S e p a r a t e d u n to G o d , (Scottdale, Pa.: M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1952), pp . 117- 12 0 . 111. J o s e p h W. Yod er , A m i s h T r a d i t i o n s (Huntington, Pa.: Y o d e r P u b l i s h i n g , 1950), p. 209, b e l i e v e s that the young A m i s h m a r r i e d p e o p l e s u f f e r f r o m l a c k of r e l a x a t i o n and too m u c h samen es s. D e p r e s s i o n I o b s e r v e d was not r e ­ lated to b o r e d o m or m o n o t o n y , but to a f e a r of e x c l u s i o n , of not b ei ng liked, w a n t e d , of t h o u g h t w e l l of. 112. D u r i n g the Swiss C h e e s e f e s t i v a l the bishop a s k e d the m e m b e r s to tr y n ot to go to t o w n festival. T h e y w e r e to p l a n to do t h e i r b u si ne s s ping at some o t h e r time. Only Amish young people Stoneyrun d u r i n g the and shop­ attended. 113. In S t o n e y r u n t h e r e are u s u a l l y fairs, band c o n ­ certs, b a s e b a l l g a m e s or s u p p e r s e r v e d b y the d i f f e r e n t c h u r c h and f r a t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s e a c h S a t u r d a y ni gh t d u r i n g the summer. • Most of the t o w n t u r n s out to these, but d u r i n g the v/hole s u m m e r s e a s o n of 1 9 5 1 I s a w o n l y one A m i s h p e r s o n at such a f un c t i o n . T h a t was a n A m i s h b o y of p e r h a p s 18 who quietly came into the b a c k of the C o m m u n i t y H a l l d u r i n g a n electrical arjpliance fair. He w a t c h e d f o r a f e w m o m e n t s and then sli pp e d o u t . 114. P e w c i r c u s e s come to this region, so n o n e of the A mi sh I had s p o k e n to h a d s e e n o n e . H o w e v e r one m a n (00A1) t old me h o w he a n d his b r o t h e r s w a l k e d ab ou t a m i l e and a h al f to w a t c h a ci r c u s pass a l o n g the m a i n road. V R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 385 - by the w o r l d a nd so c a n be s e e n and enjoyed. Th e g a m e s the A m i s h p l a y are ones that came o r i g in - ally f r o m the w o r l d and are not p e c u l i a r to the Amish. Thus the c h i l d r e n u p t h r o u g h a d o l e s c e n c e p l a y b a l l 115 (base­ ball) and A m i s h of a l l ages p l a y c r o q u e t a n d ho r s e s h o e s . In Ohio alm o st no p a r l o r g am e s are p l a y e d by the A m i s h famil y. 116 S i n g i n g pla ys a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t place i n the Amishman's life, s o c i a l l y as w e l l as re l i g i o u s l y . p e o p l e ’s m a j o r s o c i a l events are often sing. The f a m i l y "s in gi n g s " The y o u n g and the f a m i l i e s sings w h i l e t h e y w o r k t o g e t h e r and when th e y v i s i t w i t h o t h e r f a m i l i e s . T h e i r social s i n g i n g makes us e of w o r l d l y tun e s of a n e w e r date t h a n t h e i r c h u r c h hymns and o f t e n of n o n - A m i s h w or d s as wel l. Th u s t h e y m a y sing a G e r m a n h y m n to the tun e of a n E n g l i s h 115. I did not m a k e a s p e c i a l effort to stud y c h i l ­ dren's ga m e s but t h o s e that I and m y t h i r t e e n y e a r old n i e c e observed did not d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m ga m e s I p l a y e d as a child on the edge of this c o m m u n i t y a n d in P e n n s y l v a n i a . John H. H o s t e t l e r who is in a m u c h b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t h a n I to observe A m i s h g a m e s r e po rt s "The A m i s h h a v e f o l k g a m e s , " "Evidence of C u l t u r a l C ha n g e a m o n g the A m i s h, " P r o c e e d i n g s of the eighth C o n f e r e n c e on M e n n o n i t e -Educational and C u l t u r a l Problems (Newton, K a ns as : H e r a l d B o o k and P rinting, C o . 1551), p. 93 . 116. In P e n n s y l v a n i a the se g a m e s s e e m to be m u c h more freque nt . C o r n e r ba l l is not p o p u l a r a m o n g the S t o n e y ­ run Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. — hymn 117 386 — or t h e y m a y sing a n E n g l i s h h y m n w i t h E n g l i s h words. Not only do they s ing h y m n s socially, ballads. but they also sing B a c h m a n m e n t i o n s that t h e y sing a b al l a d about Floyd C o l l i n s w h i c h c o n ta i ns the verse: Y o u n g people, oh, take w a r n i n g , Of F l o y d C o l l i n s '& fate; And g i v e y o u r h e a r t to Jesus, B e f o r e it is too late: It m a y not be a sand c a v e , In w h i c h we f i n d o u r tomb; But at the b a r of j u d g m e n t , -^pg We too m u s t m e e t o u r doom. 11Q An A m is h w o m a n •" in Ohio sang me the same ballad w i t h slightly d i f f e r e n t w o r d s . She said that w h e n she was a little g ir l F l o y d C o l l i n s had b e e n k i l l e d e x p l o r i n g a cave and this s o ng h ad b e e n w r i t t e n about him. She h a d l e a r ne d it from a n E n g l i s h f a m i l y f o r w h o m she was working, but she said the A m i s h y o u n g p e o p l e a(Lso sang it at t h e i r s i n g i n g s . 117. "In der stillen Einsamkeit" (Liedersammlung p. 176) is sung to the tune of "Jesus Lover of my Soul": "Wo ist Jesus, mein Verlanges?" (Liedersammlung, p. 153) is sung to the tune of "What a Friend we have in Jesus"; and "0 Gott Yater, wir loben d i ch", the second hymn sung at each service (Ausbund 770 and Liedersammlung, p. 1) is sung at social occasions to the tune of "The Greet Physician." Tune that was used for aid German hymns. -In.Stoneyrun "Open the wells of Grace and Salvation." was a popular English hymn, Yoder, Amische L i e d e r , o p . c i t . , pp. 59, 62, 63. 118. Op. cit., p. 228. 119. 00A 2 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 387 - Her children, who were too young to attend singings, did not know i t . She sang a "ballad that her mother had taught her about a Mr. Thomas who on the counsel of his mother married a "brown skinned maiden" with land and money and did not marry the beautiful, fair maiden who had nothing. The fair maiden came to the wedding and everyone exclaimed over her beauty. her. The brown-skinned maiden grew jealous and stabbed The hero then kills the brown-skinned maiden, stabs himself and asks that he be buried with the fair maiden by his side and the brown-skinned maiden at his feet. The moral was clearly pointed out that one s ho u l d not marry for money. These ballads, though not written by Amish, live longer in the Amish community than in the culture which created them. The ballads that are remembered seem to be kept alive more for their story than for their musical properties .-*-20 The Amish contribute material aid, and money, to specific English people and some English causes. When an English neighbor is in need, the Amish will help him with volunteered work or food and fuel. They contribute to the Red Cross, the Tuberculosis Christmas Seal drive, the Polio Fund and to local charities such as Community Chest and the 120. 00A2 said, "I remembered this song because I think it is so true that you shouldn’t marry for worldly things like land and money. It has a good lesson to teach." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 388 - hospital. m he y e a r f o l l o w i n g a se v e r e p o l i o epidemic among the A m i s h t h e y c o n t r i b u t e d v e r y h e a v i l y to the N a t i o n a l P o l i o Fund, collecting funds for s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e s , polio an d the Red G r o s s amount, in the same m a n n e r as t h e y al w a y s do by assessing members. 121 Por each m e m b e r is a s s e s s e d the both same a s u m c o n s i d e r e d l o w e n o u g h f o r e ve ry m e m b e r to be able to p a y w i t h o u t g r a d a t i o n b e i n g n e c e s s a r y . give m o r e than their a l l o t m e n t . Members may In some c h u r c h e s i n d i v i d u a l s that r e c e i v e d P r o d u c t i o n and M a r k e t i n g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p a y ­ ments v/ere e x p e c t e d to g i v e the t o t a l a m o u n t of the p a y m e n t to the R e d C r o s s . T h is k e e p s u n e a r n e d m o n e y out of the c o m ­ munity an d h e l p s a n extern al , g o o d c a u se rather t han re­ turning the m o n e y to a n a l r e a d y s p e n d t h r i f t g o v e r n m e n t . In­ dividual A m i s h c o n t r i b u t e to the H e i f e r P r o j e c t . Members social cha r ge s. of the Old Oi*der A m i s h c h u r c h r a r e l y b e c o m e The church community takes care of its poor, 121. "________ C o u n t y r a n k e d at the t op of the 88 counties in Ohio f o r the p e r c a p i t a c o n t r i b u t i o n of f u nd to this y e a r ' s p o l i o d r i ve .. . And_________ C o u n t y spent the least am o u n t of m o n e y to p r o m o t e t h e i r c a m p a i g n f o r fu nd s to battle I n f a n t i l e P a r a l y s i s of al l Ohio C o u n t i e s . . . Mr. F a i r also jjointed out t h at c o n t r i b u t i o n s to t h e fu nd s are c o n t i n u i n g as the a s s e s s m e n t p r o g r a m a d o p t e d by some of the A m i s h c h u r c h e s is c a r r i e d out." Herald, March 5, 1953, p. !• T h i s c o u n t y has the h i g h e s t p r o ­ portion of A m i s h c i t i z e n s of a n y c o u n t y in Ohio. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - aged.and orp ha ns . make use 389 - T h e o n l y state i n s t i t u t i o n of w h i c h t h e y is the m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n , and t h e n o nly f o r m e m ­ bers w h o s e i l l n e s s t a k e s a f o r m that m a k e s them in the c o m m u n i t y . only cases 122 There it u n s a f e to k e e p is a l m o s t no crime. Th e I h a v e come a c r o s s w i t h i n the c e n t r a l Ohio c o m ­ munity i n v o l v e d a d o l e s c e n t hoys who had not yet joined the church*'^'? T h e r e a s o n s f o r the l o w i n c i d e n t bers of the c h u r c h a re f a i r l y o b v i o u s . raised to be h i g h l y social, for one a n o th er . of crime a m o n g m e m ­ T h e c h i l d r e n are to fit into the g r o u p a n d to care T h e c o m m u n i t y is v e r y c l o s e l y k n i t w i t h a w el l - d e v e l o p e d g r o u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s and g r o u p c o n s c i e n c e . Only the m os t h i g h l y socialized individuals life p r e s c r i b e d by the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y . The less ized i n d i v i d u a l s n e v e r j o in the c h u r c h or, are e x p el le d f o r r e a s o n s c a n live the having social­ joined, c o n s i d e r e d a s o c i a l by the A m i s h but w h i c h w o u l d be o v e r l o o k e d i n the s o c i e t y at large. Therefore those who b e c o m e and r e m a i n c h u r c h m e m b e r s do not 122. A n i n d i v i d u a l m a y be t a k e n f o r t r e a t m e n t during the ea r ly stage of his i l l n e s s in h o p e s it m a y cure him. If he does not get b e t t e r q u i c k l y the f a m i l y tries to b r i n g h i m ba.ck. 123• In 1953 the 18 y e a r old so n of a b i s h o p p a r t i ­ cipated in the r o b b e r y of a w o r k e r in the brick y a r d s . The leader of the r o b b e r y was an older, n o n - A m i s h boy. Another 18 year old b o y wa s c o m m i t t e d to the m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n after he w o u n d e d h i s s i s t e r w i t h a s h o tg u n. P r e v i o u s l y he had f or g e d s e v e r a l checks. O c c a s i o n a l t r a n s g r e s s i o n s of t h e l a w have b e e n r e p o r t e d for A m i s h y o u t h i n o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s . K o l l m o r g e n , op. c i t ., p. 8, r e p o rt s a case of some y o u n g m e n s e l l i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s 1 chickens f o r s p e n d i n g m o n e y . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 390 - break civ il laws (other t h a n f o r c o n s c i e n t i o u s Among thos e who a re r a i s e d Amish, reasons). hut in l a t e r life h o l d no me mb e r i n an y c h u r c h the in ci d e n c e of c r i m e is m u c h h i g h e r . In the a r e a in w h i c h I w o r k e d I h e a r d of t h r e e s u c h cases, fairly h i g h number, 124- a c o n s i d e r i n g h o w f e w A m i s h wh o are lost to the c o m m u n i t y do not t r a n s f e r t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p to a n o t h e r church. ECONOMIC Economic I N T E R A C T I O N 125 Interaction Th e A m i s h are b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d by the t r e n d a w a y f r o m the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t f a m i l y f a r m t o w a r d m o r e farming. specialized T h e i r far ms c on t i n u e to be f a m i l y - s i z e d and to supply mo s t of the f a m i l y ' s food, but t h e r e is a g r o w i n g 124. A n a r t i c l e f r o m the "Ne ws D e m o c r a t " , Goshen, Indiana, M a y 20, 195 2 r e p o r t e d that six y o u t hs who w e r e f o r ­ merly A m i s h were a r r e s t e d f o r s e l l i n g w i n e and b e e r w i t h o u t a license, to A m i s h y o u n g people. "The c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t the d r in k in g have come f r o m a n u m b e r of perso ns , m a i n l y the old er A m i s h p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s . . . " m y underlining. 125F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of i n t r a - c o m m u n i t y e co n o m i c see C h a p t e r III. f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of the e c o n o m i c i n f l u e n c e of the g o v e r n m e n t see the s e c t i o n i n th is c h a p t e r on " R e l a ­ tion to the State." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 391 - tendency of t h e to total what the outside are v e r y fully far lists if market. survive for of of the price can get They source than to isolated from the of the of each family community necessitates their some almost and price income community, trade ship for is The follow in various often will being turning crops. fluctuations prices expense own food. Amish for a better rather the made their can use, selling at formerly for bulletins. they crop, a market to Their major the w o r l d that community sensitive the cash production world a nd g o v e r n m e n t duce large self-sufficient The the a diversification completely above raise - it care­ journals pro­ another from produce thus world, they are of bulk of to Amish their in well though sold they dependent on to can the world for prosperity. \ './ith t h e exception :-.ost o t h e r n e c e s s i t i e s though some charged f o r wool cloth, than rug m a k i n g , ready-made such a s is from sugar, are within the salt looms and of and their used for and Their farm outside. family's the nor any They They many families equipment In most or ex­ their also buy cloth staples buy b r e a d articles, other Al­ w eaving, other buy world. household food, community. comforters spinning the the outside community. flour than f u r n i t u r e , bought no the oakeries. are and is from c o m m e r c i a l and w a g o n s oought raised there the than instances other buggies the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. farms are not raised This and large and is the enough so feed to must it manure used enrich is non-farming those sufficient that worldly or non-Amish to t h e community. shoe horses make new less than and it have did repair else portation? men and farmers to These obtained lumber are and prescribed repair shoes in they this are by also any their There buy place. the do ordnung. not make are But them; for Amish were Amish way for trans­ they are these can too saw­ the objects too for buggy- Amish There although not factories easier for shoes who regulation these in­ com­ do Amish are are acceptable they v/agons w o o d l o t s .-^6 suspender makers a from There it the but the the the blacksmiths bought v/hich m a k e s own in equipment, they community. there supply Amish produce other occupy work hand. the economically because to be livestock land. that the can could plants utilize Amish harness there made raakers, f o r w h e r e do outside the them farming for c an be in of profitable developed not Thus equipment is specialties people munity be to amount purchased because generally mills be the justified The cannot support Amish also too men will be bought 126. One of the H e r a l d s c r i b e s runs a p o r t a b l e s a w ­ mill and e a c h w e e k his c o l u m n has n e w s of t he f a m i l y a nd neighborhood in w h i c h he has b e e n sawing. (00A121) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - more cheaply from the are A m i s h carpenters homes buildings and opposed to trade have their made within coffins are they b u y tions community by they need them from outside the build and The Amish employ of from than produce objects will the home world. no repair are the strongly u n i o n men; wooden grown There they furniture lumber, is and all the Amishmen. objects can who farms. Much less have within on Amish and - industrialized masons for When t h e y when the and unions made When community highly own w o r k e r s . the 393 are clustered they can and them such can be do just that bought made not as them even though within cheaply then the outside produce certain around community, be the their the community own. themselves religious they are expense or connota­ produced may be con­ siderable . Many of are p u r c h a s e d velling- goods a person at of A m i s h people, of t h e my pictures by p h o t o g r a p h s 127. items that through mail salesmen. ■the m a t e r i a l ; the order Both have they supply. request in in worldly Amish When the people, people the m a i l - o r d e r buy catalogues influenced school, or worldly of the the Amish from and seemed of to catalogues. from Amish were both. be 127 world tra­ beyond children pictures never the drew either Some influenced These See Appendix V, P a r t A. | I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - catalogues are a window to l o o k the world. at of t h e m a i l a visiting told hi s of order Amish the B i b l e son and said, reading". Sears made a big "in s o m e is family, me child The it on is the could one of on Amish the father that off and importance story the read a back He section to his with way". church they of little the but commented that in see me borrowed, who that families usually came allowed sermons. turned undoubtedly happen a of you listeners, by his to are of the one wanted book trotted impression families the story in he so the illustrated calling leaving "Bring catalog. was which indication preacher used the The through catalogue Before with - Another a minister, w h o church. 394 it that When the would get 1 0P children in mail order they imitated t a i n of so of able and loud, the played hold slow traveling they get to know the that they may be different the mail influence. The various books their come Amish successful in order bring journals and cer­ with them introducing, friendship. catalogues trade regularly community They of while elders. around well. type salesmen and hymn of salesmen quite a as singing families and 128. them Amish new p r o d u c t s the the that the new ideas family catalogues Some enough one have to Culturally consider­ which 00A29, 00A31, 00A27. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. the - Amish m e n s u bs cr ib e waps of m a r k e t i n g and t h e y have The land to and i s o l a t i o n they can for of it earn is their become identified. Hard religiously conveniences, fancy hav e a c q u i r e d the stigma - s p e c if ic but effect in the the farming methods women home. enough money only relatively practice have b e c o m e less products, little and r e l i g i o n m a y points in f l u e n c e Amish must farm, 395 in the rarely to work, thriftiness, of able virtues. and to buy security farming Therefore, interwoven clothing be corrujarative closely sanctioned them 129 self-sufficient religion. read or that economics and at some dressing Luxury, decorated the land need­ homes sinfulness. W o u l d it n o t be p u t t i n g o u r s e l v e s i n d a n g e r of l i v i n g i n l u x u r y if we h a d e v e r y t h i n g m o d e r n su c h as e l e c t r i c i t y , auto, m o d e r n m a c h i n e r y , etc . ? Also m i g h t we not be s p e n d i n g too m u c h m o n e y f o r o u r s e l v e s i n s t e a d of f o r the L o r d ? Money spent on l a n d t o f a r m is c o n s i d e r e d m o n e y s p e n t f o r t h e Lord. It h a s b e e n a n d s t i l l i s b e i n g p r o v e d b y m a n y t h a t it is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d t h i n g s to m a k e a l i v i n g . What then w o u l d t h e y be b u t u n n e c e s s a r y t e m p t a t i o n s ? . . .what is plainer and more scrijjtural and modest than for women to wear bonnet £>J O clJJe s , and shawls (when needed)? Prom a-,financial viewxjoint, also it is more scriptural. 129. On one occasion I was served a soup that was made from a reciept in the Ohio P a r m e r . Among the women I knew House and G a r d e n , House Beautiful were more popular. 130. PP. 6-7. Ordnung of a Christian Church (Ohio, 1950) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - It is b e c a u s e finances and are w i l l i n g next, from of this sense scripture, to modify one time of the to 396 of - the interrlatedness economics Ordnung the and from of religion, one that location to they the next. The foreg o i n g ordnances are considered the nearest scriptural u n der present day conditions, but shou l d not be c o n s i d e r e d u n c h a n g e a b l e , as different circumstances may require different regulations. Something is scriptural economically from the in a manner world. tation of the of t h e saints. As the if that world scriptures as RELATION Relation to Most the it allows will keep changes they TO the apply THE Amish to them most so to will the survive isolated interpre­ economic behavior, STATE State Amish think of themselves It is as Amish first and 1 oo Americans second. 131. not that they are not loyal Ibid ., p . 8. 132. M e n who had been in Civilian Public Service Camps were m o r e h e s i t a n t t o m a k e s u c h a s t a t e m e n t . They had learned the v a l u e o f s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e A m e r i c a n s . "...die Nachfolger Christi als Fremdlinge und Pilger (die hi.er kein Reich, nnch Gewalt oder Bleibende Stadte haven.) Peter Jans Twisck," Bekenntnisz des G-laubens nach Gottes Heilige Wort der Wehrlosen ChristenT (Martin Printers, Saint Joe, Arkansas) 1954, p. 62. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 397 - citizens, toleration bond and they of b e i n g than b e i n g The do not have appreciate received brothers fellow Amish believe is instituted by God nf o r protection of the p i o u s '1,^34 civil freedom and country to them with English that the religious in this in Christ citizens the Tout t h e a stronger bond neighbors. government punishment of f 0r without the has wicked government been and it the would 133 • C. I. S c h w a r z e n d r u b e r , " M e h r fiber d i e a e u t s c h e S c h u l s a c h e " H d V , J u n e 15, 1 9 5 2 , p. 362, w r i t e s : " . . .dem s c h O nen, f r e i e n A m e r i k a . Und wie froh und dankbar darf ich nun sei, d a s i s h s c h o n s o l a n g e u n t e r d i e s e r s c h O n e n f r e i e n O b rigkeiten wohnen d u r f t e " . A Mennonite writes: "He/ the C h r i s ­ tian/ is a w a r e t h a t he e n j o y s a n d p r o f i t s b y th e l i b e r t y a n d freedom, the s a f e t y a n d s e c u r i t y w h i c h o t h e r m e n h a v e e s ­ tablished t h r o u g h m e a n s w h i c h he c o u l d not h i m s e l f employ, ends f u r t h e r m o r e w h i c h h e k n o w s o f n o f u l l y e t h i c a l w a y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g ." Y o d e r , " O b l i g a t i o n " , o p , c i t ., p. 122 . 134. Dort C o n f e s s i o n of Faith, A r t i c l e XIII. "Von obrigkeitlichen Amt und der weltlichen Nacht. Wird bekennet: nemlich, dass das o b r i g k e i t l i c h e Amt eine V e r o r d u n ung u n d E i n s e t z u n g G o t t e s s e y e , w e l c h e r s o l c h e G e w a l t tlber a alle L a n d e r h a t g e s e z t u n d v e r o r d n e t ; auf dass dadurch Lander u n d Stadte d u r c h gute P o l i c e y u n d G e s e t z e (zur Strafe d e n B O s e n u n d S c h u z d e n F r o m m e n ) i n e i n e m g u t e n u n d bflrgerl i c h e n L e b e n i n R u h e u n d F r i e d e n mttgen r e g i e r e t u n d u n t e r halten werden; o h n e w e l c h e M a c h t d e r O b r i g k e i t die W elt (als w e l c h e i n h e r B o s h e i t e r s o f f e n i s t ) m i c h t b e s t e h e n mag. T w i s c k , o j d . c i t . , A r t i c l e 27, p. 6 2 . Also found in Mart.yrer S p i e g e l , o p . c i t . , 1 8 1 4 , p . 3 3 3 . G. F . H e r s h ­ be r g e r , W a r , P e a c e , a n d N o n r e s i s t a n c e . ( S c o ttdale, Pa.: Herald P r e s s . , 1944) , p. 1 8 8 w r i t e s " H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e s t a t e has b e e n p r i m a r i l y a n o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f law and or d e r , by m e a n s of c o e r c i o n , i n a s i n f u l s o c i e t y , " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission - 398 - quickly b e c o m e i m p o s s i b l e f o r C h r i s t i a n m e n to live in peace and f r e ed o m. 135 C h r i s t i a n s are to pa y all customs, taxes and t r i b u t e s and to be sub je ct and o b e d i e n t to the government "in all t h i n g s that do not m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t the "1 *5 law, w i l l a n d c o m m a n d m e n t s of God." . . .any one who resi st s the a u t h o r i t i e s sets h i m s e l f a g a i n s t what God has es t ab l i s h e d , and t hose who set t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t H i m w i l l get the p e n a l t y due them. Mark - penalty from " H i m " . f o r c iv il a u t h o r i t i e s are not a t e r r o r to the m a n who d o e s ,r ig ht , but t h e y are to the m a n who does w r o n g . ^ 1 jo The A m i s h w i l l not su p po rt the g o v e r n m e n t by f or ce of arms nor v/ill t h e y a c c e p t offi ce s of civil g o v e r n m e n t 139 that igkeit 135. "Wir bekennen wohl alle, dassO br ohne es fast unrnOglich ware ftir die Christen-Menchen in Ruhe and Frieden heir leben; denn die Welt ist so in Bosheit ertrankt, und die Gottlosigkeit von die Menschen ist so gross dass wenn nicht eine Oorigkeit ware um Ordnung zu halten ware es oedenklich wie die Sachen zugehen wtirden." P.Y. "Weltliche c i t ., p . 3 8 . Uernter, o 136. Dort Confession of faith, Article XIII; Twisck, op. cit., Article 27. 137. H e r a l d , January 21, 1 9 5 4 , p. 6. 138. Dort Confession of Hachfolger Christie, mtissen aushalten, lichen Wassen, nemlich den V/ort Gottes cit., Article 27- Article XIV. "...die faith, und nur rnit geiststreiten." Twisck, op, 139. Dort Confession of faith, Article XIII. "Desh mtissen auch alle seine Hachfolger keine^we'-'-s das obrigkeitliche Amt. sarnmt allem, was dazu gehOrt^. bedienen*" P.-Y. "weltliche Uemter", op. cit , P. 39 "also mtissen auch alle seine Hachfolger Keinesweges das obrigkeitliche Amt, sammt allem, was dazu gehflrt." Twisck, op. cit., Article 27. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 399 - require the use of force, not will they take an oath. 140 Instead they pray for the government and their rulers."^"1 Their attitude is similar to that of Origen, who wrote about 250 AD: Dor men of God are assuredly the salt of the earth; they preserve the order of the world; and society is held together as long as the salt is uncorrupted...and as we by our prayers vanquish all demons who stir up war,...and disturb the p e a c e , we in this way are much more helpful to the k i n g s , than those who. go into the field to fight for them...we fight on his /the k i n g 1§/behalf, forming our prayers to an array an army of piety - by offering our prayers to God...And it is not for the purpose of escaping public duties that Christians decline public offices, but that they may reserve themselves for a diviner and more necessary service in t^e 2 Church of God ~ for the salvation of men. 140. Math. 5:34. Dort Confession of Faith, Article XV, Twisck, Article 26. David Beiler, Das Vahre Christenthum, (Scottdale, Pa.: 1951)» Mennonitische Verlagshaus, pp. 147164. 141. Christenirflicht, pp. 25 and 45. The fourth prayer and the tenth prayer of the sixth prayer. "Darum sind alle Christen schuldig, die Obrigkeit vor Gottes Deiner zu halten, und vor dieselbe mit brtlnstigem Herzen zu bitten: dass ihr Gott wolle gnfidig seyn, und sie ewig selig rnachen." Twisck, ojo. c i t ., Several of the family prayers during my visits with Amish families included prayers for these serving in the government. "...all subjects and Christian believers are under great obligation to pray earnestly and constantly to God for the welfare of their persons and government..." Herald, July 15, 1954» p.6. 142. As quoted in Hershberger, ojo. c i t ., pp. 60-1. Reproduced w * p e r i o d of * . copyright owner. PudPer r e p r o d u c e prop p ed with„ut - 400 - Th e f o r e m o s t r e a s o n f o r the A m i s h r e f u s a l to p a r t i ­ cipate in state p r o g r a m s is t h e i r f e a r that if t h e y “become involved w i t h the state t h e i r p r i n c i p l e will be th re at en ed ; of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e if t h e y a c ce p t b e n e f i t s f r o m the state they may be c a ll e d i n t u r n to de fe n d the state by force. It is safest not to b e c o me obligated. As the i n f l u e n c e of the go ve rn m e n t g r o w s and s l o w l y p e r m e a t e s ments of l i v i n g and m a k i n g a living, different it b e c o m e s difficult f o r the A m i s h to a v o i d i n v o l v e m e n t . men are v o t i n g , mo re Xerograms; depart­ increasingly More of the are p a r t i c i p a t i n g in g o v e r n m e n t f a r m but the A m i s h are f a r f r o m the A m e r i c a n id e a l of an active, aggressive c i t i z e n who k ee p s u p w i t h p o l i t i ­ cal issues and is v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in the f u n c t i o n i n g of his g o v e r n m e n t . ment, but A m o n g the A m i s h it is n e v e r "our" g o v e r n ­ "the" g o v e r n m e n t . Voting, Oaths, Courts and Civil Office During the last few weeks of the 1952 election cam­ paign I was working for an Amish family. The Amish knew there would be an election in a few weeks and they knew that a man named Eisenhower was running for president. He had a good Mennonite name they were familiar with and could easily remember. The election was never discussed, 143. Ibid., p. 196. "But there is always danger tha if Christians depend too much on the state they will eventual­ ly become too much obligated on the state." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 401 - only an occasional comment about voting. As someone coming in from the outside they asked me a few questions, the most frequent one was, 11What is the name of that divorced man who is running against Eisenhower?"'*'^ They had no radios, none of the families I visited subscribed to a daily newspaper or a weekly news magazine. Election morning the man of the family went to a corn husking. told us that he had voted. At noon he came back and An English neighbor had driven around rural Stoneyrun taking the Amish farmers in to vote. Most of the men at the corn husking enjoyed the break and the ride into the v i l l a g e . That afternoon his wife and I went into town to the doctor. vote, 145 but to no avail. man who voted in Stoneyrun. I tried to persuade her to I do not know of any Amish wo­ At supper and during the evening the election was not mentioned. it did not come up. The next morning They were surprised when I leaped at the chance to go to the nearest store to buy some sugar for canning so that I could learn the election results. When 144. It is interesting that they referred more often to the fact that Stevenson was divorced than to the fact that lisenhower was a general. They feel that force is necessary for the ruling of the world. ("They^/the Anabaptist§7 belie­ ved that the unregenerate world was not capable of living a non-resistant life." Ibid., p. 190.) It is perfectly feasible, even a good thing, for the president to be a general. 145. R ep ro d u ced Advance registration is not required. p e r s o n of td e c o p v d p , ow ner, .u d d e r r e p r o d u c e p r o v e d - — the c h i l d r e n came h o m e t h e y r u s he d to t e l l m e who ha d won, for u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the school, t h e y ha d d e v e l o p e d more inter e st in the o u t c o m e t h a n t h e i r pare n ts . The A m i s h are s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t g o v e r n m e n t a l i n t e r ­ ference in a g r i c u l t u r e , an d cro p r e d u c t i o n p r o g r a m s are completely f o r e i g n to t h e i r w a y of t h i n k i n g so th o s e who voted in th e r e g i o n I wa s the rest of the office in v o t e d the c i t i z e n s R e p u b l i c a n as did m o s t of T h e y pai d clo s e a t t e n t i o n to of p r o s e c u t i n g a t to rn ey , s e v e r a l of the A m i s h m e n having c a l l e d on 11--. c;. hli.l.tos f o r th at p o s i t i o n to disc us s the compusorj s c h o o l laws w i t h them. against a n y i nc r e a s e in the for m e m b e r s r u n n i n g f o r the They vote consistantly s c h o o l t a x l e v y and v o t e c a r e f u l l s c h o o l board. T h e r e is a n i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y to v o t e a m o n g the Amish of c e n t r a l Ohio T h i s was the f ir s t time at least two of the m e n I k n e w h a d v o t e d . The w o m e n r e f l e c t t h e i r greater i s o l a t i o n and the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y of t h e i r life within the c o m m u n i t y by s h o w i n g no in t e r e s t n o r the des ir e 1 4 6 c See A p p e n d i x V Part B f o r a t a b u l a t i o n of the election r e s u lt s c o m p i l e d f r o m the H e r a l d , Nov. 6, 1952. 147. P.Y., a n A m i s h m a n who does no t live i n the ar e a of this study, writes: "Diese Sac he fttr die Leu t e zu s t i m n e n wod die v/eltliche JLmter b e d i e n e n ist v i e l l e i c h t s c h o n in viele v o n den a m i s c h e n G e m e i n d e n e i n g e s c h l i c h e n . . . "weltliche Uemter" , _op. c 3t ., p. 36 A Reproduced w,1h p e u * ^ of the ^ ^ p ro d u c tio n p ro h ib ited w ith o u t p e r m iss io n . - to vote. 1 / Px 403 - The m e n refl ec t the g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s of the Amish c o m m u n i t y in the o u t si de world, a l t h o u g h as yet t h ey are p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in l o ca l o f f i c i a l s who w i l l af fe ct them directly. The A m i s h w i l l not take oaths. there has 14-9 In this c o u n t r y been l it t l e c o n f l i c t w i t h the state o v e r this issue f o r u s u a l l y t h e y are p e r m i t t e d to a f f i r m r a t h e r t h a n to swear. T he A m i s h do not b e l i e v e grievances. 1 50 The court is part of the state a n d the state is compo se d of n o n - C h r i s t i a n s tians should be in g o i n g to court to settle as w e l l as C h r i s t i a n s . Chris­ judged in t h e i r own t r i b u n a l - D a r e a n y of you, go to l a w b e f o r e s a i n t s ? . . .Why do do ye not r a t h e r h a v i n g a m a t t e r a g a in st another, the unjust, a n d not before the ye not r a t h e r take w r o n g ? Wh y ^51 s u f f e r y o u r s e l v e s to be d e f r a u d e d ? 148. This is in k e e p i n g w i t h the p a t t e r n that w o m e do not m a k e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s . 149* Dort C o n f e s s i o n ■of Paith, A r t i c l e XV. 150. J o h n Horsch, "An H i s t o r i c a l Su r v e y of the P o s i ­ tion of the M e n n o n i t e C h u r c h in N o n - R e s i s t a n c e ." MQR, I (July 192'/), pp. 6-22. " S i n c e . . . a l l that is t e m p o r a l is f o r e i g n to us and is not o u r o w n (Luke 16:11, 12) t h e r e f o r e a C h r i s ­ tian cannot q u a r r e l or d i s p ut e or go to l a w ab ou t it but, as one who has tu r n e d a w a y his heart f r o m the w o r l d and d i r ec te d it to the h ea v e n l i e s , he is m i n d e d r a t h e r to s u f f e r w r o ng .. ." p. 17. 151. I C o r : 6:1,7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 404 - If p o s s i b l e the A m i s h w i l l a r r a n g e a s e t t l e m e n t out si d e of court e v e n t h o u g h it m a y be to t h e i r d et ri m e n t . W h e n th e y are f o r c e d into court t h e y u s u a l l y w i l l not accept p r o f f e r e d aid but p l e a d t h e i r own case services of a n atto rn e y. 152 i ns t e a d of m a k i n g use of the In P e n n s y l v a n i a a g r o u p of Old Order A m i s h m e n f ought the b u i l d i n g of a c o n s o l i d a t e d sc h o o l in court. However, "a g o o d m a n y m e m b e r s in the c o m m u n i t y feel that a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e of the c h u r c h was v i o l a t e d when this c o n t r o v e r s y was t a k e n to court." 15 3 In Ohio it has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the Old O r d e r A m i s h fight the s c h o o l problem in court, that t h e y get g o o d l e g a l adv ic e a n d tr y to influence the l e g i s l a t u r e in t h e i r b e h a lf , or that at least when i n d i v id ua ls are d r a g g e d into court t hat t h ey o b t a i n competent l e g a l aid. 154 In the s u m m e r of 1956 the c h u r c h districts in one c o u n t y u n i t e d to h ir e two lawy er s to r e ­ present the Amish. The n e i g h b o r i n g d i s t r i c t s in o t h e r 155 v counties are c r i t i c a l of this m ove. T he f e w e x p e r i e n c e s 152. " A r r a i g n e d to en te r t h e i r p l e a t h e y w e r e a d v i s e d by the court of t h e i r ri g ht s as c i t i z e n s but e a ch d e c l i n e d a n attorney..." Hero l d, O c t o b e r 28, 1954, p. !• News r e l e as e c o n ­ cerning sev e ra l A m i s h f a t h e r s who we r e a r r e s t e d f o r k e e p i n g their .children out of school. 153. Kollmorgen, ojd. cit., p. 84. 154. One A m i s h m a n in a l e t t e r to the H e r o l d , N o v e m ­ ber 11, 1954, p. 3, t h r e a t e n e d to t ak e the case of his c h i l ­ d r e n ’s abse nc e f r o m s c h o o l to court. T h e o nl y t h r e e A m i s h ®ho m e n t i o n e d his c o l u m n to m e (00A1, 00A2, OOA23) c r i t i c i s e d him. 155. H e r a l d , J u l y 26, 1956, pi, "...we are a li t t l e bothered about Co. ch u r c h e s h i r i n g a lawyer, it does not altogether m a k e sense." P e r s o n a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , V I I l / 1 6 / 5 6 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - of the A m i s h i n c ou r t Yoder's 156 405 would - s e e m to justify John Howard c o n v i c t i o n that " t h e r e is i n e v i t a b l y a c l a s h b e t w e e n the l a w and any m i n o r i t y c h u r c h w h o s e b e l i e f s in v o l v e ethi ca l c o m m i t m e n t s . This c l a s h is no t due to a n a c c i d e n t a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b u t to a bas ic a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n the e s s e n t i a l naiures-,and i n t e n t i o n s of th e two s o c i a l o r g a n i s m s . " ^ The Old O r d e r A m i s h h a v e b e e n s i n g u l a r l y u n s u c c e s s f u l in court. T h e y do not expect to be o t h e r w i s e . Spiegel is f u l l of c a r e f u l l y r e c o r d e d The M a r t y r e r co u r t h e a r i n g s and 15 © questionings, a l l of w h i c h end i n the d e a t h of the C h r i s ­ tian who r e m ai n s s t e a d f a s t . Some of the h y m n s in the A u s 15 q bund r e c o r d in d e t a i l t h e court p r o c e e d i n g s . T h e s e too end w i t h the d e a t h of the d e f e n d a n t . "He was i n t h e w o r l d . . . i f\ n and the w o r l d k n e w h i m n o t . " Because they pattern their life a f t e r that of C h r i s t the A m i s h expect, to be m i s u n d e r s t o o d b y the w o r ld . ev e n as He was, T h e m a j o r i t y of the A m i s h 156. W a y n e Coun ty , Ohio, case No. 35747. A n d r e w J. Yoder a f o r m e r Old O r d e r A m i s h m a n b r o u g h t the case a g a i n s t the officers of the c h u r c h to w h i c h he h a d b e l o n g e d f o r their h a v i n g put h i m u n d e r the b a n (tried Nov. 4-7, 1 9 4 7 ) } also G i n g e r i c h vs. S c h w a r t z e n t r u b e r , a s i m i l a r c a s e a b o u t 1919 » and n u m e r o u s c o n v i c t i o n s f o r k e e p i n g c h i l d r e n h o m e from school. 157. " C a e s a r and t h e M e i d u n g " , MQR, J a nu a ry , 1949? PP. 77. 158. Martyrs Mirror, op. cit., 1 9 5 1 » PP. 611-6, 93541, 994-1002, etc. 159. "Das 11 Lied. Ein schbn Lied van JJJrg Wagner, zu MOnchen verbrannt, A n n o . 1527."A u s b u n d , p. 60. 160. John 1:10. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 406 - still b e l i e v e it is b o t h w r o n g an d u s e l e s s to go to courts of civ il l a w to sett le g r i e v a n c e s . Th e t h i r t e e n t h a r t i c l e of t h e i r c o n f e s s i o n of faith, "Von dera Amt der weltlichen Obrigkeit" is g e n e r a l l y i n t e r ­ preted b y the Old O r d e r A m i s h to m e a n that t h e y c a nn ot h o l d office in the c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t . within the a r e a of this church districts s t u d y do not h a v e a u n i f o r m p o l i c y on v o t i n g o r on h o l d i n g m i n o r , ever, of g r e a t The v a r i o u s l o c a l o f f i c e s that are, h o w ­ i m p o r t a n c e to the A m i s h . tov/ards thes e two p r o b l e m s T heir attitude seems to be r e l a t e d to th e ratio of A m i s h to E n g l i s h in the g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . In are a s w h e r e the p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s are s u c h tha t the A m i s h f o r m a d e ­ cided m i n o r i t y a n d t h e i r v o t e w o u l d h a v e l i t t l e effect, generally d i s c o u r a g e v o t i n g and do not h o l d office. areas where t h e i r n u m b e r a p p r o a c h e s they are m o r e l i k e l y to v o t e that they In of the n o n - A m i s h and to h o l d t o w n s h i p offices. Thus in the r e g i o n i n w h i c h t h e y are p r o p o r t i o n a l l y the denrsest, m a n y A m i s h m e n serve on s c h o o l boards'^'*' and t h e r e h a v e been instan ce s of a n A m i s h m a n s e r v i n g as a t o w n s h i p t r u s t e e and in the c o u n t y b o a r d of s c h o o l e x a m i n e r s . 161. One of the local s c ho ol b oa r d f o r by a s y m p a th et i c M e n n o n i t e be able to do m o r e to h e l p members. the S t o n e y r u n c h u r c h m e m b e r s s e r v e d on m a n y y ea r s u n t i l he was r e p l a c e d d o c t o r who t he A m i s h f e l t m i g h t t h e m t h a n one of t h e i r o w n c h u r c h R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 407 - Government Agencies The Amish attitude towards government agencies is one of mingled suspicion, laclo of understanding and fear of consequent involvement in military programs. They distrust government in general and they scorn "hook farming", believing it is better to learn farming by doing it than by studying how to do it."^^ government with The agriculture programs not only combine pronouncements from universities, but m a n y of them also require the signature of the participating farmer. The Amish fear this too, for' it may imply that they -1 are breaking the principle of the unequal yoke an organization that is not primarily Amish. by joining Many of the Amish feel that they could give the government agricul- 162. Cor. OOA96, 00A5, OOA23, 00A3, 00A25. 163. T h e c o n c e p t of the 6:14, 15 "be n o t u n e q u a l l y u n e q u a l y o k e is b a s e d o n yoked with unbelievers: II for what fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness? And what concord hath Christ with Belial? or what part hath he that believeth with an infidel?" This concept has pre­ vented some Amish from joining farmers cooperatives' and government programs, and sone have interpreted it as support of the prohibition against owning a telephone and having high line electricity. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 0 8 - turalists a few pointers on practical farming The Amish and the government officials have a com­ pletely different orientation towards the land. To the Amish the land enables them to live, it is God-given or rather it is lent to them by God and they work the land as His stewards. 165 To the government official the land is an important, vital aspect of the national economy, but it has nothing of the sacred. It should be managed in such a way that it produces most efficiently. It is a commodity, a means to an end rather than an end in itself. In this light limitation of production is understandable, as is the mining of farm land to obtain coal, or even to 164. "After all the A m i s h parents could t e a c h the t e a c h e r s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t f a r m i n g a n d h o u s e k e e p i n g ..." H e r a l d , O c t . 1, 1 9 5 3 , p. 1" T h e y t r y to t e l l m e t h e y know more a bout f a r m i n g t h a n I do." 017. J a n e C. G e t z , p. 49, r e l a t e s a s t o r y t h a t c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g t h e H o u s e Amish in L a n c a s t e r C o u n t y . " . . . a t t h e S t a t e C o l l e g e Ex­ periment S t a t i o n o n n u m e r o u s p l o t s of g r o u n d v a r i o u s f e r ­ tilizers were b e i n g u s e d . W h e n asked, wh i c h plot was there with g o o d old b a r n y a r d m a n u r e a nd o t h e r f e r t i l i z e r s s u c h as u s e d i n L a n c a s t e r c o u n t y , t h e p r o f e s s o r r e p l i e d , "we don't c a r r y o n a n y e x p e r i m e n t t o t r y t o s h o w t h e L a n ­ caster c o u n t y f a r m e r h o w to f a r m . T h e y k n o w as m u c h ab o u t it a s w e do; in fact we learn a lot f r o m them." 165. Leviticus 25:23. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 409 - produce a quick c r o p . ^ ^ To the Amish such treatment of “I the land is incomprehensible. /T r y When the conversation would turn to agricultural officials I would often be told fl co 166. Gorer describes the typical American attitude towards the land. "Land is not something to be loved and succored, but something to be exploited. Significantly often, the terras of mining are applied to agriculture. Crops are extracted, land is mined - the vegetabel world i constantly being spoken of, and treated as though it were mineral world. Crops are extracted from a piece of land until it is exhausted, after which the land is abandoned, in exactly the same way as metal is extracted from avein until that is exhausted and the mine abandoned. "Of course this treatment of the land had had disastrous results in erosion and the creation of dust bowls - man-made deserts — and conservation has become imperative. iiut this has not deepl;y changed the attitude toward land. Instead of mines, farms and forest lands have come to be compared to factories, where the maintenance of the plant is necessary for the production of goods. Land is still a raw material, no more to be loved or identified with than a lump of iron or an oil well under the soil." Geoffrey Gorer, The American Peop le, (New York: Norton, 194b), p. 155. 167. If the Amish are catagorized souly by their relation to the land they could be considered a peasant group. Redfield and Wolf conceive of a peasant society as one in v/hich agriculture is a livelihood and a way of life rather than a business for profit. Robert Redfield, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1956), p. 27. Eric R. Wolf, "Types of Latin American Peasantry: A Preliminary Discussion," American Anthropologist, June, 1955? pp. 452-71. To follow through the conceptual model Redfield constructs for "peasantry", "the world" would for the Amish have to be considered to form "the elite" which in a very limited sense it does. However, this is forcing the parallel. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 1 0 - the story of a Production and Marketing Administration of­ ficial who lived near Stoneyrun, the Triple A. "We had a neighbor from He v/as always telling us how to farm and how to care for the land. Then just a couxjle of months ago he sold his farm to the strip-mines. What can a man like -1 srO that know about caring for the land?" tude was expressed by an Amish woman A similar atti- 1 69 as she looked sadly at the barren mounds left by stripping a once productive farm, "Some people would do that just for money." The Amish place a high value on production and nur­ turing whether it be of children, livestock or crops. They could not understand the programs that limited production or even worse destroyed what was produced. 170 the government was wrong and dishonest. They felt that "Pirst the govern­ ment tells us not to plant and to kill the baby pigs. Then during the war they boast that because of foresight we had enough. Both things can't be right." 168. 00A5. 169. 00A2. 171 170. G e t z , o jd . c i t . , p. 4 8 , q u o t e s a c o n s e r v a t i v e Amishman as s a y i n g " L i t t l e pigs w e r e k i l l e d to h e l p the f a r m e r s so i t w a s s a i d , a n d t h e n e x t y e a r w e h a d a d r o u g h t . That w e n t t o g e t h e r . T a i n t r i g h t to d e s t r o y f o o d . " I was told a s i m i l a r s t o r y i n O h i o . " T h e y s a i d it w a s to h e l p the f a r m e r s b u t t h e n e x t y e a r y i e l d s w e r e p o o r ' c a u s e l a c k of r a i n . " In one f a m i l y in w h i c h I w o r k e d the sweepings f r o m t h e f l o o r w e r e s u p p o s e d t o be c h e c k e d a n d t h e c r u m b s separated f r o m the dust. The crumbs were put outside f o r the b i r d s a n d t h e d u s t b u r n e d . 171. 00A1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Some of A allotments balanced the Amish completely concern that ignored must followed the crop system rotation for a farmer all t h e he planted other crops So m u c h led a n d to "he do. his own Various especially and t e l l i n g government corn on farm the to p l a n t soil of what plans contour these The one are and long principles. as They it affecting desire of heing reason it they what were 172 In said "If not in I want free to know are outside to the raise I know where 17 3 anything plan They discussing I wish. to." to farmers in f rom the do. as to told own hoss" . coming they want without how a fierce interested are changing developed farmer they their control­ should for that disrupted he a of m a n y complained not is watched, their where in terms it life the do a farm Triple is someone they conservation, as "he I will hills Amish the f a m i l y ligious them told me the years. a hatred could resentful could that that They produce has out of allotments several he fact time. one and Amishmen a the Amishman's that hoss" then they in for the restricted v/as t h a t with of at pointed thought when they acres year he just many - farmers years, n o t of one 4 1 1 to that keep live every the hy has to land their way to do in re­ increase 172. T h i s a t t i t u d e is c e r t a i n l y n o t u n i q u e to t h e Am i s h . " . . . t h e i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t o r o f t h e f a m i l y f a r m . . . ' u n i v e r s a l l y t a k e s xjride i-n h e i n g h i s ' o w n b o s s 1". L o o m i s , ° P « c i t ., p . 2 97. 173. 00A1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - sustained production. 412 - Gradually they are learning that some of the government agencies can give them helpful information along these lines. But their suspicion and lack of under­ standing of how the agencies function, as well as a hesi­ tancy to impose on an outsider or to ask for something from a non-Amishman, tends to keep them away. They do not believe in asking to get something for nothing, so some hesitate to make inquiries for free literature or informa­ tion. However, many read such material v/ith interest when it is mailed to them."^^ These small parcels of govern­ ment at a distance are not so threatening. In the same way they often know on sight the officials who work for the different agricultural agencies and if they chance to meet on the street are willing to stop the official with a question or two. As a group the Amish profit indirectly from the government agricultural agencies. They are extremely inter­ ested in all phases of farming and keep a sharp eye on their English neighbors whose farming practices they watch care­ fully and assess. If something works they will try it. 1'74. In. contrast to the Lancaster County Amish whom Getz, I b i d . , p, 49 said "did not appear to receive any agricultural magazines." The Amish in Stoneyrun not only received various government publications but also such magazines as the Ohio Farmer and even Country Gentlemen. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 413 - But they prefer to learn over the hack fence, to see some­ thing and Judge it than to accept it from a written state­ ment or from a government v/orker. The government worker has almost no status, no authority and they do not know how to evaluate or even understand his suggestions. In many ways the government official seems to he as suspicious and to s h o w as as the Amish do of them. little understanding of the Amish All the government officials in the central Ohio area felt that the Amish were clannish, uncooperative, hard to work with and lacking in community spirit. Some blamed this on their lack of education, others on the influence of their bishops. Three of the officials 175 ^ told of one group that had been organized in the county in which Stoneyrun is located. After three well-attended, carefully planned group meetings a bishop stood up and in ten minutes tore down the whole program. cooperation. There was no further •in/ One of the Soil Conservations Service men complained that neighborhood groups v/ould not work with the Amish. This is not surprising in that he defined neighbor­ hood geographically and then observed that the Amish and English neighbors did not form a working unit. 175. 09, 010, Oil. 176. Oil. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 414 - Th e A m i s h are c e r t a i n l y not c o m m u n i t y bo oste rs; they e ve n f i g h t that high school. c i t a d e l of A m e r i c a n p r o g r e s s , The s t a n d a r d c l i c h e s patriotic r es ponse. 177 not w o r k w i t h them. Accepted methods elicit a t y p i c a l of a p p r o a c h do T h e r e was n o t h i n g in the t r a i n i n g of most of the g o v e r n m e n t a closely i n t e g r a t e d the offi ci al s do not o f f i c i a l s to h e l p t h e m d eal w i t h s uc h m i n o r i t y gr ou p, therefore most The off ic ia ls who w e r e b o r n and r a i s e d pecially t ho se who job of ru n into i r r i t a t i n g p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e y tr y to enlist the A m i s h in the v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t the best the p u b l i c p rogr am s. in the region, es­ s p e a k P e n n s y l v a n i a D ut c h , g e n e r a l l y do (unless they have Amish that t h e y w i l l not so m u c h p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t the eve n t r y to w o r k w i t h t h e m ) . The degree of co ntac t the o t h e r o f f i c i a l s h ave w i t h the Amish is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the in t e r e s t the o f f i c i a l has in them as a g r o u p . Most g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s are w e l l a ware of the solidarity of the g r o u p an d so t he y t r y to w o r k w i t h the leaders as t h e y h a v e b e e n taught. as the obvious m a n to a p p r o a c h . T h e y se lect the b i s h o p This is a n u n f o r t u n a t e 177. G-.P. H e r s h b e r g e r , nP a l s e P a t r i o t i s m ” January , 1927, pp. 9-27, April, 1927, pp. 29-45. 178. "There are e n o u g h p e o p l e who wa nt i n f o r m a t i o n , not for me to spend m y tim e d o i n g m i s s i o n a r y w o r k to the Amish." 01. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 415 - choice, f o r the b i s h o p is s u p p o s e d to r e p r e s e n t conservative adv oca te o p i n i o n in the c o m m u n i t y ; he of change. boundaries He c a n n o t o r ign or e the c o nc ept r a r e l y c a n be a n s u gg est th a t m e m b e r s some of th e p r i n c i p l e s of the u n e q u a l yoke, ment , or a c c e p t i n g the m o s t slur s u c h as v i o l a t i n g w o r k i n g w i t h the g o v e r n ­ something for nothing. It is his to k e e p the c o m m u n i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m the wor ld, courage it to m i x w i t h the wor ld . Government dut y not to en­ officials would jjrogress m u c h f a s t e r if t h e y w o u l d i d e n t i f y an d w o r k w i t h the u n o f f i c i a l l e a d e r s of the c o m m u n i t y . easy to d i s c o v e r who th e s e m e n are. No It is u n u s u a l l y special survey needs to be mad e, th e o n l y q u e s t i o n to be a s k e d is, was in the lot?" T h e m e n w h o m the c h u r c h s ug g e s t s f o r the p o sit io n of m i n i s t e r are the munity. informal leaders "Who of the c o m ­ f r o m e a c h g r o u p o n l y one is s e l e c t e d f o r th e role of m i n i s t e r , the o t her s c o n t i n u e as o r d i n a r y l a y m e m b e r s . They are th e i n n o v a t o r s . T h e y are not responsible for ke ep in g the c o m m u n i t y to the old w a y s a n d yet t h e y h a v e enough c o m m u n i t y supjport so that t h e y c a n ri s k t r y i n g something new. Generally, if th e y ha v e b e e n su c c e s s f u l , other c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s w i l l f o l l o w t h e i r lead. gov er nme nt o f f i c i a l s w o u l d w o r k w i t h t h e s e men, find the A m i s h m o r e The amount programs If the they would cooperative. of c o o p e r a t i o n of the A m i s h in g o v e r n m e n t is r e l a t e d not only to the p e r s o n a l i t y and k n o w - R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 416 - ledge of the government official, but also to the size and the prosperity of the Amish community. Usually the officials get the most cooperation with the small, relatively unsuccesful communities and least with the large successful ones. The Extension Service workers find that the Amish are reluctant to come into their office, hut are friendly and ask questions when they meet them on the street. They have also discovered that the Amish seem to read, more thoroughly than most farmers, the government bulletins that are sent them. The school children join the poster contests and accept the prize money. 179 established on the edge of the community. One 4H Club was The extension v/orker changed the names of the officers for the Amish parents felt that a child should not hold such an office as president or vice-president. It might engender pride. Instead, the president was called "pusher". Although the 4-H Club was tolerated, it v/as completely without community support and so died after one season. l80 Parents object not only to an outside organization that takes the children av/ay from home for a few hours, but primarily to the fact 179* This does not worry the Amish community for the children are not yet church members and the contest is considered a school activity in which the parents do not interfere. One parent even told me she liked the contest because she enjoyed drawing and would help the children with the posters. 180 . 09 , 0 1 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 417 - that the 4H Cluhs encourage participation in fairs. do not believe in that type of competition. agent 181 They An extension complained that the best dairy cows in the county were owned by an Amish man who refused to show them at the fair. Sometimes this problem is circumvented by selling a choice animal just before the fair opens and the buyer shows 102 it o Another Amishman 1 who raises Suffolk sheep has al­ lowed an English neighbor boy to earn a good lamb by working for him. The child then raised the lamb under the Am ishman’s direction and later exhibited it at the fair. The boy has won many prizes with lambs from his Amish f r i e n d ’s flock. The Amish are beginning to see the advantages of having their soil tested and more of them are sending in samples.They are also asking questions about seeding 181 . 01 . 182. "Regarding the big steer of Joe Weavers men­ tioned last week, it was afterward exhibited at various places including Philadelphia and Lancaster. I don't think Joe had it exhibited, but probably the person who purchased it from him." H e r a l d , Dec. 6, 1951* 183. 00A13• 1 8 4 . Dieter C u n z , The Maryland Germans (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University' Press, 1948), p. 424 describes the methods used by the first Amish who had come from Lancaster to Maryland to select land for a new community. , "...they walked around in the fields, each one equipped with a small shovel, and wherever an acre was offered to them for sale the,> began digging with their shovels. It took them only a few minutes to find out whether the soil was good or bad, or at least in such condition that it could be improved." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 418 - mixtures, fertilization and pasture management as well as asking for bulletins on fruit raising. Occasionally they will take a sick animal to the State Experiment Station in V/ooster for diagnosis of the disease and suggestions for cure and prevention of epidemics. Many individuals would like to make use of this service more often than they do, but the,, feel that they may be imposing on the men who study the animals and give them the resulting information. The Amish need constant reassurance that they are welcome and not intruding. The Soil Conservation Service official in the county in which the Stoneyrun church is located has made a special effort to work with the Amish. Until recently he did not ask Amish farmers to sign the form when they requested a farm plan. Although the Amish represent about one-tenth, of the farmers in the country and the Soil Conservation Service had drawn up about 4 00 plans, only between 15 and 20 of them were plans for Amish farms. Considering the Amish.distrust of government agencies and the stability of the community this is a fairly high percentage. More Amish farmers are requesting farm plans and even more are making their own from.what they have learned from their R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 419 - neighborso 185 However, this is not always successful as some copy the idea of planting in strips, but miss the con­ cept that the strips should follow the contour. Quite a few follow a simplified program of working out the contour for one strip, then making the next two strips parallel to the first and the figuring out the contour again for the fourth strip. At the j-resent time about one half of the Amish around Stoneyrun use modified contour planting. The number has increased rapidly in the last few years, and more are taking it up as they see that the yields are better. Their pattern of accepting contour plowing; seems to be following a pattern similar to their acceptance of hybrid corn. They were a little slow to take to it at first, but once it got into the community, it was accepted at a fast rate. virtually all the corn grown is hybrid. 186 Now Recently the Soil Conservation Service men have requested that the Amish farmers sign the farm plan. Most of them have been willing to do this o In more successful Amish communities, the "best" Amish 185. Getz, op. c i t o , p. 4 8 . "...the Director of the Soil Conservation Program pointed out that three or four neighbors of a Church Amishman who cooperates in the ACP were clearly adopting similar programs on their own land and he believes they will be strip farming before long." I860 Amish people mg age had never found a red ear at a young people's corn husking. Those my parents age remem­ bered such discoveries. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 420 - do not request farm plans. who are on the verge Quite a few who do are members "i A t of leaving the church. Another group of Amishmen who make use of the Soil Conservation Service are young farmers who are trying to get started on a farm recently bought from an Englishman. As mentioned above the community is lenient in their judgment of the young man who is trying to become economically independent and so he has more free­ dom to try new types of farming. One young man who requested a farm plan followed it meticulously and he and his family lived on a very low level buying as little as possible. After he had followed the plan for a few years and the farm was beginning to improve he told the SCS man 188 that he was willing to plant on the contour until the farm was built up, out that then he planned to go back to the old way of farming. To my knowledge he has not gone back to the old way, but it illustrates the attitude towards the behavior of individuals at different stages in their life cycle, as well as the at­ titude of only semi-acceptance of government suggestions. The Production and Marketing Administration is x->articularly disliked by the Amish. They do not like to be dic­ tated to by people outside the community. They do not 187. Oil, 015. In the church adjoining Stoneyrun there was such a case (0 0 A) C A 1 3 • 183. 013o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 2 1 - understand a policy that attmepts to limit production, to waste or spoil that which has been produced. They feel it is wrong to accept something for nothing, that they should not be paid for not doing something, yet they do not like to give up the money that the English neighbors with whom they ar^ in competition take freely. The attitude towards ac­ cepting the money varies from one church district to another. 18 9 In some they do not collect the payments. In many other communities they will follow the allotments without signing up and therefore the money is not even offered them. In one community nearly everyone signed up and the money was used for a road. 190 In the county with the largest percentage of Amish farmers 95$ of those who signed up ac­ cepted the payments. These payments were then turned over to national relief organizations such as the Red Cross. In most of the communities the recipients objected vigorously to the payments 191 even when they accepted them. 192 county with the highest proportion of Amish farmers In the 193 about 70$ of all the farmers signed up for PMA while only 10$ of 139. 015- This community was outside the area of the 190. 03. 191. 0 1 2 , 015. 192. 013, 03- 193- Over one-third of the faimers are Amish. s tu dy . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 422 - of the A m i s h went to the m e e t i n g s and a b i d e d by the re s t r i c tions. 194 Th e A m i s h p a r t i c i p a t e in the F a r m e r s H o me A d m i n i s ­ tration and the C o m m o d i t y Cr ed it C o r p o r a t i o n . community in Ohio o u t si de the a rea of this In one A m i s h study, one-half of the lo an s g r a n t e d by F H A in the c o u n t y wer e to A m i s h m e n . 195 This c o m m u n i t y is y o u n g e r t h a n the one b e i n g s t u di ed an d is much s m a l l e r c o n s i s t i n g of onl y nin e c h u r c h di st ri cts. this c o m m u n i t y wh er e loans were w i d e s p r e a d the g o v e r n m e n t officials w o r k e d t h r o u g h the b i s h o p s . studied In loans are m a d e to the In the a re a b ei ng i n d i v i d u a l and the g o v e r n ­ ment w o r ke rs m a y n e v e r h a ve met the bis ho p. In S t o n e y r u n money f o r land u s u a l l y c a n be b o r r o w e d f r o m f e l l o w m e m b e r s . More A m i s h m e n are m a k i n g s h o r t - t e r m loans to f i n a n c e sp e ­ cialized crops. It is alm os t i m p o s s i b l e f o r a f a r m e r e ve r to get f a r en o u g h ahea d f i n a n c i a l l y to be abl e to bu y and raise eight t h o u s a n d turkey s, Each turkej f o r example, without borrowing. polt cost s b e t w e e n s e v e n t y - f i v e and n i n e t y - f i v e cents and t h e n it m a y ta ke f o r t y - f i v e tons of f e e d to raise a large f l o c k to m a t u r i t y . 194. 03. 195. 015. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 423 - M ost of the A m i s h f a r m s in t h e c o m m u n i t y h a v e sm al l wood lots and a f e w A m i s h m e n are e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h s uc h forest crops as c h e s t n u t s .-*-96 few who specialize in forest contact w i t h the F o r e s t with the e x c e p t i o n of the v e r y crops the A m i s h h a v e l i t t l e Service. The R u r a l E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n has n o t h i n g to o f f e r to a c u l t u r a l g r o u p that f o r b i d s the use of e l e c t r i ­ city . In g e n e r a l it w o u l d in g o v e r n m e n t ing. s e e m that the A m i s h p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o g r a m s to aid a g r i c u l t u r e is s l o w l y i n c r e a s ­ T h e y p a r t i c i p a t e less t h a n w o u l d be p r e d i c t e d f r o m their a v e r a g e in co me 197 and ab ou t to the ex te nt that w o u l d be p r e d i c t e d f r o m t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l le ve l. of p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h e y r e s e m b l e v a r i o u s that hav e b e e n s t udie d. 196. 1') Q 19 8 In t h e i r lac k o t h e r ethnic m i n o r i t i e s Th e age p a t t e r n of p a r t i c i p a t i o n OOA133. 197. Loomis, ojd. c i t . , p. 663 ° "For three income groups under S3 ,500, "S3,500-6,499, and $6,500 and over, the percentages of farmers who had dealings with the county agent are 42, 51, and 75." T h e s e figures are from a study of parti­ cipation in the Extension Service in 16 different states. 198. Loomis, I b i d . , "For the three levels of educa­ tion - namely, those v/ho had completed grade school, high school, and college - the percentages of farmers who had not called at the county agent's office are 85, 66, and 51* 199. Loomis, I b i d . , p. 6 6 5 . "Unacculturated Norwegian families gave their support to the Lutheran Church and v/ere 'very reluctant to join these associations.'" Evon Z. Vogt, "Social Stratification in the Rural Middlev/est: December, 1947, iJP • 372-5 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 424 - also reflects their minority group position in that the younger farmers rather than the middle aged farmers form the largest group of participants and the ones that are the quickest to adopt new methods. The only time the Amish have been willing and anxious to contact agricultural officials of the government was during the war, when as one man put it, "They camped on 201 my doorstep". The Amish fathers would make every effort to secure agricultural deferments for their sons; they are willing to make use of the government agencies to maintain group solidarity. They fear these agencies for they rea­ lize that they undermine the community. When the Amish leaders are no longer leaders in agriculture, or credit administration, but only leaders in religion, the community is weakened. Social Security The Amish are opposed to Social Security on the 200. Loomis, 201. 09 . I bid ., pp. 667-663. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 425 grounds that it is insurance 202 - and that talcing out insurance implies a lack of faith in God and a desire to escape or mitigate His punishment. Most of the Amish limited their objections to expressions of concern within the community, but a few tried- to influence the legislature. a bishop wrote his representative: In January 1954 203 "We hereby request that our sect be excused from receiving a social security number, whether they work for others in agricultural lines or trades or are self-employed. We have no objection what­ ever to paying the socis,l security tax, but we do object to having any number assigned to any of our people, except as to employers...We do object to having any of our people placed in a position where any insurance would be available to them at any time, now or in the future..." 202. "We of the Old Order of Amish Mennonites are opposed to insurance in any form, according to the tenants of our religion." Bishop Byler as quoted in the H e r ald , -January 21, 1954? p. 1. Most Amishmen are fully aware that their system of mutal aid is a type of insurance, in fact they usually call it "fire i.isurance". This is simi­ lar to the use of the argument against a Pennsylvania consolidated school that it was built with borrowed money, (and thus violated one of their principles) v/hen in fact there is considerable borrowing within the Amish community. In explaining their "fire insurance" to m,e Amishmen have compared it with commercial insurance companies pointing out that they really get a much better "deal" by having their own organization. 203o Representative Louis E. Graham, 204. H e r a l d , January 21, 1954? p. 1. (R), Pa. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 426 - In F e b r u a r y one of the Sam Y o d e r c h u r c h e s sent a p e t i t i o n signed b y all the m e m b e r s of the d i s t r i c t to t h e i r co n ­ gressman: "We the u n d e r s i g n e d (Old O r d e r A m i s h Men n o n i t e ) , ar^ c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y o p p o s e d to tak e insu ra nc e of an y form, as we p r o v i d e f o r our p o o r and d i s a b l e d t h r o u g h o u r c h u r c h e s . So we are p r a y i n g pnR and a s k i n g to be e x e m p t e d f r o m soc i a l s e c ur it y... " In spite of the p r o t e s t f r o m the Amish, servative some o t h e r con- M e n n o n i t e g r o u p s and c e r t a i n in d i v i d u a l s 2 06 , the bill was p a s s e d and the House g r o u p r e f u s e d to excuse the A m i s h stating: th er e is no o b l i g a t i o n on the jjart of th ese pe op le to ac ce pt the b e n e f i t s if t h e y f e e l it wo u l d c o m p r o m i s e t h e i r w a y of l i f e . . . t h e r e are m a n y p e r s o n s e l i gi bl e f o r So c i a l S e c ur ity b e n e ­ fits who, f o r o n e - r e a s o n o r ano th er , do not ap p l y f o r them. This throws the p r o b l e m ba c k into the communi ty . abiding ci tiz ens t h e y mu st obej the n e w l a w 20 3 As law- but if t h e y are to rem a i n s e p a r a t e d f r o m the v/orld, the c o m m u n i t y must a p p r o a c h eco no mi c self-sufficiency. The m ore w i l l i n g they are to ac ce pt f i n a n c i a l aid f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t 205. H e ral d, February 25, 1954, p. 7. 206. Ibid., January the 22, 1953, p. 6. 207 . I b i d ., May 27 , 1954, p. 1. 208. "I think we as Christians should be law-abiding citizens as long as the Bible doesn't say, Thou Shalt Not... I really think we should /pay the Social Security Tax/ receiving the benefits thereof is entirely something else." Ibid., February 17, 1955, p. 3« R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 27 - more d e p e n d e n t t h e y w i l l become on the g o v e r n m e n t . After the A m i s h h av e p a i d S o c i a l S e c u r i t y f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s it w ill be i n c r e a s i n g l y h a r d f o r t h e i r l e a d e r s to d i s c o u r ­ age m e m b e r s f r o m a p p l y i n g f o r p a y m e n t s . A situation simi­ lar to that p r e c i p i t a t e d by the P r o d u c t i o n a n d M a r k e t i n g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i l l arise: thing that t h e y hav e why should they turn down some­ c o n t r i b u t e d to, t ha t and that t h e i r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s a c c e p t ? money w i l l be acc e p t e d . 209 At f i r s t is t h e i r right, E v e n t u a l l y the it w i l l be sent o u t ­ side the c o m m u n i t y to g o o d causes s u c h as the Re d Cross and re l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; l a t e r it w i l l be a c c e p t e d and be use d f o r c o m m u n i t y p r o j e c t s but not b y the i n d i v i d u a l s receiving the p a y m e n t s , f i n a l l y the i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l wa nt to use t h e i r ow n p a y m e n t s . support o u t si de of the c o m m u n i t y in t i m e s of u n e m p l o y m e n t (which al mo st n e v e r occurs), the f a m i l y head, him. the If the i n d i v i d u a l c a n l o o k f o r illness , old age, o r d e a t h of c o m m u n i t y b e c o m e s les s i m p o r t a n t to No l o n g e r w i l l the c o m m u n i t y be the o n l y b u f f e r a g a i n s t economic d i s a bi lity, the 209. The Old Colony Mennonites in Mexico are face with a similar problem, agrivated by the fact that the whole community is in dire economic straits. They write, "So we accepted the Plan, but it will be a problem to- keep some of our people from trying to get the benefits from it, as it is supposed to help the poor in paying their hospital, doctor and medicine costs. The church counciled to keep free from accepting its help but if it can be kept so is a question. Herald, August 20, 1956, p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 2 8 - essential protecting' family that will care for the indivi­ dual. When the community loses these functions, it also loses much of its power over the individual and its right to dictate to its members. Social Security increases the tension within the community. The state is but one aspect of the secular; every­ thing outside the Amish community is secular or worldly. When an Amishman imagines what life must be like out in the world he simultaneously holds two quite different views. One pertains primarily to material aspects of the world, the other to what might be called moral aspects. At one moment the Amishman imagines life in the world to be pleasant and almost without labor; people are happy and without responsibility. and pretty and clean; Everything is bright and new when he is thinking in these terms he is apologetic of the meagerness of his plain life. other view is of a world that is rotten at the core. The Every­ one leads a loose and dissolute life, houses of prostitu­ tion abound, streetwalkers lurk on every corner and neglected children starve in vile slums, cowering before an oath from a drunken father. 210 Intellectually the Amish know these 210. The carnival scene in the musicale Plain and Fancy (Play by Joseph Stein and Will Glickman) gave some suggestion of one of the Amish viev/s of the v/orld. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - conditions ar e no t 4 2 9 - common among their English neighbors and yet these v i e w s p e r s i t s : relief that t h e y a r e no t b a l a n c i n g e n v y of the w o r l d w i t h of the w o r l d . T o d a y the A m i s h are k e e n l y a w a r e of the d i f f i c u l t i e s that fa ce t h e m i n t r y i n g to live i n s u c h a w a y tha t t h e y are true to t h e i r r e l i g i o n an d s t i l l o b e d i e n t to the state. A few fe e l th i s is i m p o s s i b l e to do in the U n i t e d St at e s a n d have e m i g r a t e d to C a n a d a and M e x i c o . An Amishman from Indiana wrote to a n A m i s h m a n w h o h a d r e c e n t l y e m i g r a t e d f r o m A r k a n s a s to Mex ico that he was h o p i n g y o u w o u l d w r i t e m o r e of the c o n d i t i o n s in M e x i c o f o r s u c h as se e k to li v e a c o n s c i e n t i o u s a n d n o n - r e s i s t a n t lif e. N o w the m a t e r i a l an d p h y s i c a l t h i n g s are m o r e or less n e c e s s a r y to us a l l a n d we l i k e to rea d ab o u t them, bu t it is m o r e f o r the s p i r i t u a l li f e tha t I a m i n t e r e s t e d i n l e a v i n g h e r e ... as f a r as I k n o w t h er e are v e r y f e w w h i c h ha ve not c o m p r o m i s e d w i t h the world'210a Th e A m i s h f i n d t h e m s e l v e s world they h a v e b e e n l i v i n g i n the m i d s t c a u t i o n e d no t to love. 211 of a They feel they cannot h e l p b e i n g i n the w o r l d f o r God put t h e m t h e r e , but "just as t h e r e the sea, o r the is a g re a t s e a i n the ship, difference w h e t h e r we are 210a. d i f f e r e n c e w h e t h e r a shi p is in so t h e r e in the world , is al s o a g r e a t or the w o r l d in u s . ” 212 Herald, April 21, 1955> p* 3« 211. "Love not the world, neither the things that are in the v/orld. If any man love the w o r l d , the love of the Father is not in him. For all that is in the world, the lust of the Flesh, and the lush of the eyes, and the pride of life, is not of the Father, but of the world. And the world passeth away, and the lusts, thereof; but he that doeth the .will of God abideth forever." I John 2: 15-17. 212. H e r a l d , March 17, 1955» p« !• R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 4 3 0 - Their attitude towards the world is well summed up in the 21^ answer given by a Catholic anarchist. Ammon Hennacy is a farmer, hut there is no money in farming, so he practices Christianity on the side. Now Christianity forbids war, so Ammon won't fight or buy guns for other people to fight with. So he pickets the Inernal Revenue Bureau every March 15• Last March a friend came up to him on the Bureau steps in Phoenix, A r i z ., and sa i d ,"’"Ammon, why don't you cease and desist? You can't change the world this way." "Who's t r y i n g to cha nge the w o r l d ? " said Ammon. "I' m just f r y i n g to k e e p the world f r o m c h a n g i n g me." The Amish are making no effort to change the world, but they are trying with supreme effort to keep the world from c h a n g i n g them. 213. This is a point of convergence. in no sense anarchists. The Amish are 214. Milton Mayer in the Progressive, as quoted in the Democratic D i g e s t , II (January, 1955)? p« 81. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. CHAPTER VI T H E PUBLIC SCHOOL The A m i s h fear state schools because; Nimmt nicht die Welt uns unsere Ki n d e r fast aus d e m H3nden, urn gute g ebi ldete We l t m e n s c h e n aus ihn en zu mac hen? It is hard for a n o n - A m i s h m a n to rea lize the parents the sorrow aff orded and the c om munit y w h e n they see their chi ldr en being taken out of their hands a n d turned into m e n of the worldo Their who le way of life is dedi ca te d to s e r ving God and rai s i n g th eir children to serve God. If they cannot teach their chil dren the same p a t t e r n the ch il dr en must be rejected in this life as a spot or b l e m i s h on the church and the parents fo rgo any hope of spendin g eternity w i t h th eir 2 erring c h il dren in the great fa mily r e u n i o n that is heaven. The parents are b e l ie ved to be held a c c o u n t a b l e for the 3 place their ch ild ren spend eternity, so to lose one's children to the world is alm ost as great a misfo rt un e as to lose o n e ’s own soul to Satan. . 1. J.F.S. "Unsere Ki n d e r in den Z w a n g s c h u l e n " , Hdw, June 1, 19 52, p. 332. 2. Her a i d , M a r c h 6, 1952, p. 6. "In Jesus w a l k and come this way, that we in heaven all may be together through eternity." Her a i d , Au gus t 2, 1951, p. 6. 3. "What par ents do fo r t h e m while they are little boys and little girls may well influence their entire life and determine wh ere they will spend et ern ity." Herald, March 6, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 431a - St ate schools are opposed in p r o p o r t i o n to the de gree to w hi ch t he y r e m o v e the child f r o m the influence of the community,, Thus t h e A m i s h do not a c t i v e l y object to the one r o o m s ch o o l h o u s e in a p r e d o m i n a t e l y A m i s h neighborhood,. They ge ner ally oppose t h e c o n so lida te d g r a d e school bec ause it draws ch i l d r e n from such a large area, in cl u d i n g towns, that the A m i s h pu p i l s no longer f o r m the m a j o r i t y „ They fight high sc hool w i t h every resourc e at t h e i r commando THE R U R A L G R A D E SCH O O L T h e o n e - r o o m ru ral el em e n t a r y sc hool stands in the midway r e g i o n b e t w e e n the beloved c om m u n i t y an d the world. The community makes every effort to c o n tr ol the school by electing school board o f fi ci al s a n d i n f l u e n c i n g the choice of teachers, but the b a l a n c e the community,, of control remains A n d so even the most outside old -f as hione d and c o n ­ servative o n e - r o o m sc ho ol is still con si d e r e d " w o r l d l y ” ., 4 When a twelve year old A m i s h gir l drew a p i c t u r e of T,A girl going to s c h o o l ” she n a tu rally drew a dau ght er of the world 5 and not a true b e l i e v e r „ It is only w h e n a child draws a picture of a s p e c i f i c p e r s o n goin g child was represented,, ~~ School, to s c h o o l s that an A m i s h in general, 4“ 00A21. 5„ See A p p e n d i x VI fo r p h o t o s t a t is of the wor ld of her p i c t u r e „ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 3 2 - and only s p e c i f i c a l l y does it influence Th e ed u c a t i o n a l pr acti ces the Amis h, of the r u r a l eleme nt ar y school fit in well wi t h the A m i s h theories of child rearing, 6 The day is d i v i d e d into ten-minute classes during w h i c h time the c hi ld ren come to the front of th e room, hand, and r e c i t e f r o m their books. before them and repeat it, the Bible a n d rep eat teacher be in clined is no time. The y learn wh at even as t h e i r fathers it i n t he i r sermons. The child is not encouraged tions exactly and is le a r n S h o u l d the to follow a n in ter esti ng develop his imagination; books in tangent, there to think or to he is en co ur a g e d to f o l l o w i n s t r u c ­ to lea rn what is pl ac ed in front of him. Often the subject matt er has little m e ani ng He is learning to r e s pe ct the a ut horit y to the child. of the tea ch er and is developing a di s c i p l i n e d character by learning, without questioning, what he is told. Their ar t w o r k is pe rha ps creative w o r k and this is left up teacher. the closest they come to to the d i s c r e t i o n of the I n one school in S w e e t w a t e r Tow nsh ip had just been to summer children should not worked carefully, the teac her school wh e r e he had be e n taught trace pic tur es for art, that so his pupils copying exactly the pic t u r e s a n d maps that were given the m and t h e n writing on the back "dra wn by h a n d , " 6, See A p p e n d i x V I for the s c h e d u l e f o l lo we d in the Sweetwater township schools. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 433 - In another school the te ac her was much older and had not taken any courses for years, selected pict ure s the chi ldren were g i v e n to trace w i t h carbon paper, color, cut out and th en paste onto co ns t r u c t i o n pape r as the teacher instructed them. This is co mple tel y consistent w i t h the type of learning the A m i s h commu nit y values. either sh ow n or told what is no emphasis The child is to do and he does it. There on his ideas or his creative imagination. The type of initiative that the rural school coincides w i t h pr ai s e w o r t h y A m i s h behavior. learns to w o r k hard and on his own. grade its basic schedule, put your ari th met ic the The develops child Ha v in g taught each teacher does not say, "Now books a w a y and study your spelling." The child studies a ri th me tic for a wh il e and then of his own vol it ion he takes out his spe lli ng book, that they will have spelling This develops a type pattern, for he knows that day and he mu st kn ow it. of independence w i t h i n the approved that w i l l stand the child in g oo d stead w i t h i n his own community. The child does not should study spelling, rather his question the fact that he questioning goes into how and when he should study it. School is the c h i l d ’s first experience in the world; it is the first time he is in an environment been constructed by his family and community. who greets him on the first day dresses that has not The teacher differently fro m R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 434 - anyone he ha d k n o w n intimately and she speaks a language he 7 cannot understand. When ev ery thing gets confusing an d the child is at a loss to know what the teacher expects, the older A m i s h children will translate for him; kind protects h i m and shelters world. one of his h i m f ro m the non -u nde rs to od H e already feels that there group and strangeness outside. one of is security within his Most of the children are 8 Amish. Th e few "high-class" no n- A m i s h children whose parents can af fo rd to transport them, s en d their children into the town school so the only non- A m i s h who attend the rural shcool are usually po o r e r than the A m i s h chil dr en 9 and more neglected. These Hng li sh children, who do not 10 even know the language of recess, If they repres ent the world, are not to be envied. it holds little attraction,. The group the A m i s h child learns to fit into in the Sweetwater rural school is p r e d o m i n a t e l y A m i s h w i t h just 7. No effort is ma de by the school to hire teachers who speak P e n nsy lv an ia Dutch. Of the five rur al school teachers in S we etwat er Township in 1952, two spoke Dutch. 8. See A p p e n d i x VI for chart of the religious affiliation of the children of the r u r a l schools in S w e e t ­ water Township. 9. In one school the -amish ch il dr en brought cotton stockings to school so the little H n g l i s h girl w o u l d not have to play outside at recess w i t h no socks or stockings during the winter snows. Ho wever, her mother would not let her wear them and she continued to come to school bare­ legged all winter. 10. 00A3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 35 - enough outsiders to make being A m i s h even more d e s i r a b l e . As one ^ m is h school board m e m b e r put it, "They become better 11 Am ish men if they have a little contact w i t h -English,," schools have provided "a little contact." The These state di r e c t e d 12 curriculum that the teacher must f o l l o w is so full that v e r y little indi vi du al variation can be tolerated. Thus the child is treated as a m em ber of a group r at her than as a unique personality. Th e ind iv idual is important member of a community rather than as a n entity T he p h y s i c a l plant of the rural schools as a in himself. of Sweetwater Township is acc ep ta bl e to the A m i s h pa ren ts a l t h o u g h the 13 furnishings include many world ly items. No ne of the schools have indoor plumbing; the school yard. each has two outhouses a nd a pump in Two schools have a couple and one has two bas ke tb all rings, play games that require otherwise the children little equipment. schools have furnac es and curtains at has Venetian blinds. a phonograph or radio. children, who play All of old seesaws Most of the rural the windows; one even the schools have el ec tr ici ty and These are very p o p u l a r w i t h the the rad io or p h o n o g r a p h during m u c h of 11. There are "Every pupil tests" g i ve n at stated intervals to check on the c h i l d r e n ’s progress. 12. See A p p e n d i x VI for ph oto graphs and exterior of school. of the interior 13. When classes are in session the children have to speak English, but during the noon hour and recess they revert to Pe nnsylva nia Dutch. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 436 - the lun ch period. Mo st of the sc ho ol s also one a l l - A m i s h school small organ. in the ne i g h b o r i n g co unt y e ven has a T h e chil dr en l e a r n to sing to the a c c o m p a n i ­ ment of a m u s i c a l instrument. church, have a p i a n o and but is a cce pted This is f o r b i d d e n by the by the A m i s h c o mm un it y as part of the school c u r r i c u l u m and enj oyed at the school programs. However the met h o d of learning the A m i s h tradition. the songs is in kee pi ng with They have no song books in the r u r a l schools so the childr en who at t e n d ra rel y learn to read notes. Th e song is learned by r e a d i n g blackboard a n d singing similar to the wa y it af te r the teacher. is learned by ear. the church, on the T h i s is in w h i c h the ch ild ren learn hymns: words are w r i t t e n in the A u s b u n d the tune the w o r d s is in unison. of a religious nature. or L i e d e r s a m m l u n g and The school The the singing, as that in c h i l d r e n ’s f a vo rite songs are W h e n they were asked to sing for me they chose suc h songs as ’’Jesus Lo ves M e , ” ’’Gome to the Church in the W i l d w o o d ” and a sad slow song about a little lamb that was Other lost whe n the child did not w a t c h him. tha n learnin g and arithmetic the arts of reading, the subject m a t t e r seems bearing on the A m i s h child's life. to have writing, little N o effort is mad e to select ma t e r i a l that will be m e a n i n g f u l to the Amish. Exactly the same books are to a large extent 14. used throughout throughout the State the county and 14 of Ohio. The se cond See A p p e n d i x VI for a list of text books used. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 3 7 - graders, wh o are still in the process of learning English, were reading about a clam-bake. the ocean, The ch i l d r e n had never seen ha d never tasted a clam, a nd this was probably the first time th ey had ever hea rd of a clam, wave. The teacher, seaweed or a wh o had never been outside of the country, was laboriously trying to te ach these ch i l d r e n to read using as subjec t ma tter s o m e t h i n g completely fo re ig n to all of them. I n al l lik el ih ood none of t he m will ever at te nd a clam bake. A child who does not know the E n g l i s h w ord for suspender a n d belt must talk about dri ftw ood and clams. Amish make no effort to change the texts, but they are q u i c k to point out that m u c h that a child learns is irrelevant the A m i s h way of life. The to T hey a l s o di sa pp r o v e of the fairy stories and other im ag ina tive tales that do not di s t i n g u i s h truth f r o m fiction. A b e r die E r z S h l u n g e n in den Lesebllchern sind nicht immer der b e s t e n Art. Vi eles dav on ist fa bel ha ft und k o m i s c h erzShlt, um die L e s e b e g i e r d e des Kindes zu erregen, solche Ge schichten, die n i c h t auf Wahrheit beruhen, und a u c h gar nicht der S i n n ist, dass sie geg lau bt w e r d e n sollen, wie z. B. ein Ges prS ch z w i s c h e n e i n e m H un d und einer Katze, zwische n ei nem Wolf und e i n e m B&’r . ..V ie le di eser Bucher sind R o m a n e n und N o v e l l e n und m a c h e n R e i n e n U n t e r s c h i e d z w i sc he n Wahrheit und Unwahrheit, z w i s c h e n RealitSt und Einbildung. 15 The flag or a pictur e of the flag is displayed in each school but it is not saluted. 15. J. F. 3. op. They use the standard c i t . p. 331. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. textbooks so there patriotism mixed is a considerable amount in w ith what they readc one Mennon ite en o u g h to write, of s u p e r f i c i a l This perturb ed "The curriculums / o f the public s c h o o l s / are hi gh ly se cu la rize d a n d are geared to indoctrinate students w i t h a m od e of thi nkin g that receptive or even su bm issiv e to t h e i nfl uence of 16 state.” is the secular I n spite of the f act that the A m i s h pa re nt s do not join P a r e n t - T e a c h e r A s s o c i a t i o n s they are intensely i n t e r ­ ested in their c h i l d r e n ’s sch oo li ng fo r they realize, another M e n n o n i t e wrote, as that: ...the p r o d u c t i o n of the kind of p e r s o n a n d the kind of church co mmunit y wh ic h we vi sualize cannot be ach ie ved unless the community controls the fo rm al edu ca ti on of its young at least during childhood and early adolescence. 17 One A m i s h father wrote in a n open letter t o the H e r a l d : A p a r e n t has a great r e s po ns ib ility as to the outcome of his child, not only in sending his child re gul arly to school, but also to be alert as to the teaching that is being imprinted upon the mind of the child. 18 The Am ish exert their local school boards, control by electing members to the by helpi ng to care for the r u r a l schools, 16. J o h n Mumaw, "Current Forces A d v e r s e l y A f f e c t i n g the Life of the M e n n o n i t e Community.". M^R, A p r i l 1945 p. 107. 17. Paul Mininger, "The Religious, E d u c a t i o n a l and Social P r o gram of the M e n n o n i t e Communi ty of T o m o r r o w " M'^RS April, 1945, pp. 156-170. 18. H e r a l d ., Ma y 3, 1952, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 439 - by supporting teachers not approve of. they like, and opposing those they do In the pr ed om i n a t e l y A m i s h townships there has usually been at least one A m i s h m a n on the school board. The community m e m be rs may meet for a frolic to clean up the school and grounds a n d to get the school re ad y fo r opening 19 in the fall. I n one school district al l the fathers, in this 100 per cent A m i s h school, sold scrap metal to raise $60.00 to buy a n eraser cleaner the teacher wanted. 20 parents are willing to contribute labor and money The to a teacher they like. On the other hand bec ause they usually act as a community, they can w i t h h o l d all support from one 21 they do not like. In one of the ru ral schools in S w e e t w a t e r T o wn sh ip a young, well-e duca ted , p r o g re ssiv e teacher was employed. She was good w i t h the ch ild ren and they were very fond of her, but he r w h o l e p h i l o s o p h y of teaching was at variance 19. A s m a l l frolic of this type is held every year to get the "Dutch Val ley " school ready for opening. Some janitorial service may als o be v o l u n t e e r e d for s om e of the schools w i t h any other small needs. A favorite H a l l o w e e n trick is for some E n g l i s h boys to o v e r t u r n the outhouses at the A m i s h schools. The nex t m o r nin g two of the fathers drive to school and right them. 20. 014. 21. Sev eral of the Govern men t employees said that the Amish were clannish and that if they ever got it in for someone he was finished as far as ever being able to work with them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - with the A m i s h way of life. teacher said, year. ’’The pare n t s 4 4 0 - In dis cus sing her the pres e n t d i d n ’t want the teacher a n o t h e r S h e had a big heart and nev e r w anted to hurt anyo ne . It was too bad, but she d i d n ’t get along. She was well educated but too progressive. the c h i l d r e n sort of do what they wanted. Why she let She ev e n let the m st u d y outside. That d i d n ’t go we ll w i t h the parents, so they asked the 22 school board to send her teacher in the townsh ip ’Miss A p p l e . ’ to anoth er said, school.” Another ”It was too b a d about She had a good e d u c a t i o n and was kindly, in little things the people didn't understand. young girl, rather plump and quite full" motioned to her breasts). d i d n ’t dress right. "The people but S h e was a (the informant complained that she She wore her dresses too short an d her necks were so low that w h e n she bent over y o u could see 23 down.” Miss A p p l e was tol d about her clothes an d she dressed more carefully, but that was obv io us ly only one of the cr i t­ icisms for the parent s accept the m u s i c teach er w h o wears 24 red suits and se m i - t r a n s p a r e n t blouses. The m a j o r c r itici sm seemed to be the f r e e d o m she gave the students. "She d i d n ’t 2 2 0 4 7 23. 02. 24. The m u s i c te ach er visits the school only once a week for a little over an hour. Th is is quite different from being wi th the childre n for a l l their school hours. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 441 - have any discipline,, c o u l d n ’t recite It was so noisy i n t h e r e the students 25 or hear e a c h other r e a d . ” I doubt that the extra noise disturbed the s t u dent s as m u c h as the p a r e n t s . W h e n I aske d wished, she Ch ris tmas one little gi rl to draw a n y t h i n g she came b a c k w i t h a n tree w h i c h she u nc on ve nti onal p i c tur e explained to me in minute of a detail. O n qu e s t i o n i n g it turned out that the only Christm as she ha d ever seen was s cho ol w h e n she was one that Miss A p p l e had brought teaching there three years of the c h i l d r e n vo lunt ee re d that One in reading Y o u could building up the c h i l d r e n ’s s e l f - confid enc e in a way that undermi ned their r e l i g i o u s instruc­ tion by m i n i m i z i n g e xte rnal di scipli ne and t h e ap p e a l authority. to 26 before. "if y o u had an A Miss A p p l e would let you choose your own book. 27 read w h i c h e v e r one y o u w a n t e d to." Miss A p p l e was tree A n Amishman pointed to out this t y p e da nger w h e n he contra ste d a n o n - C h r i s t i a n w i t h a C h r i s t i a n teacher. N o n - C h r i s t i a n teachers try to m a k e go o d boys and girls by having t h e m fo ll ow c e r t a i n rules, s u c h as "Be honest, be kind"; and commen di ng t hem in a wr ong way for faithfulness. By doing this the t e ache rs lead the c h il dr en to the p l a c e where t h e y are satisfied w i t h self to 25. 04. 26. Christmas p a g a n inventions. trees are reg ar de d by the A m i s h as 27. 00A14. On f u r th er q u e s t io ni ng it turned out that the choice was be tw e e n two or three books a n d t h at the stu­ dents w i th A ’s ev en tu ally read t h e m all. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . the extent that they d o not feel th e i r need for the help of some higher power., T h e i r view of the child is either that he is a-m or al or that he is in the e v o l uti on ar y process of b e comi ng bett er and better and that he hi ms el f possesses the p o wer to do so, A C hr i s t i a n teacher aims to do just t h e opposite., I n ste ad of leading them to thi nk they can adhere to certain rules of conduct and m o r a l i t y of thei r own strength, they will lead the pupils to see their inability to attain such high standard., In this wa y they will be brought to see an d feel their need of some h i gh er p o w e r in ord er to lead w o r t h y lives a n d a t t a i n wort hy o b j e c t i v e s . This need wi ll be m e t in Jesus C h r i s t . 28. Th e parents1 mai n object in life is to raise t h e i r chi ldre n 29 to be good A m i s h m e n . If the y o u n g child is g i v e n enoug h f r e e d o m a n d s e l f- co nfid en ce to que st ion his way to ma k e of life and his own decisions he is less likely to remai n an Amishman. Therefore fied in as ki ng that the A m i s h com munity is p r o b a b l y j u s t i ­ teachers The A m i s h parents like Miss Ap p l e be r e m o v e d „ fear what is being taught to their c h il dr en wh e n they are away from home an d they a l s o resent 28. E l m e r Yoder, "A Great need - a great HdW, S e p t e m b e r 15, 1952, p. 567. challenge” , 29. ”The c h il dr en that I / Go d/ give y o u are not y o u r s ,. .. but they are to be brought up in suc h a way that they become C h r i s t i a n m e n and w o m e n . . . ” H e r a l d , M a r c h 6, 1952. "One imp or ta nt duty is obligated on Par en ts, over ’the chil dr en w h i c h God ha th g iv e n m e . ’ (Heb. 2 : 1 3 ) . ..The Bible commands, ’ye f a t h e r s ’ ’Bring them up in the nurture and a d m o n i t i o n of the L o r d . ’ (Eph. 6 : l - 4 ) ’and all thy children s h a l l be taught of the L o r d . ’ (Isa. 5 4 : 1 3 ) ” H e r a l d , J u l y 15, 1954. P. Y. "Pflicht der E l t e r n ” , H d W , September 15, 19 53, pp. 550-52. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - the time that school munity., Th ey feel 443 “ takes f r o m the f a mi ly and f r o m the com­ that school is a l l right for the children during some of the winter month s w h e n they a r e not nee ded on the farm, but they feel it is a w a s t e of time for children to atte nd school m a n y mont hs opposed to extra more time* of the year and th e y are curricular a ct iv itie s that take up ev en One -«mishman criticized the libraries at the p u b l i c schools for all owin g books to circulate an d take up the child's time even w h e n he was at home. Diese Bibliothej^en sind dazu verordnet, das die g r o s s e r e n Schuler, d i e ttschon zie ml ic h gut lesen konnen, eins dieser B u c h e r nac hha use nehmen, und sie bei den l a ng en Winterabend, Oder sonst w e n n sie Zeit haben, d u r c h l e s e n und sie dann wieder zurttckerstatten und ein anderes m i t n e h m e n sollen. Wo bleibt nun Zeit flbrig ftir die E l t e r n de m Kinde etwas G e i s t l ic he s v o r z u l e g e n und einzupflanzen? 30 A fe w of the older books out children in the families I visited of the library. them greatly, encouraged, The y r e a d them at home and enjoyed but it was extreme ly difficult to f i n d any time to read. it was took for the child S u c h read ing was not only not barely a cc ep ta bl e a n d had to be sandwiched into a fe w odd moments. The community never forgets that the a i m of the sch ool is a c c u l t u r a t i o n "Alles zielt dahin, urn g ebi ldete und berilhmte W e l t m e n s c h e n a us unse r n K i n d e r n zu mache n. " " 30 „ J . F. S. "Zwangschulen", 31. Ibido p. 33. ojd . c i t . , pp. 31 They are 331-2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - always fearfu l of the success 444 - of the schools, ’’...und vie lle ic ht ein wenig v o n dem was ’s m a r t ’ werden, die Welt M o r a l nennt und 32 dass sie die Welt be tre iben k 8 n n e n . " In spite of this most of the formal and i nfo rmal training r ece ived in th e o n e - r o o m scho ol helps make the child into a good Amishm an. It shows the A m i s h c h i l d en o u g h of the world so that he realize s that he is different, yet he is not ind oc tr inat ed to the extent that he feels at home .. in the w o r l d or is g r e atly lured b y its advantages. difference b e t w e e n his life and the life he learns acceptable i n the wo rld contributes plex that he is developing. shows him he is different, conflict for to the ma rtyr The is com­ The o n e - r o o m r u r a l school without creating to o great a the de ve lop ing Amishman. H I G H SC H OO L It is difficu lt for most A m e ri ca ns to r e a l i z e why the A m i s h so strongly oppose high school e du ca tion for their children, pa yi ng fines, why they w i l l g o to s u c h great lengths, ser ving jail sente nce s a n d f i n a l l y migrating, in order to keep their chi ld re n out of high school. The 33 Amish believe tha t the child belongs first to God, then to 32. C . J . S c h w a r z e n d r u b e r , "Mehr ttber die deutsche S c h u l s a c h e , ’’ HdW, June 15, 1952, p. 361„ 33. "The children that I / G o d / give y o u are not yours.." H e r a l d , M a r c h 6, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 4 5 - the family, w h o s e task it is to raise t h e m to be church 34 members o They do not really believ e that c h i l d r e n ever belong to the state, for a C h r i s t i a n cannot serve two 35 masters. T he re fo re they do not fe el that the state has any ri gh t to d i c t a t e about the educati on of t heir children and if the state schools are a c t u a l l y in t e r f e r i n g w i t h the religious e d u c a t i o n of their ch i l d r e n it is the A m i s h p a r e n t ’s o b l i g a t i o n as a Ch ri s t i a n to oppose regardless those schools of the cost. ...We do not be li ev e it is the thing to do to send t h e m to high s c h o o l . . . w e are not at liberty in our conscie nce to do this act. 36 This / t o bring them up in th e nur ture and a d m o n i ­ tion of the L o r d / is a r e sp onsib il it y no hum an law can n u l l i f y nor take away. 37 The A m i s h co ncept io n of a school young is a place where chi ld ren go to le ar n to read w e l l e n o u g h to the Bible, to d o arith me ti c w e l l e n o u g h to keep the f a r m accounts a n d be able to f i g u r e their taxes, a n d write a clear, legible hand. believe takes Al l other to l e a r n educ a t i o n can be l earn ed be tte r at home by example, guidance, s u p e r v i s i o n and d i r e c t i o n as on more a n d more understand to they by constant the child g r a d u a l l y of the a d u l t tasks a n d grows into a 34. . . . ’’They are to be b r o u g h t up in s uc h a way that they become C h r i s t i a n men and w o m e n . . . ” I b i d . 35. Ma 1 1 . 6:24. 36. H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 18, 37. H e r a l d , July 15, 1951, p. 1954, p. 1. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - farmer or a h o u s e k e e p e r . fu nd am ental tools religion 4 4 6 - I n s c h o o l the chil dre n lea rn the that help enable (read the Bible), t h e m to p r a c t i c e their and achieve economic independence (keep f a r m accounts). T e a c h i n g the these tools th e school has g i v e n the m is bel ie ve d to be a task for the p a r en ts not for the of the w h o l e A m i s h culture that children how to use state. It is they accept characte ris tic iso lated aspects of the s u r r o u n d i n g culture but that the uses to w h i c h these aspects are put are de v e l o p e d w i t h i n the community a n d not ta ken over f r o m the world. It is importa nt that the c h i ldr en learn this p a t t e r n or later they may take over aggregates of the s u r r o u n d i n g culture instead of only lim ited segments of it . Th at sc hoo ling is only a mi no r part that e d u c a t i o n means religious and economic will event u a l l y lead the child to continue pa re nt in the closely knit, of educaction, and trainin g that the life of the stri ct ly r e g u l a t e d community, is w e l l illust ra ted by a p a r a g r a p h w r i t t e n by an A m i s h father af ter he had been a r r e s t e d f o r k e e p i n g his child home f r o m high school. A pare nt has a great r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as to the outcome of his child, not only in sen ding his child r e g u l a r l y to school, but also to be alert as to the teachin g that is being imprint ed upon the mind of the child. There is a charge to the fathers that they shall bring up the c h i ld re n "in the n urt ure and a d m o n i t i o n of the L o r d . ” Eph. 6s4; "if any pr ov id e not for his own, and special ly f o r those of his own house, he hath denied the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 447 “ faith., and is w o r s e t h a n a n in fid el." 5:8. 38 The basic tools of e ducat io n have always the A m i s h ch ildren i n a school, whether school or a school r u n by community. i m p r ac ti ca l for the parents too m u c h I Tim. be en taught it wa s a state Such tra ining is to g i v e th e child for it takes of the p a r e n t s ’ time a wa y from the nece s s a r y chores of earning a living an d c a n n o t be easily with the r e g u l a r farming routine. Also combined children of f ro m six to t e n are old enough to b e away f r o m t h e i r parents a f e w hours a day an d are not yet mature labor to be gr e at ly missed for enou gh fo r their in the home and on the farm. Several gen er at io ns ago a few months'* schooli ng a year during these ages was considered sufficie nt for an Am i s h 39 man. T o d a y almost al l complete g r a mmar school. We as A m i s h people do believe in gi v i n g our children a n education, by sending t h e m to school till they have completed the first eight grades. 40 We the A m i s h peo ple ...do not refuse to send our children to school, as called the ele me ntary g r a d e s ... 41 38. H e r a l d , M a y 8, 1952, p. 6. 39. David Beiler, Eine V e r m a h n u n g Ode r A n d e n k e n , p. 5 (Written in 1 86 0 about his y o u t h . ) The old records and the records of older A m i s h pat ie nts at the state m e n t a l in­ stitut ion listed only three and four y e a r s of schooling instead of the customary eight years th e A m i s h receive today. 40. H e r a I d , Ma y 8, 1952, p. 41. Hera I d , January 18, 6. 1951, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 448 " This is still considered a little more education t h a n is 42 necessa ry and the school year is co nsidered m u c h too long, but it is ac c e p t e d as 43 world. one of the inevitable burdens A l l the criticisms of this that can be a d v a n c e d against the rural o n e - r o o m school and the con solidated g r a d e school are reiterated and intensi fied w h e n the A m i s h discuss school. To these criticisms high they ad d many others. They may object m i l d l y to the p h y s i c a l plant w it h electricity, furnaces, indoor toilets. T h e y may also children having to take a bus to school, object to their but none of these objections are important. Th e real reason the A m i s h fear h ig h school is that it destroys the isolati on of this i s o l a t i o n is most the future welfa re the A m i s h child just at a time w h en important from, the p o i n t of the church. of v ie w of The a d o l e s c e n t is rebelling (though in a p a t t e r n e d manner) again st his parents 44 and the rules of the community. T h r o u g h this r e b e l l i o n he 42. H e r a l d , May 20, a shorter school year. 1954, p. 2. P a r o c h i a l schools have 43. Ernest E. Miller, "More Reli g i o u s I n s t r u c t i o n for Our Y o u t h ” , M Q R , July, 1929 p. 191. "We are compelled to g i v e time for secular education. Th e states are r e ­ quiring us by statute to give over m ore and more of the waking hours of our boys a n d girls to the w o r k of the public .schools a n d things r e l at ed to them." 44. For fur ther d i s c u s s i o n on this p e r i o d see Chapter VIII. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. is learning to un der stand his own ind ividu al it y and the b o u n d ­ aries that the communi ty w i l l place member,, F o r th e first time in his adjust to a group groupo It is very of his peers on h i m as a n adult life he rather t h a n to the f a mi ly important for the church that of peers include only A m i s h y o u n g p e o p l e „ conduct is le a r n i n g to of the A m i s h a d o l e s c e n t a n d the this group T h e rules of other Ohio a d o l e s ­ cents are so d i f f e r e n t that it w o u l d be i mp os sibl e fo r a child to adjust to bo th g r o u p s „ I n each group a d o l e s c e n c e 45 is a training g r o u n d for the roles the ch i l d r e n w i l l p l a y as adultSo It is imp ortant that the A m i s h child not lear n the r o l e s 9 or the rules, of the E n g l i s h culture that surrounds him, or he w i l l in-all p r o b a b i l i t y that culture. The A m i s h kno w this, be lost into I t is what they me an when they s a y - e d u c a t i o n in the h i g h e r grades exp oses the youths to 'wordly ways' that are contrary to their religious 46 beliefs, and that is is "a d e t r i m e n t to both f a r m and reli 47 gious l i f e , ” They know the adole sc en t child must be v e r y 45, Robe rt S„ an d H e l e n M„ Lynd, M i d d l e t o w n , {New Yorks Harcour t, Brace, 1929) p p „ 211-224, il lu st r a t e the importance of the e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r life of the h i g h school in pr epa ring the ch i l d r e n fo r the kind of life they will lead as adults in Mi ddlet ow n, 460 Hera I d , F e b r u a r y 18, 47, H e r a I d , Ju ly 1954, p. 6„ 15, 1954, p. 60 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 5 0 - carefully guided d u ring this p e r i o d w h e n the par ent s are loosening thei r direct yet as sumed c o n t r o l „ trust the It is m u c h The they are community has not too cri ti ca l a p e ri od child to outs id e influences „ their own if child by cont ro l a n d the to T h e y must nurture to keep t h e m as t h eir own« hig h school breaks dow n the is ol a t i o n of the taking h i m off the f a r m where he works f o r a parent or a relative, thr owing h i m into int imate a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h 48 non--Amish youth, under the d ire ct io n of n o n - A m i s h a d u l t s 0 He may grow too fond of and be too i nti ma te w i t h these nonAmish individuals, p e r h a p s even use t h e m as mod el s instead of following the ge n e r a l i z e d mo d e l he has b e e n taught, 49 a more specific m o d e l w i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y 0 H i g h school breaks down child on a n intell ec tua l level, or the i so l a t i o n of the A m i s h In hig h scho ol he is taught 4 8 0 "A pp ro xi ma tely 150 of the A m i s h have refused to send their ch i l d r e n to the pub lic high school on the grounds that a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h n on -A mish c h i ld re n is h u r t i n g the Amis h c h i l d r e n ’s rel ig io us beliefs,," H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 16, 1954, p, 1. 4 9 o M a n f o r d H, Kuhn, "Factors in P er sonality : Socio­ cultural de te rmina nt s as seen th rou gh the A m i s h " in A s pects of Culture and P e r s o n a l i t y , Francis L, K. H s u (e d i t o r ) New York, Abelard -S ch um an, 1954, pp, 57-8, K u h n gave a mixed group of .amish, M en no ni te an d E n g l i s h school c h il dren a questionnaire w h i c h he then an a l y z e d by t he ma ti c content analysis. H e f o u n d that "the A m i s h tended to ide ntif y their models in terms of abstract, moral, religious at tit ud es" ■even oftener th a n they id en t i f i e d their m od e l s as parents, people in the i r p r i m a r y group or re li g i o u s figures. They did not name a single seco nd ar y model. T h e orig in of these gen era lizati ons may be their concept that "The true A m i s h m a n ’s desire is to be an imitat or of Christ," H e r a l d , J a nu ar y 13, 1955, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 5 i many ideas that are foreig n to those held by the community and he m a y be community0 taught skills that are not appreciated by the Thus a n A m i s h m a n writes: We believe the following to children, to p a r t i ci pa te w h i c h such as moving pictures, shows, mu si c a l instrum en ts and plays, etCo 50 be harmful to our is in hig h school, bands and other flag saluting, To this list ano the r A m i s h m a n adds G ym na stic gatherings, group activit ies /b y this is meant no n- A m i s h group/s snap studies, chair-mindedness and job fancy folliesooo 51 o„0man y activiti es are carried on wh ich are d i r ­ ectly opp osed to C hrist ia n principles and church o r d i n a n e e s „oothere is the ad diti on al danger of teachers who believe in the theory of evolution and other adverse doctri nes and b e l i e f s 0 52 As well as breaking down the isol at ion of the ad o l e s ­ cent by ke ep in g h i m in close a s s o ci at ion w it h non- Am ish children and teachers an d by teaching ideas, him fore ig n skills and the high school further breaks down the isolat ion the community is so carefully constructing, thecommunity for many hours little a day0 by removing hi m from This leaves time to tea ch him the satisfa ctions 50o H e r a l d , J a n ua ry 18, 1951, p 0 L 51o Herald, January 15, 19 54, p. the parents of living in 60 52« A Brother, "Christian Day Sch ools versus Public Schools, HdW, October 1, 1954, p, 555o A Menn onite writes, "The environment is governed by a code of ethics that is foreign to our Ch ri s t i a n i n te rp retat io n of the B i b l e 0 Mennonite y o u t h f o r m friendships wit h w or ldly- mi nd ed students oo o" Mumaw, "Current Forces", ojd <, c i t „ , p. 107„ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - isolation f r o m the world. iiiiiish way of life at the 452 - If he does not lea rn to enjoy the same time he is realizing his independence he will be lost to the church. own He cannot enjoy his life as a n A m i s h m a n if he has not thoroughly mastered the skills that enable h i m to succeed economically. the adolescent period -that he achieves It is during this mastery, under the tutelage of his parents, "Our childre n should be in our homes at the age of 14 years to learn farming, hou se -kee pi ng and other duties, that be co me us people, and to live a quiet, p e a c e f u l life in humility and meekness in Christ, as to P a u l ’s t e a c h i n g s , ” Romans 12:1-2, 53 Not only does the family need this time ing child, but they a l s o need his labor. the f a m i l y ’s need very keenly, own importance to know that to teach their m a t u r ­ T h e child feels it helps him realize his his p h y s i c a l powers are needed, that he is essenti al to the economic welfare family. A n A m i s h girl in high school wrote of the whole to her grammar school teacher: M o m can hardly wait till May, so I d o n ’t have to go anymore, Twila and Beena both used to work out. But since I g o to school, Twila stays at home. Of course the girls bring money home, but if just one of t h e m works out - why i t ’s not m u c h money, 54 One amishman told us that wh e n he first stopped school he could not have stood it if he had not k n o w n how m u c h his 53, Herald, 54, 00A20, Jan uary 18, 1951, p, 1, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 453 - father needed him. W h e n I w a t ched the younger- chi ldren startin g off to school, I ’d almost cry. I ’d g o out to the barn quickly and get to w o r k 0 How I loved s c h o o l ’ I used to r u n the last half of the way I was so anxious to get th ere ...Dad needed m e on the farm so badly I never thought of leaving him just so I could have m o r e school. I stopped at 13. I was ahead for my years. 55 The Am ish pa rents try to exercise control over cent child through sho wing needs him, him clearly how m u c h the family rather than by relying did when he was a you ng er child. time can see the fruits on th eir a u t h o r i t y as they A n a do le s c e n t who works fu l l ­ of his w o r k and can un de rs t a n d the degree to which he is co ntr ib uti ng to th e family. be more difficult for h i m to rea li ze his family if he only worked their a d o l e s ­ It w o u l d importance to the outside of school hours. One A m i s h m a n said honestly, "There is a n o t h e r big r e a ­ son why we are opposed to h i g h school that pe ople w o n ’t tell you - most of us really need the help our h igh sc ho ol ch ildren 56 can give us on the farm." A n o t h e r reco unted th e case of an Amish farmer who had seven sons. through elementary school, Th e first five went only but he decided youngest two to start h i g h school. was something doing at school. to al lo w the "Every eve ni ng there They w e r e n ’t w o r t h three 55. 00A89. This man w as about 38 years old w h e n he made the above comment. 56. 00A1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 454 - 57 cents on the f a r m . ” Obviously it had been a mi st a k e to let them go even though, w i t h five older boys, dependent he was not as on th ei r lab or as many fathers a r e 0 I ndir ec tl y the wh ol e comm un ity has labor of their high sch ool youth. come to rely on the The high school age ch il d­ ren generally work at home, and this frees the older c hil dren 58 to work for other families. The labor of high sc h o o l c hi ld ­ ren is needed m o r e now that the selective ser vice p r o g r a m 59 takes all the yo ung m e n and some of th e young w o m e n out of the community for two years. In spite of the fact that the community can use the energy that otherwise w o u l d go into education, this is really a minor argument, community, against even wi t h i n the hig her education. M a n y reasons are g i v e n by the A m i s h for their o b j e c ­ tion to hig h school. Some are government officials, others are m e nt ione d community. But at the root sent w i t h p e titi on s to only w i t h i n the of all of these is the fear of losing the child. 60 "Die Weisheit dieser Welt ist Tor hei t 57. 00A3. 58. "But s i n c e I g o to School, Twila bei Gott," stays home." 00A20. 59. Wives of I - W w o r kers and gi rls who help at p r o ­ jects that are run by the M e n n O n i t e s or A m i s h an d employ I-W wor kers. 60. I Cor. 3:19. The q u o t a t i o n continues: Den es stehet geschrieben: "Die W e i s e n erhaschet er in ihrer Klugheit „ " Und abermal: "Der H er r weiss der W e i s e n Genanken, &ass sie eitel sind." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 455 - is a frequently quoted scriptu re pass ag e among the Amish. Occasionally it is even m i sq uo te d, ’’D ie Weishei t dieser 61 Welt is ein Gr&’uel vor Go tt ." T h e w i s d o m of the w o r l d may •be foolishness w i t h God, Amish. but it is an a b o m i n a t i o n to the It is not unc ommon for a n A m i s h m a n to point the world is educated an d that the world, One of the ways clearly, out that is corrupt. the A m i s h can re ma in sep arate the education that has is to avoid 62 helped degrade the world. They mention the fact that s ci en ti st s are the most highly educated men in the world; scientis ts theory of evolution; invented and believe in the scientists make bombs to d e s tr oy the world in direct co nt ra d i c t i o n to C h r i s t ’s t e a c h i n g s . tion has not helped these men; Educa­ it has damned their souls rather than . led t h e m to ete rnal life. "Aber noch weniger 63 ist es in der Weisheit di es er Welt zu f i n d e n . ” In spite of the harmful effect higher educati on is believed to have on 61. Jo se ph Yoder, A m i s h Tra dit io ns Yoder Publishing Co., 1950), p . 167 . (Huntington, Pa.: 62. Leeper p a r a p h r a s e s a h A m i s h sermon, "The world is educated; we see about- us that the w o r l d is corrupt, therefore let us not be a part of it." Velma Lahue Leeper, "The History, Customs, and Social Life of the A m i s h of Ohio with Special Reference to H o l m e s C o u n t y . " (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, 1936, P° 112. See also S. Schlaba ch, ’’Die Welt in i h r e m Z u s t a n d ” , HdW. November 15, 1953, pp. 686-7. This fear has p e r s i s t e d since the sixteenth century w h e n it was believed that learned men pervert the scripture. 63. I. F. S. "Zwangschulen, ” ojd . o i t . , p. 332. continues with the familiar qu ot a t i o n from I Cor. 3:19. It R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. most people, the A m i s h make no a t t em pt to pr eve nt the worl d from educating itself, it is only that they want to keep their own people f r o m being contamin ate d by i t . 000but we do not want to hinder any such p e r s o n that want to f o ll ow high school, college, e t c . , in this we have nothing to say, as we see it in the world, to operate their m a t e r i a l things, they need learned men, but as a humble and law abiding peop l e this to us to le ar n is vanity,, 64 It is vanity because it is unnecessary to have a hi g h school education in order to be able to engage in farming or to be 65 a blacksmith or a carpenter and any unnece ssar y ornament bespeaks vanity. Not only do the ^ m i s h not want worldly edu cat ion for themselves, but they are taught in their M a r t y r e r Biich to be independent of those who are so educated: the people of God. . . s h o u l d not turn to such as have been edu cated in universities, acc or ding to the w i s d o m of men. 66 In spite of this in ju nct ion the A m i s h make doctors and veterinarians . This is rarely questioned., Occasionally a pr og res sive memb er courageously suggest use of medi cal of the Old Order w i l l that it is a l l rig ht worldly wisdom if it is used properly.. die Arzenei nicht verboten, to make use of "Er /.God/ hat uns so lasset uns da n n au c h die 640 H e r a l d . January 18, 65. H e r a l d , Nov emb er 19, 1951« 1354, p. 1. 66. ...das Vo l k G o t t e s .„ 0sich nicht w e n d e n zu alien solchen Menschen, wel che in den hoh e n S c hu len nach mensch lic her Weisheit utterrichtet sind..." Twisck, Be ken ntn iss des Glaubens. op „ cit. , p. 47 0 Also the M a r t y r s Mirror, o p „ cit., 1951, p 0 3 9 5 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 5 7 - 67 Welt Weisheit nicht zu we it verd am men ." A l th ough they avoid w o r l d l y knowledge the A m i s h emphasize the importance of true wisdom., worldly w i s d o m that I n contras t to is learned in state schools s true wisdom can be gain ed through God w i t h the help of the Bible and perhaps ministers an d p a r e n t s . Wir sind in ke iner l a t e inis ch en h o h e n schule, sondern in der hoh en bertlhmten Sc hule des Evangelii gewesen, d a v o n der Geist Gottes Lehrmeister ist. 68 In an a r t i c l e s signif ica ntly entitled, vor Gott? A. Y. "Was ist ein Greuel inquires: Wollen wir ha be n dass unsere ki n d e r in die tA’glich S c h u l le r n e n was natftrliche Weisheit ist, Oder sor gf Slt ig s e i n dass die alle Gelegenheit h ab en dass sie die Weisheit von Gben her gelernt werden... 69 The distinction bet ween w o r l d l y w i s d o m a n d true w i s d o m is inplied in a discussion of p a r o c h i a l schools: Was Wi ssen (ohne Liebe und G o t t e s f u r c h t ) blKset auf, und die Weltweisen, die ihr V e r t r a u e n auf ihre eigene Weisheit und setzen (es gibt heute viel solche) die w e r d e n e r f ah re n dass es ein Torheit ist. A b e r die heimliche, verborgene Weisheit Gottes, die von Oben herab k o m m t , (alle Sch&’tze der Wei shei t und Erkennt ni s liegen in Ghristo verborgen) ist was wir zu 67. p. C. S. Miller, "Weisheit," HdW, S e p t e m b e r 1, 1953, 516. 68. Martyrer Speigel, op. Martyrs Mirror op. c i t . , 1951, p. 69. H d W . Novembe r 15, cit. 1814, 534) 1953, pp. p. 104 (part II) 681-682. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 45 8 - diesen Z e i t e n a m M e i s t e n vonnSten. 70 * The A m i s h c o n c e p t i o n of true k n ow le dg e is well illus71 trated by a two part art ic le in the A m i s h M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r . The first part points out that k now ledge is ess ent ia l for salvation., To the author, this means k n o w l e d g e of G o d ’s 72 73 will, and a belief that Go d is the center of all knowledge,, The second part is s u bt it le d ’’S e a r c h the S c r i p t u r e s . ’’ other words knowledge, w h i c h is the a i m of education, In is gained though dedication to Go d who is k n o w n f r o m his letter 74 to man, the Bible,, In the state schools, therefore, the A m i s h children are believed to rec eive only a s u p e rf ic ia l e du cati on 75 and to gain no true knowledge,. 70o Ein Bruder, "Weisheit September 15, 1954, p. 531. und Er ke n n t n i s , " HdW, 71. Edna Beiler, "My Pe opl e are D e s t r o y e d for lack of Knowledge," S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1954, pp. 5-6, Jan ua ry -February, 1955, pp. 2-3, 6 . will Mai. 72. G o d ’s desire for coupled with obedience. 2:1-2, p. 5. 73. He is the center all of us is knowledg e of His H o s . 6:1, Jer. 3:15, Mai. 2:7, of a l l knowledge. I Sam. 2:3, p. 6. 74. "Wenn wi r ein B ri ef b e ko mm en von e i n e m g u t e n Freund, so sind wir fst alle ge s o n n e n fur der B r i e f les en um zu se he n was er geschrieben hat. Die Bible k o n n e n w i r a n n e h m e n als von Gott geschrieben, w i e w o h l durch M e n s c h e n , " N. S t o l t z f u s , "Die Mis sens chaf t ," H d W . A p r i l 15, 1954, p. 231. 75. This is one. of the men aces of B i bl el es s schools. Clarence H„ Benson, "Menace of B i ble le ss Sc ho o l s , " MQP, April, 1934 pp. 51-57. ? R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 5 9 - 76 One B e a c h y A m i s h m a n in discussing the im it a t i o n of put for ward the rather Christ, unusual argument that Christ did not go to h ig h sc ho ol or c o l l e g e 0 The A m i s h m a n does not believe that Christ spent most of his y o u t h at te n d i n g the latest schools and colleges, so he al so cares little for m o d e r n education., Som et imes this brings hi m into conflict w i t h c om pu l s o r y e d u c a t i o n laws, yet al l in all, he seeks to be a lawabiding citizen,, 77 A specific obj ec ti on is the name ’’h ig h s c h o o l „ ” the Martyrer S p e ig el universities are ra rely mentioned, In but when they are it is implied that they are s om et hi ng of little 78 worth or actual h a r m 0 A m o d e r n A m i s h m a n poin ts this out and then goes edition is on to c o m m e n t s ’’univers itie s in the G e r m a n 79 ’hohen s c h u l e n ’ h i g h s c h o o l s T h e r e f o r e the Amish believe that t h e i r Ma rty r B o o k s p e c i f i c a l l y against attending high s c h o o l „ teaches A l t h o u g h they do not be liev e their book to be divinel y inspired they do hol d it in special reverence, Its te ac hin gs are not to be the term ’’high s c h o o l ” was ignored,, not one of the 76„ Jacob Jo H e r s h b e r g e r 0 77o H e r a l d , Jan ua ry 13, original Although objections, He is fro m a n Old Order family. 19 55, p, 1„ 7 8 0 Th e L a t i n university is co nt ra s t e d to the ’’highly celebrated school of the G o s p e l ” an d the a d v i c e is g i v e n that the people of Go d shou ld not turn to m e n who have been educated in u n i v e r s i t i e s „ 79 o H e r a l d , July 15, 1954, p0 6„ f R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 460 - it is now a form id ab le must take one. - The members of the school board it into cons id eration. ’’The A m i s h deleg ati on said that the A m i s h would agree to have t h e i r c h il dren attend N i n t h Grade so long as it w a s n ’t called high s c h o o l . 80 I mentioned, by letter, to several A m i s h individuals that equating "hohen schulen" w i t h high schools w ou l d be con­ sidered by most n on -A mish peo pl e as a mistrans lat ion. only reply I r e ce iv ed men ti onin g The the t e r m stat ed simply: We agree w i t h y o u that hoh e n schulen probab ly would m e a n college or university., The apostle Paul had a college educati on also I think Menno Si m o n did. 81 Generally the A m i s h feel that they can t e a c h their children by example and p r e ce pt better than the c h ild re n could be taught f r o m books or by mo de r n methods of edu cat ion in the state schools. The A m i s h horse an d buggy p r a c t i c e cannot be taught by fac ti on or mod er n theory. The y nurture and tra in by doing. "Examples are more impressive." 82 We believe that they wil l achieve a more substantial in str uct ion by e x p e r i e n c e . .. than they would to continue t h r ou gh high school. 83 Today in some of our m o d e r n schools we are teaching a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n of s u b j e c t s , 80. H e r a l d , A p r i l 15, 1954, p. 81. 00A1, P e r s o n a l correspondence, 82. H e r a l d . July 15, 83. H e r a l d , M a y 8 , 19 52, p. 19 54, p. 1. XIl/13/54. 6. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 461 - formulas, theories, slide rules, and h y p o th et ic al propo s i t i o n s and have outlawed the hickory s w i t c h a n d woodshed shingle, wh ich used to teach more sense and respect in five minutes, th an some of the m o d e r n methods can te ach in a lifetime. While we are a fir m b e l i e v e r that children should be taught to obey their parents and teachers out of love, and not out of fear, the good old book still says, "He that sparet h his rod hateth his son; but he who lovet h h i m chasteneth h i m betimes ." Prov, 13:24. 84 "Train up a child in the way he sh oul d go: an d w h e n 85 he is old, he will not depart fro m it." Star ti ng at a very 86 young age the A m i s h pa rent s teach their children to be proficient and to receive a rea l sa ti s f a c t i o n f ro m the manual work of farming. Th e A m i s h m a n points out that "under 87 proper care f ar m life w i l l remain a n enjoyment High school does not constitute "proper father shows the success of this care." to the child." A n Amish care w h e n he states, cor- 88 rectly, that "most of our children want to stay on the farm." The Amish have watched the ir E n g l i s h neighbors, they are gradually buying, whose farms an d they see over a n d over a g a i n that high school educates away fro m the farm. 84. H e r a l d , September 85. Proverbs 10, 1953, p. One A m i s h 1. 22:6. 8 6 . Some, referring to Joh n leaping in The Womb, insist that the basis of a good moral life begins before birth. 87. Herald, July 15, 1954, p. 6 . 88. H e r a l d . Ma y 8 , 1952, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 462 - minister explained it by telling the st or y of his n e i g h b o r ’s son„ M r 0 Put t 9 w h o ’s just come back to vi sit his Dad, is a bright man. He laid pipe thr ou gh the jungles of V e n e z u e l a s and no w h e ’s just finished building roads in P a n a m a „ H e ’s had too much educatio n to want to stay here and farm., If he had only gone thr ough eighth grade instead of taking engineering, he w o u l d be the best farmer in the co un ty today., Our boys only go t h r o u g h eight grade and they stay on the farm, 89 Two years after he told me this story, the A m i s h mi n i s t e r bought the putt f a r m D Joseph Y od er shows how clearly the A m i s h see the danger of higher education leading their children f r o m the farm when he puotes an A m r s h m a n fro m the re g i o n of this study as saying "High School edu c at io n educates a wa y f ro m the farm. We want our boys and girls to be good farmers, and if we send them to H i g h School they will leave the farms, and we do 90 not want that to happen.," It is true the A m i s h fear the children will leave the f a r m if they receive too m u c h education, but the real fear is that w h e n they leave the farm they also leave the church., The princip le of the Swe et w a t e r T o w ns hi p rather bluntly, "The parents d o n ’t want schools sa i d to send their kiddies 89 o 00A 5 o 90° R o s s a n n a ’s B o y s , op „ c i t 0 , pp. 29-30., R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 463 _ 91 to school, 'cause t h ey'r e a f ra id t h e y ’ll l e a r n ne w t a c t i c s . ” The parents do fear their children wi ll learn new ideas. Amishman said honestly, One "The trouble is, if our c h ild re n go 92 to high school they wi l l start g e t t i n g their own ideas." In 93 a culture where the indivi du al is subservient to a chur ch built on au th ori ty es tab lished tradition#this is suf fi ci en t by consesus and on rea son to keep their c hi ldren away from high schools. The A m i s h parents als o fear that th e long hours sitting on the bus followed by longer hours of of si t t i n g in school will m a k e their chil dr en p h y s i c a l l y lazy. They will 94 reach the point wher e they enjoy just sitting and reading; 95 they will become "chair-minded". P h y s i c a l laz iness bespeaks a weak or undisciplined wi l l and therefore is f o r e i g n to a Christian. Throughout a l l the dis cussions of high school runs a n undercurrent of the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y ’s fear of sexual int ima cy 91. 017. 92. 00A3. 93. "One i m po rt an t duty is obligated on P a r e n t s , o v e r , 'the children w hi c h G o d ha t h g i v e n m e . ’ (Heb. 2:13) not only for the good of the children, to enli ghten their lives, but also for the welfare of common good." H e r a i d , July 15, 1954, p. 6 . By "the common good" I believe it is fair to suggest that he means for the good of the community. 94. 00A96. 95. 00A128. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 464 - between their y o u t h an d E n g l i s h youtho (00A10) made the statement One A m i s h w o m a n that whe did not believe that any of the girls who g r a d u a t e d f r o m S t o n e y r u n H i g h Sc hool were still virgins by the time of t h e i r graduation, addin g that it wasn't safe to send a girl to hi gh school,, H e r husband 96 seemed to concur in her statement - A n o t h e r A m i s h m a n quoted some figures f r o m a n high school girls unknown so ur ce that st ate d h o w many 97 "got into t r o u b l e ” each year. Th e A m i s h seem to fear that t h e i r yout h might the worldly temptations not be able that are flaunte d before the movies a n d activities, the m in especia lly soc ial dancing, are engaged in at h i g h school. that Some of the B i bl ical q u o t a ­ tions that are tacked on to petitio ns officials s e e m to have no bearing they are understood to w i th stan d sent to gov ernme nt on high school unless in this light. Our childre n should be in our homes at the age of 14 years to lea rn farming, ho us e-ke ep in g and other duties, that become us people, and to live a quiet, peacefu l life in hu mili ty and m e e k n e s s to Christ, as to P a u l ' s teachings, Ho mans 12:1-2; I besee ch you therefore, brethren, by the me rc ies of God, that ye p r e s e n t y o u r bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acc ep ta bl e to God, wh ich is y our reasonable serviceA n d be not conformed to this world: be 96, S t o n e y r u n is a small, well-ch urc hed, highly proper, middle class A m e r i c a n village in w hi ch everyone knows everyone else who is not Amish97. He may have got them f r o m The A m i s h M i s s io n Endeaver. October, 1952 / n o pages/ January, February, March, lg56, p 0 2- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 465 - ye tr ansformed by the renewin g of y ou r mind, that ye may prove what is that good and accept ab le will of God, (And further) Titus 2:11-12-13-14: For the gr ace of God that b r in ge th s al vatio n hath appeared to all men, T e a c h i n g us, that den ying ungodliness, and wor ldly lusts, we sho uld live soberly, righteously, and godly, in this pre sent world; Looking for that ble ssed hope, and the glorious appearing of the great Go d an d our S a v io ur Jesus Christ; Who gave himself for us, that he might re deem us from all iniquities an d p u r i f y unto himself a p e cu li ar people, zealous of good works. 98 The w o r l d to which the A m i s h dare not co nf or m and from which they have been purified a p e c u l i a r people ized by lusts of the eye and lusts of the flesho they must not allow th ei r adolescents, from being steadfast, is c ha ra cter­ They feel wh o are as yet far contact w i t h this world. H i g h school is believed to lead the child into the world. HISTORY OF A M I S H EDU CAT ION I N 3T0NEYRUN, 1811-19 51 From the time the A m i s h arr ive d in S t o n e y r u n in 1810 or 1811 their relation to the school has changed f r o m their having complete charge of the education of the ir own child99 ren to sending the m through rural grade schools, to having to send them to one year of high school, them to high school until 98„ to ha v in g to send they are sixteen., A c c o r d i n g to the H e r a l d , Jan uary 18, 19 51, . _99„ Herald, November 11, 1954, p., 3, Nettie Glick, Historical Sketch of the Walnut Creek, Ohio, A m i s h M en no ni te -Qhurch. op o -Cit. . p. 4. The first school in the region was built by the A m i s h on one of the A m i s h farms in 1815, It was taught by an Englishman, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Ohio law a child must complete the seventh grade a n d be sixt ee n vears old before he can obtain a w o r k i n g certificate and leave 100 school, The age seems to be more important than the grade, for when the children are s i xt ee n they have usually be e n 101 able to withdraw from school legally, As so o n as the high school was built in S t o n e y r u n the A m i s h b e ga n to w o r r y about their children going into the town high school. children were encouraged to fail their The classes often enou gh so that they would be in the eight h gr ad e w h e n they were 102 sixteen and not before. This mad e te ach ing in ru r a l schools very discouraging and it demoralized al l the children. Then the superintendent of the county made an informal agreement that if the Amish children w o u l d w o r k hard and do well at school, he wou ld not p r o s e c u t e t h e m f o r mis s in g school provided they had completed the eighth grade. This worked 100, R, M, Eyman, Inst ru ctio ns to S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , Attendance Officers and other School A u t h o r i t i e s for the Issuance of Age and Schooli ng Ce rtifica tes a n d other Types of Dismissals or Excuses f r o m Scho ol Attend anc e^ (Columbus , Ohio, Department of Education, 1 9 5 0 ), p „ 12, A l s o a gi rl of 13 or older who is marrie d may not be required to attend school. This of course does not affect the Amish, 101, If for any rea son the parents are unable to obtain a working certificate fo r the child, and occasi ona lly such a request is not granted by the school authorities, the child must continue until he is 18 years of age or has f i n ­ ished high school, 102, The history of the A m i s h r e la ti on to the high school was given me by 08, the former sup eri ntendent of e l e ­ mentary education, for the county in w hi ch S t o n e y r u n is located. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 6 7 - very well for awhile an d the A m i s h co ope rated wholeheartedly,, Soon there was some c r i t i c i s m of c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n s i x ­ teen not attending school at all, children continued so many of the Amish'' to w o r k hard at their studies and the n they would spend two or o c c a si on ally eve n three ye ars eighth grade. Thi s was t e c h n ic al ly ag ains t until the winter the law, of 19 51 -5 3 n o t h i n g was done about in the but it . Some of the teachers g ave the rep e a t i n g p u p i l s extra w o r k and others arranged the courses so that the s e v e n t h a n d eighth 103 grade studied together an d thus they had a different course every other year,, board explained A n A m i s h m a n who is n o w on the sc hool that his grade school at Wooster C o l l e g e . teacher was studying He had to stop half way t h r ou gh his college course and w o r k to earn e n o u g h mon ey to finish,, W he n 104 Roman finished the ei gh th grade at f o u r t e e n an d came b a c k to repeat the grade the teacher brought in his college texts and notes and Ho ma n s t u di ed by himself. exceptionally wel l- ed ucate d Amishman, Toda y he is an one of the few wh o is interested in worl d events. The informal ag reemen t be tw ee n the A m i s h and the school officials worked ver y w e l l in this in some of the other counties county for ma ny years, in Ohio the A m i s h wer e not so 103. That is now the a c ce pt ed policy, program, App end ix V I . 104. but see the S'Chool 00A5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - fortunate,, When it was 468 _ discov ere d that the re we r e not s u f ­ ficient n on-Am is h ch ild ren in a district school, to s u ppor t a high some of the local judges s t a r t e d to compel to send their children to school . the par en ts F a th er s w h o persistently- refused were im pr is o n e d and t h e i r high sch ool age chi ld re n sent to a state orp ha na ge f o r the p e r i o d of the f a t h e r ’s imprisonment. 105 A young m a n w h o had had such a child in his 106 class said it was a very disqui eti ng experience. H e taught a 15 year old A m i s h boy f o r two weeks, D u r i n g that time the child never spoke to h i m no to any of the othe r children. When movies were s h o w n the boy covered his eyes so the teacher let h i m go to anot her part movie was over. of th e r o o m until the Whe ne ver the teacher made a special effort to draw him out the child put his face desk and wept. in his arms on his O c c a s i o n a l l y he wou ld start w e e p i n g f o r no apparent reason. A t the end of two weeks, returned to his family, to his than he was w h e n he was the teacher said he was no clos er the first m o m e n t he walk ed into the class room. 105. The fathers were charged w i t h c r i m i n a l neglect for withholding education. This gave the court th e p o we r to remove the child f r o m the cust od y of his parents. 106, This man, 013, bel ieved that the A m i s h should be forced to send their chil dren to hi g h school. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 6 9 - RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CENTRAL OHIO COMMUNITY During the wi n t e r of 1951-52 a new county a ttendanc e 107 officer decided to "crack down" on the Amish„ He drove out to the different rural township schools and threatened an d frightened the childr en by telling t he m that they were breaking the law an d that they w o u l d be fo r c e d to g o to high school,, The children, upset by his manner,, an d the r u r a l teachers, The A m i s h parents were greatly objected to his conduct and asked that a m e e t i n g be called. The s uperintefid- ent the situation. agreed to come to a meeting and discuss The meeting was called. A l l the .amish fathers w i t h children of high-school age in the township came, as did some of those whose children w o u l d soon be in h i g h school. waited but none of the school officials On December 3, 1951, the fat hers T h e y waited and 108 ever appeared. of the 14 and 15 year 107. Unfortunately, I was never able to talk to the attendance officer. A l l the other school officials blamed him whenever they got in a tight spot, but obviously they agreed with him, or had agr eed w i t h hi m at the beginning of his prosectuions. He w a s me re ly enforcing t h e i r desires. 108. When I questioned - the school officials who were supposed to have b ee n pre sent about the m e e ti ng they were very evasive and made such comments as "It w a s n ’t necessa ry, " "The proper notification had'not been gi ven ," "Someone fo r­ got." The former elementary superinte nde nt said, "They were afraid to face a ro omful of A m i s h . " One of the rural school teachers (AMI) who has been tea ching the ^ m i s h children of the township since 1915 said of the principal, " H e ’s a little afraid." U; I 7 "■ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 7 0 - old students who were repe at ing the eighth gr ade were a r r es te d on the following day they were ordered to send their chi ld re n to high school, they were put on p r o b a t i o n and w ere told tha t if their children did not a t t e n d high school that they w o u l d be placed in a c h i l d r e n ’s home as had been don e in a n e i g h ­ boring c o u n t y . in April, The ch il dre n sta rted school immediately, 1952, nine fathers were brought to but court a g a i n an d three were fined between twenty and seventy dollars for 109 their children having missed 4 to 14 days of school. The men were not charged w i th failure to observe the school law, 110 but with criminal neglect The Amishmen felt of th ei r high school children. these charges to be unfair and dishonest. At first they would not was wrong to participate enter any plea, beli ev in g that it in court action. to enter a plea of not guilty, T h e n they tried but were pers u a d e d to change their plea to guilty. 109. H e r a l d , M a y 1, 1952, p. 1. ’’E a c h of the three was fined $5 a day for each school day his youngs ter mi ss ed and ordered to jail for two days for e a c h day of school missed. They then were g i v e n suspensions of the jail sentences and half of the f ines . "A .A „M. " N e u i g k e i t e n ” HdW, June 1, 1952, p. 323. 110. Usually children f ro m 7 t o 16 years may miss fifteen days of school a year. 019, 08. ’’A n y child of compulsory school age is p er mi tted to be absent f r o m the public school to wh ic h he has been a s si gn ed fo r any one or all of the following r e a s o n s . 5. A n y pupil temporarily excused for the purpose of assisting w i t h the necessa ry orh at home.” R 0 M. Eyman, Excuses f r o m school a t t e n d ­ ance, op. cit. . p. i l 0 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 7 1 - Judge _________ order the m e n confined in County Jail "until y o u make up your m i n d s ," Only after Deputy S h e r i f f _________ bega n taking the m e n out of the c o u r t r o o m did the fo ur who had not entered pleas decide to re tu r n f o r g u il t y pleas. Ill 112 The county s u p e ri ntend en t outlin ed the p r o c e d u r e that should be fo l l o w e d for p r o s e c u t i n g pa rents their children out of s c h o o l , who kept The r u r a l teacher or the principal of a town school sends in a m o nt hl y a t t e n d a n c e report. If a child is out five days a n d is not sick the teacher is supposed to report is suspected that a child is that immediately. being kept out of scho ol illegally, the at te nd an ce officer goes out to the school to get the exact i nf ormat io n from the teacher. seems to be an irregu lar a b s e n c e he parents of the child, If it If it then visits t h e (The superint en de nt qu al i f i e d this statement when I ask ed h i m about specific saying that the at ten dance cases, officer is s u p p o s e d to try to make such a visit,) T h e n he is to send the p a r e n t s a 113 letter. If the parents do not respond w i t h i n a we e k or so by sending their children to school, the a t t e n d a n c e officer notifies the judge, who m a y send a letter to the parents, 111, H e r a I d , Ma y 1, 1951, p„ 1, The new spaper account and that giv e n me by the school aut ho rity differed slightly, 112, 019, 113, Notice in w r i t i n g acc or di ng to the school attendance law, S e c t i o n 4 8 5 2 - 5 , u. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 472 informs the p r o s e c u t i n g attorney the parent a nd childo - and gets a n af fi d a v i t for A l t h o u g h this is the ide al procedure, the county superv iso r said that legally the attendance officer was not required to send a letter to the parents; all he had to do was to file an affidavit of a r r e s t 0 The ideal pro ce du re does not seem, to have b e e n followed in spite of newspap er account s r eferr in g to "re ­ peated visits to the homes in a n effort to bring the 114 children back to school," I do not know of any case in Stoneyrun where the parents in their homes, had been c o n t a c t e d in p e r s o n nor do I know of any in this county who did not send their child to school w h e n t hey r e c e i v e d the written notice. Most of the children w e r e beginning of the crackdown, but were in school at the in e i g h t h grade rather than ninth. In Dec ember 1951, Stoneyrun high school, the first A m i s h childre n entered A group of th i r t e e n unwilling children were pl unged into high school four mo nths after it had started. The pr in c i p a l and all the teacher s who w o r k e d with the A m i s h children complained that they disrupted the school program, m" "I wi shed the G o o d Lard they h a d n ’t come the principal repe at ed m a n y times. ~~H4, H e r a l d . M a y 1, 115 The home economics 1952, 115, Not only do the A m i s h object to his expressing such a sentiment, w he n they feel he was behind the prosecution, (continued on next page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 473 - 116 teacher complained bitterl y about the A m i s h g i r l s „ had increased the size of her class f r o m four t o fourteen.) However, when I vis i t e d her class the girls seemed to get along'well and to fit in wi th ou t any friction. talked to her after I had observed, of the Amish. None (They W hen I she was less critical of the teachers made any sp ecial effort to understand the n m i s h nor to learn an yt hin g about them. So much ill fee lin g was stirred up during the winter of 1951^52 that the sc hool au t h o r i t i e s a p p a r e n t l y decided not to pr osec ute further. The au th orit ie s in this county also felt that the ir po s i t i o n was wea ken ed because in the county that adjoins the township the parents were not being prosecuted for keepi ng their children out of h ig h school. During the wi nt er of 1952-53 a n d 1953-54 there were no more incidents. Many children to high school until sixteenth birthday. of the par ents sent their three days before their 117 A few kept th ei r children at home they received a no ti f i c a t i o n an d then sent them. until When a 115. ("continued f r o m previou s page) but they believe swearing to be a sin des er vin g temp or ar y excommunication. They do not like their ch il dre n exposed' to a pr inc ipal that often says "Good L a r d . ” This to t h e m is swearing. P r essu re against this p ri nc ipal (primarily fr o m the Amish) finally caused his resignation in the spring of 1956. 116. 016. 117. They realize that it wou ld take more than three 3ays to process the c h i l d ’s absence. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 474 - child finished ni nt h grade the parents generall y kept hi m at home even though he was not yet sixteen. families in a constant state This kept the of a n x i e t y but du r i n g these two years nothing happened., Developments in the Co unty A d j a c e n t to St on e y r u n In the a ut u m n of 1954 the school adjoining county decided to attempt laws. in Stoneyrun. in t h e to e n f or ce the school There was a new wave of arrests touched off by arrests officials in b ot h counties, The Ston ey ru n fathers were charged with "acting in a ma n n e r tending to cause the 118 delinquency of their childreno" "All four / t h e r e actually seem to have been f iv e/ p l e a d e d not g u i l t y an d were remanded to County Jail pe nd ing p o s t i n g of $1,000 bond each. Judge _______ advised t h e m to obtain counsel and said that a trial 119 date would be set." The subsequent events are best described ty a preacher in the church district where two of the m e n I will try to exp la in the school issue. The me n involved had a meeting w i t h the county board and Truant Officer ________ . When the board had heard their cases they w ere in favor of d r o ppin g the charges and asked________ / t h e attenda nce officer/ to persuade Judge _________ to have it taken out of court. Fo llo wing is a list of t h e i r names and their cases as told to me. 118. Herald. 119. Ibid. October 14, 1954, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 475 _ - 120 ________ Z 0 Q A 4 5 / ,s A n n is 16 n o w so they thought they w o u l d not send her unless they were notified. They were not ifi ed on S a t u r d a y and a rr es ted on Monday, _ ________ / 0 0 A 1 3 7 / 5s son missed one day, ________ was arrested. It proved to be a slight mistake on the part of Su pe rint en de nt ________ , 121 / J O O A ) A M 7 / ’s daughter has b e e n going to /high/ schoo l at ________ / i n the neighboring county/ for two years. He was a r r e s t e d too. They are Mennonites, 122 both kept their Two Bros, ________ and children at home a l t h o u g h their children were under 16 years old. They also were arrested, ________ /00A137./ and ________ ZTOOA) AM_7/ wanted to explain to Judge ________ that it was a m i s t a k e but he did not want to hear it. He just told them to say guilty or not guilty. When the county board fou nd out how everything was they w er e in fav or of letting them all go because of the m i st ak es and the truant officer had not sent any body any notices. They told ________ /the truant off ice r/ those notices should have been sent out 2 wks ago. A n d if he did not have time to send notices they would hire somebo dy to help him, 123 A similar, though less objective account indicates how the Amish felt about the new arrests. Y o u will see in the "Herald" whe re a g a i n t he y are taking A m i s h M e n to jail, A no ti ce was sent and _____ /0 0A 4 5 / they came af t e r him, before it reach ________ /JOOA) AM7_/ daughter was to school every day only in ________ ,__ ________ /00A 137/ Sons in 120, At the time the letter was writ ten not at the time of her f a t h e r ’s arrest, \ | F I I 121. 017, . 122, 00A45 an d 00A137 are members of St on e y r u n chu rch district, (00A) A M 7 was al so a member of this district until e became a Mennonite about seven years before his arrest, 123. Personal correspondence, I X / 1 4 / 5 4 . i r R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 476 - school every day, One bo y miss _one day, They also took him down n o t •knowing^t)OA 13j/’s boys e ve n went to school. It being p lai n m e a n we say. Also hear they would li ke _t o upset the A m i s h school at ________„ o ■>o________ [_her hu s b a n d / says to tell you He is not p l e a s e d w i t h J u d g e ________ he has no mercy for any Amish, Tw o of the other me n said to drop the case, Mrs, ________ /Pik7 that teaches "Dutch Va ll ey " schoo l was also down to help the Amish, Th ey told her to stop talking, 124 00A45 and (0 0 A ) AM 7 are b ot h unu su al ly intelligent me n with very bright children wh o have done ext rem ely well in school and are ahead for their years. One of the m a j o r reasons (00A) AM7 gave for leaving the Old Order A m i s h was that he wanted more education for his children than was p e r m i t t e d by the Old Order, 00A45 is the only A m i s h m a n I know whose speach does not label h i m as Amish, stock Auction and has a lot people. He, too, of intercourse w i t h E n g l i s h is v e r y m u c h interested in the of his children who are g i v e n books school. H e works for the L i v e ­ education even before they start He is the only A m i s h father I k n o w who buys any non- religious books for his children (other books that all A m i s h children have), than the coloring I have b e e n told "He used to be English," mea ning that du ri ng his early manhood, before he joined the chu rch an d married, as though, and it was felt that he would, is people like these m e n who are helping the value of higher education. 124, never join. It the A m i s h to see Whe n they are Pers on al correspondence, he acted treated in X/15/54, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. such a manner by the school officials the g r o w i n g interest in higher education rec eive d a serious s e t - b a c k in the A m i s h community„ There is complete lack of rapport b e t w e e n t h e A m i s h and the school a u t h o r i t i e s 0 the slightest effort The a u t h o r i t i e s rarely make to understand the A m i s h a n d the A m i s h continue with a set ties* of p r e c o n c e i v e d ideas about the authori125 The county s up er in te ndent repe ated m a n y de rog a t o r y stories about the ^mish. A f t e r re coun ti ng six such vig126 nettes he said he was trying to work w i t h them, but that no matter what he did they defied him*, Perhaps he believed he was, but everything he said implied a d e e p - s e a t e d distrust of them as a community* He referre d to an A m i s h girl in Stoneyrun who by descripti on must have been 0 0 A 4 5 ’s daughter* He said she would not be six tee n until the begi nn in g senior year and they were watchin g of her her closely for they would like to see if they could get one Amish. child to 125 * 019* 126* Concerning how th e A m i s h got ar ou nd the p r o ­ hibition ^against lightening rods, how they fina gl ed to keep electricity in their homes, h o w an A m i s h woman dressed in red and late at night went around a n e i g h b o r i n g small city, how the -amish youth court, that all the n o n - A m i s h boys had t0 go to war because the .amish got a g r i c u l t u r a l deferments so all the others were taken to fill the quota, and finally ne repeated a story to the effect that the A m i s h said they Hoped America would get into the war bec aus e then prices °r farm products would be higher and t h e y ’d make mor e money. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. graduate f ro m h i g h s c h o o L Th e pri ncip al of St on e y r u n H i g h 127 School is a simple, violent man. I quote some of the statements he made about the Amish. No one in _________ county underst and the Amish. They d o n ’t tel l their likes an d d i s l i k e s . . . I d o n ’s kn o w if I ever talked to one of their bishops, maybe I did, they all look alike... Their m o r a l s aren't any better than ours... I said to some of them, "Why d o n ’t y o u w a k e n up and teach y ou r k i d sl 28 E n g l i s h so t h e y w il l fit into the program ?" A n d they just come back that they d o n ’t want them to learn. At the end of my first interview wi th him he sai d he would 129 lend me two pamp hl ets his son had bought along the P e n n s y l ­ vania Turnpike. tactics. "They tell a lot about their policie s and Y o u ’ll find w or th while things give your report some color." give the Amish the benefit 127. in t h e m that ma y T h e school officials never of the doubt. If a child is absent 017. 128. Even his choice of words is unfortunate. I quote Levi Bontrager in the H e r a l d , Decemb er 30, 1951: "Christ is illustrated, in his second coming, the great separation of the righteous and the unrighteous, as a shepherd divideth his sheep f r o m his goats, (Matt. 25:32), and we read the goats are placed on the left, w hi ch shall hear the most unwelcome voice, ’Depart from me, ye cursed, unto everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels'" (v.4) /it should read v. ^ ± J E v e n the tenor of the scriptures should teach us it is very unwise an d un nat­ ural.. .to call children ’k i d s ’ .’* 129. Ammo n Monroe Aurand, Little Known Facts about ine Ami sh and the M e n n o n i t e s . (Harrisburg, Pa.: Aurand Press, 1938) and A m m o n Monroe?Aurand, Little K n ow n Pacts About B undling in the New World (Harrisburg, Pa.: Aurand 1938). -------------------- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 7 9 - it is assumed the pa re nt s kept him home to work. the superintendent mused, "That reminds me, /00A13 Tf boy has been out for three days. that the truant officer gets he might be sick, the ________ I ’ll have to see after h i m 0" W he n I sug gested it was shrugged off with, year h e ’s busy plo wi ng." One time "This time of Th e boy had serious ly cut his hand and had been taken to th e neighb oring large to wn for stitches and X-ray. The different school officials have repeated that they try to help the Amish, but t h e A m i s h show no apprecia 130 tion or even defy the authorities. The trouble is that the help the authorities Amish. I was told, extend looks quite different to the "Home economics is set up fo r th em. " When I observed a home economics class I wa tched 15 year old girls learn how to bake and ice a simple cake. them worked on one cake which was baked that had been donated Five of in a n electric stove to the school by the Ohio Powe r & Electric Company the pre cedi ng year. 131 To an A m i s h w o m a n the whole performance w ou ld seem ludicrous. Every one of the girls could cook a complete meal for ten people singlehanded. Each had pr obab ly been helping w i t h the family 130. “ "I lean over backwards to help the m but they h ahnui n n #=> h i t O'f' a nn TfiflifJ t i o n « ft -- i h- . „ - ...... iOll’t SLDDTftP.iahft 017. 131. The Electric Company sees stoves are in the school kitchens. that the newest model R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. baking fro m the time she was eight, and. had undoub te dly done the w e e k ’s baking by herself witho ut an y help or supervision., On top of this these girls wou ld r e t u r n f r o m the new, shiny, electric stoves to t h e i r m o t h e r ’s wood or coa l cookstove, or possibly to a kero se ne stove. It is s m a l l wonder that outside of school the A m i s h girls scoff at the cou rse and the mothers declare it useless. The poli ti ca l figures s u c h as the j udge and the prosecuting attorney pla y on the g e n er al dislike mos t of their constituency feel for the A m i s h a n d use the cases to bring in more votes. The judge, quite understandably, takes advantage of each p ro s e c u t i o n to m ak e a speach, he knows that it is sure to get publicity. which is primarily a n A m i s h paper, for Th e Herald, mer e l y re ported "Along with the sentences came a len gth y lecture fro m Judg e ________ 132 ...” During the first s u c h case he tried he told the A m i s h that "an education was a more imp or ta nt we ap on in fighting 133 134 Communism than bullets or swords." He a l s o inf or me d them that "If you are going to live w i t h us and amo ng us you mu st 13 5 conform to our laws." A t the end of the first cases he H e r a l d , May 1, 1952, p. 1. 133. This is a strang st ate ment to mak e to a devoutl y group who have lost over 50,000 to R u s s i a n p e r s e c u ­ tion since the beginning of World War II. Herald, D e c e mb er 6, r e l i g i o US 1951, p. 1. 134. The New H a v e n E ve n i n g R e g i s t e r , A u ust 15, 135. Ibid. 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. commented to time. one of the school authorities, /They w e r e released at "They got off this 11:00 the night they had been N e x t time t h e r e ’ll be no night releasingSo I ’ve “ 136 made up my jmind t h e y ’ll go to j a i l . ” H e seems to have been arrested.7 able to carry out his threat. He also has said that alth ou gh customarily a l l ch i l d r e n may miss 15 days of school for 137 reasons other than sic kn es s he w i l l not al lo w the A m i s h high school children to miss a sin g l e day. It w i l l be recalled that the father whose child m i s s e d f o u r days of school between D e c e m b e r a n d May was fi ne d twenty dollars by this I udge . 138 The g e n eral a t t i t u d e among the civil aut hor it ie s is that the A m i s h must be made to conform. means used are barely legal, Sometime s the and at other times represent a reinterpretation of a give n law. I n a re po rt on school consolidation it was reported that: The ed ucation department has no legal author ity to consoli date schools. It can only suggest consolidation. In some instances it can force it by r e v o k i n g a s c h o o l ’s charter or by pla cing the school on t e m p o r a r y charter. This causes the local po p u l a c e i m m e di at ely to take some kind of action. 136. 019. 137. 019, 08. 138. The state au thoritie s have held this a t ti tu de constantly, while county authorities have va ri ed and some township authorities have been most sympathetic. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. -482 - "We revoke charters and issue temporary charters to enforce standards, not necessarily to force co ns ol idation ," E y m a n said* 139 A school officia l for his m a s t e r ' s thesis tabulated the views of 25 A m i s h w i t h respect to e d u c a t i o n and the present schoolsystem. He pro pose d to 1) Str ictl y enf orci ng and 2) Pr ov i d i n g for the A m i s h pup ils ," by courses an d making so lve the school p r o b l e m by the compulsory school laws, "d emoc rat ization of the offering a wider range of ce rt ai n courses compulsory. 140 "If you are g oi ng to live w ith us and a m o n g us you must conform..." seems to rep res ent the civil a u t h oriti es m i s s i o n to the Amish. Though the civil au thorities reflect the gen eral d i s ­ like of the A m i s h felt by many of the E n g li sh peo ple in the area, the A m i s h be li ev e it is the God given duty of the civil authorities to protect them, if necessary, even f r o m their neighb ors so they may pra ct ic e their religion. words the Ajnish believe the civil au thori tie s were In other ordained 139. Cleveland P l a i n P e a r l e r , M a r c h 16, 1952 / m y underlining? R. M. E y m a n is the ass is ta nt dir ector of education for the St at e of Ohio. In the 12 months p re cedi ng March 1952, 117 h ig h schools were involved in consolidations and the number of o n e- ro om grade schools in the state was reduced from 2 74 to 198. •140. R a l p h Ely, A H i s tory of the A m i s h P e o p l e of East Union T o w n s h i p ’Wayne County, Ohio, w i t h Sp ecia l Emphasis on Educat ion al P r o b l e m s . (Unp ublished M a s t e r ’s thesis. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1942.) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 482a - The m o o n and the stars too are p u r s u i n g the same cours es t hey h ave b e e n f o r h u n d r e d s of years. They, too, s e e m to-,Q , he g e t t i n g along- v e r y n i c e l y t o ge th er . SOCIAL INTERACTION Social I n t e ra ction The Am ish say of t h e i r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s not our kind of people". 105 boring". Ther e is, h o wev er , "they are limited Occasionally when an English housewife having a "Stanley p art y" or a "plasti c "ne ig his party",she i n v i te s 104. Evan J. Miller, "Modernism", HdW, February 15, 1954, pp. 112-3. 105. A Mennonite writes: "They / Christian§7 must have such ordinary civil contacts with sinful people as the com­ munity life requires, but they are not to live in terras of close social, personal, and spiritual fellowship with them." Yoder, "Obligation" ojo. c i t ., p. 108. 106. At the Stanley brush parties a saleswoman . de­ monstrates brushes to a group of women at the home of the hostess. The demonstrator takes orders for brushes and the hostess is given various gifts from the company in pro­ portion to the amount of produce sold to her guests. A plastic j^arty is similar. Amish women are considered good guests because they usually are good buyers. These parties are a mixture of a social and an economic venture and thus cross lines, just as the labor sharing gangs do, that are not crossed in purely social affairs. See chart of visiting pattern. Appendix IV, Part B. I | R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - to enable the Ami s h to remain 483 - separate f r o m the world. We hon es tl y beli eve we should have our liberty to the above /not sent their chi ld re n to high s c h o o l / > as oar for efathers came to the country of Amer ica to get free f r o m tyranny a nd compu lsa fy rulings, etc., that was contrary to the teachings of our beloved Savior, Je s u s Christ, and contrary to t h e i r religion, that they ma y live w i t h a good conscience before God and man, p r o t e c t e d by Go d through men of a uth or it y that p rof essed to be God-fe ar in g men, and such that he could move their hearts to protect the go o d and p u n i s h the evil. ...a few sent to p r i s o n as we feel f o r the righteous cause by not w i l l i n g l y sending our children to h i g h school, w h i c h we feel our m e n of authority should of p r ot ec te d us, and g i ven us the co nstitutio nal rights, as to our r el ig ion according to the holy gospel, for w h i c h we feel sorry for, and pr a y that the g o o d Lord wi ll enl ig hte n our men of a u t h o r i t y thr o ug h His spirit that this present ruling of compulsory school law as sending to high school m a y be changed in the near f ut ure .. . We he art full y pr a y that Go d w o u l d go ve rn all hearts of our rulers, be they high or low, to meditate those things whi c h will p e r t a i n to their and our happiness, to the ho n o r a n d praise to God and our beloved Savior, Jesus Christ, amen. 141 The whole tone made itdo not of this plea indicates that realize that they live in a democracy. attitude towards the govern men t living under the protection, the A m i s h m e n who is still that or at the whim, Their of a m i n o r i t y of a n a u t h o r ­ itarian or feudal ruler. ...our forefathers were invited here w i t h "a guarantee of religious f r e e d o m ” - to b o t h believe and practice their faith under civil protection. ’’Let Thy church w hi c h is without externa l armour, shield, sword, of arms, rest under their p r o t e c ­ tion, so that th e liberty whic h they grant us in 141. H e r a l d , Jan uar y 18, 1951. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 484 - the p r a c t i c e of our religion, w h i c h we owe to T h e e s may not be tak e n fr om us because of a n improper walk on our part, B e p l e a s e d to let our chil dr en and descendants (if it be best f o r t h eir sal v a ­ tion), enjoy this p l e a s a n t pe ac e w h i c h we receive under t h e i r protection,, 0 L o r d God, grant that none of these author ities, or of those that are ruled by them, perish: but that th ey m a y al l be kept an d eternally saved, t h rough Jesus Christ Thy beloved Son, to w h o m be praise, n o w and f o r ­ ever, Amen, B e i n g non- r e s i s t a n t and subject to the p ow e r s that be, the A m i s h peop le p e t i t i o n those in a u ­ thority for redress of grievan ces , 142 The majority of the A m i s h p e o p l e still feel that thei r only 143 recourse is prayer to G o d a n d p e t i t i o n to the civil a u t h o r ­ ities, for their religious p r i n c i p l e s debar t h e m f r o m court 144 145 action and v i go ro us p o l i t i c a l activity. 142, H e r a l d , July 15, 19 54, p, 6, Th e prayer quoted above is composed of several sentences f r o m "Prayer f o r the Secular Power" in the M a rtyrs M i r r o r (1951) p, 115, 143, "It seems that if we too p u t our trust in God and ask that we may have laws that will p e rm it us to cont inu e our religion a n d faith, then surely som et hi ng w i l l be upheld in our Ohio laws that will- w o r k out to the good of al l c o n ­ cerned. 'We know that a l l things w o r k t o geth er for go o d to them that love God.' Rom, 8:28," H e r a l d , M a r c h 3, 1955, p. 6, 144. In P e n n s y l v a n i a some E n g l i s h n e ig hb or s a n d b u s i ­ nessmen obtained attorneys, W» H e n s e l B r o w n and Charles W, Eaby of Lancaster, to p e t i t i o n the L a n c a s t e r County Court on behalf of the Amish. T h e y selected the case of S a mu el L, Smooker. (J. A. Hostetler, "The A m i s h and the P u b l i c School," C h r i s t i a n Living, September, 1956, p. 5.) Hi s case wa s fai rly wi de l y publicized (as for example, New Y o r k Times , J a n u a r y 15, 1955) but these articles did not m e n t i o n that he had alre ad y been arrested seven times a n d each time was f i n e d or impriso ned „ (Herald, July 29, 1954.) The A m i s h in one county in Ohio have, as a church, employed two lawyers, 145. The school issue has forc ed the Ami s h to developsome political awareness. Many of t h e m now vote a n d they send delegations to various po li t i c a l office holders. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 4 8 5 - Within the commun ity c r i t i c i s m of t h e gov er nm ent authorities continues. T o d a y some of our higher au tho riti es in the county feel we are stupid and b a c k w a r d groups of peo ple and our f o r e f at hers need no c o n s i d e r ­ ation fo r their efforts towards education. 146 It f t ’he m a n n e r in wh i c h the A m i s h fathers were a r r e s t e d / being p l a i n m e a n we say. 147 However, most A m i s h m e n resp ond to the a r r e s t s w i t h r e s i g n a ­ tion. It is more per sec ution. Their church has kno wn persecution throughout its history; p e r s e c t u i o n is to be expected for the K i n g d o m of Go d is not on this earth. I can t hi nk of no thing of mo re comfort for us than the words of Christ, ’’B l e s s e d are ye, w h e n men shall revile you, a n d p e r s e c u t e you, and shall say all manner of evil agai nst y o u falsely, for my sake. Rejoice, a n d be e xc ee di ngly glad; for great is your reward in Heaven, for so p e r ­ secuted they the p r o p h e t s w h i c h w e r e bef or e y o u . ” 148 No w we as A m i s h p e o p l e want to a b s t a i n f r o m all these things that lead to such / t h e d e s t r u c ­ tion of body and soul/, and could p r ob ably say were p e r s e c u t e d and a f e w sent to p r i s o n as we feel for a righteo us cause by no w wil l i n g l y sending our children to high s c h o o l . . . ” 149 They remind themselves that ’’aff li ct ions come f r o m t h e hand of a loving father who desires to draw us to hims elf for 150 good." 146. H e r a l d , Nov e m b e r 11, 1954, p. 147. Pers on al correspondence, X/15/54. 148. H e r a l d , No v e m b e r 11, 1954, 149. H e r a l d , Jan ua ry 18, 150. H. Bender (tr. ord. ed.), ’’A m i s h B i s h o p ’s (continued on next page) p. 3. 3. 19 51. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. — 486 — In the county ad joi ni ng St on e y r u n the school p r o b l e m is greatly complicated by the large number of Amish. Instead of having only three townships w i t h a n appreci abl e A m i s h population almost half the cou nty can be co nsi dered Amish, with the A m i s h paying up to 70 per cent of the taxes in some 151 townships. Two weeks af te r the St on e y r u n fathers were arrested the arrests started in this county. of arrests was obviously better planned and seemed to be part The p r o g r a m than in S t o n e y r u n of a concerted effort to per su ad e the Amish to send their children to high school. arrests were of five men, The first one m a n f r o m e a c h of five different school districts wit h a n apprecia ble A m i s h population. The men were fined ten dollars for each day their childr en had 152 missed school be tw ee n the opening of school and their arrest. In addition they were sentenced to thirty days in the Work­ house. The fines and Workhouse sentence were suspended for thirty days providi ng they enrolled their children in the 153 respective schools within that time. This was obviously a 1 5 0 * fcontinued f ro m p r e vi ous page) conference epistle of 1865," M^R, July, 1956, p. 224. "Whome the Lor d loveth He chasteneth." (Heb. 12:6) 151. The tax v alu at io n of the A m i s h property of the county is nine million, five hundred thousand dollars. Herald, November 1 1 , 19 54, p. 1. 152. September 7. 153. H e r a l d . October 28, 1954, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 87 - move to inform the A m i s h com mu ni ty that the school a u t h o r i ­ ties meant business, for they took this op p o r t u n i t y to make the statement that there were "around 145 mor e cases which 154 are to be brought before the court in the same manner." 155 About two weeks later three m o r e fathers were a r r e s t e d . This was well handled in that the w arr ants were issued and the men were gi ven several days notice as to w h e n they would have to appear before the Judge. (In S t o n e y r u n the sheriff drove up late i n the a f t e r n o o n and took them off their farms without any warning.) These m e n were charged with refusing to provide education for t he ir children in accord156 ance with the laws of the St ate of Ohio. Although such a charge seems fair to a n outsider, the A m i s h m e n pl ead ed not guilty as one of them explained: We feel we have p l e n t y of evidence that my warrant for arrest is false because we can prove that I did not refuse to send the boy to school, had he been accepte d back in the eig hth grade. We can a l so show that we did not neglect our children in a reasonable education. .. In my case I tried to ex pla in to the court my evidence that I was wrongly ac cused... I tried to explain that since this is a gr oun d as to our religion and that it would come under the Constitution, which reads, "Congress shall make 154. Ibid. 155. H e r a l d , No vember 4, 1954, p. 8. 156. In contrast to the charges against the S t o n e y ­ run fathers of criminal neg lect a n d conduct leading to d e l i n ­ quency . I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 488 - no laws on e st ablishme nt of Religion, or pr ohi biting the free exercise thereof. N o Sta te shall make or enforce any law w h i c h sha ll abrid ge the priv il eg es or immunities of Citizens of the United States (Part of first and f o u r t e e n t h Ammendmento ) However, with all that we presen te d it was flatly turned down, saying we cannot prove in their court that this co uld be a part of our religion, or w h e th er or not it could come under the c o n s t i t u t i o n . . .We all pleaded, not guilty but this was denied and the J u d g e changed it to guilty. 157 The county school officials r e a lize d pointed out to t h e m by the Amish), that (it was also the y we re not prepared to handle the who are being kept "more tha n 150 teen-age A m i s h c h i l d r e n 158 out of school by their pa ren ts." In his report to the county school board one A m i s h m e m b e r of a township board stressed that if the local boards could not provide r oo m for the children, the parents could not be pr osecut ed for not sending their children to school. 159 A plan was put forward by the school au t h o r i t i e s that would entail a consolidation of all the school boards in exactly that part of the county where the A m i s h w e r e most Under this new pl an there would be only from each township, instead numerous. one representative of having a n individual school 157. H e r a l d . Nov em be r 11, 1954, p. 3 158. H e r a i d . No vem ber 18, 19 54. 159. Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 8 9 - board for each township, and so the A m i s h wou ld e f f e c ti vely be deprived of any voi ce on the school board, fo r it is highly unlikely that they could wi n a n e l ect io n to such a consolidated school board. The non -A mi sh wouls an umishman to be their sole re p r e s e n t a t i v e Some people felt on schoo l issues. that the c o n s o l i d a t i o n plan was an effort on the part of the county the whole affair, school boa rd to wa sh their hands for if c o n s o l i d a t i o n went county board would have no j u r i s d i c t i o n over of the county. never trust through the the A m i s h part The A m i s h sent i n a p e t i t i o n against dation with over 700 signat ur es had difficulty getting on it. They of consoli­ und oubtedly the signatures as only people w h o had voted in the last gen er al e l ec ti on were eligible The school au thor iti es have proposed, with the consolidation plan, to sign. in conn ec t i o n to set up a no n- A m i s h central high school an d two A m i s h junior h i g h schools at w h i c h the A m i s h could study a special c u r r i c u l u m including farming, home economics and other subjects they have requested. 160 In cl ude d in the con so li da ti on p l a n was a proposal that it might be poss ib le to allow the A m i s h to attend special classes in some of the schools to allow them to study until they are 16. This plan, however, depends upon 160. H e r a l d . Nov embe r 18, 1954. I the Ami s h have aot requested these courses, rather they have not opposed them as violently as they have the regular school cu r ­ riculum. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. -490 - the building of a new central high school w h i c h most n on -A mish students w o u l d attend,, 161 The co n s o l i d a t i o n issue has the school authori ti es could hide. been a sc re en behind wh ic h It gave them an oppor162 tunity to continue to sus pend the fines and jail sentences, when they were faced w i t h the em ba ra ssin g s it u a t i o n of the Amish fathers not complying w i t h the order to send their 163 children to high s c h o o l „ When the first arrest s in the county were made some 164 parents sent their children to the pa r o c h i a l school near 165 Stoneyrun, a few sent t h e m to a p a r o c h i a l school in the county to the north, and other just kept them at home. All the parents were drawn together to work out a solution. community decided that The the best course would be the e s t a b l i s h ­ ment of a system of paro ch ia l schools based upon a self-imposed throughout the county tax of three -qu arters of a mil l 161. There is no gua ra nt ee that the A m i s h could have their own classes. If such a junior high school w er e built there^would be a p o s s i b l i t y that the children now in seventh and eighth grade in the rural school w o u l d be moved to a junior high school. H e r a i d , D e c e m b e r 16, 19 54. 162. ’’The sentenc es- and fines were delayed until the /consolidation/ dispute could be wor ked out be tween the school authorities and the -amish.” He r a i d , D e c e m b e r 16, 1954, Po 1 o 163. ’’Only one' of: fhe f i v e - A m i s h m e n reportedly sent his children to s c h o o l . ” I b i d . 164. 14 children. 165. 5 children. has R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 9 1 - on the assessed value of each A m i s h c h u r c h member in the 166 countyThe p r o g r a m of ass es sm en t fol lo we d the same syst e m used for mutual aid payments- The m o ne y wo u l d be used to buy and repair school buildings, teacher- to buy books and pay a While this project was get ti ng underway the county board of ed uca tion reached a t em p o r a r y solution to the problem in one township. In D e c e m b e r one of the township boards establishe d a special school for ninth grade Amish children in a n old church building- Thi s special class opened on January 17, 19 5 5 w i t h twentyfour pupils. Their teacher, a m a n w h o had been teaching one of the rural one r o o m schools, teach the Amish ni n t h grade- was transferred to He knew quite a few of the pupils and was used to wor king w i t h the Amish. The students 167 were to study English, Germ an and ge ne ral mathematics. Meanwhile three par ochial county, schools ha d bee n opened two meeting in abandon ed one meeting in a private home. in the one-room school houses and At the end of Janu ar y 1955 the enrollment in the three schools was thirty-one, and fifteen. Nin etee n were attending p aro ch ia l schools outside the county. middle of January, -j_ 1955, twenty B e t w e e n the end of October and the 109 A m i s h children were brought into the 166. H e r a I d , Novemb er 18, 19 51, p- 1. 167, He r a i d , December 23, 19 54, p. 1, and Janu ary 27, p . 4 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 492 - ninth grade, most of these children were att en di ng newly- established p aro chial schools, but some were stu dyi ng w i t h i n 168 the county school system. U nf ort un ate ly the p r o b l e m is not solved. ninth grade for A m i s h is a tem por ary matter, T h e spe ci al and most of the parochial schools are housed in tempor ary structures. Now the .amish are threatened by new laws that w o u l d make 169 it almost impossible for them to operate p a r o c h i a l schools. Even if the state should start enforcing the pr e s e n t law that instruction in p a roc hi al schools shall be equivalent to the instruction give n ch i l d r e n of like a g e and advanc em ent 170 in the public schools of the district, the A m i s h woul d have difficulty meeting The school the requirement. officials are in a delicate position, it is their job to enforce the state law a n d yet dare alienate such a large segment 168. H e r a l d , January 27, for they hardly of the population. As 1955, p. 1. 169. Under these prop os ed laws the county board of education would have the power to create al l new school buildings within the county, w h e t h e r public or private. There would be specific regulation regarding the bui ldi ng in w h i c h the school was held. Names of books used and subjects r e ­ quired would be specified. A state app r o v e d qualifie d te a c h e r would have to be hired. Herald. March 3, 19 55, p. 6.(This ana lysis of the law is given by an Am ish man who said he got the information f r o m his State h epr e s e n t a t i v e . ) 170. R. M. Eyman, Excuses f r o m Scho ol Attendance, °P° cit.. p. 54. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 493 - As the fight continues it becomes hard er an d harder for 171 either side to bach down. F e elin gs beco me in f l a m e d and the battle grows bitter. had tolerated state Most of the A m i s h of this reg ion 172 el ementa ry schools a n d even felt a strong a ff ectio n for th ei r own spe cific little house. school In the beg inn ing almost none of th e m wanted p a r ­ ochial schools. These had be en di sc uss ed because A m i s h in other counties in the state had been f o rc ed to b u i l d them, but here the A m i s h community was s ati sfied with 173 its rural schools. N o w at ti t u d e s are changing. 171. Foll ow in g the early arrests, the att en da nce of f i ­ cers began reporting cases of v i o l a t i o n to the Juv en il e Courts, This gave the courts po w e r to rem ove the children from the custody of their parents, "After v isit in g their children in the county institution, one A m i s h p a r e n t wrote: 9We visited our children and they tol d us h o w th e y were treated. They were taken into c u s t o d y by the sheriff; each child was locked in a separate r o o m a l l by t he mselv es day a n d night with no one coming to see them e x c e p t to bring t h e m their meals. Why take the children away f r o m home an d then try to make us pay to keep them? The judge said if we refuse to pro mise to pay, the court would investig at e as to the p a r e n t s ’ income. These children are innocent a n d obey the ir parents. So why lock them up? Is this A m e r i c a n free dom?" Ho stetler, School, 0Pc c i t . , p. 6. 172. "The A m i s h delegation said that they wi sh ed to avoid setting up of paro c h i a l schools a n d w e r e hopeful of reaching a compromise," H e r a l d , A p r i l 15, 1954, p. 1. "A spokesman for the A m i s h groups stat ed that they greatly regret the fact that it becomes ne cessary to wi t h d r a w fr o m the public schools. The building of p a r o c h i a l schools has been delayed until the last minute in hope that some th in g could be worked out w i t h school au t h o r i t i e s but since no a g r e e ­ ment was reached, they have decided to make definite move towards building their own s c h o o l s . " Herald, N o v e m b e r 11, 954 Po l. ! , ---- 173. In 1956 there were ten O l d Order A m i s h p a r o c h i a l (continued on next page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - One of the fo u r counties 494 - that comprise the central Ohio Amish commun ity faced this p r o b l e m of e nforc ed school attendance about ten years earlier, in 1943-44. They r espon de d 174 by building p a r o c h i a l schools. The schools, and A m i s h p a r o ­ chial schools in other part s of the state, have n e v e r been forced to meet any sta nd ar ds other t h a n att en danc e regula175 tions and a few safety rules for the school building. For teachers they have hired A m i s h girls w h o have had eighth grade education and occasionally a m a n retired from active farming) with p e r h a p s their favor it should be mentioned teachers often have only an (who has even less. In that a l t h o u g h the had little formal have met were intelligent peop le whose sc hooling the ones I out lo ok r ef l e c t e d the ■ttinishman’s comment that " I t ’s a po o r s p eci me n who stops his education with school. He quits school at f ou rt ee n an d >,1 7 6 then starts on his own education! The teachers have taken 1 7 3 . [continued from pr e v i o u s page) schools in the central Ohio community and one S a m Y o d e r p a r o c h i a l school. See Appendix VI for a history of the A m i s h p ar ochia l schools - the central Ohio community. 174. See Silas H er tz ler' s articles on "Mennonite Elementary Schools" in M£R. Fo r example Vol. 23:108-113. 175. "...the hours and t e r m of a tt en da nce exacted shall be equivalent to the hours an d terms of attenda nc e required of children in the publ ic schools of the district." ■Ibid. 176. 00A3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - no education courses, culture as the 495 - but having be en raised in the same childr en they seem to have little trouble with their charges or the parents, A N A M I S H P A R O C H I A L SCHOOL Th e Old Order P ar ochia l school I visited in Ohio was not w i t h i n the munity. However, confines of the cen tral Ohio A m i s h com­ it was the school that was generally used as the model w h e n the A m i s h of S t o n e y r u n talked of building 177 their own school. This school is sponsore d by b o t h the Old Order ±»mish a n d the Conservatives, center of the community on land man who worked as the janitor, supervisor of the school. with four bright training. It was built near the that had been donated by the G e r m a n teacher an d general The building was of yellow tile classrooms and a basement r o o m for manual T h e walls were w h i t e and hung with a fe w r e l i ­ gious mottos, drawings by the children, and objects they had made in manual training. hung a large picture of A t the fr on t the Bible with wor ds of each r o o m to the effect that the Bible is the way to all truth, 177, The community in w h i c h the school is located is more liberal than Bton ey run as is shown by the fact that church members are allowed to cook w i t h bottled gas and there is a .church cemetary rather than family burial plots. The re is also closer co oper ati on b e t wee n the Conservative A m i s h and the Old Order than in Stoneyrun, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 496 - There were four ful l- tim e teachers, women. two m e n and two One nan and one w o man were Old Order, were Conservative, th e other two but very p l a i n Conservatives, The C o n s e r ­ vative w om a n t eache r is fr o m a n Old Ord e r family. The teachers s e e m to love their w o r k and joi n wh ol eh ea rtedl y with the students in recess and play as well as in study and work o The c h ildren are divided by grad e and the grades are divided among the teachers in such a way that will have about the same number of pupils. each teacher Thus the grades in one room are not always continuous and one teacher has 178 only two grades while another teacher four. Standard t e x t ­ books are used, public school. similar to those stu die d in th e A l l reg u la r ins truction is in iinglish. German, German reading and spelling is taught by the janitor rather than by the regular teachers. A l l the grades have music and art al t h o u g h there is no special subjects. neighboring There is a strong religious children do not seem to be bound there was an atmosphere teacher for these emphasis, but the tightly by the Ordnung and of gai et y about the school. children were well beha ve d an d fairly quiet, The but there was 178, This teacher had the 8th, 9th, 10 t h and 11th grades. But there were only a few students in the 10th g ra d e and only one in the 11th, a n d he wo u l d be dro ppin g out about the middle of the year whe n he had his sixteenth birthday. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - not the restrictive, 497 - silent p r e c i s i o n that was notable in the Sam Y o de r p a r o c h i a l school. The children learn to read the Bibl e in -English as well as in G e r m a n a n d the y sing E n g l i s h hymns, German hymns rather than the slow tunes and re gular of the tr ad i t i o n a l l y Amish hymnso Inside the school was we l l equipped. chairs were in good co nditio n a n d sufficient num ber of the there seemed correct sizes. to be a T h e r e also seemed to be plenty of colored c o n s t r u c t i o n paper, lumber, saws, T h e desks and scissors, crayons, hammers a n d nails to m e n t i o n a few of the t h i ng s the children used. The re were al so extra books to s u p p l e ­ ment the lessons. A good teachers. relationship existed b e tw een the st ud ents a nd For the Fri d a y a f t e r n o o n p r o g r a m the children of the older grades learned a G e r m a n h y m n to sing as a surprise to th e i r teacher for they knew it was one of her favorites and she w o u l d be happy if they cou ld sing it. In this same p r o g r a m the chil dr en p u t on a p l a y that they had "written" and pr o d u c e d themselves. It was give n in Pennsylvania Dut c h and pantomine. The play showed a mother getting supper wit h the rather unw il lin g help of her two children. In spite of the fact that the children made clear they d i d not w a n t to help, Play they went through the moti on s throughout the whole of setting the table. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - The older child 4 9 8 - tried to ma k e the youn ger the younger tried to get out of it. disagreement over their task, do mo r e w o r k and They got into a small s c o ld in g a n d hitting one another. The mother called from the k i tc he n telling t h e m to stop scrapping and to get alon g w i t h their work or she wou l d spank them. In spite of her w a r n i n g they conti nue d to d i s ­ agree (but al so to set the table). H o wev er the disagreement meant that they did their wor k more slowly so it was finished by the time their fath er not came i n f r o m the. fields. Because the children had not done t h e i r work p r o p e r l y the father gave th e m each a spanking. production immensely. broadly, .at no The a u d i e n c e enjoyed the They all lau ghed softly an d smiled time was their response loud, but they obviously identified w i t h the play. This play was interesting for many reasons. showed the relative f r e e d o m in the school. The It children were allowed to put on a sp ont aneo us p r o d u c t i o n and to act 179 out situations they undoubtedly experienced. It was s i g n i ­ ficant that throughout the pl ay the children, a lt h o u g h 179, Th e children often act out such s i tu at io ns in their play, but it is unusual for t h e m to do it w h e n a n adult is paying attention. The ir teacher was young (22 y e ars old, but she looked younger) an d unmarried. Her rel ationship with the adolescent children seemed to be one of older child wi th younger children rather th an of a n adult w i t h a group of children. This might be expected as she was unmarried an d socially she undoubtedly move d w i t h the children of 16 and older going to their " s i n g i n g s ” an d "crowds." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . ! - 49 5 - unwilling, ne v e r stopped the job a s s i g n e d to t h e m until it was finished. It also s h o w e d the re lat io nsh ip children and their mother,, The between the chil dr en would not refuse to do some w o r k she a s s i g n e d them to s u c h as helping set the table, but th e y did not foll ow her instructi ons completely. When the father a p p r o a c h e d the au d i e n c e obviously an t i c i p a t e d the punishment an d laughed w h e n it was meted ended with everyone lau ghing and giggling, out . The p l a y the actors as well as the audience. At least one of the teachers, the g i r l w h o had the 180 oldest children, had had two years of college. that she had not gone to high school, special course at Harrisonburg. returning for more but had taken a She was lo o k i n g forward to training a f t e r a few years I do not believe the other w om a n had had any beyond the eighth grade, It appeared of teaching. formal scho oling nor to m y k n owl ed ge had the male teachers. This community has been pl ease d w i t h took a great deal of m o n e y an d effort into operation. However, more criticism of it. financial basis its school. It to b u il d it and get it afte r a f e w years there has been Most of the crit i c i s m seems to have a though there is some c r i t i c i s m that the children do not w o r k hard enough. Not only was the school t _ 180. E a s t e r n Mennonite College, Harrisonburg, V i r ­ ginia. This is the most co ns erva ti ve of the Mennonite Colleges „ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - expensive to establish, 500 but it is expensive t o maintain. community feels the fi na n c i a l drag. group who - It is difficult f o r a have never had mu c h to do with that received in t h e rural how expensive educati on schools is. The education beyond of the state to realize They are payi ng state schools a n d on top of that suppor ti ng taxes for the their own. SOLUTIONS TO THE A M I S H H I G H SCHOOL A T T E N D A N C E P R O B L E M IN OTHER STATES The p r o b l e m of A m i s h high school atten dan ce has ari se n in other states. In Oklahoma community who r e f u s e d four memb ers of the A m i s h to send th e ir chi ldren to h i g h school agreed that the y ou ng s t e r s could take c o r r es ponde nc e courses from the Un iversity of Oklahoma a n d Oklahoma A. and M. Col181 lege. This is a n excellent ill us tr at io n of the fact that it is not primarily the subject matt er t h e y fear will ali ena te their children. It also shows that they are w i l l i n g to be connected w it h universities (the correct tra ns la ti on of "Hochschule" or "hohen S c h u l e n " ) if the connection is tenuous enough to consist through the mails. Th is of small pac kages that can come is mu c h less dangerous than having the children spend many hours a day awa y f r o m home school, in Pennsylvania the so-called "Vocational Pl an " was suggested and found favor am on g t h e ^mish. 181. G. H . , January 25, 1955, in a high Childr en of p. 96. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 501 - Amish and Me nn o n i t e s w o ul d be per mitted studies after to continue school they were 14 in their hom e s under the super182 vision of state auth or it ie s „ B o t h the Oklahoma a n d P e n n s y l ­ vania plans are a ccept ab le to the A m i s h the child to rema i n at home parents. they enable under the s u p e r v i s i o n of his Re gard le ss of who plans occasionally to supervise because the lessons or comes the work, his important a s s o c i a ­ tions will be w i t h the home. Finally, in the fall of 1955 the P e n n s yl va ni a D e p a r t ­ ment of Public I n s t r uc tion Justice Department) pu t (in co nj un c t i o n w i t h th e State the pl an into effect w i t h the announcement that church orga ni zed sets would be per mi tt ed to operate day schools in w hi c h chi ldren over f o u r t e e n years of age could combine scho ol home, in struct ion wi th training at The children must average fift een hours a week in school throughout the school year, but w h e n th ey are needed at home they ma_y attend as little as one three hour ses si on a week and make up the season. extra hours d u r i n g th e slack farming The parents must certify that their chi ldren spend the remaining hours that w o u l d norm al ly be spent in classes on home projects and school re pr esentative s must visit homes to assess the program. During ren.will study English, ma the matics, the school hours the c h i l d ­ health and social 182. Lanca ste r New E r a , Septem ber 24, 1953, Hera October 1, 1953, p. 1. H e r a l d , January 20, 1955, p. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 502 - 183 studies. This new policy has stopped the arrests an d fines 184 and appears to s ati sfy the P e n n s y l v a n i a Amish. POSSIBLE S O L U T I O N S FO R THE CEN TRAL OHIO A M I S H C O M M U N I T Y T O THE P R O B L E M OF E N F O R C E D H I G H SC H O O L A T T E N D A N C E There are five p o s s i b l e respon ses to e n f o r c e d high school at tend anc e that have b e e n ignored or r e ject ed most of the central Ohio community. use home study program s time; the A m i s h could such as the Calvert system. study programs are expensive; the parents' One, by These they w o u l d take a great deal of and the pa rent s have some he s i t a n c y about teaching mat erial that is new to t h e m also. could try to influence the le gislatur e Two, the A m i s h to institute a p r o g r a m similar to that being tried in Pe nns ylvani a. This was first suggested in October, 195 5 by a candida te fo r the state board 185 of education. T o date her s ug ge st ion has n o t ’"been ac ted upon. Three, the central Ohio A m i s h p a r ents could send t h e i r high school age children to w o r k in one of the rare communities in which civil author it ies do not req uire h i g h school a t t e n d ­ ance of the Amish, or to a community an Amish parochial school. in wh ic h there is already I k now of n o fa mily 183. Hera I d , Oc to be r 13, 184. Hostetler, that tried the 1955, p. 1. "School,** o p . ci t . , pp. 5-6. 185. Mrs, Clarenc e Uhl of vfooster, Ohio. She has had , c^ ntact with the A m i s h through h e r large chicken business. ^he has an M. A. in educatio n and is trained as a La ti n teacher. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 503 former an d only one that considered it. tried the latter a l t h o u g h more have One father who se parents l i v e d in community with a p ar oc hi al school said, for us to get - "We d i d n ’t think it was fair out of it so easily. their children away. Not everyone can send As a c h u r c h we have to figure it out." Then thinking of his daughter, he added, 186 her gone so long." A fourth possibility is growing difficult colonization and is migration. to f i n d areas of land in most school situation. " W e ’s hate to have It that are suitable states the A m i s h w o u l d face the same A few A m i s h have m o v e d f r o m Ohio to Canada for there the rural children s t il l go to one ro o m schools and attendance is only required until the child is fourteen. The children may also be excused for seve ral weeks in the spri ng and autumn to help on the farm. A n A m i s h family in Mex ic o 187 continues to suggest c o l o n i z a t i o n there. But A m i s h an d Mennonite communities have had d if ficultie s adju s t i n g the Mexican soil, climate and crops. to Most of the central Ohio Amish hope to stay on the land that some of them have held from the time it was first g r a n t e d for f a r m st ea di ng by 186. 00A23. 187. Dis cus sing the school situation in P e n n s yl va ni a John Martin writes, "...I can still remember the long school terms, and what w o r l d i s m was taught in them. True, some, have their own schools, but that does not less en their length of time of school att endance, and in some cases even the same books are used for text books, so I on m y part c a n ’t see very much to gain by it." M e x i c o S h i f t in gs ," Herald, Une 7, 1956, p. 2. ------- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 504 - 188 the President. Fo r those who stay, must be solved. Finally, the h ig h school p r o b l e m the A m i s h could children to get themselves encourage the "left bach," as they did when first threatened w i t h high school attendance. principal has m a d e it clear that he w i l l insist However, the that children "be advanced w i t h their age group." In 1956 the central Ohio Ornish are respon din g to enforced high school atten da nc e establishing parochial in f o u r ways. One, they are schools and m a k i n g use of those recently put into operation. Two, some parents are a c q u i e s c i n g and sending their c h il dr en to the state h i g h schools. they are starting their young instead of six. And, four, The first parochia l school at seven some parents are k e e pi ng their high school age children out and eventually serving jail children to Three, of school, pa ying re pe ated fines sentences. to be built in the Stoney189 run area opened in September 1954. It wa s built on land, and with labor, school money and materials, donated b y Amishmen. 190 But it was not born of unified action wi t h i n the church. 188. "The farm was originally settled by Christ ian Yoder of Sommersetco, Pa., who obtained it on a land g r a n t which is signed by Ja mes Madison, president of the U. S., and James Monroe, secretary of state. It is dated Jul y 15, 181]." Herald. November 25, 19 54, p. 1. 189. H e r a l d , Se pte mber 9, 1954, vl for a photograph of this school. 190. p. 6. See A p p e n d i x The issue is complicated by some in tra-chur ch (continued on next page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 505 - Located on a s e l d o m tra veled road on the very larger community, far to school. edge of the it req uire s most of the children to travel The churches of the re gi o n con tributed about $4000 but that was insufficient. E ve ry on e who wished send a child to the school bought a seat to for the child reserving a place and h e lpi ng to f u r n i s h the school. thus At the end of the summer one man wrote: Anyway ________ and I an d ma n y others intend to send our children to hi g h school for the present. T h e time might come that we think we can not put up wi t h it. 191 In January 1955 only about half the students at this school came from ^toneyrun, the rest came from the neighb oring county. i Although the par ochi al school is still getting little support from thechurches that immediately adj oi n it, begrowing community dissatisfa cti on there seems to wi th the hig h school. In the spring of 1955 one A m i s h woman wrote. There are only a few A m i s h goin g to Hi School over "Stoney ru n” any more. Most of the A m i s h go to their own Schools. 192 But criticism of specific par o c h i a l schools and of a p a r o ­ chial school system in gene ral continues. The same w o m a n wrote of her own daughter in high school: 190. {"continued from pre vious page) differences over other matters that wou l d effect the larger community. These differences have killed some A m i s h i n d i v i d u a l s ’ interest in the school. 191. Personal correspondence, VIl/18/54. 192. Personal correspondence, 111/21/55. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 506 - Of al l things we hear we feel best to let stay where she is. 193 One of the m e n said, "Our leaders are a l w a y s shouldn't w o r k so hard, but if we tell in g us we have to support schools, I'll ask the m what I can do. 194 more to pay my sc .-me, " I'll "Ruth” just pa roc hial have to raise These two criticisms ind i ca te two areas of tension parochial schools intr oduce into the is the question of management of running a school agreement. An d any area is that the schools. The first T h e details involve m a n y pr o b l e m s a n d many decisions of varying magnitudes. mind” so many more of community. I n a community decisions giv e that must "be of one opportuni ty for more d i s ­ di sag reem en t is a threat. The second of the f i n a n c i a l drai n on t he community. Money that normally woul d go into more land to e st ab li sh the c h i l d ­ ren on farms would be div erted addition there schools, to the p a r o c h i a l school. is the p r o b l e m of teachers for the pa ro c h i a l if the A m i s h decide taught by church members they they want their chi l d r e n will have to m o di fy the ordnung in relation to higher education, soon insist that the teachers for the 1931 194. assessed. state w i l l p r obabl y have somethin g more eighth grade education (especially tenth grade). In when than an teaching n i n t h and If the church all ow s a few special ind iv idu al s Xbid. 00A23. This m a n owns two farms and is heavily R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 507 - 195 to go on to school i n order that they might it is possible that some will go become on and be lost teachers to the c h u r c h completely or w i l l go on for h i g h e r e du catio n an d then di s­ cover that they are non-Amish teachers not suit ed fo r teaching. If th e y a l l o w to teach in a religious school problems will undoubtedly arise over un avoidable d i f f e r e n c e s bet we en Amish and English ways of doing things. will say, So m e c h u r c h members "If we cannot control our schools it is bet ter to save our money and send our c h ildr en back to the publ ic schools." When the chil dr en are in state life can be more easily divorced school, parochial school taught by an E nglishman. these drawbacks will build its that define the even a Su c h a school complicate commu nit y life by blur ri ng important boundaries school from the community life than would be possible w i t h a par oc hi al could help schools, community. the all Inspite of the financial ly s uc ce ss fu l A m i s h community 196 own schools w h e n small rural schools are 195. I was told that a y o un g E m i s h m a n was att endi ng Ohio State taking special courses to prepare him for tea ch in g in an Amis h p a r o c h i a l school. I never met the man, nor did any of the Old Order Ornish I kn e w kn o w of him. My informant aid not know what branch of the A m i s h church he belonged to other than he ^’dressed like a l l the rest of them, beard, hat, no buttons." ut is more likely that the A m i s h w o u l d go to a iwennonite college for special study, although there is some fear of these institutions for A m i s h who leave are likely to join, other branches of the M en nonites, and the Me nn o n i t e s e n ­ courage the n m i s h to join. A few A m i s h m e n take short courses at various Bible institutes. 196. The Herold der Wahrheit is constantly p ub li shin g (continued on next p a g e ) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 508 - closed and no "at h o m e ” study p r o g r a m is dev is ed f o r chil dre n over fourteen or fifteen. In smaller, few families may mov e away w h e n their po or communities a children rea ch high school age and the remaining ones will quietly a cqu iesce and 197 send their children to high school. In the Ston e y r u n church district most of the members are now sending their c h il dr en to the pub l ic high school. So far the A m i s h youth have surv ive d the experience very well. The first j^mish c h il dr en did not start school until late in the year after their fathers had been taken to court. These chi ldren were det er min ed experience. Many hated it; to disl ik e the the longed for status of ”youth" was suddenly yanked away fro m th e m and they were returned to 198 the status of " s c h o l a r , ” T he i r p a r e n t s bad carefully weaned them away from school: to look forward to working an d h e lpi ng and being financially contri butin g mem ber s of the family, visiting relatives an d w o r k i n g a few days for them, free to attend wedding s a l l over the community. to to being Instead they 1 9 6 , (continued from previous page) art icles and comments in f a v o r of p aro ch ia l schools. Often a comment will be buried in articles on other subjects but occasionally whole articles will be d e v o t e d to the subject s u c h as N. Stoltzfus, ”Unser eigene S c h u l e n , ” HdW, Nove mber 15, 1954, PP. 597-98, --• • 19 7, The small A m i s h community in De fi ance County, Ohio has sent its children to high school fo r many years (at east fifteen). Today for various reasons, it is a dying community, , 198, The stages in the life of a n A m i s h m a n are: 1^> scholar, youth, adult (married), old folk. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . baby, - 509 - suddenly had to go to a new and strange school, to be a furtber expense to their family instead of a f in an ci al 199 asset, and w h i l e they w e r e in school they had to study sub­ jects unrelated to their future the next two years many out of school officer. life or interests. of the fathers kept until they were dislike it. the ir chi ld ren notified by th e at te nd an ce Some still fo ll ow this plan. the children start During This means that school late and are more likel y to A l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in any extra curricular 200 activity is forbidden, and' any discussion of school is 201 consistently discouraged at home. In spite of this as high school attendance is acc epted as inevitable, children are beginning to enjoy the experience. even those who do, look forward the However, to the time they can stop. 199. A l t h o u g h pr ev io u s l y the A m i s h repeated the eighth grade until their s i x t e e n t h birthday they did not usually start school the last y ea r if their birthday fell before Christmas. 200. One Mennonite who left the church of his parents wrote, ’’Young m e m bers were absolutel y f o r b i d d e n to take part in public school athletic activities. At the time I was exceptional in athletic abilities and enjoyed them very much but I refrain ed f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g in any of these activities due to the restric ti on s put on by the Church and my p a r e n t s ... this caused me to become bitter toward the Mennonite teachings." John A. Hostetler, The Sociology of Mennonite E v a n g e l i s m . (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press; 1954, p. 236. This is a case where the young person did not reject the h i g h school. 201. At a Relief Sewing one mother of a high school girl was explaining to the wom en who were q.uilting w it h her, ’When Mary comes home from school, I have to keep her busy or she and Bena will do nothing but talk about school." 00A24. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 510 - The scholars This awaited for day is celebrated w i t h a party a n d Ahave advanced to the high er status of youth. 202 Thus far there has been a m i n i m u m of extra conflict engendered by the enforced at te n d a n c e at hi g h school of 203 several months or even one year. T h e p a r e n t s have been able to lead their chi ldren to reject the community. As hig h school the A m i s h chi ldren continue school, there wi l l p r ob ab ly be more strain. children are now par ti c i p a t i n g eagerly. in favor of on to high Some of the One A m i s h g i r l fretted because her brothers and sisters had scarlet fever and she was quarantined for many weeks. She was afr ai d she could not stay on the honor roll a f ter m i s s i n g so m u c h school. A mother wrote me about her daughter ’’Sevilla" likes h i g h school so much that she says she c a n ’t hardly wait for the next day. Ho w e v e r she says the nov elty mig ht wear off after a while. 204 Almost a year later she wrote "Sevilla" is anxious to go to high school again. 205 202. "...girls all but M i r i a m went to Sur pr is e Rebe cca Miller. S h e ’ll be 16 - and quit H i g h School. E l i z a b e t h said 3 quit last week." P er so na l correspondence, 111/22/55. 203. Some chi ldren have to attend two years and there was a child that sho uld have att en de d for three. 204. Per so na l correspondence, IX/ll/55. Two older sisters of this child have attended high school. The oldest ■refused to return the second year, so her father let her stay home even though he did not object strongly to high school and was, by complying w i t h her wishes, risking fine an d imprisonment. In this case nothing happened. 205. Personal correspondence, VTIl/16/56. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 511 - As going to h i g h school becomes m o r e and not so methin g th ei r fathers resist it less v i g o r o u s l y . schools they will of an a c c e p t e d p a t t e r n suffer for, If they the c h i l d r e n will continue to publ ic hi gh be torn b e t w e e n the w a y of life of the school a n d the ideals of the home co mmunity* more about the world, a n d are mor e A s th e y kn o w secure in the world, it may have a greater lure for th e m and th e bou nd ar y b e t w e e n the two ways of life will become i n c r e a s i n g l y easy to sur­ mount. The Compulsory E d u c a t i o n Laws of Ohio require c h il dr en between six a n d e i ght ee n yea rs legally excused. However, of age to a t t e n d school unless the board of e d u c a t i o n may raise 206 the minimum compulsory school age f r o m six to seven. Even where this has not been done the machi ner y f o r p r o s e c u t i n g parents of si x-y ear-old chi ldren w h o a r e not in a tt en da nce has not been p e rf ec te d and p u b l i c opinion wo u l d p r o b a b l y not support forcing six -y ea r- ol d c h i l d r e n who knew no English to go to school. Most A m i s h p a r e n t s are now not starting their c hild re n to school until This means that they are seven. if they fail once they will not have to attend high school and in any event th ey wi l l attend for more than a few months. not have to S o m e a m i s h pa rents feel' that, this should be the only action taken by the commun ity Ph. 206. Eyman, "Excuses f r o m S c h o o l , " o p . c i t . , p. hildren of 16 can usually obt ain a wo r k permit. 7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 512 - 207 to circumvent high school attendance. S t o n e y r u n is located in a county i n wh ich three t o w n ­ ships have a substantial A m i s h p o p u l a t i o n so the A m i s h have considerably less p ol it ic al p o w e r county where almost population. than in the ne igh bori ng half the townships have a large A m i s h In S t o n e y r u n the parent s have largel y acquie sced and sent their chil dr en to pub lic or p a r o c h i a l school. None on them are now paying r e p e a t e d fines for re f u s i n g to send their children to h i g h school. county many of the A m i s h have However, in the steadily refused. neighboring I n February, 1956, sixty-nine Am is h c h il dr en were either not attendi ng school or were repeati ng the e i g h t h grade in stead of advanc208 ing. The arrested A m i s h m e n r e f u s e d any legal help, paid their fines and served their jail sentences. C e r ta in families bore the brunt of the new a t t e n d a n c e pol icy by t h e i r continued refusal to sent their child ren to high school. summer of 1956 the churches precedent. Twenty -five in this churches Then in the county broke a n A m i s h combined to hire two 207. This po li cy has been recommended by some of the rural school teachers to the fa mil ies under their j u r is dic­ tion. ^ The local teachers are often sy mpathetic to the n m ish and_ dislike being pl aced in the po s i t i o n of informant by having to report illegal absences to the state. At least one teacher has resigned. A n other teacher lets the older S ^ l s who are doing wel l sc hol asticall y stay home to help their mothers w i t h the weekly washing; pro vi de d that they get to school du ri ng the morning session she marks the m late but not absent. 208. H e r a l d , February 9, 1956, p. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 513 - attorneys to represent them in worki ng out the school attend209 ance problem. This move is not without opposition. From Stoneyrun one w oma n wrote We are a little bothered about ________ Go. Churches hiring a lawyer, it does not a lt og et her make sense. 210 While the Sto ne yr un A m i s h criticize neighboring those in the county for br eak ing the ordnung by hiring lawyers, they in turn are criticized for breaking the ordnung by sending their children to high school. tical conditions force A g a i n ex t e r n a l p o l i ­ the A m i s h to mo d i f y their way of life. The churches discuss the p r o b l e m and try to effect a s o l u ­ tion that will have the least di srupti ve influence. What that solution will be varies w i t h the c ond ition of the community and w i t h its rel ati on to its En gl i s h neighbors. Political divisions of the wo rl d have in this instanc e divided the community and the A m i s h in the four counties in w h i c h the central Ohio community lies have responded slightly differe ntly to enforced school attendance. thirty-three cnurch districts Pa rts of twenty- si x of the lie in a single county. They are politically in a more p o wer fu l p o sitio n than are the other districts. Therefore they are better able to protest the enforced hig h school att en da nce and they have responded .by hiring lawyers. 209. H e r a l d . July 26, 1956, p. 1. 210. Personal correspondence, YIIl/16/56. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. -- 514 - The adolesc en t per iod is crucia l for the d e v e lo pment of an A mis hman and the community must have control of this period if it is to survive., The church realizes forego one part of its discipline in order to m a i n t a i n another., The majority of the churches of the munity have decided that central Ohio A m i s h com­ to al low the ado le sc en t chi ld ren to attend high school would be more d is ru ptive n for the various church districts, wo rk in g as a unit, neys to represent that is must them in court. the ^mish have gone to court to hire a t t o r ­ I n the past the few times they have bee n si ng ula rly unsuc- 211 cessfulo It remains the best dicision. to be seen if these churches have made Regardl ess of the outcome of the conflict their willingness to break s u c h an important pre ci de nt indi­ cates the seriousness of the t h r e a t . When all the A m i s h youth at tend high school, and eventually the state w i l l be able to f o r c e the m to some kind of high school, the A m i s h c o mmun it y will not they will be able change. “Whether or to continue as a community rather than j ust as another P rotestant d e n om inat io n is a question. Europe they have not from the point succeeded. Perhaps In there is no s o l ut ion of view of the community - just gr adu al de ath as with passing generations they become part of the all en- 212 •compasing American middle class. m 211. For example favor of the state. the S m o o k e r school case was decided 212. For an analysis of t h e effects of public school attendance on the Manitoba Menno ni te s see E. K. Francis, "Trad­ ition and Progress Amon g the Me nn on i t e s of Man it ob e, " MQR, ctober, 1950, pp. 316-328 and E. K. Francis, "The M en no nite bcnool Problem in Manitoba., 1874-1919" MQJt, July, 1953, pp. 204R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. C H A P T E R VII M I L I T A R Y SE RVI CE AMISH AND QUAKER ATTITUDES TOWARD WAR The A m i s h att it ud e toward Selecti ve Service is an o u t ­ g r o w t h of the f o u r t e e n t h article of t hei r c o n f e s s i o n of faith, ”Von der Rache und G e g e n w e h r , ” and their co nc ep t of sep ar ati on f ro m the world and--the di-vine o rd in at io n of the state. The ir attitude differs r a d i c a l l y f r o m that of th e So ciet y of Friends (Qu akers )■*" and has so little in c o m m o n w i t h the bel iefs attitudes of p o l i t i c a l pa ci f i s t s ing ground. The A m i s h and the Fr ie nd s agree trary to the spirit, reno u n c e d t h e weap o n s the life, is h a r d l y any m e e t ­ ”that war is c o n ­ and th e teachings of Jesus, who of w o r l d l y p a s s i o n and used m e t h o d s of love and s el f- sa crif ic e accept that there and in t h e i r p l a c e , ” and Friend s could the p o r t i o n of the D or t C o n f e s s i o n that deals w i t h I, It is di ffic ult to ge nerali ze about the F r i e n d s T beliefs, as Jane P c R u sh more states in Th e T e s t i m o n y and Practice of th e S o c i e t y of Fr iends (Philadelp hia , Pa.: Fri ends Gen eral Confere nce, 1515 Ch er ry Street, 1936) p„ 96, ”We shall prob ably n e v e r al l agree u p o n a the olo gi ca l p r o f e s ­ s i o n . ” M y comments p e r tain m a i n l y to Fri ends in the P h i l a d e l ­ phia area and u n f o r t u n a t e l y to the ”id ea l t y p e ” as c o n c e p t u a l ­ ized by Friends r a t h e r th an to the b e h a v i o r of the average Friend «, 2 0 The B o o k of di sc ip l i n e of the Rel i g i o u s So ciety of Fri ends ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pa'. : P h i l a d e l p h i a Y e a r l y M e e t i n g , F i f t e e n t h and Race Streets, 1927), p. 61„ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 515a- 'T defense by force,, B eyo nd this the peace t es t i m o n y of these two churches is different, l a r g e l y be cau se t h e i r concepts of the w o r l d and the state are different The Amish, lieve that do not b e ­ the world c a n be succ e s s f u l l y in flue nce d by the church; rat her minority as a b r a n c h of the M e n n on it es , they see judgment for a sinful wo rl d, w i t h a ch urc h su f f e r i n g in separ a t i o n f r o m the w o r l d until the Lord r e t u r n s . curring evil.® T h e y see war as an inevitable and r e ­ In co ntrast the F r i e nd s belie ve in the K i n g ­ dom of God on earth,® and do not e n v i s i o n society as n e c e s ­ sarily sinful no r as somethi ng that the Chr is ti an must be 3. In the areas of ag reem ent see Peace is the W i l l of G o d , A statement pr epar ed b y The Historic Peace Chu rche s and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Fe ll ow s h i p of R e c o n c i l i a t i o n 1953. 4 0 A lso the conce pt o f the individual is differ ent , the A m i s h stressing the "natural'’ sinfulness, the Fr ie nd s stressing Go d within„ See Gu y F. Her sh berg er , War, Peace and No n r e s i s t a n c e (Scottdale, Pa.: The Herald Press-] 1944) p p . 20, 206, 8, 243-9, for a d i s c u s s i o n of the c o n tr as t b e t w e e n the peace t es t i m o n y of the Fri end s and the Me nno nites. Al so John R. Mumaw, N o n r e s i s t a n c e and P a c i f i s m (Scottdale, Pa.: Menno ni te Pu blish in g H 0use, 1944) g i v e s a M e n n o n i t e ’s d i s c u s ­ sion of some of the es se n t i a l di ffer en ce s b e t w e e n the t e s t i ­ mony of the Soc iety of Friends and the Me nnon i t e s a l t h o u g h he never phrases the d i s c u s s i o n in these terms and he includes the ob jectio ns of some pol i ti ca l pac ifi st s as w el l as Quakers. 5, A n A m i s h g i r l wr ote in a theme "One should ne ver complain about the war be cau se it is sup p os ed to be so." T. L. Eng le ^Analysis of Th emes on the Subject of W a r as w r i t t e n by A m i s h and n o n - A m i s h Children,'* Jour nal of E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y , May, 1944, p. 273. A m i s h also con ceiv e of war as p u n i s h m e n t fro m God. 6. B o o k of D i s c i p l i n e , o p . c i t . „ p. 57. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 516 comple t e l y separated from. - To t h e m war is not inevitable* T h e y attempt to live in the virtue of tha t life and power that takes away the occ a si on of all w a r s , 7 and to wait for the day w h e n the K i n g d o m of God wi ll be so extende d that ^nation shall not lift up sword'against nation, neither they le arn war a ny m o r e „ M8 shall T h e y not only w a i t for the 7* WI told t h e m ?I knew, from w h e n c e al l War s did arise, e ven f r o m the L u s t , accordin g to James his Doctrine: and that I live d in the Virtue of that Life and P o w e r , that to ok a w a y the O c c asi on of all W a r s * 1 A Journal of historical account of t h e li fe , travels, sufferings, Chr is ti an e x p e r i ­ ences a n d 'labour of love in the w o r k of the m i n i s t r y of that ancient, eminent and f a it hf ul servant of Jesus Christ, George Pox; who d e p a r t e d this life in great peace wi t h the Lord, the 1 3 t h of the 1 1 t h month, 1690* (London: Thomas Northcott, MDCXCIV, 1695), I, pp* 45-6* r*All Friends everywhere, who are dead to a l l carnal W e a p o n s , and ha ve b e a t e n t he m into pieces, stand in that w h i c h takes away the O c c a s i o n of W a r s , in the P o w e r , w h i c h saves Mens Lives , and destroys none, nor would have others * * * the M e n of Peace (which live in that, w hi ch takes a wa y the O c c a s i o n of W a r s ) T * A C o l l e c t i o n of many select and C h risti an epistles, letters and t e s t i m o n i e s , w r i t t e n on sun dry occasions, b y that ancient, eminent faithful Friend and m i n i s t e r of Jesus, George Fox* (London: Th S o w l e , 1698), II, po 137* 8* l*We do earnestly desire and wait, that (by the Wo r l d of G o d ’s Power, and its effectual O p e r a t i o n in the Heart's of Men) the Kingdoms of this W o r l d ma y become the K i n g ­ doms of the Lord, an d of his Christ, that he mig ht Rule and R e i g n i n Men, by his Spirit and Truth; that t h e r e b y al l People out o f all different Judgments and Profess ions , migh t be brought into Love and U n i t y w i t h God, and one w i t h another; and that they m i g h t all come to w i t n e s s the Prophets words, who said, N a t i o n shall not lift of Sword against Nation, nei ther shall they l e a r n W a r arg/i m o r e , I I „ ** A D e c l a r a t i o n f r o m the h a r m ­ less and inn ocent people of God, called, Q u a k e r s , against all sedition plo tters and fighters in the world* * * * Pr esent unto the K I N G u pon the 21st day of the 1 1t h month, 1660, r e ­ printed 1680, p* 3, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 517 - extens io n of the K i n g d o m of God, but t h e y also oppose war and conditi ons that lead to w a r on an immediate and p o l i t i ­ cal basis,® Behind the direct acti on that chara cte rizes Friends in cont ra st to the Menno nit es is their concept of the state,,-*-® The A m i s h con s id er themselves pil gr im s and strangers who give their allegiance and have t h e i r ci ti ze n s h i p in the K i n g d o m of God, w h i c h is above. Th ey believe this forbids the ir p a r t i c i ­ p a tio n in ear t hl y go vernment. Whi l e Friends are taught to; 9, ,,1fWe believe C h r i s t i a n i t y calls for , , , the building of a ne w social o r d e r , ” F a i t h and Practice, of the Re lig ious S o ci et y of Friends of P h i l a d e l p h i a and vicinity, a bo o k of Chri s t i a n discipline (P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a , : The Representative Meeting, 302 A r c h St,, 1943), p, 31, The Friends Com mit tee on Nat io na l L e g i s l a t i o n ,(104 C, Street, N . W . , Wa shington , D,C7") is a committee m a d e up of re presenta tiv es appoint ed by Y e a r l y Mee ting s and a p p o i n t e e s - a t - l a r g e , T h e i r basic policy, f o r 1955-1956, as abridge d fr o m the statement approved at their Annua l Meeting, Janu ary 15-16, 1955 includes the follo wi ng ; 1, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Community, A, Meet Human Needs; B, Support the U,N, ; C, Ease I n t e r n at io na l Tensions; D, D i s a r m Under E n f o r ce ab le Law; E, E n d M i l i t a r i z a t i o n of the U.S.; F, Remov e Tra de Barriers, II, The N ati on al Community, A, De v e l o p Sound I m m i g r a t i o n Policy; B, M a i n t a i n F r e e d o m of Conscience; C, Preserve Civil Lib er ti es; D. Advance Civil Rights; E. Improve C o n g re ss io na l Procedures; F, Promote E c o n o ­ mic W e l l Being; G, Promote Health, E du ca ti on, Welfare; H. Co nsider Res ou rc es as Stewardship; I, Saf egu ard Public Morality, 10, Rol a n d B a inton points out the historic peac e churches developed u nd e r difficult p o l i t i c a l conditions. The A n a b a ptis ts in the si xteent h c e nt ur y were subject to the death penalty; the Friends in t h e s ev en t e e n t h su ffe red only impri son ment and this often was made to serve the ends of propaganda. Frie nd s were in a p o s i t i o n to inf luence p ol itic al and judicial procedures. Therefore, Frie nds never developed so aloof an attitude. The Brethren, w i t h an interm ed iat e attitude toward the state s u f ­ fered ba ni sh m e n t rather th an d e a t h or imprisonment. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 518 - devote t hems el ve s w i t h u n s e l f i s h p ubli c spirit to the b u i l d i n g of a h i g h nat i o n a l character,, and to the shap in g of a righteous p o l i c y of government b o t h at ho me and abroad 0 , = Every opport uni ty for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in decisions of public mat te rs by b a ll ot should be u s e d 0 0 ° m u c h m a y be done to fo rm a h e a l t h y public opi ni on wh i c h w il l lead to a wise solution of th e many problems of city, state, and national go ver nm en t. When cal le d to serve in public office, Friends should conside r t h e p u blic go o d r at h e r than personal pr ef er e n c e and convenience, and hav i n g accepted such office, they should serve w i t h diligence and inte gr it y „ , The A m i s h bel ieve the g o v e r n m e n t to be d i vi ne ly ordained i2 while th e Friends b e liev e civil gov er nm ent derive its a uth or it y from D i v i n e of the g o v e r n e d . ”-*-^ san cti on an d the ’’should consent Because Fri ends bel iev e that some of the a uth ority of civil government should stem fr om the c o n ­ sent of t h e g o v e r n e d th e y tea ch that it should be "the e n ­ deavor of a C hr is tian citi ze n to influence the making and the changing of man-made laws w i t h D i vi ne l a w S o 1’^ critical so that they m a y more n e a r l y accord T her ef or e, Friends te n d to be more of t h e government, of their r e s po ns ib il ity. the au tho rity 11, of the a c c ep ti ng its f u n c t i o n i n g as pa r t The differ ence in attitu de towards state was clea rl y il l u s t r a t e d by an Bo o k of D i s c i p l i n e , I b i d , , pp, 12, ™Gott die Mach t and O br igke it Arti cl e X I I I of the Do r t Confession, 57-8, ordinirt ha t™ 13, F a i t h and P r a c t i c e , o p , c i t , , p, 49, 14, Bo o k of D i s c i p l i n e , op. cit., p, 60, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. , , , 519 - - I n cid en t In one of th e C i vi li an Public Service units. A group o f cons ci ent ious objecto rs had b e e n c l e a r i n g the b r u s h f ro m a l o n g a highway.. government official A f t e r the b r u s h had b e e n cleared the in charge of the unit o r d e r e d the m e n to paint the cut stump of e a c h l it tl e b u s h and s a p l i n g "so it wouldn't s ho w f r o m the h i g h w a y »" The Fr iends in the unit r e f us ed to fo ll ow h i s orders o n the gr ou n d s that was h a r d l y s u c h a task "work o f n a t io na l I m p o r t a n c e , " wh il e the M e n n o n ­ ites co m p l i e d w i l l i n g l y as there wa s n o t h i n g in the of fici al' s orders that was M a n y Fr ie nds s p e c i f i c a l l y con trary to Jes us's feel that co nsc r i p t i o n v i o l a t e s the rights of che indiv id ua l, r eg ar d l e s s are puto for t h e 16 of the use to w h i c h the conscripts Some express this co nce rn b y r e f u s i n g to r e g i s t e r drafto-*-^ On the other hand the A m i s h accept c o n s c r i p ­ ti on as one of the rights a go ve rnmen t ex erc ises jects and are h i g h l y critical or r e p o r t for induction., 15„ teachings Episode 18 over its sub­ of m e m be rs who do not re g i s t e r They object to the Selective told me by a Q u a k e r m e m b e r of the u n i t c 16o M u l f o r d Qo Si bley and Philip E. Jacob, C o n s c r i p ­ tion of Consci en ce (Ithaca, N 0Y 0 Cornell U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1952), and A.J. Muste, Of H o l y D i s o b e d i e n c e (Pendle Hill, P a mp hl et No„ 64, W a l l i n g f o r d , P a c (no date)., 1 7 0 On January 31, 195 0 m o r e than h a l f o f the n o n ­ re g i s t r a n t s in pr is ons were Friends., News Notes of the Central Com mit te e for C o n sc ie nt ious Obje c t o r s ( P h i l a d e i p h i a , Pa'o") F e b r u a r y 1950, p5 2 „ p. 1, 18„ H e r a l d , Nov. 19, 1953, p„ 1, J a n uar y 7, 1954, January 21, 19 54, p 0 6 C R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Received without pape(s ) b I'D . Filmed as received. University Microfilms, Inc. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 521 - re l a t i o n to m a n 0 and God 22 T h e y believe the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n man is the first step towards the a b o l i t i o n o f war, for w h e n a ma n has found peace w i t h G o d he will be at peace w i t h his bro th er and w i t h all men, has taught, wfor Go d is lo v e , " '*Love y o u r enemies, 23 and Jesus bless t h e m that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for t h e m w h i c h despitefully use you, and p e rs ec ute y o u „ " does not re s i s t evil,^5 are basic tene.ts 24 The di s ci pl in ed Chr ist ia n does not avenge h i m s e l f . These the A m i s h m a n c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y attempts apply to his everyday relationships; to the y cannot be set aside at the call of a world fro m w h i c h he has learned to live in separation0 Ra th er the A m i s h com mu ni ty be lieves n e c e s s i t y should re quire i t ’* t he y m u st that **if ”flee, for the Lord's sake, f r o m one c i ty or cou nt ry to another, and suffer the 'spoiling of our g o o d s 5 rather than give o c c a s i o n of offence to any o n e «" or Selective 27 I d e ol og icall y t h e y do not oppose c o n sc ri ption Service, but they, as Ch ri stian s cannot fight. The most frequent argument I h e a r d i ll us t r a t i n g the 22. W h e n a man's ways please the Lord, he m a k e t h even his enemies to be at peace w i t h him. Prov. 16:7 Herald, F e b r u a r y 3, 1955, p. 1 G 23. J ohn 4:8. 24. Matt. 5:44. 25. Matt. 5:39. 26. Rom. 12:19. 27. D o r t Confession, article XIV. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 522 - dangers of le aving the Old O rde r A m i s h c h u r c h in order to join a m ore libera l M e nn on it e c h u r c h was that the c h ildre n or gr a n d c h i l d r e n of the fa m i l y who left the Old Order might lose their n o n - r e s i s t a n t st a n d o The re w er e sev eral cases of this i n the S t o n e y r u n area, m u c h to the sor r o w of the parents who ha d left the ch u r c h of their childhood,, that for c e r t a i n individuals r e a s o n that ke pt the m mem be rs this was the strongest single of the Old Order,, Th e Swiss B r e th re n and their f oll ow er s early centuries I felt during the of the movement always h e l d to the prin cip le of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e , ^ Un til the time of the N apol eo ni c wars c o n s c r i p t i o n was not w i d e s p r e a d and they su ffered li ttl e for their be l i e f in n o n - r e s i s t a n c e , ^ there are fo rt y - f o u r references In the Ma rt yr s M i r r o r to non-resis tan ce. One of these lists non -r es ista nce , the fa ilu re to '"'defend and protect their c ou nt ry," 30 as a rea s o n for banish ment* but most of the other ref er enc es are acco un ts of h o w G o d p ro t e c t e d the n o n - r e s i s t a n t people and p u ni sh ed those who tried to 280 John Horsch, The Pri nciple of N o n - R e si st ance as Held b y The Me nn o n i t e Ch ur ch (Scottdale* Pa„s M en nonit e Publishing House, 1927) „ ~~ 2 9 0 Joh n Hor sch, Men no ni tes in E u r o p e (Scottdale, P a „ : M en n o n i t e Publ is hing Housed 1942), p p 0 3 5 9 “66, and E d w a r d Yoder, Our M e nn on it e Her i ta ge (nMenn on it es and T h e i r H e r i t a g e ,n Noo 3) o (Akron, Pa„ : Me nn o n i t e C e n tr al Co mmittee, 1954), pp„ 49-54. 30o Ma rt y r s Mirror, ££„ c i t „ , 1951, p c 1131. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 523 - 'Z.'l harm them0 D i r k Philips writes a g r e a t deal on love and the r e l a t i o n of one b r o t h e r to an ot he r, but he has little to say s p e c i f i c a l l y about w a r other t h a n th e com men t that The people o f the L or d ar m themsel ve s not w it h car nal weapons . . . but w i t h the amour of God* wit h the w e a po ns of r i g h t e ­ ousness o . o and w i t h C h r i s t i a n patience,, w it h w h i c h to po ss es s t h e i r souls and ov ercome all their enemies In his d i s c u s s i o n of peace h e makes it clear tha t peace w i t h God an d among f e l l o w C hr is ti ans is essent ial , but he q u es tion s h o w far the C h u r c h of God should go to seek p e a c e w i t h all men. o o o the peace of Jesus Christ is no t the peace of this w o r l d , but pe ac e of c o n s c i e n c e which, b y the grace and r e d e m p t i o n and r e ­ c o n c i l i a t i o n of Jesus Christ, has pe ace and joy w i t h G o d In the H ol y Gho st (Rom. 14;17), w h i c h the w o r l d knows no t but reviles , so that the peace of Jesus Chri st is en m i t y w ith the w o r l d . . . they have erred and are p e r ­ v e r t e d who would make this pea ce of Jesus Ch ri st to m e a n that one should s ee k to keep i n p ea ce w i t h the w or ld „ . . for w i t h true C hr is t i a n s it is a b u n d a n t l y e n o u g h that they h av e p e a c e w it h God . . . For, bein g r e c o n ­ ciled to God the F a t h e r b y the blood of his S o n (Rom. 5;10), and ca lled into one b o d y w i t h all bel ie ve rs (Col. 3;15), they s ee k to have pe ac e one w i t h another. 31. I n k e e p i n g w i t h the s cr ip tu ral passages "De arly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but ra th er gi ve place to wrath; for it is writt en , V e n g e a n c e is mine; I will re pay s a i t h the L o r d o n Rom. 12;19. 32. H ors ch, M en no nites i n E u r o p e , o p . c i t . , p e 264. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 524 - C h r i s t i a n s a r e also i n d u t y b o u n d to l i v e , so f a r a s l i e s i n t h e i r p o w e r , i n p e a c e w i t h all men „ 0 » Bu t t h i s is n o t to be u n d e r ­ s t o o d as m e a n i n g t h a t we s h a l l , i n g o d l y w a l k and w o r k try, b y h y p o c r i s y a n d the appearance of e v i l , to s e e k p e a c e w i t h the w o r l d ( w h i c h l i e t h i n w i c k e d n e s s , I J o h n 5? 1 9 ) ; f o r b o t h Peter and John testified before the Pharisees a n d s c r i b e s that we o u g h t to o b e y G o d r a t h e r t h a n m e n (Acts 4 : 1 9 ) o^* Men n o Simons enunciates those who acce p t their doctrine anyone on eartho Therefore, there w o u l d be peace, the M e n n o n i t e b e l i e f that cannot h a r b o r ill will to if everyone for p ea c e comes shared this doctrine only t h r o u g h God„ Ach, m e i n e Leser, me^ne l i e b e n Leser, wurde die arme, i r r e g e fu hr te W e l t diese unsere so sehr gehasste und v e r a c h t e t e Lehre, welc h e aber n ic h t unsere, sondern des H e r r n C hrist! ist, mit r e c h t s c h a f f e n e m H e r z e n a nn e h m e n und ge h o r s a m u n d ^ t r e u l i c h b efolgen, so w u r d e n sie b a l d ihre t o d t l i c h e n S c h w e r t e r zu P f l u g s c h a r e n und ihre Spiesse zu S i c h e l n m ache n, J e 0 2, 4; M i c h a 4, 3, ihre Thore und M a u e r n s c hl e if en und ihre H e n k e r a b d a n k e n D D e n n Alle, die u n s e r e L e h r e in d e r K r a f t annehmen, w e r d e n d u r c h Gottes G na d e N i e m ^ n d auf der g a n z e n Welt, a u c h nich ^ i h r e m g r o s s t e n u nd g r a u s a m s t e n Feinde etwas Boses w u ns ch en , w i e l w e n i g e r n o c h i h m d u r c h die T h a t ein Leid oder U n r e c h zufugen; de nn sie sind K i n d e r des A l l e r h o c h s t e n , welche das G u t e v o n H e r z e n l i e be n und das Bose in ihrer Sc hw ac hh ei t m e i d e n und hassen, D e n n o c h m u s s e n w i r v o n ihm horen, dass vir v e r d i e n t e r w e i s e leiden, w i r gehort w o r d e n i s t 034 I n various 33o places he teaches that the r e g e n e r a t e d person, Do Po ODo c i t o , 1910, p p 0 169~70o 3 4 o Die v o l s t a n d i g e n Werk e Me n n o S i m o n a s , Part II (Baltic, Ohio: R a b e r A u sg a be , 1926), pp» 1 4 8 - 9 0 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 525 - the Christian, does not go to war nor f i g h t 35 neither does he •Z fi use any sword or s a b e r h i s patience, ways, silence, hope, only weapons b eing prayer, and G o d ’s word. But in other so far as his consc i en ce allows, he renders all o b e d i ­ ence to the s t a t e . 30 PR E- RE VO LU TI O NA RY EX P E R I E N C E S The A m i s h that came to America before the R e v o l u t i o n ­ ary w a r 39 lived on the f r o n t i e r 40 and o f t e n had their principle 35o I b i d . , part I, pp. 237-50. 36. Ibid., part I, pp. 17-146. 3 7. I b i d . , part II, pp. 421-458 and part I, pp. 17-146. F o r a summary c o m p i la ti o n of M e n n o n S i m o n ’s writings on nonr esistance see, John H o r s c h , M e n n Q n S i m o n s , (Scottdale, Pa„: Men­ nonite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1916), pp. 281-6. 38. part I, pp. 30-3. Pi e v o l l s t a n d i g e n W e rk e Me nn o S i m o n ’s , o p . c i t ., 39. C.H. Smith Mennonites in A m e r i c a .'^Mennonites an their H e r i t a g e , 1* No. II , (Akron, Pa.: Menn o ni te Central C o m ­ mittee, 1944), p. 7 estimates wthe total nu m b e r of A m i s h a r r i ­ vals dur in g the p e r i o d before the R e v o l u t i o n was not large, perhaps not m u c h be y o n d five h u n d r e d . w H o w e v e r , Samuel W, Peachey, A m i s h of K ishacoquillas Valley (Scottdale, Pa.: M ennonite P u bl i sh in g House, 1930), p p . "45-7 prints an A m i s h mem or ia l to W i l l i a m P e nn dated May 20, 1718 in w h i c h is the statement "we are not a little people . . . ” Henry F. James “The K is h ac oq u i l l a s Valley,'* B u l l et in of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, P e n n s y l v a n i a , October, 1930, p. 7 men t io ns the 1718 p e t i t i o n f r om the Amish. 40. A l t a Schrock, “A m i s h Americans: Frontiersmen,'* W e s t e r n P e n n s yl va ni a H i s t o r i c a l M a g a z i n e , March-June, 1943, pp. 47-58. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 526 - of n on-resistance However, tested in t he ir dealings with the Indians* there seems to have b e en little trouble as l ong as the Friends controlled the g overnment of Pennsylvania.43K i n g G e o r g e ’s W a r b e t w e e n E n g l an d and F ra n c e had r e p e r c u s ­ sions in America. The M e n n o n i t e s met this threat to their principle of n o n -r es is ta n ce b y h av i n g some of t h e i r most treasured b o o k s published. The A u s bu nd was reprin t ed in 1742, 4P 1751 and 1767. e Its hymns, Thomas von I m b r o i c h ’s c on fe s si on and the h i s t o r y of the persecutions of the B r e t h r e n in S w i t z e r ­ land h e l p e d t e a c h the A m i s h and Menn on i te y o u t h of their a n ­ c e s t o r s ’ steadfastness in time o f persecution. D i e ernsthafte C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , also w i t h h i s t o r y of ”des w e h r u n d r a c h l o s e n C h ri st e n t u m s " and t h e D o rt Co n fe s s i o n of F a i t h was printed in Art 1745 to h el p reinforce their religious life. But the most difficult and ambitious t a s k was the p u b l i c a t i o n of a G e r m a n transl at io n of the Martyrs M i r r o r . F i n a l l y in 1748 after m u c h labor and m a n y prayers the E p h r a t a cloisters had the b o o k r e a d y for the M e n no ni te c o m m u n i t y . T h e s e books w it h 41. U n ti l about 1754 or 1756, G u y F. Hershberger, "The P ennsylvania Q ua k e r Exper i me nt in Politics, 1 6 82 -1 75 6, " MQ.R, October, 1936. A lso C. H e n r y Smith, Menno ni te s in America, o p . c i t . , p. 11. 42. Hershberger, War, 43. Ibid. Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p . c i t ., p. 90. 44. For the f a s c i n a t i n g story of this b o o k see G er al d C. Studer, "A H i s t o r y of t h e M a r t y r s ’ M i r r o r , " M Q R , July, 1 9 4 8 9 pp. 163-179. Ha r o l d Bender, "The B l o o d y T h e a t er or M a r t y r s ’ Mir ro r, " M Q R , October, 1950, pp. 366-67. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 527 - their "t ru st wo rt h y wi tn e s s e s who h a v e w a l k e d in the w a y of truth, and s a c r i f i c e d t h e i r l i v e s f o r it"^5 were available to the A m i s h and M e n n o n i t e families b ef o r e their first c o n ­ tact with w a r in America. Shortly after the c om m e n c e m e n t o f the F r e n c h and I n d ia n W a r in 1754, the Indians b e g a n to menace some of the f r o n t i e r settlements. In the f o l l o w i n g years m a n y families h a d t h e i r f a r m s p lundered; the occup an ts we r e wounded, m u r ­ dered and t a k e n prisoner. The tr ea t m e n t of the settlers at the hands o f the I n ­ dians was so. severe that several A m i s h co ng re g at io ns in Berks County, firmness P en n s y l v a n i a p a s s e d out of e x i s t e n c e T h e w i t h w h i c h t he A m i s h he l d the p r i n c i p l e v i vi dl y il l u s t r a t e d b y the of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e is story of J ac o b Hochstetler. O n the evening o f Se pt e m b e r 19, 1757, that par t of the coun t ry not h a v i n g be en d i st ur be d since the M e y e r s m u r d e r s In June, the y o u n g peo pl e o f the n e i g h b o r h o o d g a t h e r e d at the home of J a c o b H o c h s t e t l e r to assist i n p a r i n g and slici ng apples for drying. At such g at he r i n g s it was the c u s t o m of the youn g folks after the w o r k was done to 45. H er s hb er ge r, War, Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p . c i t ., p . 90. 46. W i l l i a m F. H o c h s t e t l e r , D e s c e n d a n t s of B a r b a r a H o c h s t e d l e r and C h r i s t i a n S t u t z m a n (Scottdale, Pa.: Menno­ nite Publishing House, 1938), pp. 24, 25, 26, 31. 47. W. J. Bender, " P ac if i sm A m o n g the M en no ni t es , A m i s h Me nn on it es and Sc hw en kf el de r s o f P e n n s y l v a n i a to 1 7 8 3 , " MQ.R, July, 1927, pp. 33-4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 528 - have a social or frolic, sometimes c o n t i n u i n g unt il late i n the night. A f t e r the young folks de p a r t e d the fami l y retired; and just about the time they were sound a s le ep , the dog mad e an unusual noise, w h i c h a w ak en e d Jacob, the son, w h o opened the door to see wha t was wrong, w h e n h e r e c e i v e d a gunshot w ou n d in the leg. He r ea l i z e d in a moment that the y were bei ng a t t ac ke d b y Indians, eight or ten in number, were seen standing near the bake oven in c on sultation, e v i d e n t ­ l y n e a r daybreak, as there was no m o o n that nig ht . . . There b e i n g no light in the house, those inside could not be seen. There were several guns and p l e n t y of a m m u ­ n i t i o n at hand. Joseph and C h r i s t i a n p i c k e d up their guns to defend the family. Two or three could be shot and the guns r e l o a d e d before the Indians cou ld g a i n an entrance, but their father, f i r m l y b e l i e v i n g in the doctrine of n on r es i s t a n c e , r e m a i n i n g f a i t h ­ ful in the h o u r of sorest trial, could not give his consent. In v a i n they b e g g e d him; he t o l d t h e m it was no t righ t to take the life of a n o t h e r even to save o n e ’s own. J o ­ s e p h ever a f te rw ar d claimed the fami l y could have b e e n saved h a d he g i v e n his consent, as they we r e b o t h good, steady m a r k s m e n (their f a t h e r also) an d the Indi an s n e v e r stood fire unless u n d e r cover. 48 -The Indians ten set fire to the house. The f a m il y hid in the cellar s p r i n k l i n g cider on the fire burning the floor above them. W h e n th e y thought the Indians h a d left and their h i d i n g pla ce was b ec o m i n g u n b e a r a b l e the family out t h r o u g h a small window, f r o m w h i c h ttthe mother, fle sh y woman, was w i t h di ff i c u l t y e x t r i c a t e d . 11^® Indians who h a d lingered eating pe a c h e s , 48. Ho chstetler, D es ce n da nt s, 49. Ibid. clim be d bein g a One of the saw th e m emerge and o p . c i t ., p. 24. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 529 - c alled b a ck the o t h e r s . w oun de d s on Jacob, butcher k n i fe T h e y tomahawked and scalped the and the daughter., T h e y stabbed w i t h a and t h e n scalped the mother., Christian, Joseph and the father were t ak en prisoner and kept by the Indians for f r o m t hr e e to seven years. ing words to his sons were, and be kept The f a t h e r r s p a r t ­ wIf y o u are t a k e n so far away so l on g that y o u forget your German language, do not forget your names and the L o r d ’s Prayer. T h e H o c h s t e t l e r massacre is a well kn ow n story among the A m i s h of Stoneyrun, m a n y of w h o m trace their a n ce st ry b a c k to Jacob H o c h s t e t l e r „^ W h e n the s tory is told, m e n t i o n e d that M o t h e r H o c h s t e t l e r did not treat right. it is u s u a l l y the Indians I m p l y i n g that if she h a d and the whole family h a d b ee n 50o Ibido , p. 27„ Christian, the youngest son, was only w i t h gr ea t d i f f i c u l t y p e rs ua de d to r e t u r n to live in the white c o m m u n i t y , It was not until after his marriage to a white girl that he finally c o ns e nt ed to remain w i t h the whiteso He n e v e r joined the A m i s h church. Joseph, too, '"hesitated long b ef o r e he dec id ed to leave t h e m a n d readopt c i v i l i z a t i o n and l i v e w i t h the whites. T he m u t u a l a t t a c h ­ m e n t b e t w e e n h i m and his In d i a n b r e t h r e n was such that it was kept after his r e t u r n . w (Ibid., p. 34). A l t h o u g h Joseph r e m ai ne d A m i s h there is some confusion about his n o n r e s i s ­ tance stand. His name was on a m i l i t i a com pa ny list for several years, b u t at the same time he was p aying the e x e m p ­ t io n t a x for not joining a m i l i t i a company. 51. I n 1937, 656 of the families (by no means all Amish) who receive their m a i l f r o m the St o n e y r u n and H atteryville po s to ff ic es were decendants of Jacob H o s c h s t e t l e r . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. -530 - truly n o n r e s l s t a n t , fe ed in g the hungry, their lives would have b ee n spared; t h e y died not because they were nonre s is Rp tant, but b e c a u s e they were not sufficiently n o n r e s i s t a n t 8 T H E A MERICAN R E VO LU TI O N D u r i n g t h e American R e v o l u t i o n most of the members of the peace churches were exempted f r om service in v o lu nt ar y associations b y various acts of the Penn sy lv an i a A s s e m b l y and the Contin en ta l C o n g r e s s » However, these members w e r e at first urged to “contribute l i b e r a l l y ” and later w ere "required to pay a sum of money equivalent in value to the time spent b y the associators pay these in m i l i t a r y d r i l l 8“^® “fines 8 The F riends refused to It is not altogether clear h o w the A m i s h 52o Hochstetler, D e s c e n d a n t s , o p „ c i t o , p Q 25, writes: "There is a t r a d i t i o n that years before hos ti li ti es broke out be tw ee n the D e la w ar e Indians and the white settlers, a p a r t y of Indians called at the H o c h s t e t l e r home, being in want, begged subsistence, w e r e r e f u se d and g r u f f l y turned off b y mother H oc h s t e t l e r 0 » 8 Some believe that but for this unkindness the family would n e v e r h av e b e e n molested; but w h e n it is conside re d that over 300 were murdered in that s ection of the cou n tr y alone, it is not li k e l y that our ancestors w e r e singled out just for this unkindnesso The m an n e r in w h i c h m o t h e r H oc h s t e t l e r was put to death, however, shows that they had some special grievance against h e r , ” 5 3 0 H er sh berger, War, Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p 0 c it o , p o 9 3 o 5 4 o Thomas Story, A Journal of t h e life of Thomas S t o r y : containing, an account o f his re ma r k a b l e c onvincement of, and embracing the principles of Truth, as h e l d by the people called Q u a k e r s ; and also, of his travels and labours in the service of the Gospel: with m a ny other occurrences and observation's. (New Castle u p o n Tyne: Isaac T h o m p s o n and Co., 1747)» pp® 266, 269„ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - responded* 531 - In spite of the g o v e r n m e n t a l decrees exemp ti ng the A m i s h and others f r om b earing arms, sometimes subject to mob violence, communities,, H e r s h be rg er quotes these people were e s p e c i a l l y in the smaller the Ma s t Genealogy; So m a n y of these people w er e t h r o w n Into p r i s o n at R e a di ng that the w o m e n w e re c o m p e l l e d to w o r k In the fields to support their families* Accord­ ing to t r a d i t i o n those who w e re impri so ne d for refusing m i l i t a r y service were s entenced to be shot and a day set for t h e i r execution* A meet­ ing was h e l d in the Reading p r i s o n to a d m i n i s t e r the Lord* s Supper to the c o n de mn ed brethren* But the ex ec u t i o n was never carried into effect* T h r o u g h the lea di ng of a kind P rovidence, f riends interfered * . * and t h e p e a c e - l o v i n g prisoners were set free*55 Smith®® says of this “There is a t r a d i t i o n a m o n g the A m i s h of Berks c ounty that several were impris on ed in Rea di ng for r e ­ fusing to join the m i l i t i a companies of that c o u n t y * “ Whether it is h i s t o r y or tradition, this ep is od e c o nt in u es a m o n g the A m i s h as an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f h o w t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s were true to the princ ip le of nonre si st an c e, during the Revolutionary War* The War of 1812, according to Smith^®, 55* I b i d * , p* 56* Me nn o ni te s caused the 35* in A m e r i c a , o p * c i t * , p* 13* 57* For a n o t h e r account of t h i s incident see D a n i e l K a u f f m a n and J*S* Hartzler, M e n n o n i t e C h u r c h H i s t o r y , ( S c o t t ­ dale, Pa*: M e n no ni te Publis hi ng House, 1905), p* 38, and J*S* Hartzler, M en no ni te s i n the W o r l d W a r (Scottdale, Pa*: Mennonite Pu b li s h i n g House, 1922), p* 28* 58* Smith, Mennon it es in A m e r i c a , op * c i t * R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 532 - first Amish. settlers of S t o n e y r u n to r e t u r n to P e n n sy l va ni a until fear of war and In di an i n v a s i o n h a d p a s s e d . ^9 THE CIVIL WAR c rv D ur i n g the Civil W a r the A m i s h and M e n n o n i t e s in the v i c i n i t y of S t on e y r u n were able to obt ai n e x e m p t i o n f r om taking This up arms by p ay i n g a f i n e of t h r e e h u n d r e d dollars. they s e e m to have several done willingly. m e n v i s i t e d the c o m mu ni ty c l a i m i n g to be government officials. T h e y s o l i c i t e d m o n e y Mw h i c h w a s to g u a r a n t e e e x ­ e m p t i o n f r o m the n ex t d r a f t . with the money, over. In the year 1865, Seve ra l days after t h e y left word r e a c h e d the c o m m u n i t y that the war was As the m a j or it y o f the p eo p l e o f this a r e a b e l o n g e d to peace chur ch es t h e A m i s h did not appear to su ff e r m u c h f r o m d is c r i m i n a t i o n at bhe h a nd s of t h e i r neighbors nor does there seem to be an y i n d i c a t i o n that l arge n u m b e r s of t h e m g ave up 59. Net ti e Click, H i s t o r i c a l S k e t c h (Scottdale, P a . : M e nn on it e P u b l i s h i n g Housej, p. 4, states that some of the settlers r e t u r n e d to Pen ns y lv an ia b e c a us e of trouble w i t h the Indians, bu t r e t u r n e d to O h io i n 1812. H i s t o r y of Bishop Mo se s J. M i l l e r /no place, no d a t e / nT h e y w e r e d riven out by the **War of 1 8 1 2 ; ” So t h e y fled b a c k to Somerset Co., Pa. H o w e v e r at the end o f the w a r in 1815 th e y r e t u r n e d a gain to t h e i r homes i n O h i o . lt 60. See He rs h b e r g e r , War, Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 98 -1 11 for a general d i s c u s s i o n o f the Menno ni te Church in r e l a t i o n to the Civil War. 61. Glick, Historical S k e t c h , o p . c i t . , p . 7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 533 - their n o n r e s i s t a n t stand to join the war, nificant, though, cp It may be s ig­ that there is no tale of courageous non- r es is ta nc e told by the A m i s h a bout t he i r Civil W a r ancestors,. WORLD WAR I W i t h the first W o r l d W a r the A m i s h in A m e r i c a faced universal conscription. T he re was no hi r in g of substitutes nor p a y m e n t of c o m m u t a t i o n fines. s cription w i t h migration,, terites emigrated 63 to Canada In Europe they had met con- I n t hi s c o u n t r y some of the Hut64 but the A m i s h did not. 62, H e r s hb er ge r , War, Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p , c i t . , Q uotes E d w a r d Y o d e r , “T e a c h i n g N o n r e s i s t a n c e ,“ A p r i l 18, '1940 p, 78 "To judge f r o m the records, m a n y m e n f r om M en no ni t e and A m i s h h o me s m us t h av e e ntered the ranks of the U n i o n a r m i e s . ” 63, Sanf or d C a l v i n Yoder, For c onscience sake (Scottdale, P a , : H e r a l d P r e s s , 1945) has a d i s c u s s i o n of the M e n n o n i t e m i ­ grations r e s u l t i n g f r o m the first W o r l d War, 64, The Hutteri t es w e r e t r e a t e d w i t h special v iciousness during the W or ld War. In S o u t h D a k o t a a mob r ob b ed the Hutterian b r u d e r h o f of $ 4 0, 0 0 0 w o r t h of livestock. Two of their young m e n d ie d in p r i s o n as a result of mi st re atment. A f t e r spend in g two m on t h s in the g u a r d -h o us e in a m i l i t a r y camp fo u r Hutterites were c o u r t - m a r t i a l e d and s e nt en c ed to t w e n t y y e a r s ’ imprisonment. T h ey were taken t o Al c a t r a z cha in e d in pairs, “U p o n arrival, w h en t he y a g a i n r e f u s e d to wear the m i l i t a r y uniform, they were s tripped of all c l o t h i n g ex c e p t light u n d e r w e a r and p l a c e d in a dark and f i l t h y d u n g e o n w h e r e t h e y had to sleep on a cold c o n ­ crete f lo or with ou t blankets. F o r four and one-half days the only f ood t h e y r e c e i v e d was one-h al f glass o f w ater every twentyfour hours. Fo r the n e x t day and a h al f their arms were c rossed above their heads and m a na cl e d to bars so h i g h that t heir feet b ar el y r e a ch e d the floor. T h e y were b e a t e n w i t h clubs until one of t h e m became unconscious. They were t h e n kept in so l i t a r y confinement in t h e i r cells for f o u r m o n t h s , being g i v e n only one h o u r f o r exercise on Sundays, In November, 1918, t h e y were r e ­ moved to Le av en wo r th , a g a i n in c hains and in charge of armed R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 534 - Co mparatively few A m i s h were called. gener al ly refu se d n on -combatant H o w ev er t h o s e who were service in the army and so remained in s egregation at arm y camps or w e r e c ou r t - m a r t i a l e d to prison, 6F ^ T h i r t e e n months after the passage of t h e c o n s c r i p t i o n act a Board of I n q u i r y was e st ab li s he d to visit the m i l i t a r y guardso Whe n they arrived t h e y were forced to wa l k t h r ou gh the streets of the c i t y s f r o m the r a i l w a y s t a ti on to the prison,, at the points of bayonets. W h e n they arrived at the prison, wet with sweat, t h e y were forced to remove thei r out er clothing and to stand outside in the cold for two hours in the middle of the nighto At five o ’clock in th e m o r n i n g they were agai n compelled to stand in the cold until. Jose ph and Mica el H o f er became ill and we re t ak e n to the hospital, where t h e y died a few days later, David Ho f e r an d Jacob W i p f were placed on a bread and w a t e r diet and m a na c le d to bars nine hou rs ea ch day. This treatment c o n ­ tinued for some weeks , but e ventually both of t h e s e men were d i s c h a r g e d , w Hershberger, War, Peace and N o n r e s i s t a n c e , o p , c i t ,, pp, 121-3, and John Horsch, The H u t t e r i a n B r e t h r e n (Goshen, I n d , : Mennonite H istorical Society, 1931), pp, 157-9 also rela te s this episode, 65, A c c u r a t e figures hav e nev er b e e n compiled and b r o ke n down by ch ur c h group. It is g e n e r a l l e s ti ma te d that there were perhaps 3,989 conscientious objectors in army cam ps of whi ch 1,300 originally accepted or we r e a s s i g n e d to n o n c o m ba ta nt s e r ­ vice, 1,299 were furloughed to a g r i c u l t u r e or the Friends R e ­ c onstru ct io n Unit and 450 w e n t to p r i s o n by court martial. Figures f r o m Norman Thoma s Is Conscience a C r i m e ? (N,Y» : V a n g u a r d Press, 1927), p, 15, Lieute na nt M a y comp il ed a table of d e n o m i ­ nations to w h i c h the conscientious objectors in twelve camps b e ­ longed, There were 1 , 0 6 0 objectors in all. The la r g e s t group was the Mennon it es w i t h 554 men, the next largest was the Friends with 80, Figures from Edward N, Wri gh t , Conscientious Objectors in the Civil W a r (Philadelphia, Pa,: U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s yl v an ia P r e s s , 1931), p , 223, The only statem en t I k n o w of the number of Old Order A m i s h involved is that given by J,S„ Hartzler, M ennonites in the W o r l d W a r , o p , c i t , H e states that 128 Old Order A m i s h refus ed to accept servi ce (in the army), 66, The C o n s c ri pt i on Act was pa ss e d in M ay 1917 and the Board of Inquiry was es t a b l i s h e d in June 1918, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 535 camps and r e v i e w all cases of conscientious objection. Those m e n who were found to be sincere were furloughed for farmwork, or relief w o r k w i t h the A m e r i c a n Friends Service Committeeo Not all the men, however, ha d an op po rtunity to appear before the Board before the close of the war, The number of A m i s h m e n in army camps s in pr is on and furloughed for agriculture is not known. Two y o u ng A m i s h m e n were sent from Camp Sherman to Fort L e a v e n w o r t h where they received difficult treatment w h e n t h e y r e fu s e d to don the pr i s o n u n i f o r m because their creed forbade t he m to w e a r clothes with buttons. B o t h were forcibly disrobed by guards and h e l d under cold showers until t hey were t ho ro u g h l y chilled. One of t hem was dragged across the ce l l r oo m b y the hair, knocked down u p o n the cement floor and t h e n pulled up b y the ears and othe rw is e r o u g h ly handled. As a r esult of this treatment both of t h e m submitted to pri so n l a b o r contrary to their religious c o n v i c t i o n s ,^8 One member of the Ston e yr un A m i s h church s er v e d in Leavenworth, 69 W h e n e v e r the first W o r l d W a r is discu ss e d his 67, T hese m e n g e n e r a l l y recei ve d the p r e v a i l i n g wage but t hey were r e q u i r e d to t u r n over any m o n e y in excess of $30 per m o n t h (the pay received b y a private) to the Red Cross, Norman Thomas, The C on sc ie n t i o u s Objector in A m e r i c a ( N o Y o : B,W, Huebsch, Inc, , 19 23), pp, 115-6, 68, C, H e n r y Smith, The M e n n o n i t e s (Berne, Indiana: Mennonite Bo o k Concern, 1920), p, 294, At least one Old Order A m i s h m a n d i ed in prison, "Reuben J, E a s h /Thomas, O k l a / 7 wa s dra ft ed in W o r l d W a r I, Got sick and died on October 18, 1918 in Fort Leavensworth, Kansas, p e n ­ itentiary, w h e r e he was to serve a t e r m of 25 years for not serving in war," Herald, March 19, 1953, p, 2, 69, 00A3, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 536 - name is always m e n t i o n e d w i t h such comments as nHe was treated p re t t y ro u gh for a w h i l e , ” rtthey treated h i m very badly until he be g an to c o o p e r a t e , 1’ wHe h a d some terrible experiences." Today he is a br oad-minded, sitive m a n wh o fir ml y believes intelligent, sen­ that a little c o n ta ct with the E n g l i s h makes one a b et t e r A m i s h m a n , ^ I n some areas the A m i s h ex p e r i e n c e d d ifficulties b e ­ cause they r e f u s e d to buy L i b e r t y bonds. T he re was quite a t i m e for us du ri ng the third L i b e r t y L o a n drive, but we got off by not b u y i n g bonds, but rai se d quite a sum of m o n e y w h i c h was donated to the w a r sufferers and R e d Cross for war s u f fe ri ng purposes. The m o n e y was h a n d e d to the local loan board, who said they w o u l d see that it w o ul d get to the right place, I think the money r ai se d this w a y equals the same as a bond for each f a m i l y or possi bl y more, I h ave no d e ­ f inite figures, but we w e r e aware that a small sum w o u l d not satisfy the authorities, but I b e li e v e we feel that we done our duty only,^! The A m i s h around S t o n e y r u n had little trouble the L i b e r t y l o a n drives. during T h e y c o n t r i b u t e d to a p p r o v e d a g e n ­ cies and were s up p o r t e d b y m a n y of their neigh bo rs who were also opposed to war. Most of the E n g l i s h p eople of the area are of G e r m a n e x t r a c t i o n so the S t o n e y r u n A m i s h were not d i s c ri mi na te d against on that account. 70, His p ri s o n experi e nc es p r o b a b l y h e l p e d h i m r e ­ m ain Amish, fo r h e has the p e r s on a li ty and intere st s that are often found in the b est type of individual who leave the A m i s h church, 71, H e r a l d , M a y 15, 1918, no page. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 537 In 1918 the e d i t o r of t h e H e r a l d , a Mennon it e , was imprisoned and fined f or p ub li s h i n g a l e t t e r from M.E. trager of Dodge City, Kansas, ernment o f f i c i a l that went to Cleveland, O n being informed by a g o v ­ the art ic le was unlawful,, the editor T h e r e he r e f u s e d to p l e a d guilty,, h e l d ‘until b ai l could b e sec ur ed in spite one of his friends Bon- offe r ed to g i v e of the bail if t h a t would p r e v e n t He was of the fact that the court the full amount the case from coming to trial. He ple a de d his own case stating that the art ic le ha d b e e n p u b ­ lished in his p a p e r , ^ that he was sorry it happened, but he was away at the time and did not see it before publication. He repeated that he would not p l e a d gu il ty to the charges of "intent to promote the success of the e n e m y n o w at war w i t h the U ni te d S t a t e s ’* nor did he "unlawfully,, wilfu ll y , and f e ­ l o n i o u s l y make and co nv e y false reports and false statements . a . w i t h the i n t e n t i o n to interfere w i t h the operat io n s and success of the m i l i t a r y and n a v a l f o r c e s " nor did he to incite i ns u bo r d i n a t i o n , disloyalty, m u t i n y and r e f u s a l to duty in the m i l i t a r y f o r c e s o f the Un it e d States He was f i n e d five h u n d r e d ... " 73 dollars and costs w h i c h amoun te d to about nine h u n d r e d dollars. 72. "attempt HA May 15, 1918. 73. JoS. Hartzler, M ennonites in the W o r l d W a r , o p . cit o , pp. 163-64. 74. See A p p e n d i x VII for a tr an sc ri pt of t h e article. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Although, the ed it o r 538 - of th e H e r a l d was f i n e d and a few i ndividuals h a d some difficult experiences, World W a r the first did not strain the St o n e y r u n A m i s h Community,, R at h e r than being a disruptive influence it s trengthened the community by reminding them that was not a thing of the paste involved that the suffering for C h r i s t ’s sake So fe w individuals were directly community continued to f u n ct io n normally, yet a suffic i en t n u m b e r experienced h a r d s h i p s to s uffer w i t h t h e m v i c a ri ou sl y for the c hu r c h ’’rejoicing that they were counted w o r t h y to s uf f e r shame for His name o'* The experiences of the A m i s h m e n in the army and p rison are not forgotten. T h ey are referred to, retold, and in a measure relived. M ar ch 24, 1955, H e r a l d reprinted scientious a l etter f r o m an A m i s h c o n ­ objector to his f a t h e r w r i t t e n in 1918, next week's paper there were tious objectors The several comments I n the about c o n s c i e n ­ during the first W o r l d War, W O R L D W A R II T he B u r k e - W a d s w o r t h Bill cal li ng for co ns c r i p t i o n was enacted into law September 16, 1 9 4 0 as the Selective Trai ni n g and Service Act, The Historic Peace C h u r c h e s ^ h a d been watching the events that seemed t o be leading to w a r and r e ­ m embering the bitter experiences of t h e i r members 75, Friends, during the Mennonites, Brethren, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 539 - first W o r l d War, they real i ze d that be f o r e A m e r i c a became i n ­ volved in hostilities and before c o n s c r i p t i o n began, should w o r k out a p r o g r a m of service for they the m e n who were c onsci en ti ou sl y opposed to p a r t i c i p a t i o n in war. T h e y also realized that their chances of having s u c h a p r o g r a m r e c o g ­ nized by the government would be g reatly e nhanced if they presented the proposal jointly,, A lm o s t six months before the B ur ke - W a d s w o r t h Bill was introduced into Congress these three churches p r e s e n t e d a m e m o r a n d u m to President R oosevelt for a scheme of alternative civilian service in the event of w a r . ^ In 1937 the Menno ni te Central Committee h a d w r i t t e n to P r e s i ­ dent R oosevelt stating the Mennonite attitude and in 1939 they had in case of war. towards w a r , ^ drawn up a p lan of a c t i o n for Mennonites 7R P r o vi si on for objectors (who on the grounds of r e l i ­ gious training and be l i e f o pposed all m i l i t a r y service) to 76. For a statement of this m e m o r a n d u m see G ingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 435-7 or Sib le y and Jacob, C on sc ri pt io n of C o n s c i e n c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 485-6. 77. Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 429-31. 78. I b i d . , pp. 431-3. During the twenties the Friends had a series of conferences to which all p e a c e churches were invited. Du ri n g the thirties the three p e a c e churches a tt e m p ­ ted to acquaint the government w i t h t h e i r attitude towards war and to suggest possible service outside of the a rm ed forces for their members. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. serve under civilian direction in some w o r k of n a t i o n a l i m ­ portance be ca me a part of the Selective Service A c t la rg el y due to the p olitical a c t iv it y of t h e F r i e n d s , but w i t h some help from the M e n n o n i t e s „ On O c t o b e r 5, 1 940 the Nati on a l Service Board for Reli gi o us Objec to rs (NSBRO) to represent the his to ri c peace churches groups to the g o v e r n m e n t . D u r i n g was o rganized and other co nc e r n e d t h e whole w a r this organi­ zation acted in the difficult po s i t i o n of m i d d l e m a n b e t w e e n the g o v e r n m e n t and the churches,, O n D e c e m b e r 2 0 s 1940 P r e s i ­ dent Roose ve lt approved altern a ti ve c onscientious objectors the churches but The first service w i t h o u t p a y for in camps a d m i n i s t e r e d and f i na nc e d by operating u n d e r S e l ec ti ve Service Supervision. of these camps, c al le d C i v i l i a n Public Service Camps (CPS),®^" was opened M a y 15, 1941; the first M e n n o n i t e CPS camp 79. . . it was suggested that one cent ra l r e p r e ­ sentative b o dy be f o r m e d t h r o u g h w h i c h all m a t t er s could be cleared b y Selective S e r v i c e . " F r o m an un p u b l i s h e d S e le ct iv e Service m o n o g r a p h on the co n sc ientious objector, quoted in Gingerichs Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , p. 54. 80. See Sibley and Jacob, C o n s c r i p t i o n of C o n s c i e n c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 508-13, "Statement o f Policy, Camp O p e r a t i o n D i v i si on of the Selective Service S y s t e m (The M c h e a n S t a t e ­ ment)" for a c l e a r statement of the degree to w h i c h the S e l e c ­ tive Service determined the camp policy. 81. To the Mennonites goes m ost o f the cr e di t for the form the CPS p r o g r a m took. It wa s m o d e l e d after t h e a l t e r n a ­ tive service p r o g r a m the M en no n i t e s in R u s s i a had developed. "Origin of A lt e r n a t i v e Service" T h e R e p o r t e r for C o n s c i e n c e 1 Sake (Washington, D.C.: National Service Board for Religious Objectors), March, 1947. Cornel iu s K r a h n "Public Service in Rus si a" Th e Mennon i te , N o r t h Newton, Kansas, June 8, 22; August 31; S eptember 21, 1943. Jacob S t u d e r m a n "The O ri g i n R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - opened one w e e k later., 541 - A l t h o u g h this critic i ze d in m a n y quarters, it was p r o g r a m was severely a great im pr ov e me nt over conditions that existed during the first W o r l d W a r and it indicated an att em pt on the p a r t of the g overnment to make a fair p r o v i s i o n for t h o s e m e n who were c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y o p ­ posed to war. and J ac ob that: N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the fact p o i n t e d out by S ib l e y ”What b e g a n as an experiment in t olerance u ltima te ly d emonstrated in u n m i s ta ka b le terms the deep and i n ­ herent c on tr a d i c t i o n b e t w ee n the A m e r i c a n demand for n ational security and the claims of individuals for personal l i b e r t y of cons c ience o In t he days before the war the A m i s h engaged in no p o ­ litical ac t i v i t y for the p r o t e c t i o n of their men; ra th er they were pa s s i v e l y included in t h e p r o g r a m of the " o l d ” Menno ni t e of M e n no ni t e State Service in Ru ss ia 1870-1880.,” M Q R , January, 1943, pp. 23-46. F r a n k C„ Peters UNo n - c o m b a t a n t Service T h en and N o w ” M e nn o ni te L i f e , January, 1955, pp„ 3 1 - 5 0 Si b l e y and Jacobs, C o n s c r i p t i o n of C o n s c i e n c e , o p . c i t , , pp. 112-5 explain that CPS was a n o u t g r o w t h of 1) The Menn o ni te scheme for a lt e r n a t i v e service w i t h R u s s i a n c onscription, 2) the scheme of alt er na ti ve service for C . O , ’s drafted in W o r l d Wa r I, 3) p r i v a t e l y o r ga ni z ed v o l u n t a r y w or k camps and 4) the C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n Corps. The CPS P rogram l asted one m o n t h less than six years (May 1941March 1947) during w h i c h time a p p r o x i m a t e l y 12,000 m e n (11,996 a ccording to NSBRO, 1 1, 90 0 according to Selective Service) served in alterna ti v e service, 5,830 of these men served u n d e r MCC. John D. Unruh, I n the N am e of Christ (Scottdale, P a . : Herald P r e s s , 1952), p. 262. 82. C o n s c r i p t i o n of C o n s c i e n c e , o p . c i t . , p. 111. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - c h u r c h . 542 - Many of t h e i r congregations came to endorse the 1937 Statement on P e a c e , W a r and M i l i t a r y S e r v i c e . ^ Though no A m i s h m e n went to W a s h i n g t o n to represent their church as QC they had during the first W or ld War, ° this l ack of political activity did n ot r e f le ct a we ak e n i n g of their stand on nonresistance, Of all the branches of the M en n o n i t e chu rc h from which 100 or m o r e m e n were drafted the Old Order A m i s h (with the C h u r c h of Go d in Christ Mennonite) had the h ighest p e r ­ centage of conscientious percent, objectors - ninety- th re e and one-half and the M en no n it es as a church h a d a h i g h e r percentage 83. At some of t h e m e e ti ng s of the Peace Problems C o m ­ mittee in 1939 r ep re se n ta ti ve s from the Old Order A m i s h were present. G u y F. H e r s h b e r g e r The M en n on it e Ch ur ch in the Second W o r l d W a r (Scottdale, Pa.: Mennon i te Pu b li sh in g House, 1.951) p. 39. 84. Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , p. 19. For a copy of t h e statement see J o h n C h ri st ia n Wenger, Separated unto G o d (Scottdale, P a . ; Menno ni te Publis hi ng House, 1952), pp. 293-6. 85. Hartzler, Mennonites in the W or ld W a r , o p . c i t . , p. 66. 86. Unruh, In the Name o f C h r i s t , o p . c i t ., p. 286. A h ig he r pe rc en t a g e of C h u r c h of God in Christ Menno ni te s went into active service in the army than did the Old Order A m is h - 5 perc e nt as c ompared with 2.9 percent. O n l y two h u n d r e d m e n were drafted f r o m the church of God in Christ Mennonite. Three M e nn o ni te churches had 1 0 0 percent o f their m e n take the non re si s ta nt stand these were the Old Order M e n ­ nonites (72 men), the R e f o r m e d A m i s h Christians (6 men) and the C h u r c h of G od M en no n it e (3 men). 90.6 percent of the Hutterites in the U n i t e d States were conscientious objectors. Hershberger, Second Wo rl d W a r , o p . c i t ., p. 39. See A p p e n d i x VII for a chart of the different branches of the M en no ni t es and the n u m b e r of m e n f r o m e a c h that served as I-A (in the re gu la r army), I-A-0 (in n o nc o m b a t a n t branches of the army, IV-E (as conscientious objectors in civilian public service). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 543 - of their m e n in CPS camps than either of the other historic peace churches. ft7 Participation of the Old Order A m i s h D u r in g the second W o r l d W a r 772 A mi s hm e n ® ® were drafted f r o m a c h u r c h w i t h a m e m b e r s h i p of 13,394.®® 5.8 percent Only of t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p was drafted as compared with over 9 percent in some of the m o r e lib er al branches of the church.®® The age at w h i c h A m i s h youth join the c h u r c h is c onsiderably above M ennonite church. 91 that of the more liberal branches Therefore of the the p e r c e n t a g e of y o u n g m e n drafted from the A m i s h c h u r c h was e v e n lower tha n the figures would indicate. (Children in their early teens do not swell the m e m b e r s h i p figures of the Old Order Amish.) In look in g 87. The M e n n o n i t e chur ch w i t h a m e m b e r s h i p of about 132 ,,313 in 1947 h a d 4,665 m e n in CPS camps, the Friends with an ap proximate m e m b e r s h i p of 115,600 had 951 m e n in CPS and the Bret hr e n w i t h a me mb er s h i p of about 4 5 6 ,2 32 had 1,353 me n in CPS. Figures for t he n u m b e r of m e n in CPS as o f June 30, 1946. The R e p o r t e r , March, 1947, p. 4. 88. Unruh, I n the name of C h r i s t , o p . c i t . , p. 286. 89. Mennonite Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y , 1952, ed. Ellrose D. Zook, (S c o t t d a l e , P a .: Menno ni te P ub li sh in g H o u s e ), p. 53. 90. See A p p e n d i x V, Part D. 91. A mi s h y ou t h r a r e l y join a c h u r c h b e f or e they are seventeen or eigh te en years old and oft en not unt il they are in their early twenties. I n the m o r e liberal branches of the church chil dr en often join as young as thirteen. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . _ 544 - over the figures indicating the p ercentage drafted or enlisted, the churches of m e n who were it is i n t e r e s t i n g to no t e that in gene ra l in w h i c h p r o p o r ti o na ll y the fewest m e n w e r e are also those in w h i c h the p ercentage of c o n s ci en ti ou s jectors was highest. This is p a r t l y due to the taken ob­ fact that there w e r e v i r t u a l l y no enlistments f r o m the m or e g e n u i n e l y no ne re sistant churches, but it p r o b a b l y also reflects the r ur al environment that c h ar ac terized these churches in that m o r e of their young m e n obtained a g r i cu lt ur al deferments. many of the A m i s h y o ut h w ere A.s the county agent said, Certainly deferred f o r a gricultural wo rk ,^ ^ ttThe Amish n ev er come to m y office, --except during the war,--and t h e n they c am p e d on my d o o r ­ step trying to get deferments for t h e i r s o n s / ^ Of the s e v e n hund re d and s eventy-two A m i s h m e n enrol le d under Selective Service during the second .World W ar , three were in the regu la r army, twenty- t w e n t y - s e v e n were in n o n c o m ­ batant branches o f the army and seven h u n d r e d and t w en ty -t wo were in CPS camps or prison, I l e a r n e d something of two Old Order A m i s h m e n from one central Ohio c o m m u n i t y who the r e g u l ar army. One of t h e m s a i d he served w i t h just could no t see that 92, 69,2 per ce n t of the Old O r d e r A m i s h m e n r eg is t e r e d for the draft were cl as s i f e d II-C, The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of those engaged in, a nd considered n e c e s s a r y to agriculture, Hershberger, Second W o r l d W a r , o p , c i t ,, p, 36, 93, 03, He added that he u s u a ll y w as able to get such deferments for t h e m ^they do the co un t r y a lot more g o o d on the f a r m than i n some old CCC c a m p . 11 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 545 it was w r o n g to defend one's country. A fter the war he joined the Ohio and E a s t e r n A m i s h M e n n o n i t e conference,, I was told of the other man b y a w o m a n wh o h a d left the Old Order. 94 The subject was h e r b r o t h e r - i n - l a w ' s wife's b r o t h e r T h i s young man^® shortly before he w a s joined t h e Old O rder c h u r c h drafted,. D u r i n g all the time he was in CPS camp he r e m a in e d Amish, but w h e n he came b a c k he had a difficult time adjusting to life in his h o m e community. He was u ns et t le d and depressed. One day he was in a n e i g h b o r ­ ing town w h e r e h e h e a r d a n Air Corps officer lectur in g trying to p e r s u a d e young m e n to volunteer. his f e e t 1* by this p e r s u a s i v e talk, and joined the army. He was according "swept off to my informant, However, w h il e in the Air Corps he r e ­ ceived Christ and r e a l i z e d that it was sinful army so he w e n t and to see his c om ma nd in g o fficer about my informant continued, comma nd i ng officer. his to be in the He told his c o n v e r s i o n a n d asked him, i f he had b e e n saved. so But the o f f i ­ cer is s a i d to have a v o id e d the q u e s t i o n with some comment about g o i n g to church. The boy repeated, "But that is not what I a s k e d you, have y o u b een saved?" The o f f i c e r replied, "I h a v e The boy interjected, always tried 94. to be a g o o d man," (0 0 A ) A M 4 . 95. This parti cu la r b r o t h e r - i n - l a w l i v e d in the a d ­ joining house and w o r k e d for (00A)AM3. 96. 00A139. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. “That is not the question, have y o u been s a v e d ? ” The command­ ing officer is r e p o r t e d to have burs t into tears and wept. The informant ended the story b y saying that the young m a n was given an hono ra bl e illustration life. discharge. of the power visit, but To h e r it was a fine of Christ to change a s i n n e r ’s When I pres s ed to find after his disch ar ge , 97 out what happe ne d to the m a n I w a s told that he came b a c k for a short that his GI h a i r c u t m a d e h i m feel u n c o m f o r t a b l e so he we n t to another part of the state and w o r ke d in a fil li ng station w h i l e his h a i r grew out. The wo m a n who r e l a t e d the story said she did not kn ow what w ou l d happen, w h e t h e r he could come back, and if he did h ow the c h u r c h wou ld p u n i s h h i m or if they would receive him. qo come back. To m y k n o w l e d g e h e has not T w e n t y - s e v e n A m i s h m e n a c ce p te d n o n c o m ba ta n t service in the army. stand. I never learned about any A m i s h m a n who too k this I w o u l d doubt w h e t h e r a ny of these t w e n t y - s e v e n returned 97. “T h e r e are no p ro vi s i o n s for discharge f r o m the army, on the g r o u n d s of conscience. CCCO and a n u m b e r of other organizations h a v e b e e n worki n g on the p r o b l e m of obtaining regul at io ns for s u c h discharges. Meanwhile, those total objectors w h o are in the a r m y t h r o u g h miscl as s ification by Selective Service, t h e i r own ignorance of the law, or a change o f opini on afte r entering the arm y u s u a l l y face c ou rt-martial until g i v e n an u n d e s i ra bl e or ba d conduct d i s c h a r g e . ’* News Notes May, 1954, p. 2. Some are disch ar ge d as “unfit for m i l i t a r y d u t y . 1* 98. This is in co n t r a s t to the H u t t e r i t e s v\h.ose deviant member inductives r e t u r n after m i l i t a r y service. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 547 - to the Old Order A m i s h Churcho Old Order A m i s h in Civ i li an Public Service Camp Seven hundred and twenty-two Amishmen, 93.5 percent of those w h o w e re drafted, went to CPS camps. Thus o n an average every eighteenth member o f the comm un it y spent from several months to several years large proportion, but it was the in CPS camp. This is not a first time since co m in g to America that the A m i s h faced the removal of a s u b s t an ti al num b er of their young men to a place b e y o n d the control of the c o m m u n ­ ity where they could all too easily l e a r n dangerous ideas and disruptive s k i l l s . T h i s c aused a great deal of concern w i t h ­ in the community and they w or ke d h a r d to that t h e y were supporting them. show th e ir yo un g m e n Mi ni s t e r s v is i t e d camps. Car loads of people from the home ch u r c h would go to a camp for a visit. Concerned individuals w ou l d v i s i t A m i s h boys t h e y b a r e ­ ly knew in an effort to show their support. A n example of the widespread interest the A m i s h community had in its y o u t h in CPS is il lu s trated b y the extensive c i r c u l a t i o n of The Sun Beam. It was p r o d u c e d i n the only A m i s h CPS camp, and had the la rg es t s u b s c r i p t i o n of a n y paper put out in a Menn on it e 99. For example, R o m a n H. Millei^ an Old Order A m i s h farmer, worked with a road grader while in CPS, Th e R e p o r t e r , A pril 15, 1943, p. 1. Other. A m i s h m e n ' w d r e t r a c t o r o p e r a t o r s . See D a v i d Wagler and Roman Raber (ed.) The St or y of the A m i s h in Civi li an Public Service (Boonsboro, M a r y l a n d : 1945). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - CPS camp despite 548 - the fact that there were only about thirty- five me n in this camp.-^® This camp Unit 3 of Camp 24 near Hagerstown, M a r y l a n d was the only CPS camp in w h i c h the A m i s h shared in the a d m i n ­ istration,, T h e y bought the f a r m on w h i c h it was l o c a t e d in the fall of 1941 and began operating of 1 9 4 2 . ^ ^ it as a camp in the spring D u r i n g the r em ai nd er of CPS all but a few of the assignees to this unit were Amish. But as it was equipped for only t hirty-five men most of t h e A mish y o u t h w h o w e re spent t h e i r CPS days in camps a d m i n is te re d b y Central Committee and thus various b ranches MennoniteSo drafted the M e nn on it e they were thrown in w it h m e n f r o m of the M ennonite church and w i t h a few non- The Amish y o u t h s u dd en ly be ca me p a r t o f a c l o s e l y knit, p h y s i c a l l y intimate community, but their home community,, one that d i f f e r e d f r o m The CPS community has been described by some of the campers: In each o t h e r ’s pres en ce the campers stand a s'open b o o k s „ T h er e is nothing h i d d e n that is not revealed, and we stand n ak ed in each o t h e r ’s presence. We know each other inside out. The crowded quarters, the lack of privacy, the f a c t that we are always t o ­ gether and cannot escape each o t h e r ’s p r e ­ sence, brings to light w h at is in u s .102 100o and Unruh, Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , on, c i t . , p. In the name of C h r i s t , op. c i t . , pp. 245-6. 101. Gingerich, I b i d ., p. 102. Gingerich, Service f o r P e a c e , o p . c i t ., p. 199 179 and Unruh, I b i d . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 283. - Gingerich. describes the 549 - situation: Here they also had t o l e a r n g roup living,, A large p r o p o r t i o n of the men were farmers, used to a c o m p a r a t i v e l y independent life. In camp they had to take orders f ro m others not only on the p r o j ec t but also in the b a r ­ racks and dining hall, where r eg u l a t i o n s were in effect. This experi en ce made or broke a man, If he was able to achieve a degree of tolerance, unde r st an di ng , and c o -o pe ra ti v eness, camp life was not too galling,, If he remained an i n d i vi du al is t or a s e l f i sh e g o ­ tist, or if he succumbed to the m a l a d y of p itying himself, camp life was almost u n e n ­ durable „103 The A m i s h boys seemed to ad ju s t to group l i v i n g fairly easily; c e r t a i n l y they were not s t r o n g i nd iv idualists. home The community did not fear the n a r r o w n e s s or disci pl in e of the camp, r a t h e r they were anxious about the ef fe ct on the A m i s h boys of l e a r n i n g to fit into a c o m m u n i t y that differed so e x t e n s i v e l y f r o m that of t h e A m i s h c h u r c h community. To the A m i s h camper w h o had only completed the ei gh th grade, CPS offered a w e a l t h o f e du c a t i o n a l opportunity. campers took a cou rs e 103. in Menn on it e h e r i t a g e . 104 All The A m i s h I b i d . , p. 334. 104. For this course a series of six b o o k l e t s e n ­ titled M e nn o n i t e s and their Heri ta ge w e r e written. Harold S. Bender edited the series and the M e nn o ni te Ce nt ra l C o m ­ mittee at Akron, Pa., published the b o o kl et s. Nu mb er 1, Harold S. Bender, “M en n o n i t e origins in E u r o p e ” ; N u m b e r 2, C. Henry Smith, “Mennonites in America'*; Number 3, E d w a r d Yoder, ”0ur Menno ni te Heritage'*; N u m b e r 4, Ed. G. Kaufman, “Our m i s s i o n as a c h u r c h of C h r i s t 14; Nu m be r 5, G u y F„ H e r s h ­ berger, “Christ i an r e l a ti on sh ip s to state and c o m m u n i t y ” ; and Number 6, P.C. Heibert, "Life and service i n the K i n g d o m of G o d . “ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 550 - knew the early part of their history b et t e r perhaps m an y of the other campers; but this was the first than time m a n y of t h e m were exposed to objective i n f o r m a t i o n about the other branches of the Mennonite church. Various offered for the a n e w experience for A m i s h campers. This was Bible courses were boys who came f r o m communities where formal m e e t i n g s for the study and the d i sc us si on of the Bible were forbidden. campers were able to take test if they wished. This the General E d u c a t i o n a l Development enabled the A mish campers to achieve h i g h -s c ho ol gr ad u a t i o n even though their formal ended with the e i g h t h grade. able to them b y offers The Further schooling had e d u c a t i o n was m a d e a v a i l ­ from the M e n n o n i t e colleges of a m o n t h ’s free tuition for every m o n t h spent in CPS camp up to a total of twenty-seven months. 1 QC. E du c a t i o n a l lecturers, fessors f r om the vari ou s Mennonite gave talks on various subjects. usua l ly p r o ­ colleges, v i s i t e d camps and Al l the c am ps had libraries with co n si de ra bl y m o r e v a r i e t y than the A m i s h y o u t h would have found in t h e i r home or p r ob a bl y in t h ei r w ho le community. The A m i s h boys, ing from notes and coming f r o m a c h u r c h that forbade the use of all mu si ca l instruments, suddenly t h r o w n into a c o m p a r a t i v e l y r ich m u s i ca l There were phonographs Gingerich, were environment. at t he diffe re nt carrps and a record library of classical m usic was a vailable 105. sing­ for c a m p e r s ’ use. Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , pp. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 303-4. - As well as this there were 551 - short courses s i r g i n g 9 hymnology, music appreciation, offered in sight conducting and choral literature* The A m is h campers came from homes in w h i c h h av i ng ones picture taken was a serious en ou gh offense t o m e r i t public confession as was attending a movie* many of the speakers, But in camp and certai nl y the government m e n who lead the projects, used slides and f i l m s as teaching aids. Some of the men helped with the p r o d u c t i o n of a series slides to be used to aid church members in CPS. of in understanding life Photog ra ph y was a popular h o b b y with many of the campers* Crafts and hobbies were emphas iz ed as a suitable use of leisure time* Those to w h ic h the A m i s h objected that were enjoyed by some of the other campers were flying and radio (in addition to photography). A m i s h campers made good use facilities. of the w o o d w o r k i n g and c a r p e n t r y And they e njoyed the leather w o r k and r u g making* In various homes, u s u al ly upstairs, h On the other hand the men for their m others or fiances. we saw rugs made by CPS Vari ou s A m i s h w o m e n had wallets and p o c k e t books made by sons, 'If husbands i n CPS- or In o th er houses were wooden bookcases, knick-knack shelves and book-e n ds workshops during f ree time. wood working was nephews, brothers that had b e e n made in camp The most elaborate example a w oo d e n carving of t h e Lord's Prayer. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. of It Filmed as received without page(s) S5-y UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 553 - support of a new, b u t not r a d i c a l l y different community. T owards the end o f the CPS p r o g r a m a series of q u e s ­ tionnaires w e r e sent to m e n f r o m selected b r an ch es of the M ennonite Church in order to get an e v a l u a t i o n of the p r o ­ gram from the point of view of the m e n who served in it.^-^ N In te ty -s ix Old Order A m i s h m e n r e t u r n e d t h e questi on na ir e . Their answers indicate the A m i s h campers r e a c t i o n to m a ny of the p re ss u re s and opportunities the home c om mu ni t y c o n ­ sidered threatening. In some instances the home c om mu ni ty feared the e f ­ fects of the formal However, education the boys r e c e i v e d in camp. only ni n e t e e n percent tion was very valuable w h i l e was of some value. of th e A m i s h felt this e d u c a ­ seventy-five p e r c e n t t hought it O n l y about half the A m i s h felt their a p p r e ­ ciation of their M en n o n i t e h e r i t a g e had i nc r e a s e d while camp,^^ None of the A m i s h said h igh-school or coll eg e education. they would like to continue However three p e r c e n t said If they did want to continue it w o u l d be the r e s u l t seven percent in of CPS, said it w o u l d n ’t, and eighty- ni ne per ce nt did 107, Paul Albre c ht , "Civilian Public Service e v a l u ­ ated by Civil ia n Public Service M e n , " MQ,R, January, 1948, pp. 5-18. M uch of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e is r ep r i n t e d in Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 478-88. 108. In contrast to other church members. seventy-one p e r c e n t of the I® R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Filmed as received without page(s)_ -SS V UNIVERSITY MICR0FIIM3, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 555 - it was wise, t h i r ty -t hr ee pe rcent 'thought it did not make m u c h difference, twenty-one eleven percent t h o ugh t it was un w i s e and percent were undecided„) Those individuals w h o m we knew person all y said they liked g e t t i n g t o k n o w n o n - A m i s h in CPS, wild. though t h e y did comment t h a t some of t h e m were pretty In looking through a ph otog ra ph albu m one Amishman-1--1-0 kept while he was in camp, it was evident that most of his association, at least during his free time, was w i t h other Ami sh campers. The home c o mmuni ty greatly feared that their you th might accept some h ete rodox religious beliefs th ey were e x ­ posed to in camp, and become less religious. so pr onounced that some Am ish boys were advised to stay away from the camp religious ters was preaching. 110. This fe ar was 111 services unless one of their own minis- A p p a r e n t l y most of the A m i s h did attend 00A25. 111. Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , p. 282, w . „ . some of th e A m i s h boys would not attend services unless one of their ministers was preaching. Ev id e n t l y in some i n ­ stances their home churches had ad vised them to stay away to avoid hearing sermons not in accord with their traditions." This is in kee ping wi th D i r k P h i l i p ’s teachings. "Daraus ist nun leichtlich abz umessen und kla rl ic h zu verstehen, wie dass man nicht allein mi t dem G e i s t nund m i t de m Her zen, sondern a uch mit dem Leib, v o n aer Abgotter Tempel, von alien gottlosen Predigern, da sie auf dem Pr ed igt stuhl stehen, und.des Her ren Wort verfalschen, und von a l l e m falsche n Go tt esdie ns t such milsse abscheiden; . . .Darum ne hmet e uc h woh l wahr in der Furcht des H e r r n eures Gottes, dass ihr keine fleischliche freyheit in den K i r ch en ge hen gebrauchet, und a u c h kein Geh or der falschen Le hr er b ewil li ge t und a n n e h m e n t ; die v er fu h r i s c h e n Geister w e r c e n euc h mit g r o s s e r A r g ils ti gk ei t und Au fge bl as en - R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - the camp religious programs. 556 - W h e n questio ned about the effect of ministers f ro m other denominations visiting camp, sixtysix percent of the Old Order Am is h said they thought their visits were valuable (in contrast to se vent y-s even perc e n t of the m e n from the other branches feeling the visits we re valuable). The A m i s h seemed to feel secure in their be liefs for none of t he m thought the visits were harmful. The A m i s h responded in much the same way as mem bers from other branches of the Mennonite church to the q u e s t i o n ”Do y o u feel that you have gained in CPS some und ers ta nd in g that your home church n e e d s ? ” bad. of the Chri st ian life S e v e nt y- si x perce nt fel t they Mor e A m i s h y o u t h felt that the importance of their p e r ­ sonal devotions had increased than any other group of the questioned. This reflects the r e li gi ou s c o n di ti on w i t h i n the A m i s h community, w h i c h stres ses the importan ce o f g r o u p p a r ­ ticipation for religious express io n and th e limited part played by young, unmarried men. A l t h o u g h only fifty-four p e r c e n t of the A m i s h felt their heit wohl a n k o m m e n t , son derli ch in dieser g e n a u e n und betrubten Zeit, (2 Cor. 11.) u m e u c h a b z u z i e h e n von der E in fa lt igkeit, die in Christo Jesu ist: aber sehet a uc h wohl vor, (Rom. 16. b . ) so leib als ihr Gott, und eurer Seel en Seligkeit h a b t ; . . . ” Ojo. c i t . , E n c h i r i d i o n , Lancaster, Pa. , Joseph Ehrenfried, 1811, pp. 488,489. Other Old Order A m i s h ministers advised the A m i s h boys to at te nd camp services. ”The A m i s h boys were adv ised t o attend any religious a c t i v i ­ ties where they could gain any spiritual food, and if they felt they could, to also partake in s u c h a c t i v i t i e s . ” Cf. F. Hershberger, Second W o r l d W a r , o p . c i t ., p. 93. Apparent­ ly these same ministers held co mm unio n only for the Old Order A m i s h boys. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 557 - home congre ga ti on -understood their c a m p experie nce as well as could be expected " this was a sl igh tly higher figure than re ported f or any other of the bra nch es Mennonite c h u r c h . I n turn the CP S exper ien ce seem to greatly dim in is h the camper's of his own church. that "'about Six percen t of the did not support or acceptance of t h e A m i s h campers r e s p o n d e d they held the p e c u l i a r doctrines of their ch u rc h less strongly while forty-e ight percent said t h e y h eld t h e m more strongly than before their CPS experience. seven percent said they were less loyal Sim ila rl y only to the h ome c h u r c h with forty-five percent reporting that they w e r e more l o y a l . The outsta nding impression one ge ts f r o m g oi ng over the CPS E v a l u a t i o n Questionn air e is that attitudes, the A m i s h c a m p e r s ’ interests and ambitions w e r e little ch ange d by their CPS experience. If the qu esti o n n a i r e a c c u r a t e l y r ef lec ts the Amish d r a f t e e ’s r e a c t i o n to CPS the home c o m m u n i t y had li t t l e to fear. Their y ou th had been so we ll trained an d i n d o c t r i n ­ ated that an absence of f r o m several months to several yea rs did little to reduce the influence of the home church. Their young men w ere r e m a r k a b l y steadfast. Judging f r o m t h e f e w m e n we knew who had served in CPS 112. A n Old O rd er Amish bi shop re pr es en ting the churches of Illinois wrote the Peace Problems C o mm it tee in January, 1943, that t h e y w e r e p l a n n i n g to raise funds to help their CPS m e n w i t h the pu rch ase of c l o thing and to pr o ­ vide them w i t h a small c a sh allowance. Hershberger, Second World War, ojo. c i t . , p. 74. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - we felt that 558 - their horizons had bee n b r oa de ne d in that they knew more of the world outside t h e i r community, but they hardly u sed this a d d e d k n o w l e d g e in t he ir daily life. no profoun d way had the experience seemed to effect In those we knew n o r h a d it made t h e m d i s s a t i s f i e d w it h their home church. Te n of th e young m e n f ro m S t o n e y r u n c h u r c h distric t 113 served in CPS. This is a hi ghe r p r o p o r t i o n than were called from the ave rage A m i s h community. would h a v e Th e f in an ci al drain this entaile d f o r the c o m m u n i t y was A m i s h church in the U n i t e d States whole M e n n o n i t e church. and to some extent by the E a c h member paid $27 .45 that was c o l ­ lected on an assess ment basis at interva ls tion of the CPS program. shared b y the whole during the opera­ In a d d i t i o n the A m i s h had one extra assessment to h e l p finance their young ra en . ^ ^ this extra assessment other branches In spite of of the Me nn o n i t e c h u r c h with r e l a t i v e l y fewer m e n in CPS he l p e d finance the A m i s h youth through their donations to M C C . Experiences of the H om e Churches In the St on e y r u n area the Second W o r l d W a r a g g r a v a t e d the dislike som e of the E n g l i s h n e i gh bo rs h a v e for the Amish. 113. See A p p e n d i x VII, for a list dates and p lac e o f source. of the m e n w i t h 114. P r o m 1941 to 1947 the Old O rd er A m i s h co ntribute d $345,408.79. Unruh, In the name o f Chri s t , o p . c i t . , p. 378. See also H e r sh be rg er, Second W o r l d W a r , o p . c i t , pp. 64-78. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 559 There was a general fee ling that - it was easier for an A m i s h boy to g e t an agr icultural deferment becau se he was a c o n ­ scientious obje ct or and would not go into the army a n y w a y 0 The E n g l i s h p eop le claimed all t h e i r sons wer e drafted while 11 cr the A m i s h fathers kept their sons at home to e a rn more money,-L-LO It was also said that the A m i s h w a n t e d A m e r i c a to get into the war, be ca us e t h e n the price of farm products would go up and they would make m o re m o n e y , S o m e peop l e ^ ^ ^ feel that the trouble the A m i s h of Stone yru n are h a v i n g about sending their 11 O children to h i g h school stems f r o m c e r t a i n school officials' dislike of individuals who be li eve There were a few specific in nonresistance. acts of mild a g g r e s s i o n t o ­ wards the A m i s h of this are a during the war, but no real i n ­ jury c^--^ One night an A m i s h m i n i s t e r and h i s w i f e ^^ ^ were r e ­ turning from vis iti ng A m i s h fri ends in the next ch u r c h district. They had had a p l e asant evenin g and time had p a s s e d quickly. It was almost el e v e n o'c lo ck w h e n they h i t c h e d up the hors e and started home. As they were 115, 019 116, 019, 117, 08, GC2, 118, Espe c i a l l y 017, jogging a l o n g a car careened up the 03, 119, A M enn onite church bu i l d i n g wi t h i n the area of this study was pai nted yellow, 120, 00A1 and 00A2, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 560 - road screeching to a stop just behind them, then it swerved past them and a couple of boys le a n e d out the w i n d o w and called ''’’We' re going to shave coward.'1 * The couple off your beard, y o u yellow in the b u g g y jogged on. It was almost midnight and dark so their horse could not go v e r y fast. A fe w minutes later the car retu rn ed and passed them w i t h the boys again saying t h ey were g o i n g to shave off the man's beard followed by insults r e f e r r i n g to his not suppo r t i n g the war effort. The ho rs e was get ting a little h a r d to manage with the car swerving and honking past it and the ing. boys shout­ But there was nothing to do but to pull h i m in and keep going along the edge of the road. passed them one of the boys missed. The next ti me the car tried to grab the bridle, but Soon the Amish couple came to a lane leading into an A m i s h farmhouse. The ministe r and his wife drove q u i c k l y up the lane, tied their horse and went into the f a r m house. the time t he y got into the house By the owners w e r e awake and the four o f t h e m watched the boys u n h i t c h the horse, drive it down the lane and race it along the road in front of the car. The minister and his wife wa it ed about an hour. boys did not come back so t he y borrowed a h o r s e host and drove home. horse. The fro m their The next mor ning they found th ei r own The boys h a d driven it several miles down th e road and t h e n losing interest had retu rn ed to town. W he n the m i n i s t e r ’s wife r e l at ed the story to me she R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 561 - said several the road that times, '*0f course we s h o u l d n ’t have b e e n out on late at n i g h t during times like t h e s e . w also explained it b y saying She that one of the young A m i s h m e n who w orke d at the brick yard3 wa s not a very good type and that he had acted in such a way that some workers were an gry w i t h him. of the E n g l i s h She r e a l i s t i c a l l y assum ed that they w ou ld sh ow t h e i r dislike b y mist re at in g any conveni ent Amishman,-1- ^ She explaine d that at first she and he r hu sb and did not know who the boys were, but t h e y kept ver y quiet and not a single E n g l i s h family k ne w about it. her hu sband was Th e n one day w h e n in t o w n he heard a young E n g l i s h boy f r o m the brickyards boas ti ng about h o w h e and a g r o u p of friends ha d "really scared th e tar out of some Amishman"' and ho w th ey had almost caught h i m and sh ave d off his beard. Her hus ba nd listened carefully and lea rne d the names of the other E n g l i s h boys. He knew all of t h e m of t h e m q u i t e well. His wi f e co ntin ued the ac coun t slightly and several when she learned who the boys were to me by saying that she was not afraid a n y m o r e ; that she almost wi shed they h a d c a u g h t her for t h e r i n g l e a d e r was a b o y fr om an E n g l i s h fa mily she had w o r k e d for and he would have b e e n so ashamed. She told the story and r e f e r r e d t o the episode several 121. This attitude fits in well w i t h the A m i s h con that if any m e m b e r takes c om munio n u n w o r t h i l y e ac h ind ivi dual taking c o m m u n i o n w i t h h i m shares his sin. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - times. 562 She was not bitter about it was la rgely their fault, night and for having members - it o r angry,, She felt that for b ei ng out alone so late at in t h e i r c h u r c h who we r e not truly good people. Effect of W o r l d Wa r II on the A m i s h Com m u n i t y In attemp ti ng to assess the effects of the War on the A m i s h co mm u n i t y one is str u c k b y the Second Wor ld fact that the experience of b ei ng in a c o u n t r y that was c o m m i t t e d to a total “I O p war effort changed the An^.ish c otrirn.un ity so Xittle. T he ir taxes w er e higher, they had m o re con tact w i t h g ov ern m e n t 122. Dur i n g the e ar ly years of the Second ?>Torld W a r T.L. Engle made a study of A m i s h and n o n - A m i s h c h i l d r e n ’s attitude toward the war as expre sse d in a theme entitled "’Ho w the war effects me'1 and as judged by a s t a nd ar di zed at ti tud etoward-war scale. (T.L. Engle, ’'Attitudes toward war as e x ­ pressed by A m i s h and n on - A m i s h c h i l d r e n , ” Journal of E d u c a ­ tional P s y c h o l o g y , April, 1944. pp. 21.1-219, and "*An an alys is of the themes on the s u b je ct of w a r as w r i t t e n by A m i s h and non -A mi sh c h i l d r e n , ”" Journal of E d u c a t i o n a l P sy ch o l o g y May, 1944, pp. 267-273.) U n f o r t u n a t e l y in the p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e materia l f r o m the themes the au th or does not ge ne r a l l y make it clear w h e t h e r he is q u o t i n g an A m i s h or a n o n - A m i s h child and the various items on the q u e s t i o n n a i r e could be ans we red 6y A m i s h chi ldren in such a w a y that t h e y w o ul d be g r a d e d as supporting war w h e n p e r s o n a l l y the chil d w o u l d not support the war. For example, the A m i s h c h i l d r e n who agreed that '■'War brings out the b es t q u a l i t i e s in m e n ” could eas i l y be thinking of the m i s t r e a t m e n t en du re d by some conscie ntious objectors ra the r than th i n k i n g o f the conduct of the soldier on the battle field. And a g a i n A m i s h c h i ld re n could an sw er the q u e s t i o n "*Under some conditions, war is nece ss ar y to m a i n ­ tain justice'* in the af fi rma tive if they w e r e thinking of the world and In the negative if t h e y were thinking in terms of their own community. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 563 - officials who u r g e d t h e m to p r o d u c e . 123 ticipate in wa r bond drives, T hey refused to p a r ­ a l thoug h m a n y of them p urcha se d a type of go vern men t bond that was n o t c l a s s i f i e d as a Mwa r v b o n^ d . t*124 The CPS p r o g r a m to ok y ou ng m e n away fr om the c omm un it y at the stage usu ally wi th in the c o m m u n i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y w o r k i n g as a h i r e d hand and even oft ener b y w o r k i n g o u t si de the community to earn m o n e y with w h i c h to es ta b l i s h themselves their own farm. Thus wit h i n the community. on there was a slight shortage of h ir ed hands But more important, at e x a c t l y the time that a young man u s u a l l y was b r i ng ing m o n e y into the community, he su ddenly bec am e a financial drain on the community. Instead of his co nt r i b u t i n g t o the w e a l t h of the community, members were h a v i n g to support h i m financially, and he was ea rni ng nothing toward his own financi al independence. Eigh t years after the closing of CPS the financial effect is still evident in t he f a c t that former CPS m e n own their own farms. 123. few Ne w Y o r k Times, Ap ril 28, 1946; A p r i l 30, 1946. 124. See Gingerich , Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , pp. 355-8. Mennonit es could get special MCC certif icates to i n ­ dicate the extent to w h i c h they w er e sup po rting CPS and they could a ls o buy stamps w i t h t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to W a r S u f f e r ­ er s ’ Relief. In a d dit io n they could b u y c i v i l i a n bonds, these were government bonds not labeled as defense bonds, that wer e bought thr ou gh the Pro vi de nt Trust Co mp any of Philadelphia, under the d i r e c t i o n of the C i v il ian Bo nd C o m ­ mittee of the Na ti onal Service Board for Rel igious Objectors. See also Hershberger, Second W o r l d W ar , on. cit., pn. 138148. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 564 - Selective Service had a disruptive effect on the c o m ­ munity in that in some instances it te nded to reduce the importance of baptism,, In peace time a young A m i s h m a n was not baptized until he felt ready to accept the rules church and to live under its d i s c i p l i n e . through the rite he the Ordnung. of the Once he had gone and the com mu ni ty knew he was to fol lo w W h e n the draft was being bap tized changed. in effect the reasons for The individual might be baptized not because ps ych ol og icall y and emot io na ll y he felt ready for the step, nor because he wa nt ed to m a r r y an A m i s h girl (and he could m a r r y her only if he was a c h u r c h m e m b e r ) , but rather he was urged to join so that a judge would know he was an Old Order Amishman, or a draft board-*-^ that he was a member of a church w h i c h his to ri call y opposed wa r in all its forms. Thus he was urg ed to be baptized in order to get the support of the church, rather than choosin g to be baptized in order that he m ig ht sup por t the church. In some cases it became an act of se lf -p r o t e c t i o n rather than a symbol of self- den ial and consequent regeneration. Instead of the ne w m emb er li vi ng 125. Gingerich, Service for P e a c e , o p . c i t . , p. 392. "In at least seven cases, local boards denied the m e n their IV-E*s because they doubted the s in cerit y of the registrants. In these instances, the men had not b een m emb ers of Mennonite churches at the time of their r e g i s t r a t i o n or ha d joined only sh ort ly before. A few of thes e me n had been raised in Amish homes where the av erage age at the time of joining the church is co ns id era bly higher t h a n in other churches. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. ~ 565 - under the watchful and supportive eye of the community he soon left for CPS camp where many aspects of the O r d n u n g had to be ov erlo oke d and where other aspects were overlooked. 126 Baptism legally es tab lish ed the young man as a m e m b e r of the church, but be h av io ra lly he assumed m em be rshi p after he r e ­ turned fro m CPS, not at the time he was baptized. The CPS camps that w e r e established as an alterna tive to service in t h e army were financed b y the peace churches. The Old O r d e r A m i s h sent their contribu ti on to the Mennonit e Central Committee wh ich organized and m a n a g e d the Mennonite camps. P r o m this coo per at io n during t h e w a r has g r o w n c o o p e r ­ ation in other areas. tributions In 1 9 5 0 the Old Order A m i s h made c o n ­ to MCC for relief work, section, and Me nno nite aid. mental he alth, the peace The coopera tio n has continued with various A m i s h churches con tr ibut in g gifts in kind as well as money. This co o p e r a t i o n has put the A m i s h in a p o s i t i o n where they tend to be m ore easily influen ced by the Mennonites "old™ than they were before the war. The Second W o r l d Wa r c a u s e d additional strains to be placed on the Old Order A m i s h comm un it y, immediate stress r e m a r k a b l y well, sary, but changing v e r y little. but it w i t h s t o o d the a d j u s t i n g wh ere it was n e c e s ­ Five years after the end of 126. Fo r example, some A m i s h campers drove t r ac tors or trucks and most CPS m e n made p h o t o g r a p h albums while they were in camp and m a n y of them did not dress exa ctl y accord in g to the rules o f th eir specific ch ur ch district. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. — 566 — the CPS program the effects: are bec o mi ng more evident. men who were in CPS are n o w in posit ion s The of le ad er s h i p and belong to the most vigorous age group in the community. While in CPS their ho rizons were b r o a d e n e d and they w er e e x ­ posed, indirectly, to various aspects tism that were n e w to them. of A m e r i c a n P r o t e s t a n ­ These n e w ideas are no w being introduced into the community, w h e r e they m a y be b o t h r e v i t a l ­ izing a n d d is rupti ng influences. UN IV E R S A L M I L I T A R Y T R A I N I N G A N D S E R V IC E W i t h the ou tbr eak of the K o r e a n Wa r the Select ive Service act of 1 9 4 8 went b a c k into effect a f t e r a l ull most a year and a half. 1 97 of al- On June 19, 19 51, Congress pa sse d the U n iv ersal M i l i t a r y T r ai ni ng an d Service Act. It con t a i n e d a section r e q u i r i n g two years of civilian w o r k in lie u of m i l i ­ tary service for conscientious for conscientious The p r e se nt p r o g r a m objectors was a u t h o r i z e d b y E x e c u t i v e Order 10328 (issued Februar y July 1, 1952.-^® objectors. 20, 1952) and o f f i c i a l l y started on U n d e r this p r o g r a m the con sc ie nt ious o b j e c ­ tor is classifi ed as 1-0 (this cor resp on ds to the IV-E c l a s s i ­ fication of W o r l d W a r II), un ti l h e starts his assigned civilian service at w h i c h time he is clas s i f i e d as I-W. P o 127. Since January 1949. 128. News N o t e s , June, News N o t e s , July, 1950, 1 o 1952, pp. 1, 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 567 - Ideally he m a y ei t h e r volunteer, w i t h the consent of his draft board, for a s s i g n m e n t to a w o r k p r o ject or wait u n t i l he is drafted to serve his two years w o r k i n g for table or reli g i o u s Selective Service. some c h a r i ­ o r g a n iz at io n that has b e e n ap pr ov ed by U s u a l l y the I - W w o r k e r receiv es the wages as any of th e other, n o n - a s s i g n e d employees. the co nsc ientious same A few of objectors spend their time in v o l u n t a r y service for w h i c h they receive no re gul ar wages, but b y far the largest p r o p o r t i o n of Menno ni te hospitals.-*-'-^ pital service I- W m e n are w o r k i n g in In fac t among the Amish, are used almost I - W service and h o s ­ as synonyms .-'-'-’1 129. In practi ce it h a s b ee n difficu lt to keep wages this high. Cases of und er pa y ha v e b een rep ort ed f ro m Alabam a, Ohio, Idaho, So uth Dakota, a n d Kansas. In some cases l abo r unions have taken a c t i o n fearing that co nscien tio us objecto rs might r e p l a c e u n i o n men. R e p o r t e r May, 1953, p. 1 and January, 1954, p. 5. 130. 82 .5 ^ of the M ennon it e I - W wor kers were serving in hospitals in th e summer o f 1954. The I - W M i r r o r - R e f l e c t i v e for and about M en no nite and B r ethre n in Ch rist I - W ’s. (Akron, Pa.: Mennonite Central Committee), July 28, 1954. Reporter, October, 1954, p. 2. 131. I n r e s p o n d i n g t o the CPS E v a l u a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Gingerich, o p . c i t ., pp. 478-88) 69 percen t o f the Old Order Amish felt tha t people c on si de red CPS m e n more s inc ere be ca u s e they w o r k e d wi th o u t pay and 38 percent of t h e m said that if they were offered p a y equival ent to the a r m y b a s e pay t he y would ref use it. T o d a y v e r y few of the A m i s h I - W wor kers are doing v o l u n t a r y service. They take as s i g n e d jobs and do not object to the pay. Only 2 o f the 370 I - W m e n listed in the Mi ssion E n d e a v o r B u l l e t i n , Oct obe r 1 9 5 3 and J a n u a ry -Feb ru ar y 1954 were af fi li a t e d w i t h Me nn o n i t e project s and the se did not necessarily involve v o l u n t a r y service. In some A m i s h circles the young me n are encoura ge d to do v o l u n t a r y service. M. . . two ye ars ago one out of 12 of our y o u n g me n entered some R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . — 568 The conscientious of assignment. objector is gi ve n a l i m i t e d choice P r o m a list of suitable Selective Service the individual possibilities, these three. — agencies pre pa red by usu al ly ma y select three then the draft bo ar d a s s i g n s h i m to one of Or the draft b o a r d ma y name three from w h i c h the draftee selects the one to w h i c h he is w i l l i n g to be assigned. About three-fourths of the Ohio A m i s h draftees are as s i g n e d to work in their h o m e state. Unlike CPS there is no stated policy that the m e n must serve a m i n i m u m distance f r o m their home communities. Wh er e they serve depends m a i n l y on what o p e n ­ ings are available at the t i m e t h e y are drafted. As men ti oned above almost all the A m i s h boys do hos p it al work. as orderlies, but m an y do various types A f e w work of m a i n t enanc e w or k around the h o s p i t a l such as carpentry, c a r i n g for the grounds , or working in the hospital l a u n d r y or bakery. The m a j o r i t y of hospitals in this c o u n t r y are in or n e a r cities. A mis h boys u s u a l l y spend their two years of service urban environment, kerosene lanterns far re mov ed that So the in a n from the b l a c k buggies and char acterize their home. church-spon sor ed program, such as VS or PAX, instead of straigh t I-W service. No w over seventy-five percent of those ret ur ni ng are ad v i s i n g their younger b r o t h e r s to enter the ch u r c h p r o ­ grams. W i t n e s s i n g , Oct ob er 1955, p. 10. Da n i e l Miller, ”D i s ci plesh ip in the Face of M i l i t a r i s m . ” 132. On Ap ri l 27, 1954, there wer e 464 I - W men ser from Ohio and 335 I - W me n were serving in Ohio. Reporter, June, 19 54, p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 569 - On receipt of his notice the A m i s h dr aftee proceeds to the place of his assignment. At the h o s p i t a l he is p r o ­ cessed in m u c h t h e same way as the o t he r employees. Oft en it is not until after this proc e s s i n g that he has any idea what type of work he will be doing at t h e hospital. of Once it is decided in w h i c h departm ent he wi l l serve, he is in st r u c t e d just as is any other employee, offered the same clothes to work in^-33 arL(j given the same pay. is a conscientious The fact that an employee objector makes not the slighte st diffe ren ce to the hospital other than the fa c t that th e y k n o w that he will remain in their employment for tw e n t y - f o u r months. Wh a t the conscientious objector does w i t h his m o ne y orhis leisure time is no concern of theirs. When seve ral A m i s h m e n are assigne d to a city they g e n ­ erally try to live in the same r o o m i n g h o u s e and board ther. toge­ Often they rent a house and ru n it as a cooperative with the wives of the m a r r i e d I- W workers doing most of the house work. Such a typical ar ra ngem en t is described by one worker. There are twel v e here Pour m a r r i e d couples and at this address. four single boys. 133. The conscient ious objectors do not have to wea the typical white coats wo r n by most o f the h o s p i t a l e m p l o y ­ ees, b u t the se are g e n e r a l l y fu rni sh ed free and la und ered by the hospital. M a n y hospit al coats are d es ig ned wi th ou t buttons, so m os t of t h e A m i s h boys wear t h e m witho ut h e s i t a ­ tion. It saves them a great deal of time and effort not to have to care for their own w o r k clothes. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 570 - We have rented a th re e-sto ry house in town about two miles from the hospital. . . . My br other and I have jobs as caretakers. T w o of the ladies do the housekeeping. The other two have b e en doing housework. T h e y might w o r k at the ho sp ital in the near future. It is not definite y e t . 134 Some of the ma rried couples li v e alone in a p a r t m e n t s 135 even in trailer c a m p s . U n l i k e ally responsible for his CPS, or e ach m a n is i n d i v i d u ­ own living arrange men ts; there is no organization to h el p h i m or to compel h i m to live by c e r ta in rules or regulations. The I-W wo rker than a member o f a group. is an individual r a t h e r The chu r c h has no direct or legal control over him. Old Order A m i s h R e a c t i o n to the I- W Progra m The I - W p r o gram is se en by the A m i s h as the least of many ev i l s , -^7 as a cross to be b o r n, ^^ ® as pun ishm ent ,139 an(j as a means for 134, turning their a t t e n t i o n to the w o r l d bey ond R e p o r t e r , August, 1953, p. 4. 135. Personal correspondence, 4/27/55. W h e n her h u s ­ band went into I-W service 00A86 mov ed from h e r f a t h e r - i n - l a w Ts farm where she was the only woman, caring for a large house, the chickens, the garden, milk in g the cows, ca nning and soap making as well as cooking, to li v in g in a fu rn ish ed apar tm en t in the city w i t h only her b ab y to care for and her husband to feed twice a day. 135. H e r a l d , September 24, 19 53, p. 7. 137. H e r a l d , Nov em be r 19, 1953, p. 1; Janu ary 7, 1954, p. 1; March 4, 1954, p. 6; M a r c h 11, 1954, p. 3; D e c e m b e r 31, 1954, p. 5. 138. 139. -H e r a l d , January 21, 1954, H e r a l d , Fe b r u a r y 24, 1955, p. 6. p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - their community. 140 common although there 571 - The r e a c t i o n that it is a pu nishment is is dis agr eeme nt the punishment is in ten ded to erase. punishment of the c o m m u n i t y for not over the specific evils Some interpret it as tr ain ing t he ir y o u t h more strictly, for not m a i n t a i n i n g das alt G e b r a u c h , others as punishment for n o t b e i n g t r u l y religious , but o n l y inter est ed in outward forms, still others feel t h e y bro ugh t it u p o n t h e m ­ selves by not m a i n t a i n i n g their sep ar ation f r o m the w o r l d strictly enough, while a small g r o u p b e l i e v e s the Old Order A mi sh h av e b e e n too exclusive in their interests. instances all these are b e l i v e d at once. I n most 141 140. To the Ch ri sti ans Chris t said, "'Ye are the salt of the earth.' Could it be p o s si bl e t h a t the 'salt of the earth' may have so met hing to do w i t h this situation? The purpose of salt is to season and pr eserve. Meat is -often cured and p r ese rv ed by the means of salt brine. W h e n such meat spoils we do not blame the me at but conclude that salt brine was too w e a k . . . I do not say t h a t the ch urch is r e ­ sponsible for the draft, but I f e a r we ma y have had more to do with it than most of us realize. It seems to be one w a y of pressing us into service w h i c h we should give voluntarily. " Ervin Hershberger, "Who is R e s p o n s i b l e for the D r a f t ? " W i t ­ nessing , December, 1955, pp. 1-2. "The storms of two se le c t i v e service programs h a v e a l ­ ready been used by God in an effort to dislodge us f r o m our Tarshish-bound ship." "Modern Jonahs Going to T a r s h i s h " W i t n e s s i n g , March, 1956, p. 4. 141. T h e y are bein g consis ten t w i t h the H e b r ew Christian traditio n when t h e y re act to w a r w i t h self-blame and se lf-sea rch ing in stead of h a t r e d of others. A n t o n T. Boisen, Religion in Crisis and C u s t o m (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), p p . 103-6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - The b e l i e f t h a t 572 - selective service is a punis hm en t from God does not p r e v e n t the A m i s h fr o m c ri ti ci zi ng the I - W p r o ­ gram and wor r yi ng about the program are that work hard enough, dependent its effects. it is too easy. F r e q u e n t criticisms The of young m e n do not they are paid too much, and t h e y are not on the church nor -under any ki n d of s u p e r v i s i o n d u r ­ ing their free time. It seems to me that our pr iv il e g e s are more than we r e a l l y deserve. Perhaps if the boys would have to w o r k w i t ho ut pay and the c h u r c h would h a v e to support th e m it wou ld lo ok more like sacrificial service to the people in gener a l .142 The wages rec eive d by the I - W workers are not high, but they seem h i g h to the A m i s h w h o are not used to as se s s i n g the cost of board and room. hired hand for A father w i t h four seventy-five chi ldren works as a dollars a m o n t h plus a house, gar­ den patch, m i l k and butter, and feed for his horses. However, 1« he figures his w a g e at seven ty-f ive dollars. A young married couple 144 twenty dollars them. w o r k e d as hir e d h a n d and hired girl^ being paid a m o n t h and a share in the crop for the two of In a d d i t i o n t h e y re c e i v e d r o o m and board . W h e n the elders c o m p l a i n that th e I-W boys get paid bet ter than h i r e d hands f o r do i n g less work, the y do not take into account 142. H e r a l d , N ov embe r 19, 1953, p. 1. D 43. 00A115. 144. 00A116, 00A117. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. the - cost of living in the city. 573 - Rather there has be e n a t e n de ncy to blame with h ig h and riotous living the yo uth who cannot save m o n e y on their I - W wages. The yo un g m e n in I- W service can, to a l i m i t e d extent, choose their own type of service i n s t e a d of working whe re their parents tell them to in an environment ca refully pi cke d by their parents and at a wage their pa ren ts la rgel y determine. As m y thoughts go b a c k to those days / t h e First World W a r / , I often w o n d e r if it would not have b ee n be tter for our souls if it had not b e e n m or e like that in the last war. In those days there was peace in the churches, the sermons were touching, and m a n y tears were shed by the old and young alike. Why? Satan tried to f o r c e us to give up our belief. There wa s m u c h force u sed on C.O.'boys in the Z ^ r m y / c a m p s , but v e r y few of our boys yielded. No w Satan is trying a different w a y to win souls. He comes as an angel of light. The boys have the p riv ilege m o s t l y to p ic k a job of their own choice . . . I believe Satan can also say, w0h boy, what a wo nde rful o ppo rtunity I have at these young souls, a wa y fro m their parents, t h e i r church, their c o m m u n i t y and their relatives, and right here in the m i d s t of many worldly lusts and temptations. Now is m y chancel I will, w o r k hard on these souls and see if I ‘c a n ’t win t h e m befo re they go home ag ai n . n Dear readers, w h i c h way does Satan w i n the most souls - by force, or with a sm oo th tongue and a broad smile?l45 If there were no draft, I do not believe m an y of our churches w o u l d approve of its members holding a job under such e nvi ronment and c o n ­ dition as the I- W boys are re quired to work.l^^ 145. A.D. Kutz, Herald, M a r c h 24, 1955, p. 146. D.L.W. H e r a l d , Decembe r 3. 24, 1954, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 574 - As the A m i s h Commun ity fears the personal their yo uth would m a k e friendships in h i g h school t h e y also contacts fear these that m a y dev elop while the young m e n are in I-W service. I also realize that the dangers of b e i n g led astray by their contacts w i t h other people are v ery real and that these boys n e e d our constant prayers and enc ouragement to stand firm in their fa ith .147 One Am is h boy f r o m S h i p s h e w a n a , In di an a who refused to r e p o r t for his I - W service wrote V e r y few of these A m i s h boys who left are Am i s h anymore. I kno w o f one boy, son of a Bishop, who always tried v e ry h ar d to do the will of God -while still at h om e but no w h e ’s in a h o spit al and h e ’s just sim p l y gone wild. What w i l l ha p p e n to the churches if these young boys go astray?148 While the I - W program is i n effect vi rtu al ly every young man in the comm u n i t y is removed fro m the l a b o r supply for t w o years during the p e r i o d w h e n he norm ally wou ld have worked as a hired ha nd for ano ther A m i s h family. made h i re d hands hard to get. This had Ma ny A m i s h farmers hav e been unable to hire boys and have filled in b y w o r k i n g h a r d e r themselves or b y limiting t h e i r crop.l^® Fairly fr equ e n t l y there is men ti on in the H e r a l d of not b e i n g able 147. Jonas E. 148. Herald, Fe bru ary 25, 1954, p. 149. John E. to find a Beachy, H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 31, 1955, p. 5. 6. Beachy, H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 31, 1953, p. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 5. hired ha nd and o c c as iona ll y this s i t u a t i o n is r e l a t e d to the I - W program. One b y one the boys leave us and will p r o b ­ ably continue for some t i m e yet, therefo re it w i l l cause a serious shortage of m a n p o w e r on the farm. 150 D a n J. M ast is h a v i n g sale the 1 9 t h of this m o n t h and also ha s his farm for sale, as he d o e s n ’t have m u c h h e l p ' a n y more. Two o f his sons, L e s t e r and Allen, are I - W workers. 151 Old Order A m i s h N o n - C o o p e r a t i o n w i t h Select iv e Service Since the end of W o r l d W a r II there have b e e n a f e w instances of A m i s h m e n being denied a 1-0 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by their local draft boards. W h e n the A m i s h draftee ly re fused i n du ct io n into the army he was tried. subsequent­ Of the 1 5P cases that have come t o my a t t e n t i o n one was d i s m i s s e d J_ and three were sentenced. 153 T h e r e hav e also b e e n instances 150. Ibid. 151. H e r a l d , J u l y 14, 1955, p. 5. 152. A b r a h a m Y. Borntreger, Hazelton, Iowa, d i s ­ missed on g r o u n d s that his dr aft c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was no t appealed after he had r e q u e s t e d it t h r o u g h the p r o p e r c h a n ­ nels. wi. 153. M e l v i n J. C hu pp of Fairban, Iowa and Ema nuel J. Miller of Hazletown, Iowa. E a c h r e f u s e d le gal aid b e ­ cause wthey shoul d n o t go to l a w , ” a n d were sen t e n c e d to three years. R e p o r t e r , January, 1954, p. 6. R e u b e n J. Kaufman from Il li noi s was s ente nc ed to one year and one day. A f t e r rel ease on pa role his draft bo ar d c h a n g e d his classification to 1-0. He s u b s e q u e n t l y was eligibl e for twenty-four months of I - W -work. R e p o r t e r , February, 1954 po 3* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 576 - of A m i s h I - W workers w a l k i n g off the ir assign ed This list of cases job. 1 ^4- is incomplete,, In In di ana a f e w ch ur c h officials adv ise d th e i r young m e n not to coopera te w i t h the I - W program,, grounds for la ck of c o o p e r a t i o n w e r e The that th e boys ha d r e ­ ceived assignments in the c i t y and A m i s h are not all ow ed to live in the city. A few scattered A m i s h m e n agreed w i t h this pos ition. . . . Personally, I do not feel that I could accept or en courage anyone to accep t I- W w o r k . 155 But the ove r w h e l m i n g r e a c t i o n was position. I qu o t e one of protest against this exerpts f r o m a f e w letters. . . .1 was not trying to make it appear that we are gl ad for su c h a setup /the I - W p r o g r a m / and that it is a p r i v i l e g e to do su c h work. No, I think that boys at the age that they are drafted would be b e t t e r o f f at home w i t h their parents and in the ir home chur ch environment (if this is as it should be). But we all know that the,re is at pr esent a c o n s c r i p t i o n law . . . Now our govern me nt w as v e r y lenient a n d made provisions for tho s e who are con scientious o b ­ jectors so that t h e y need on l y p e r f o r m 2 years of civi li an l a b o r i n some h o s p i t a l or r e l i e f w o r k under some o r g a n i z a t i o n such as MCC. Cer­ tainly this will cause some i n c o n ven ie nc e to some and there have b e e n reports that did not 154. In La Gran ge County, I n d i a n a there were at one time eleven A m i s h m e n w h o w a l k e d off their jobs or ref used assignments. R e p o r t e r , December, 1953, p. 4. Most of these men eventually r et u r n e d to assigned c iv il ia n employment. Andrew Yoder lef t h i s job in Columbus, Ohio, for religious reasons. News N o t e s , June, 1953, p. 3. 155. Herald, D e c e m b e r 24, 1954, p. 6. W r i t t e n by an Amishman wh o had r e c e n t l y m i g r a t e d f r o m Ohio to Canada. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 577 - sound g o o d about some of the boy s that are in hospital service, but does this give us ground to cause our local, state and natio nal boards a lot of trouble b y re f u s i n g to go altogether? . . .Now I do not w a n t to criticize too strongly, e speci al ly if t h e s e young m e n feel that t h ey are con sc ient io us ly unable to p e r f o r m civili an w o r k in some hospital or relief w o r k u nd er s ome charitable o r g a n i s a ­ tion. However, what g o o d can they do in some fed eral prison? Will this be w i t n e s s i n g for our Lord? O nl y if they are there for c o n ­ science sake, G o d ’s W o r d commands us to be obedient to our e a r thly rulers except where laws conflict w i t h the W o r d of God. I. Peter 2:12-20; Rom. 13:1-5.156 If there were no provis io ns made in the laws o f ’our gover nm en t for c on scientio us ob-' jectors, b u t to take up arms or imprisonment, that w o u l d be a different p r o p os it io n a l t o ­ gether. But, provisi ons are made for the C . O ’s to put in the two years as I-W or v o l u n t e e r workers in the var ious h os pi ta ls th roughout the nation, w h i c h in no wa y is con ne ct ed w i t h warfare, and it seems the authorities are s at is ­ fied that w a y p r o v i d i n g it is p ea cefu ll y accepted by the C .O ’s .157 . . . we w i l l pr obably all agree that it /the I-W p r o g r a m / is not o u r ow n choosing, but it seems to me that b e t w e e n per for mi ng hospital work and spending t h e same time in jail or a federal prison, the h o s p i t a l w or k would c e r ­ tainly be the lesser of the two e v i l s , as there is a good chance of be ing a light to the wor ld and also he lpin g s ic k and unfor tun ate people, besides gai ning v a l u a b l e experi enc e for t h e m ­ selves if t h e y rem a i n true to their faith w h i c h they have accepte d or were b r o ’t up b y . 158 156. R a y mo nd W agl er, H e r a l d , January 7, 1954, p. 1. 157. Joe Bontreger, 153. Jonas E. H e r a l d , January 21, 1954, p. 6. Beachy, H e r a l d , Decemb er 31, 1953, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 578 - The p i t if ul lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the protest ing Amish boys had of the p r o g r a m is revealed one of t h e m t ha t in a let ter from appeared in the Heruld. Dear Mr. Bontreger, I read your l e t t e r in the "Herald," concerni ng those who r e f u s e d to go as I- W workers. I must say I just can't agree w i t h you as I am one who refused to go. I am h e l p i n g m y dad farm 170 acres w i t h horses. Dad is almost 60 years old. I hav e an older b r o t h e r w h o was a lso called. What should we do? Just go and l e a v e h i m alone. To my wa y of thinking it is not the U.S. Government who is call­ ing these boys. I t ’s just the M.C.C. and the local board. G e n er al H e rs hey, he ad o f Selective Service in Washington, states that he does not want so m an y boys w o r k i n g in h os pit als as it w i l l cause trouble to cit y folks wh o are looking for jobs. He also states he will no t turn these boys over for p r o s e ­ cution. I k n o w there h a v e ' b e e n bad reports about these boys, some were true, some we r e not. But wh y should we go to a h o s p i t a l and o nl y make it worse? V e r y f e w of these Am is h boys who left a r e ' A m i s h anymore. I k n o w of one boy, son of a Bishop, who always trie d v e r y h a r d to do the w i l l of God while still at h o m e but n o w h e ’s in a h o s p i t a l and he's just si mp ly gone wild. W h a t wi l l h a p p e n to the churches if these young boys go astray? The day might come w h e n those M.C.C. "dictators" and l o c a l board mem bers m i g h t come out to a f arm h o u s e and a s k for a bit to eat since there are over 3000 working in hos pi tal s of w h i c h most of' them come from farms. It would be a rather sil ly l a w to send a gu y to pr i s o n merely because he preferr ed to stay at hom e and raise food for the m a n y h u n g r y people in this world. I k n o w m a n y people t hi nk everbod y should go and loaf in a h o s p i t a l for 2 years, but just t h o u g h t I'd write and g ive y o u my o p i ni on of the matter. I think if e very bo dy would l o o k into the f u t u r e a li ttle more these boys wo ul d all s t ay at h o m e where they belong. No h ard feelings. Just t h i n k it over real good. Yours t r u l y . 159 159. The l e t t e r was p os tmark ed Shipshewana, Indiana January 26, 1954, the name of the w r i t e r was b l o t t e d out b e ­ fore he m a i l e d it. H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 25, 1954, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 579 - On June 24, 1955 the four A m i s h pr otest or s were sen ten ced by Judge Luther Swygert in Fort Wa yne, in prison and each fined $2,000. Indiana, to five years One young man, Al b e r t Mullett of Topeka, had his sentenc e suspend ed and h e was placed on t h r e e years o f p r o b a t i o n w h e n he ag r e e d to ac cept civilian assignment. sentence was given. Enos Yo de r o f A s h l e y faint ed af te r the He was to jail after treatment. taken to a hospital, but ret ur ned He, Levi L e h m a n o f Tope ka , and Abraham B on tr eg er of Lag ra ng e were impri s o n e d at Mil l Point, West Virginia. *1^0 Two A m i s h c o n s c i e n t i o u s objectors, E l m e r Yoder and Amos Mast, w e r e a l r e a d y serving at Mill Point. had been allowed to w e a r A m i s h clothes but w h e n these young men arrived, the pris on a u t h o ri ti es Amish must wear the pr iso n uniform. had done during the Fir st W o r l d War. T hey three dec ided that the T h e y r e f us ed as A m i s h me n The next m o r n i n g the Amishmen discov ere d that the p r i s o n aut hor it ie s h a d rem oved all their clothing. W i t h o u t th ei r clothes to the dining h all for their meals. clothers were available. T he y w e r e told pr i s o n A fte r a w e e k of l i v i n g of f l e f t ­ over bread and other scraps sympathetic pri so ne rs brought to them, they b e g a n receiving dining hall. t hey could not go one m e a l a day f r o m the p r i s o n This diet cont i n u e d for t h r e e more weeks u nt il the prison authorities allowed the m e n to a lt er the regular 160. News N o t e s , July-A ugu st, 1955, Novembe r, November 19 55, p. 4. R e p o r t e r , August, 19 55, p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. p. 4, - 5 80 - prison garb in su ch a wa y that it would s a t i s f y the ordnung. Community Support o f I- W W o r k e r s . The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y supports through p e rs on al v i s i t s its y o u t h in I - W service and w i t h letters. Friends, re la tiv es, acquaintances, e v e n s t r a n g e r s visit and w r i t e letters workers. to the The I - W wo rke rs are en co ur a g e d to visit th e c o m m u n i t y as often and as l o n g as possible. A strong effort is mad e to persuade t h e m to come h o m e Su nda y to attend the home church. In cities wh er e the re are a f a i r l y large nu mber o f A m i s h boys serving the preache rs and mem be rs try to hold c h u r c h for them. Early in the p r o g r a m th ere was sharp d i s a g r e e m e n t feasibility of having, special c h u r c h in the city. it was a useless effort b e c a u s e the boys Others feared t h a t if the w o r ker s over the Some felt did not ap pre c i a t e attended it. ch ur ch in the c i t y they would no t r e t u r n to their h om e for services. A le tter was sent to one of th e I - W boys last we ek, a part of w h i c h I read. It stated that the list of m i n i s t e r s schedule d to go to Cle vel and to h o l d services for the I-W boys runs out In May, a n d were asked w h e t h e r it was wo rthwhi le to get an oth er list or not. Well, I m u s t say m o s t of the time m ore other people attend t h a n I - W boys f r o m Cleveland, and of all the b oy s in Cleveland, n u m b e r i n g p r o b ­ ably a couple h u n d r e d ^This es tima te is u n d o u b t ­ e dl y too h i g h / there are h a r d l y ever m o r e than two dozen at the church. Some peopl e say if'we go up there to h o ld services for the b o y s , t h e y w o n ’t c om e to c h u r c h w he n t h e y are h o m e o v e r Sunday. N o w let me tell 161. News Notes, June-Ju ly, September, 1956, p. 3. 1956, o. 1, 3; Reporter, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 581 - yo u a few things, and if I ’m wrong, write me pe rs on a l l y an d t e l l me w h y I ’m wrong. The way I see it, the b o y s that go to ch u r c h up here go regularly, and I t r u s t they go to c h u r c h at home also, but th ose that d o n ’t seem to care to go to church at home - don't go to c h u r c h up h e r e . 162 These ch urch services g e n e r a l l y must b e h e l d in such u n ­ natural places as a n old store instead of an A m i s h home or barn. E ve n t h o u g h c o m m u n i t y members travel to the c it y to -i r* *7 “help along w i t h the chu r c h and in the s i n g i n g , w whole c o mm un ity is no t the re, there are fe w r e a l l y old people and rarely any sch ool children. worry the T he re seems t o be a v a g u e that such a g a t h e r i n g is not a true com mu nit y of Saints in whose midst is much better for participate Jesus Christ. These individuals feel it is the I - W w ork ers to r e t u r n to their homes to in the w o r s h i p of the true c h u r c h of Go d of running the r is k of w o r s h i p i n g where t h e y cannot instead “enter into the com mun io n of the b o d y of Jesus Christ. A Be achy A m i s h m a n cr iti cize s those who do not bel ieve in holding chur ch for the I - W workers: On our rec ent trip to Ohio, Joe Masts and us visited with the I - W boys at Cleveland, Ohio, also ha d c h u r c h se r v i c e s there . . . W ha t is h ar d for us to un de rs tand , is the seeming l ac k of interest some of the home churches (ministers especially) take In these 16 2. Herald, F e b r u a r y 24, 1955, p. June 15, 19 54, p. 354. 163. H e r a l d , M a r c h 4, 1955, p. 1; Hd W. 2. 164. D.P. op. cit., 1910, p. 368. There is no worry over the fact that ch ur ch services for the I-W wo rke rs are R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 582 - boys. Those who are loudest in cri ti ci zi ng these young men, are the ver y ones who r e ­ fuse to visit them or conduct ch ur c h services for them.165 An Old Order A m i s h lay m a n writes: If we love our boys and hop e that our churches are to be built up late r on w i t h the good deeds of the y o ung people we mu st visit them a n d prove to t h e m that w e want them ba ck in our churches. This ca n be done best b y going to the c h u r c h that is held every two weeks in C l e v e l a n d f o r all these A m i s h boys who work at the various hospitals in C l e v e l a n d .1®® Not only are preache rs respon sib le f o r th e service but e n o u g h of the community members must go to m a k e service. it a real c h urch Thus e a c h member feels re spons ib le for th e wel f ar e of the workers. Carloads of A m i s h make the trip, times a whole bus was hired to tak e the members f r o m one the church districts up to the services feeling that the and s o m e ­ in Cleveland. of "I £ 7 The community shou ld hold c h u r c h services for the I-W workers grew steadily. By the summe r of 1956 a se m i ­ permanent prog ram had been set up w i t h each church district held on some other day than Sunday. (In C level an d the s e r ­ vices were held Thursday evening.) The calendar h a s n e v e r been overly important to the A m i s h and th ey are us e d to holding chur ch services on various days to a c c o m m o d a t e ’ visiting preachers or even a funeral. H e r a l d , M a r c h 4, 1954, p. 7. 165. Herald, July 8, 1954, 166. H e r a l d , Ma rc h 4, 1954, p. 1. p. 2. 167. "Thursday evening a bus load from went to Cleve lan d to ha v e church for the I-W b o y s . April 26, 1955, June 16, 1955, p. 2. district Herald, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 583 - in Ohio taking its turn at having c h u r c h for the boys in Cleveland,, As well as these visits f o r the purpose of h o l d i n g church, ce rt ai n A m i s h preac he rs t a k e it u p o n -themselves to travel around the country vi s i t i n g all the I - W workers. Personal visits by fami lie s workers are frequent. such visits. "1 and friends of the I- W E v e r y Issue of the Herald mentions Ofte n the visitors arrive u na nn ou nced at the place the workers are roo ming or living. There t he y greet them or wait p a t i e n t l y until the boy s r e t u r n fro m work. most invariably the visitors br ing food. said it was Al­ One I - W worker-*-^® Impossible to eat all the food that was b r o ugh t and sent their g r o u p of six. The visitors community affairs and often ex hort the fast while t h e y caref ul ly notice discuss fa mil y and young m e n to be s t e a d ­ (but r a r e l y m e n t i o n s p e c i ­ fically) any evidence of d e v i a t i o n in con duct or dress. The importance of let ters A I-W worker wrote should not be minimized. in the Herald I pre sume that most of the I - W boys, away from home and churches, could t e s t i f y w it h me that letters fr om friends, k n o w n and unknown, have 168. H e r a l d , July 19, 1956, p. 1. 169. Herald, October 1, 1953, p. 2, O c t ob er 15, 1953, p« 3. Abe Y o d e r of Hartville, Ohio vis it ed most of the A m i s h I-W early in the program. 170. 00A141. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 584 - played an important role in k e e p i n g t h e m from becoming discouraged; f r o m f orgetting home and yielding to m a n y t emptations of the w o r l d s u r ­ r ounding us. Lett er s a s s u r i n g prayers, i n t e r ­ est in the w o r k and p eo p l e we are se r vi ng and e xpressing confidence t h a t we are s e e k i n g to promote the K i n g d o m o f God in the h e a r t s of men, have been e s p e c i a l l y challenging. Some Problems Inherent in the I - W P r o g r a m The imminence of I - W service tends to encou ra ge boys to be baptized long be f or e t h ey are r e a d y to g i v e up the freedom of y o u t h and accept the status o f an adult c h u r c h member. W i t h their b a p t i s m they are more n e a r l y a s s u r e d of 1-0 c l as si fi ca ti o n for t h e y have become members church. 1 70 ^ If t h e A m i s h m a n does not receive a 1-0 c l a s s i ­ fication he faces the army. court a c t i o n w h e n he refuses i n d u c t i o n into The m a x i m u m p e n a l t y is five years fine of ten thousand dollars. the A mish y ou th not to have ters for the 171. of a peace draft, but 173 Not only is it dangerous for joined ch ur ch by the t i me he r e g i s ­ in some cases judges h a v e t a k e n recent H e r a l d , Au gu s t 2, 19 56, p. 172. Some even if they have Millersburg, Ohio Amish church, yet in p r i s o n and a 7. A m i s h m e n c a n get their 1-0 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n not b e e n baptized. N e l s o n R. Y o d e r of was t w en t y- on e and not a m e m b e r of the he was gi ve n the 1-0 classification. 173. Lyle Tatum, e d . , H a n d b o o k for C o n sc i en ti ou s Objectors (Philadelphia. Pa.: Ce nt r al Commi t te e for Conscientious Objectors, 1952). Select iv e Service Act, Section 1 2 ( a ) . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 585 - joining as g r o u n d s for i n d i c a t i n g that the i n d i v i d u a l was insincere in his o b j e c t i o n to war. that the i ndividual military service. baptism. The judge h a s implied joi n ed the c h u r c h in order to escape This tends t o encourage even younger If then t h e n e w l y b a p t i z e d me mb e r does not abide by the Qrdnung, he may be r e f u s e d 1-0 classification. The situation has be e n p a r t i c u l a r l y tense i n Indiana. The La Grange A m e r i c a n l e gi on a s k e d that the draft l a w b e changed. They suggested the term c o n s c i e n t i o u s o bj ec to r be r e d e f i n e d to p r ov id e that relig io us training and b e l i e f must be d em o n s t r a t e d by t h e Individ ua l 's overt acts, person al habits, r e l i g i o u s a tt en d an ce and general c o n d u c t for a p e r io d of at least two years prior to the time th e Individual claims exemption as a con sc ie nt i ou s obje c to r . . .I7 ® As the late a d ol e s c e n t p e r i o d I m m e d i a t e l y p r ec ed in g ( and o f t e n during) the time of I - W service few A mish m en twenty years Is a pe ri o d of revolt, very old or young w o u l d cjualify for 1-0 classification if the above c r i t e r i o n were applied. The I-W p r o g r a m leads the c o m m u n i t y to e n co ur ag e ear ly baptism of t h e i r y o u n g m e n b o t h b e c au se th e y fear t h e p o s s i ­ bility of fines and p r i s o n sentences and b e c au se they feel more secure if the boys are un d e r c h u r c h d i s c i p l i n e before they leave the community. The c o m m u n i t y then has more 174. Fo r example, R e u b e n J. K a u f m a n of Illinois and Aaron King of Piketon, Ohio. 175. R e p o r t e r , De c e m b e r , 1953, p. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Filmed as received without page(s)__5iji UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 587 - confidence that the I - W worker will not be lost to the church and that he w i l l make a b e t t e r witness for Christ and for the A m i s h church. ready for thi s role. But of t e n the I - W worker So the c o m m u n i t y is faced w i t h what to do with boys #10 join the c h u r c h at seventeen, years before they are r e a d y for the step. not been set'tled. situations obviously This q u e s t i o n has It is being h a n d l e d like so m a n y other that the A m i s h cannot change, the unpleasant aspects. have Is not by trying to ignore The be h a v i o r of the young boy s who joined the c h u r c h but are awa y at I - W service and are not living stri c tl y b y the Ordnung is for the m o s t part bei n g studiously overlooked. W i t h a group of I - W b o y s ’ friends and r e l a t i v e s I visited six A m i s h boys who h a d b e e n bapt i ze d and were doing their service. twenty. The youngest b o y w a s seventeen, the oldest We arriv ed u n a n n o u n c e d , carrying fo od packa ge s, and sat on the front porc h of t h e i r boarding house un t i l the boy s assembled. Had I not known some of the b o y s individually and been introduced to the rest in s u c h a w a y that I could I d e n t i ­ fy their families, I would not have k n o w n they were Amish. Their hair was combed straight back, w i t h o u t a part, but was cut as short as possible w i t h o u t it shingling the b a ck .^ ^® Two even l o o k e d as t h o u g h clippers h ad b e e n used a litt le at 176. The boys usua ll y cut e a c h o t h e r ’s hair. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. the b a c k of the neck. black). The boys They had wide belts wore b ro w n shoes (forbidden) and it b e i n g a h o t a ft e r n o o n they came (Instead of on their d e n i m pants down in ordi na ry T~ shirts. Several b o y s wore w r i s t w a t c he s w i t h broad gold bands. In front of the hous e sat an a u t o m o b i l e belon g in g to a C o n ­ servative boy, b u t p o s s i b l y driv en on o c ca si o n by the Old Order boys. The boarding house was ac r o s s f r o m the h o s p i t a l and but a few blocks f r o m a movie and all the o t h e r l ur e s of a small city. At w o r k t he boy s and pl ea s u r e s wore white h o s p i t a l jackets that further hi d t he i r A m i s h affiliation. Here was a group of b oys l i v i n g u p to one of the basic beliefs of their c h u r c h in t h a t t h e y were do i n g a lternative civilian service instead of joining the army. not abiding by t h e specific rules that m a d e thei r c h u r c h d i s ­ tinct from any other. church whi ch was But t h e y were Te c hn i c a l l y they were m e m b e r s of a duty bou n d to remove an y spot or blemish. By not living accor di ng to the O r d n u n g these young m e n became a spot and blemish. But w h a t cou ld t h e church do? Physically the boys were a l r e a d y s ep a r a t e d f r o m the community. them would not help for they w e r e To shu n a l r e a d y so far awa y that they would not notice the e xc l u s i o n n o r feel a gre at e r sense of loneliness. It w o u l d only drive t h e m f r o m the commu ni t y into the world. 177. A n o t h e r p o s si bl e p r o b l e m is that c h il dr en und e 21 are expected to r e t u r n all their earnings to the parents who decide ho w they will be used. If a p e r s o n is being R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 589 - The only w a y the boys c a n get f r o m their j ob to the home c ommunity to visit, to a t t e n d c h u r c h and b e r e as su re d of their A m i s h i d e n t i t y is to go b y car. So the c o mm un it y cannot' strict about their u s i n g long a s be too Old Order boys are d iscreet e n o u g h not a car as to drive the it w h e n t h e y will be seen b y c h u r c h members. There is n o t h i n g for the ch u r c h to do but to wait patiently. having f a i t h in God that, the time will come, eventually, t h a t t h e y /the I - W boys/ w il l surrender t h e i r lives to Him, who died on the Cross o f Calvary, so that we m a y live for h i m . 178 R ea l i z i n g that the young people are not to be censured, b ut pitied, that t he y h a v e so m a n y temptations to face. E a c h passing year seems to add more stumbling blocks and pitfalls to t h e i r p a t h s . 179 The church has n e v e r h a d to f a c e the p r o b l e m o f h av i ng to discipline and c o n t r o l m e m b e r s w h o were p h y s i c a l l y removed from the community. T h e y have n o means for h a n d l i n g this new situation other t han to ignore d i s o b ed ie nc e and port the young m e n b y fre qu en t visits. munity waits to s u p ­ But w h i l e the c o m ­ it worries: shunned no church m e m b e r m a y accept m o n e y f r o m h i m so banning the boys m i g h t give t h e m m o re spending m o n e y to use while t h e y w e r e l iv i n g in the v e r y ce n t e r of w o r l dl y temptations. However, in p r a c t i c e the I - W boys ge ne r a l l y do not r e t u r n an y of t h ei r I - W wages to their fathers. 178. H e r a l d , April 21, 1955, p. 1. 179. H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 24, 1955, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 590 - I feel quite sure that the c hu r c h as a whole, is always g l a d to see'these boys / l - W w o r k e r s / come t o church, e v en if at times they do not come in just t h e w a y we w ould p r e f e r t o see them . . .100 So m a ny of our A m i s h boys are aw a y w o r k ­ ing in h o s p i t a l s now. We so h o p e and pray they w i l l not lose t h e i r f a i t h and be a shining light to others but the y o u ng er p e o ­ ple as a w h ol e I do not think they realize the purpose of our l i f e h e r e on e a r t h like y o u do w h e n y o u grow some older or at least it is that w a y w i t h m e .181 Many p a x en ts and c h u r c h members, as well as preachers and ch ur ch l eaders, are beco mi ng more de e pl y c on ce rn ed about our A m i s h boys who have b e e n called a wa y in service at' the hospitals. O n l y the parents and those who visit the boys can fully realize what is h a p ­ pening. 182 It is di ff i c u l t to imagine a p r o g r a m o f al te r na ti ve service that wo ul d be m o r e d isruptive I-W program. to the A m i s h than the It involves almost n o persecution^-®^ to 180. H e r a l d , A p r i l 21, 1955, haircuts and dress. 181. Personal 182. H e r a l d , M a r c h 4, 1954, p. 1, r ef e r r i n g to their correspondence, p. Il/20/53. 2. 185. O c c a s i o n a l l y there m a y be some trouble w i t h p e o ­ ple in the towns w h e r e m o r e I-W w o r ke r s are assigned. As when two M ennonite c o ns ci entious objectors doing assigned • civilian w o r k at Mont Alto Sanatorium, S o u t h Mountain, Pa., were attacked by three y o ut h f r o m the community. • Hews Notes of The Central C o m m i t t e e o n Religions, D ecember, 1953, p. 3. One A m i s h m a n was r e li ev e d of his I - W duty after some o f his fellow workers tried t o shave off his beard. Herald, September 23, 1954, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - strengthen the church. 591 - It treats the assignee as an indivi- dual rather than a m e m b e r of a group. 184 This is comple te ly different f r o m anything the A m i s h y o u t h has experienced or will experience again. He has been raised and educated to be a m ember of a group, s u b or di na t in g his personal desires for the good of the group in r e t u r n f o r r ec e i v i n g s trong support from the group. T ftS N o w for two years at a very 184. Eli S. Bontreger, ”I n t r o d u c t i o n ,” The Story of the A m i s h in C i vi li an Public Service by David Wa gl e r and Roman Raber (Boonsboro, M d . , 1945) p. 6 In CPS the da n ge r of i ndividual assignment was already recognized b y the c h u r c h leaders. One Old Order A m i s h m i n ­ ister who was appointed to visit the camps wrote: ”A c o n ­ siderable n u m b e r of our young m e n have accepted detached ser­ vice in hosp it al and on dairy farms and a f e w othe-r p o s i ­ tions. Most of t he se are well satisfied. However, w h e n we consider everything connec te d w i t h s u c h transfers we come to the conclusion that we would p re f e r h a v i n g o ur boys remain in the c a m p s . ” 185. ", . . w h e n we first got away from home, our resistance to numerous temptations was w e a k . . . Probably one reason is that we had fenced ourselves in by the pressure of the home community. Our actions and even our con ve rs a ti on were guided by what people thought about it, rather t h a n by worthwhile purpose . . . W h e n we left home to start working at our new places of employment, we b eg an facing life as a separate individual. A n d we were quite inexperienced. When our fellow workers did something u nchristian, we were so used to doing as the n ex t fe l lo w did that w e found it hard to think of w h at would b e b e t t e r . ” Samuel N Is l y ”Our In- ' dividual Respons ib il it ie s to G o d , ” W i t n e s s i n g , July-August, 1954, p. 10. ”Some boys, that a p p a r e n t l y are Tp r e t t y good b o y s ’ at home, are quite disappointing w h e n t h e y get away from home. W h y should this be? I think that too often parents and ministers are satisf ie d if they stay close to home, and d o n ’t do this and that. The parents shelter them at home, brag on them, and try to elevate them socially, and often promise large material re wa r d s If they follow some a c ­ cepted p a t t e r n . ” Amos J. Yoder, ”0 b j e c t o r s ,” H d W , M a r c h 1, 19 56, p. 77. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 592 - impressionable age the young m a n is to a considerable e x ­ tent without g ro up support and w i t h o ut group control. The danger is that he m a y l earn some of the pleasures of an i n ­ dividualistic life and that t h e s e might o u t w e i g h the d r a w ­ backs . The I - W worker is even fu r th er f r o m parental control than community control. A l t h o u g h under normal conditions each youth below twenty-one years of age returns his earnings to his parent the I -W worker r a r e l y ret ur ns a n y m o n e y . T h e parents do not arrange for the boy's food and lodging while he is serving and so he m u s t keep m o n e y to p a y for these,* there is m u c h more And opp or t un it y to spend money while working the city than when work in g as a h ired hand one visit a w e e k to the village. in on a f a r m w i t h only The I - W worker's first r e ­ sponsibility is to h is e m pl oy er who re pr e s e n t s the government. His parents no longer can t e l l h i m t o come home when ev er he is wanted or needed, n o r can they ar ra ng e for h i m to change his job if he is not developing as t h e y feel h e ask him to visit them during his T h e y may free time or on occasional vacations, b u t this is very d ifferent say over where the b o y works, should. from having the final w h e n he will work, for w h o m he will work and how m u c h m oney he s hall receive. 186. Some H u t te ri te m e n receive only $10 per m o n t h plus $1 per day subsistence for their assigned w o r k in Custer State Park. This strengthens the co mm u n i t y and parental control over the men and so there is no obje ct i on to the financial arrangement. Hews N o t e s , October, 1953, p . 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 593 - Unlike the CPS p r o gr am in w h i c h only some of the young Amish men served, the I - W p r o gr am w i l l affe c t e v e ry p h y s i ­ cally fit young man. E a c h m a l e wi ll h a v e this peri od o u t ­ side the community. but some o f Not only will all the m e n be affect ed the w o m e n too, for w h e n the I - W w o r k er s m a r r y they take t h e i r wives with t h e m into service. I n s t e a d of the young m a r r i e d couple working h a r d u n d e r c a r e f u l s u p e r v i ­ sion of their elders until they have h a d so m a n y c h i l d r e n of their o wn that t h e y h a v e no time for a ny th in g but w o r k and living up to the A m i s h ideal, city apartment the yo u n g couple may live in a in c o m p a r at iv e a n o n y m i t y and w i t h a great deal of free time. They m a y be l o n e l y and bored, but th ey also may enjoy the f r e e d o m of being a w a y f r o m w a t c h f u l eyes. Most Amish couples o c c a s i o n a l l y feel the desire to escape the ever p r e s e n t eye of the community. He someti me s feels we should b u i l d our shack in the w o o d where no one could see u s . 187 But the fear of the u n k n o w n is u s u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n any dislike of t h e ac cu s t o m e d s ur v e i l l a n c e and they g e n e r a l l y choose to stay close to the familiar, if l i mi ti ng , neigh­ bors . 187. Personal correspo nd e nc e, X Il/7/53. 188. Just this s i t u a t i o n 'arose w h e n we inv it e d a couple to visit us giving them the choice of c o m i n g alone or with another couple. T h e y wro te , ttI have not said a word to ________ about coming along w i t h us to visit y o u R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 594 - The I - W p r o g r a m removes the y o u n g A m l s h m e n f r o m the community at a time w h e n n o r m a l l y t h e y a r e at the p e a k of their rebellion,-*-®9 w h e n they are f i g h t i n g their religion, and enjoying some of the p l e as ur es of the world. The c o m ­ munity accep te d this r e v o l t but at the same time tried to hide it fr o m the eyes of the w o r l d b y h e dg i ng in the yo.uth with unusual b u t prote ct i ve customs. are believed to be of A d am ' s Christ, flesh, They are not yet b e l i e v e r s The late ad olescents as yet u n r e g e n e r a t e d in and c e r t a i n l y n ot saints.^®® The I-W p r o g r a m r e mo ve s t h e m f r o m t h e co mm u n i t y just at this time and hold s t h e m up to the wor ld as sho w pieces, as e x ­ amples of m e n who w i t h e v e r y a c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e they are dead to the world and alive in Christ.-*-®-*- The young m e n are not yet ready to be saints nor is the c o m m u n i t y re a d y to have them be saints. In spite of this the A m i s h are v e r y sensitive because we felt w e could talk mor e p e r s o n a l l y I m e a n more fully if we were alone wit h y o u . ” (XIl/7/53) So we i n ­ vited them to come b y themselves. T w o days b e f o r e we were to get them they t elephoned f r o m Ohio to P e n n s y l v a n i a saying it would be better if th e other couple came too. 189. See Chapt er VTII for a d i s c u s s i o n of the adolescent revolt. 190. '‘"About the time the boys r e a c h physical m a ­ turity (if t h e y are Christians at all) the g ov er n m e n t calls them a w a y . ” Yoder, _0£. c i t . , p. 77. 191. H a rv ey Bender, January, 19 56, p. 4. '"I-W S e r v i c e ” W i t n e s s i n g , R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - to the 595 - ”eyes of the public'* (though they q uickly say it is less important t h a n how they appear in the sight of God) and they believe that t hey as a plain people, are b e i n g read by the public m ore t h a n th e y read their B i b l e ,192 Therefore the young men, who are so c l e ar ly in the eyes of the public, must be g o o d whether It is small wonder that t h e they aro ready for it or not. individuals concerned try to r e ­ ceive the dilemma b y ignoring t h e i r b a p t i s m and pr et en d i n g not to be Amish. This way they are neither untrue selves, nor untrue to their church, to t h e m ­ in that if t h e y are not known to be A m i s h they will not b e a spot o r a b l e m i s h on the church nor will 11the church of Go d be on account o f w i c k e d members on their account. , . , evil spoken of in it, and . . . be censurable . . l*193 The psychological con fl ic t arises over the fact that the I -W m e n h av e a l r e a d y b e e n ba p t i z e d and are not living by their baptismal vows. E v e n t h o u g h their c on d u c t is no worse than it would h ave bee n. if th e y h a d re m a i n e d u n b a p t i z e d and in the community, t h e y have In fact already b e e n bapt iz e d and thus that -washing is h e n c e f o r t h de ni e d them. T he y m a y s u b ­ stitute a public c o n f e s s i o n on t heir r e t u r n from I - W service and t h e y m a y v i c a r i o u s l y experi en c e b a p t i s m w h e n other young 192. H e r a l d » N o v em be r 5, 1953, p. 3. 193. D.P., ojd . c i t . , 1910, p. 233. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - people unite w i t h t h e 596 - church, but these may not be as complete nor as satisf y in g as is the rite of b a p t i s m when it is desired by an individual anxious new responsibilities to r e n o u n c e his past and to take on and a new w a y of life# Community Ad ju s t m e n t to the I - W P r o g r a m Ea rl y in the p r o g r a m some of the y oung boys v olunteered for their' I - W service were not adverse to get it out of the way. to this for it was an u npleasant interlude that might as well be got over quickly. several years T he parents of watching boys However, after in I - W service, the attitude is changing and t h e boys are encouraged to tolerate the u n ­ certainty of waiting and not to do their I-W service until they are called. twenty. This is u s u a l l y not until they are over There are advantages to waiting. It gives the young man time to have passed t h r o u g h the e a r l y stages of rather random dating so t h a t quite o f t e n by the time he Is called he will be seriously courting. E v e n If he postpones his m a r r i ­ age until he completes his ser vi ce everyone feels more c o n ­ fident of his r e t u r n to the ch u r c h if he has a ”girl f r i e n d . ” There is a g r o w i n g tende n cy to encourage the young m a n to marry before his I - W service or soon a f t e r he starts it. . . . the Lord m a y lead h i m to a slightly earlier marriage p r i o r to his I - W service. He m a y need that stabili zi ng influence to 194. A you ng er bo y was sometimes encouraged to v o l ­ unteer so he could serve with his brother. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 597 - steer h i m sa f el y past some of the snares into which he m a y f a l l w i t h ou t the soc ia l sec ur it y of a good' C h r is ti an wife. T h e r e m a y be still ' others for w h o m the Lord w ould provide social, emotional, and spiritual s t a b i l i t y t h r o u g h courtship or corre sp o nd en ce w ith a firmly anchored Christian g i r l friend . . .195 . . . we urge all 1 - 0 ' s to wait for v o l u n ­ teering until they are at le as t 20. We have learned that the additi on al p o s s i b i l i t y of marriage, fits t h em for a g r e a te r c o n t r i b u t i o n and h a p p i e r experience w h e n t h e y enter I - W service l a t e r . 196 Even with t h e l a t t e r time of service, b a p t i s m has b e e n m oved up in order to p r o te ct t h e boy (and the community) in case he should be called. The a dded t w o or three years (at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the program, boys as young as seventeen left the c om m u n i t y for service) of f r e e d o m w i t h i n the p r o t e c t i o n of have a great stabilizing influence. know whom they wish the c om m u n i t y At twenty m a ny young m e n to marry and are r e a d y to co n s i d e r s e r i ­ ously accepting community respo ns ib i li ty . Thus they can more safely survive a period of s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the c o m m u n i t y b e ­ cause they k n o w w ha t they w a nt to r e t u r n to. At the beginning of the p r o g r a m the Old Order A m i s h relied on fa m i l y ties, coupled w i t h r e c e n t l y formed r el i gi ou s commitments to h o l d the young m e n true to their faith. was found that too often this was insufficient. Now, 195. E r v i n Hershberger. ^Chris ti an Courtship, Role of Circumstances,*1 * HdW, July 1, 1956, p. 206. 196. H e r a l d , M a r c h 8, 1956, p. 5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. It to the VI. The - 5 98 - family ties and t h e ba pt i s m a l vows, are a dd ed w e d di ng vows and the CDld O r d e r A m i s h wife goes w i t h her hus ba nd I-W service. The fa m il y is the b asis not the individual into the of the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y and a f a m i l y e v e n t h o u g h for the first year it may b e a f a m i l y of only two, a semi-community. This can create for itself is e s p e c i a l l y true as learns h o w to r e s p on d to the I - W program, the c h u r c h and circumvents the stationing o f a single A m i s h m a n or a single A m i s h couple alone in a city. The I-W boys choose them to live in small g roups. and soon babies w i t h them, Amish community. Their jobs that w il l enable N o w that the I - W m e n h av e wives they have the nucl eo us of a real type of w o r k and the enviro nm en t in which they live is not A m i s h but t h e i r social life follows the Amish p a t te rn and e n o u g h of the c o m m u n i t y is being t ransported so that it is able to exercise r u d i m e n t a r y control over its m embers. It is still too early to assess the f i n a l effects the I-W p r o g r a m on the A m i s h community. ruptive factors In spite of the d i s ­ inherent in the p r o g r a m and observa ti on s made by concerned A m i s h m e n to the ef f e c t that "so m a n y of the boys are drifting away w i t h the p le a s u r e s that are them,t|l®'7 I believe offered that the A m i s h c o mm un it y w i ll be able to withstand the strain. 197. of The c o mm un it y is ra l l y i n g be hi nd H e r a l d , M a r c h 4, 1954, p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. the - 599 - young me n in service and show in g t h e m more and more support even t ho u g h t hey are g e n u i n e l y worried over some of their conduct. As time goes by the adolescent better p s y c ho l og ic al boys are receiving p re p a r a t i o n for the program,-1-98 The te n d e n c y for b a p t i s m to be a formal rite r ather than a n emotional experience will p r o b a b l y g r o w as the age of baptism is decreased un de r p r e s s u r e If this happens the individual it will symbolize a legal r e l a ti on sh ip b e t w e e n and the community; stand for a n i mportant doct ri ne will make of the I - W program,, it easier for the resistant position. of the ch ur ch and the c h u r c h i n di v id ua l to m a i n t a i n his non- However, primarily a formal rite the individual will take his the t e n d e n c y for b ap t i s m to be is developing p arallel ment within the c h u r c h that demands version experience. of each C h r i s t i a n a c o n ­ The c o n v e r s i o n experience demand m a y have been initiated b y the r e d u c t i o n in emoti on al baptism.The to a n e w m o v e ­ co nv e r s i o n e xp er i e n c e rite of b a p t i s m and thus gives the importance of is not b ou nd to the individual c o n s id er a bl y 198. For a while a m i n i s t e r in O hi o had m e e t i n g s for draft age young people on n o n - r e si st an ce , b u t these meetings met w i t h little a c c e p t a n c e (except among the youth) and so were discontinued. R. M aniaci, " E d i t o r i a l ,” A m i s h Mission Endeavor, J u l y - A u g u s t - S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1955, p. lT7 ■“ 199. It is of course one aspect of funda me nt a li sm , a religious c o n f i g u r a t i o n wh os e i n t r o d u c t i o n into the c o m ­ munity is confus in g A m i s h r eligious behavior. See Chapter VIII. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 600 - greater f r e e d o m f r o m comm un it y control of his religious growth than he had previously. This m a y be an i nd ic at i on of community d i s r u p t i o n for the role of the community is w e a k ­ ened, but it can also fu n c t i o n to strengthen the c o m m u n i t y . It could be a c reative force if t he co nv er s i o n experience, functionally r e p l a c i n g a r ite that has become formalized, was interpreted b y the individual as integrating h i m on a psychological and behavioral level into the c o m m u n i t y 0 If the A m i s h continue to be able to defer their I - W service until t h ey are over twenty years old, will probably continue the commun i ty to 'urge early marriage. ^ 0 of a couple not marrying u nt il they m a y be able position as f ar m tenants or share croppers, Instead to get a they may be e n ­ couraged to marry b e f o r e the young m a n leaves the community. It is interesting to as to what is the observe the A m i s h change their opinion ideal age of marriage. The ideal age of 200. To obtain a r o u g h figure on the average age of marriage of A m i s h m e n (unrelated to generation) I r e ­ corded the age at marr ia g e of all the Old O rd er A m i s h m e n for whom obituaries appeared in the Her al d f o r the three year period b e t w ee n January, 1951 and January, 1954. There were a total of 96 first marriages recorded. Disre­ garding one f i r s t m arriage that occurred at the advanced age of 54, the average age of marr ia ge was 24 years, the mean age of marriage was 23. (For females the c o rr es po n di ng fig­ ures were 22.5 and 21 year.) The average'age at time of m a r ­ riage of A m i s h fathers in E lk h a r t County, Indiana for the last three generations was indicated as being 23.9, 24.1, and 22.7. Howard Good, MA S tudy of Menno ni te F a m i l y Trends in Elkhart County, I n d i a n a , " Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultureal P r o b l e m s ,(North Newton, K an s a s ; Bethel College, 1947), p^ 43. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - marriage 6 0 1 - is the age that keeps m o s t young people members o f the Old Order A m i s h Church, change so does successful As circumstances the ideal age of the bride and groom. By sending couples into I - W service instead of i n ­ dividuals, community control of the distant young p eople is increased. E v e n if only about h a l f of the I - W workers are married the effect is noticeable. or three couples m a y share Often single me n and two one house, or the I - W workers a r ­ range to rent several houses near one another. The wives ma y be expected to h e l p b o a r d the single m e n for most A m i s h feel that food prepared b y people who are not A m i s h is b a r e l y palatable, and A m i s h m e n ra re l y enjoy cooking for themselves. A quasi-community of b o t h single m e n a n d m a r r i e d couples and a few babies is e st a b l i s h e d w i t h e a c h g r o u p knowing its role and acting as a guard and a balance for the other. With couples l iv i n g in the city v i s i t i n g bet w ee n the c i t y and the home community is more frequent; help her, t h en his a g i r l ’s mot he r comes to sister comes to visit, mother may need a hired girl. Not perhaps the young only are there supportive visits for an afte rn oo n or f o r a church service, but members from the home community come and stay several days, week or two. e v en a A l t h o u g h the phys i ca l distance b e t w e e n the A m i s h community and the cluster of I - W wo rk e r s remains the constant visiting same, is able to reduce the p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s ­ tance . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. the - 602 The l o n g rang e effects - of th e I - W p rogram, of assignment continues to he abov e ably be profound, gr a d u a l and twenty years, subtle„ If the age will p r o b ­ R a t h e r than r e j e c t i n g the community these individ ua ls are more l i k e l y to r e m a i n members but mem b er s wit h wider h o r i z o n s who wa n t to l o o k b e ­ yond the confines of t h e i r o w n communityo should be sounded f o r the effects of the A note of c a u t i o n C i v il ia n Public S e r ­ vice p r o g r a m are o n l y n o w b e c o m i n g apparent; they hav e b e e n •s ; slower emerging predicted,, CPS, effect a muc h i a r ge r p r o p o r t i o n of the contemporaries, moves boys and young couples the I - W p r o g r a m r e ­ to live and wo r k in various These A m i s h w o rk er s are in a city h o sp it al c o n s i d e r a b l y more cit­ of the worl d than they did in a n a t io na l forest. Throu gh ou t their h i s t o r y true to th e i r princi p le in A m e r i c a the A m i s h have b e e n of nonresistance. each war with a staunch r e f u s a l to f i gh t mies, community of removing young m e n f r o m the c o m m u n i t y to i s o ­ lated camps of Mennon it e ies, change t h a n m a n y had The I - W program w i l l p r o b a b l y last l o n g e r that It will and instead and c a u se d less obvious They ha ve faced or kill their e n e ­ At the same time they have b e e n submissive to the g o v ­ ernment, p a y i n g taxes and fin es that we r e us ed for w a r p u r ­ poses and obeying c o n s c r i p t i o n laws u p to the p oi n t where they were required to serve in a m i l i t a r y organization. ing the second World War and t o d a y they of alternate c i vi li a n service. Dur­ support the p r o g r a m M o s t A m i s h believe this R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 603 - service is b en ef i c i a l to m a n k i n d and indir ec tl y helps government, 201 but they do not feel it is p at r i o t i c service that protects the co un tr y from e n e m i e s . they do feel that they are t r u l y pa t r i o t i c living as a Ch ri s t i a n w i t n e s s to a G o d w h o of His own. It Is t h r o u g h their w a y in their Howe ve r, in the sense, the deepest takes care of life and t he kee pi ng of G o d ’s commandments t h a t t h e y believe they have p ro t e c t e d America f r o m her enemies and h e l p e d b r i n g G o d ’s b l e s s i n g u p o n her. P erhaps as long as there is e n o u g h C h r i s ­ tianity in America, Go d will not p e r m i t a p eace-loving n a t i o n to be b l o w n into utter ru i n by an enemy. See Levit ic u s 26„ We beli ev e the peo pl e p r ay for peace the world over as never b ef o r e but per ha p s we also should pray f o r divine guida nc e so that we can l ead the kind of l i f e that is w o r t h y of p eac e . Love not the world, so says the W o r d of God. A m erica should t h a n k G o d that there are still people living on he r shores who believe in b ei ng in the world, but n o t of the world. W e believe God has b l e s s e d this country because of such p e o p l e . 203 If, in spite of their pray er s and t h e i r a t t e m p t to live truly C h ri st i an lives, wa r does come, t h e y still m a y not be any part to it, fo r to do so w ou ld m e a n that they opposed G o d ’s teachings. F o r T h e y b e l i e v e the h o r r o r of 201. Herald, M a r c h 11, 1954, p. 2« 202. H e r a l d ,M a r c h 13, 19 52, p. 6, 203. Herald, M a r c h 17, 1955, p. 1 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - being caught 604 - in the midst of a w a r fought w i t h nu c l e a r bombs cannot compare with the agony of spen di n g eternity in h e l l o 204. H e r a l d , M a r c h 25, 1954, p. 1, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 204 CHAPTER VIII T E N SI ON S YtilTHIN THE C O M M U N I T Y The Old Order A m i s h continue their v a l i a n t e f f o rt s to remain separated from a w o r l d they consider sinful and lost, becomes increasingly difficult. but separation As they are forced to have more co n ­ tact with the world, n e w problems d evelop w i t h i n the commu ni ty and new areas of tension emerge. terrelated: The areas of tensions are c l o s el y in­ They all stem f rom the desire of the co mm u n i t y to per­ petuate itself. During the five years that I have observed this c o m m u n i t y I have been impressed w i t h the e m o t i o n a l en e r g y that surrounds the various areas of tension. At times I felt that the stre ng th of the emotion was so great that it could n o t be controlled; tear the community assunder. that it w o u l d W i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y there are periods of intense struggle, fol lo we d by a lull, t he n a n o t h e r per i od of stress. This pattern continues u n t i l the p r o b l e m is resolved haps only temporarily) or ignored. (per­ Before the bre ak in g point is reached or before the exhau st io n bec om es paralysing, the issue is dropped. It drifts while members collect t hemselves, perhaps c el e­ brate communion, a n d are fresh to tackle the p r o b l e m again. The com­ munity is always working out and w o r r y i n g a bo ut some problem, though the specific problem changes from time to time. Each problem requires community adjustment. A l t h o u g h the Old Order Amish cling to certain symbols of their culture, and may e v e n exaggerate them,1 on close analysis they ap p e a r far f r o m rigid, in 1. There is some indic at io n that the A m i s h in some regions stricter today about details of clothing and e v e n the u s e of the van then they were earlier. Certa in ly in a r e a s of transportation, edf £ ar4 house furnishings there is g r e a te r d i s c r e p a n c y between the Amish and the E n g l i s h today than there was previously. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 606 the common m ea n i n g of the term. T h e y are ch an gi ng continually. Today they a p p e a r to be changing somewhat f aster t h a n do the ir nonAmish neighbors who have a l r e a d y made a n a n a dj u st me nt to m a n y a s ­ pects of the A m e r i c a n culture that are Amish. just n o w r e a c hi ng the (Old Orde The n o n - A m i s h r esidents of S w e e t w a t e r c hanged t heir patterns of work and play, thin ki ng and living, as individuals a n d as f a m i l ­ ies. In contrast, the Old Order A m i s h control change b y a d m i t t i n g new items only w i t h the sanction of, or at least some d i r e c t i o n fro m the community.2 A l t ho ug h change is controlled, it is c e r t a i n l y not prevented. In fact it m i g h t be p os tu l a t e d that the Old Older Amish are more adaptable t h e n their E n g l i s h n eigh bo r, f or it is only through t heir a b i l i t y to adapt a n d to change in response to the changes a r ou nd the m that t h e y have been able to m a i n t a i n their identity. Had they remained rigid the c ommunity could n o t have survived. Thus we can resolve the a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n of ob­ serving on the one h a n d that the Old Order is changing v e r y fast and on the other that it is showing n o signs of d y i n g out. By accepting certain aspects of a n e w order the A m i s h are able to remain Old Order. The central Ohio A m i s h c o mm un it y is p r o b a b l y the h e a l t h ­ iest Amish community in the coun tr y. 3 It is a n old c o m m u n i t y and a large community, but more important th an t h i s it is c o m ­ paratively remote from a n y large cities or m a j o r a r t e r i e s of 2. Joseph A. Eaton, "Controlled Acculturation," A Surviv­ al Technique of the Hutterites," American Sociological Hevlew, June, 1952. 3... This m a y be a rash statement as I k n o w the other c o m ­ munities only from second-hand reports. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - commerce.4 607 - Land is still a vailable at only s l i g ht ly inflated values and farmers ,do no t h a ve to compete w i t h u r b a n u s e s of the land-5 There are a n u m b e r of y o u n g b i s h op s a n d m i n i s t e r s w h o provide able leadership and there is evident in some is n o t the great differ en ce communities. of o p i n i o n that E c o n o m i c a l l y the c e n t r a l (Ohio Amish are succeeding and as t he ir c om m u n i t y grows they are g r a d ­ ually buying n o n - A m i s h farmlands f r o m t h e i r E n g l i s h n ei gh bo rs . If there is a solution for the pro bl em s that face the Old O r d e r Amish. the central Ohio A m i s h are in a good p o s i ti on to a t t e m p t the solution. Three specific prob le ms that face the A m i s h c o m mu ni ty today are the direct result of p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n in the ture. surrounding cul­ As the larger s ociety becomes l e g a l l y more t i g h t l y i n t e g ­ rated , the A m i s h are d r a w n in too. T h e y cannot a vo id some p a r t ­ icipation in the social s e c u ri t y program, the selective service program and n o w their children, a l o n g w i t h the chil dr en of the rest of the nation, are being r e q u i re d to a t t e n d h i g h school. These three areas of tens io n h a v e b e en d i s c u s s e d in the preceeding chapters. There are three other ar ea s of t e n s i o n that are not directly related to the state, but are a l s o the result of contact with the dominant culture. The first of these is re­ lated to the A m i s h settlement p a t te r n and so c i a l structure. The 4. Robert Redfield, The Folk: Culture of Y u c a t a n . , (Chicago, 111., U ni ve rs it y of Chicago, 1941), p p . 44-56 a n d 132-54. 5. In the v i c i n i t y of Lancaster, P en ns ylvania, the price of land is inflated due to the A m i s h pressure u p o n it and in a d ­ dition they are close en o u g h to important cities that they must compete with real estate de ve lo pments. H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 6, 1951, P. 1. May 19, 1955, p. 6. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 608 - Amish live in small c u l t u r a l islands w i t h i n the w o r l d l y culture. The size of these islands, or communities, presents c e r t a i n p ro b­ lems, including the e x f o l i a t i o n of spli nt er groups and the f o r m a ­ tion of n e w communities. A second a r e a of t e n s i o n h a s d e v el op ed around the a tt i t u d e s a n d r eligious p ra c ti ce s that have i n f il tr a­ ted into the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y f r om the conti g uo us P r o t e s t a n t cul­ ture.6 Thus drinking, sion work have become smoking, S u n d a y schools, revivals and m i s ­ issues in the church. Final ly , as the A m i s h communities have become less i s o la te d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and i d e o l o g ­ ically rhe p r o b l e m of the a d o l e s c e n t revolt h a s become more d i f ­ ficult to handle. The safe e x p r e s s i o n of the revolt is j e o p a r d ­ ized by compulsory h i g h s chool at te nd a n c e a nd selective service and is influenced by the c o m m u n i t y size and the perv as iv en es s of the rural A m e r i c a n Pr ot e s t a n t m o r a l i t y that d i s c o u r a g e s release behavior that h a s b e en beneficial. rH,i+. 6 * -Leonard Mason, "The C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of A m e r i c a n uuiture in Studies of A c c u l t u r a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n Anthropologist. December, 1955, p. 1272. ------------------K 5--- 5 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 609 - T ENSI ON S BELATED T O C O M M U N I T Y STKJCTUBE Community Size The Amish r e l i gi on can only be p ra c ti ce d in a c o m m u n i t y 9 it cannot be practiced by a hermit, family. Just as there colony of gulls 7 an i nd iv id ua l or e v e n a single seems to be a n opt im u m size for a breeding or a h e rd of bison, size for a h e a l t h y A m i s h community. animal and h u m a n aggregate 8 there seems to be a n optimum (The opt im um size of both the is d ep en de n t u p o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors as well as intrinsic ch aracteristics of the social organism.) The size of the A mi sh c om m u n i t y should no t be Judged m e r e l y by the number of individuals but it must a l s o be assessed as to g e o g r a p h ­ ical area covered a nd d e n s i t y of the A m i s h settlement. A further factor that must be taken into a c c o u n t is the p r o x i m i t y of other Amish communities. In addition to total comm un it y size a w ord should be said about church distr ic t size. Here, too, the four factors of total number of individuals, ge og r a p h i c a l area covered, d e n s i t y of set­ tlement and proxi m it y of other ch u r c h d i st ri ct s a l l influence the optimum size of t h e church district. D ur i n g the w i n t e r the Old Amish hold their religious services in their homes. limit is placed on the size of a district: Thus an u p p e r there m u s t be no more families in a single church d i s t r i c t t h a n can be a cc o m o d a t e d in one house. In the ca±ral Ohio A m i s h c om m un it y the largest c hurch 7. F.F. Darling, B i r d F locks and the Br e e d i n g C y c l e . C o n t r i b ­ ution to the Study of Av ia n Sociology. (Cambridge, Engl an d : C a m b ­ ridge University Press, 1938). 8. Francis Harper, E x t i n c t and V a n i s h i n g M a m m a l s of the Old World. Special Pu bl ic a ti on of the A m e r i c a n C ommittee of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Wildlife Protection, No. 12, 1945. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 610 - 9 district was composed of sixty-s ev en fami li e s a n d the d istrict with the largest m e m b e r s h i p had 155 m e m b e r s . 10 Thus we can e s ­ timate that u p to f our-hundred and sixty-five people gathered for services every two w e e k s . 11 E v e n a n A m i s h house by this many people. 12 is crowded Such a c hurch is c on si d e r e d too big. Within the central Ohio comm un it y the m e a n n u m b e r of families comprising one church district was for ty -s e ve n a n d the m ea n 13 number members was 105. E v e n these church districts are con­ sidered large. A l th ou gh sixt ee n of the thirty- th re e c hurch d i s ­ tricts in the central Ohio A m i s h c o mm un it y had more t ha n one - hu n­ dred members, only six of the other twenty-five c hurch d is t ri ct s located in Ohio had more t h an 100 m e m b e r s . 14# The central Ohio community is the oldest a nd the biggest A m i s h community in the state. The n um b e r of m em be rs that belong to a single ch u rc h d i s ­ trict reflect this. The smallest c h u r c h d i s t r i c t in Ohio is composed of six families. The would have only two families. smallest church dis tr i ct possible Such a district was r e po rt ed by Umble.15 I know of one case where a n A m i s h family w hi le w ai t i n g to emigrate to Canada rented a farm that was outside a n y church 9. E rv in Gingerich, Ohio A m i s h D i r e c t o r y . 1953. 10. Mennonlte Year bo ok and D i r e c t o r y , ed. Ellrose D. Zonk, (Scottdale, Pa.: M e n no ni te Publis h in g H ouse, 1953) p. 86. 11. Maurice A. Mook, "The N u m b e r of A m i s h in Penn sy lv an ia ," Mennonite Historical B u l l e t i n . January, 1955, p. 3 concludes "that the number of adult m e m b er s of the c h u r c h should be m u l t i p l i e d . b y at least three to arrive at an estimate of the t o t al p o pu l at io n of Ami sh c ommunit ie s . " 12. The total p o p u l a t i o n of the church district w o u l d n e v e r be at church at once. 13. Gingerich, on. cit. , Y e a r b o o k , on. c i t . 14. Gingerich, on. c i t . . 1953, 1956 an d Y e a r b o o k , on. cit. .956 . .l 15. exilt011'’ " J oh n S. Umble, "Mennonites in L y o n County, Kansas: 1880-90, J u ! y , 1952, pp. 232-53. This c hurch soon ceased to R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 611 district. P e r i o d i c a l l y a bus load f r o m v a r i o u s A m i s h co m m u n i t i e s would visit the fa m i l y so t h e y could "have church" for them.^-® Although os te ns ib l y the u p p e r l imit for the size of a single chu rc h district is the n u m b e r o f people t hat can be a c c o m o d a t e d in a single house, their social o r g a n i z a t i o n m i t i g a t e s a g a i n s t the tioning of a. large church. sm oo t h f u n c ­ The m e m b e r m u s t k n o w one a n o t h e r w e l l enough to decide i f they can celebrate c o m m u n i o n together. entails a degree T h is of i n t i m a c y r ar e ly a c h i e v e d in other churches. Each member decides if e a c h other m e m b e r is living a C h r i s t i a n life, and the l iving of the C h r i s t i a n life is e x pr e s s e d n o t only in professed b el i e f but in d e t a i l s of c l o th in g and bus in es s p r o ­ ceedings, in house fu r n i s h i n g s and care of livestock. I n other words the forms of social con tr ol u s e d by the b r o t h e r h o o d wo ul d be ineffectual if the group we r e so large that m e m b e r s w er e n o t in fece-to-faee contact. In many respects the A m i s h c h u r c h d i s tr i ct rese mb le s a band. 17 Linton placed the u p p e r limit for a g r i c u l t u r a l bands at 3 5 0 ts*o 4 0 0 people (where there was not reliance The Amish, of course, participate on trade a n d ma n u f a c t u r e ! . )18 in the commerce of the surrobnd- 16. This p r e a c h e r h a d a l r e a d y p u r c h a s e d a f a r m in Canada b e ­ fore he learned that h i s fe eb l e m i n d e d son w o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d to Immigrate. W he n that became c l e a r he m o v e d h i s f a m i l y to a n e s t a b ­ lished Amish c o m m u n i t y in this country. 17. Both the band a n d the ch u r c h d i st r ic t are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by; close and c o n t i n u o u s p e r so na l contacts, a l m o s t complete p a r t i c i ­ pation of the i n d i v i d u a l in the c ulture of his band, (church;, d i s ­ putes between m e m b e r s settled w i t h i n the group, w i t h o u t r e c ou r se to outside law, info rm a l t echniques for social control, (ridicule, os­ tracism, expulsion,) leaders wh o u s u a l l y are c a r e f u l to a s c e r t a i n the will of the m a j o r i t y and to act in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h this, h e a d man, or two or three head m e n (bishop, two m i n i s t e r s , dea c on ) w h o set as executives and coordinators. Ralph Linton, The Study of M a n (New York; A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1936), pp. 213-230. 18. I b i d . . p. 215. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 612 ing culture and the combined p o p u l a t i o n of a l l the c o n t i g u o u s church districts m a y be v e r y large. 1Q However, most chur c h districts w o u l d a p p r o x im at e the size of Linton"s a g r i c u l t u r a l bands. As a comment on the i de a l size of the church district, peo pl e in Stoneyrun responded to the q u e s ­ tion of "How large is y o u r church?" w i t h an a n s w e r of "About forty families." Stoneyrun church, When a ing A c t u a l l y there are fifty-nine families in the 20 c h u rc h d is t r i c t b e co me s too large two ne w d i s t r i c t s . 2 -1- A s i mi la r splitting or band is co mm o n to mo s t c u l t u r e s . ^ it divided, form­ of the l o c a l gro up For example, in T u r k e y there is a t e n d e n c y for v il l a g e s to split w h e n there are more than 35 or 40 h ou se ho ld s. 23 The smallest n u m b e r of fami li es that can f o r m a h e a l t h y church district d e p e n d s l a r g e l y on w h e t h e r it is a n i s ol at ed church district or m e r e l y one d i s t r i c t of a l a r g e r community. The most recent d i vi s io ns in the central Ohio A m i s h co mm u n i t y have resulted in the smallest c h u r c h d i s t r i c t h a v i n g only twenty-four f a m i l i e s . 24 As a i s ol at e d c om m u n i t y a c h u r c h district 19. For the central Ohi o c o m m u n i t y the A m i s h p o p u l a t i o n can be estimated at 11,346. Mook, o p . c i t . 20. T h e y have b e e n p l an ni ng to divide f o r two y e a r s but have not yet done it. E a c h summer th e y say "We will d iv i d e b e ­ fore winter. There are too m a n y for one h o us e. " 21. "The B i s h o p J e r r y £. Ott church w a s d i v i d e d Satur da y. " H e r a l d „ D e c e m b e r 13, 1951, p. 3. N o v e m b e r 19, 1953, p..3; April22, 1954, p. 5. See A p p e n d i x I, Part B for a chart showing, the divisions of c hu r c h distr ic ts that have ta k e n place in the centr al Ohio community. 22. Linton, loc. c i t . 23. J o h n P a r k e r and Charles Smith, M o d e r n T u r k e y (George Routledge a n d Sons, Ltd., London, 1940). 24. D i s tr ic t # 3 1 and # 33 d i v i d e d in 1955 m a k i n g the total number of church d i s t r i c t s in the c e n t r a l Ohio C o m m u n i t y thirty-five instead of t h i r t y - t h r e e . A s i mi la r di v i s i o n in 1952 re s u l t e d in a church district #28, w i t h onl y t w e n t y - f o u r families, b y 1956 # 2 8 had thirty-two families. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 613 - can probably n o t survive w i t h f e w e r f a m i l i e s t h a n this, Umble believes that a n isola te d co n g r e g a t i o n of fewer than fifty members cannot s u r vi v e a n d e v e n wi t h this few its sur­ vival is c l o se ly rela te d to the p r o x i m a t y of other A m i s h com- 4^ munitie So 25 J. W. F r e t z believes that a M e nn on it e commu ni ty h a v i n g fewer than forty families i s v u l n e r a b l e to e x t i n c t i o n a l ­ though co ngregations of t w e n t y to twenty-five families can survive if th e y can m a i n t a i n close contacts w i t h other communitieSo 26 As stated above it is not m e r e l y a q u e s t i o n of n u m b e r of families but a l s o of density. the families are A small c om mu ni ty in w h i c h scattered over a large area has a small e r chance of survi va l than one in w h i c h the farms lie n e a r one another. For e a s y n e i g h b o r i n g e a c h f a r m should be w it h i n walking distance of at least one other A m i s h farm. This en­ ables children to visi t a nd car ry m e s s a g e s w i t h o u t h a vi n g to hitch u p the team. 27 25. Jo h n U m b l e , "Factors E x p l a i n i n g the D i s i n t e g r a ­ tion of M ennonite Com mu ni ti e s, " P r o c e e d i n g s of the S e v e n t h Annual Conference on M e n n o n i t e - C u l t u r a l P r o b l e m s (North N e w ­ ton, Kansas, The M e n n o n i t e Press, 1949), P» 1S8. • 26. W. C. A l l e e , et al, Pr in ci p l e s of A n i m a l E c o l o g y (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1949), p. 399. 27. Mos t Am i s h children a r e . n o t allowed to drive on the road u n t i l they are at least fourt ee n yea rs old. I n the fields, a ten y e a r old m a y manage the team, but there is u s u ­ ally an adult n e a r by. The A m i s h n o long er ride horseback, although an oc c as io na l f a mi ly m a y h a v e a p o n y for the children. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 614 The A m i s h realize that d e n s i t y of settlement is important. One of the a r g u m e n t s used a g a i n s t tractors is that they le a d to pD large farms a n d then people mus t live fa r a p a r t . A similar argument is u s e d against cars. A b s o n d e r l i c h wo gemeldet ha t dass die A u t o s die U r s a c h sind dass es zu v i e l grosse G e m e i n d e n gibt u n d die Glieder zu we it a useinander w o h n e n w e n n w i r d o c h w i s s e n da s s es besser wSre fdr n & h e r bei e i n a n d e r blei b e n u n d n i c h t zu viel Leute in ein g r os s e Gemeinde haben, s o n d e m m e h r Gemeinden u n d nic h t so g r o s s e .29 Tn other words the ideal is to have m a n y d istricts that are so densely Amis h that g e o g r a p h i c a l l y t h e y are small. The geo g r a p h i c a l distance across the chur c h d i s t r i c t should not be g r e a t e r t h a n the d i sta n c e t h a n can be covered b y hor s e and buggy in two hours. Wh e n d i s t a n c e s are g r e a t e r t h a n this it mak e s assembling for comm u n i t y gath e r i n g s difficult. F i n a l l y if there is another A m i s h community w i t h w h i c h close ties are m a intained, with which the small c ommunit y can v i s i t e a s i l y and frequently, the small c ommunity is m u c h more l i k e l y to be able to h o l d its young people a n d to survive. There are certain a d v a n t a g e s to living in a small A m i s h community rather t h a n a large one. - T h e s e ca n best be u n d e r s t o o d by discussing the characte r i s t i c s of a large A m i s h community. There are probably only three A m i s h commun i t i e s in the country that are considered too large: The c e n t r a l Ohio community, the Indiana community, an d the L a n c a s t e r c o u n t r y community. 28. B.F.S. "Modern B a u e r g e r S t e ," HdW, F e b r u a r y 1, 1954, N. Stoltzfus, "D e r T r a k t o r ? 11 H d W , J a n u a r y 1, 1954, pp. 5-7. 29. E i n Schwester, "Etwas m e h r -fiber Autos," H d W . M h r c h 1, 1954* p. 138. . . 30. The Indiana c o m m u n i t y is really two n e i g h b o r i n g c o m ­ munities. It is not a single, g e o g r a p h i c a l l y continguous c o m m u n i t y and there is some rivalry b e t w e e n the two neighb o r h o o d s . p« 79. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 615 - The belief that a n A m i s h commu n i t y can a fairly recent d e v e l o p m e n t . crepancy in ease become too large is It is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d i s ­ of co m m u n i c a t i o n that ex i s t s b e t w e e n the Amish community a n d the outside world. cars and no telephones, in a large community. W h e n there were n o there were fewer d a n g e r s involved T o d a y as the commun i t i e s g r o w the need for telephones and cars is k e e n l y felt. Visiting throughout the larger c o m m u n i t y continues to be important, but it is also i m p r actical to v i s i t by horse a n d buggy when the distance tr a v e l e d is t w e n t y m i l e s e a c h way. I n the same way messages are more e a s i l y g arbled w h e n t hey must be passed through several intermediate m e s s e n g e r s t h a n w h e n t w o people can talk t o g e t h e r on a telephone. The y o u n g people of the community are be l i e v e d to ibrm one g roup a n d t r a d i t i o n a l l y they have b een free to att e n d any f u n c t i o n in the l a r g e r c o m ­ munity. N o w these three communities are so big that m a n y of the young people are no t e a s i l y I d e n t i f i e d by the older m e m ­ bers and they m a y achieve some degree of a n o n y m i t y as t h e y move rapidly fro m one corner of the community to the other. A large community makes it more d i f f i c u l t to k e e p the young people u n d e r constant, thoug h u n o f f i c i a l , surveillance. A large group of y o u n g people is more difficult to c ontrol t h a n a small group. I n Stoneyrun the u s e of cars by the young people has greatly increased du r i n g the course of t h i s study. One Amish father said, "The young people are s everly c r i t i c ­ ized for u s i n g c a r s , but those w h o criticize t h e m a l w a y s hire R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 616 - cars to equal distances. going to _________ We n e v e r take the b u g g y w h e n w e 11re ,and the girls have to go e v e n f a r t h e r for rz*i the singing. H e conc l u d e s that the Many members larger community, "People c o m m u n i t y w a s too big. of Stoneyrun, w h i c h is on the edge of the feel that the c o m m u n i t y is to o conservative. k e e p t a l k i n g about P e n n s y l v a n i a , h o w things are done right back there. Well, I w i s h some of t h e m w o u l d go a n d visit Pennsylvania, w e ’re more conser v a t i v e the n they are. many m o d e m m a c h i n e s . 32 house is raised Th e y have W h e n the q u e s t i o n of b u i l d i n g a church someone always comments, " W e ’d like to build one, but there are o t h e r d i s t r i c t s tha t w o n ’t h e a r of it. a big community thin g s d o n ’t c h a n g e , " 33 T h e y do no t W i t h such relate t h e i r conservatism to t h e i r i s o l a t i o n f r o m impo r t a n t cities and arteries of commerce, but to t h e i r size. munity grows so large there anything new. T h e y e x p l a i n that w h e n a co m ­ is a l w a y s a g r o u p w h o can k e e p out C o m p a r i n g the d i f f e r e n t A m i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in Ohio their relative d e grees of c o n s e r v a t i s m seems to be closely related to their size and age. A n o t h e r recent and related argu34 ment is that large c ommunit i e s become to self-centered. They spend all t h e i r time m a i n t a i n i n g the da s alt G i b r a u c h instead of searching and seeking to do G o d ’s will. attempt to m a i n t a i n the 31. 32. 33. 34. Witnessing. status quo instead I n other words, they of a d a p t i n g to the (00A23) (00A1) (00A4) "The A m i s h C h u r c h in the O ld Testa m e n t , Jeb. May, 1956, p. 4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 35," Filmed, as received without page (s ) C? I'/ UNIVERSITY MICROFIDYIS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 617a - The argument that "it is so big it m ust change" control the young people, evils are creeping in") and big it won't change" can't "it is so ("it is self-centered a n d too cons e r v a t i v e " ) to some extent counteract one another. C ontrolled a c c u l t u r a t i o n continues to proceed e ven though the degree wavers. ("We of c ontrol sometimes Econo m i c a l l y the community is on a sound base. There is a fair sprinkling of young m e n a m o n g the mini s t e r s a n d on the whole the leadership seems relat i v e l y good. Fragmentation There is a n o t h e r problem that is often more p r o n o u n c e d in large communities t han small that is closely r e l a t e d to the leadership. This is the p r o b l e m of f r a g m e n t a t i o n that h a s cursed the Anabaptists since the v e r y beginning. A l t h o u g h the Amish came into b eing over a d o c t r i n a l dispute and more recent splits have u s u a l l y divided on issues related to the ordnung, closer investigation shows that p e r s o n a l i t y conflicts were of equal if not of greater importance than the specific practice being fought over. appear absurd. I n fact a list o f the causes of d i v i s i o n s The Amish community that shows the gre a t e s t fragmentation, and ha s still survived, munity in Pennsylvania. is the M i f f l i n county c o m ­ It is the K i s h a c o q u i l l a s V a l l e y s e t t l e ­ ment, commonly k n o w n as Big Valley. It started at the turn of the nineteenth century3 ^ and at the present time is the second / 36. Samuel W. Peach; , A m i s h of K i s h a c o q u i l l a s V a l l e y \Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publ i s h i n g House, 1930). Maurice A. Mook, "Pennsylvania A m i s h Communities that F ailed," The Morning C a l l . (Allentown, Pa.) August 21, 1954, CS P e n n -sylvaahish D e l t s c h Ek, August 21, 1954. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 617b - largest Amish comm u n i t y in the com m o n w e a l t h of P e n n y s l v a n i a . In 1930 an A m i s h m a n wrote the h i s t o r y of this settlement,, In his effort to be charitable he felt compe l l e d to omit the causes for the divisions. I have e n d e a v o r e d to write a brief sketch of t h e i r origin and history, e x e r c i s i n g a true C h r i s t i a n spirit toward all, an d omitting the causes of v a r ­ ious dissensions that arose in our beloved church. Ma y God in H i s great m e r c y and infinite w i s d o m blot out or cast into oblivion the carn a l i t y that p re^ vailed w i t h the various problems in the church. However, a later a n d less charitable au t h o r did not feel the same compunctions. His account is e x t r e m e l y e m o t i o n a l but probably quite accurate. The earliest d i v i s i o n came over the mode of baptism, the more liberal b ishop w a n t e d to b aptize 38 members in the creek. The w a y in w h i c h it h a p p e n e d seemed typical. One Sunday at p r eaching Sol o m o n B y l e r m e n t i o n e d a g a i n baptizing in the creek, A b r a h a m (Peachy) t u r n e d to h i m rather impatiently an d said, “In h e a v e n s name, if you don't like what we are doing, go a n d do as y o u please." This was the signal for S o l o m o n B y l e r to w i t h d r a w all .. members that were in sym p a t h y w i t h him. But w h e n B i s h o p Shem Yoder saw this he saw that this w as his time to draw off a l l those who were in s y m p a t h y w i t h him, m e m ­ bers who wis h e d to d r a w the church rules a little t i g h t ­ er. And so through b ic k e r i n g a b o u t church rules made by men, Ordung, the strong church of the V a l l e y was d i ­ vided into three denomi n a t i o n s w h o i mmediately had no 37. 38. Peach , Kish a c o q u i l l a s V a l l e y , or. cit. . p. 4. This same problem t r o u b l e d other A m i s h churches. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 618 - under a tree and started to sing D a s L o b l l e d . the h y m n that is sung at e v e r y chu r c h service. As they sang they were joined by others w h o believ e d in the slowest tune. were m inisters in both groups. that time on there were From There two churches that did not f e l l o w s h i p t o g e t h e r . 46 D u r i n g the e a r l y summer of 1955 there w a s a d i v i s i o n threatening (again it was on the edge munity). of the l a r g e r c o m ­ One bis h o p an d one p r e a c h e r were being v e r y strict while one of the mini s t e r s in the same church w a s m o r e l i b e r a l . They were not getting along v e r y w e l l w i t h one a n o t h e r and the strict bishop was n o t gett i n g a l o n g w e l l w i t h other Old Order ministers. On questions of the b a n a n d some other quest i o n s of dress he loo k e d toward P e n n s y l v a n i a instead of the central Ohio community. of to the rest At c ouncil m e e t i n g he m e n t i o n e d one of the bishops in the area w i t h w h o m he d i d not agree a nd then quoted the scripture passage against m e . " 46 Those w h o d i s a g r e e d left the c o u n c i l meeting. Then he announced left. "he that is not w i t h m e 9 is "the rest of you agree w i t h m e." It wa s a large church, Some have some of the trouble has b e e n re ­ solved by a recent d i v i s i o n into two c h u r c h d i s t r i c t s , that are both part of the larger c o m m u n i t y but the two do not commune t o ­ gether. The split is still th r e a t e n i n g , so f a r it h a s remained 4 5 0 W h e n I was t r y i n g to find out about the d i vi s i o n , I was told. "We are ashamed. It should n o t .happen." Finally, someone said, "I w i l l tell y o u a b o u t one division, - but you m u s t n “ write it down." 46. Matt. 12:30. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 619 - a local d i s agreement in a small area that c an still be o ver­ looked by the large c o m m u n i t y 0 W h e n this trouble spot was being discussed the issues over w h i c h the d i s a g r e e m e n t was said to hinge w a s n e v e r mentioned. involved and the ways (Only the p e r s o n alities of h a n d l i n g p e r s o n a l relation, were mentioned. A w e l l - l i k e d A m i s h pr e a c h e r wrote T h e n there is a l s o the d e s i r e to be h i g h l y e s t e e m e d 9 w h i c h is e q u a l l y hard to s a t i s f y as the love of money. T h i s desire for h o n o r h a s done m u c h m i s c h i e f in the c hurch of G o d 9 e s ­ p e c ially among ministers. A m i n i s t e r once made the remark that a l l the d i v i s i o n s among u s were caused by the a m b i t i o n s of bishops. That is a strong s t a t e m e n t , and I cannot e n ­ ti r e l y agree w i t h h i m for we m i n i s t e r s have our w e a k n e s s e s too, a n d a l s o m ust resist our desires to be honored. There is n o b etter w a y to resist this t e m p t a t i o n t h a n to compare our imperfections ‘with the standards required by the W o r d . o f God. A pparently the p e r s o n a l i t y of l e a d e r s have been r e s p o n ­ sible for divisions in m a n y other d e n o m i n a t i o n s too. B o i s e n 4® points out that f r e q u e n t l y "church divis i o n s are due to u n ­ recognized pe r s o n a l ambi t i o n s a n d h o s t i l i t i e s a m o n g the leaders. The issues of doct r i n e s a n d principle in m a n y cases are merely pretexts and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of mo t i v e s w h i c h not acknowledged." are T h i s c e r t a i n l y w o u l d a p p l y to the Amish. 47. D.E. Mast, "The Love of M o n e y " (Tr. J o h n B. Mast), Hd_.9 July 1, 1954, p. 407. 48. ,A n t o n,T..Boisen , R e l i g i o n in .Crisis a n d C u s t o m (New York, H a r p e r and Brothers, 1955), p. 233. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission . 620 - - M a n y critics blame the A m i s h d i v i s i o n s on the cipline and the strictness of the ordnungo 49 stern dis- * There are m a n y required items over w h i c h there is p o s ­ sible agreement or disagreement. C o u p l e d w i t h this is the belief that c o n f o r m i t y is e s s e n t i a l for the w e l l being of the church. Although the A m i s h att e m p t to enforce the d i s c i p ­ line through love and u n d e r s t a n d i n g if these m e a n s do n o t work they quite quickly resort to the u s e of force, by m e a n s of the ban, w h i c h sometimes ap p e a r s to be envoked by a n a r ­ bitrary authority. B o i s e n 50 p o s t u l a t e s that cipline of the M e n n o n i t e the stern d i s ­ bodies a n d their emph a s i s u p o n obed­ ience has been c l o s e l y associated w i t h t h e i r m a n y divisions. There is so m u c h repressed h o s t i l i t y that t rivial issues m a y be seized u p o n in order to e x p r e s s this hostility. Considering h o w pervasive 51 the ordnung is, it is s u r p r i s ­ ing that there is not more h o s t i l i t y engendered. And that in general the A m i s h have been able to handle t h e i r a g g r e s s i o n s so well. 49. Yoder, T r a d i t i o n s . on. cit. P a u l Peachy, "De­ cisive Mom e n t in O u r Past," The C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l , M a y , -1954, pp. 76-78. For a more pr o f o u n d statement see P a u l Peachy, "Anabaptism a n d Church (Organization," MQB, July, 1956, pp. 213228. 50. (Qp. c i t . 51. Certainly indi v iduals d o carry over h o s t i l i t y felt for their father a n d t r a n s f e r it to the ministers. The r e l a ­ tion of the father to the child al m o s t e x a c t l y parallels the relation of the church to the member. The A m i s h h ave i n s t i t ­ utionalized a m eans for e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r hostility. The p r e ­ communion period e n c o u r a g e s e a c h m e m b e r to release and r e ­ solve his feelings of h o s t i l i t y toward specific individuals and even the church as a unit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 621 - Al t h o u g h X m e n t i o n e d f r a g m e n t a t i o n in rela t i o n to a com­ munity becoming too large, obvio u s l y it is a p h e m o n e n o n that can occur in a n y community. However, ent groups can both survive splinter groups and p a r ­ only in a fa i r l y large, w e l l e s ­ tablished community. From the f o regoing d i s c u s s i o n it should be ev i d e n t that an Amish community c a n be too small and p r o b a b l y it c a n become too large. There is u s u a l l y little d a n g e r of a community b e ­ coming too large because its g r o w t h is g e n e r a l l y checked by the presence munities. of cities or s trongly entrenched n o n - A m i s h com­ W i t h i n a b r o a d range there seems to be a n ideal Amish community size. Such a community w o u l d p r o b a b l y have between f ifty a n d one-thousand families, 52 and would be w i t h i n a four h o u r jour n e y (by car or train]) of a n o t h e r A m i s h community. Formation of H e w Communities The A m i s h have large f amilies and t h e y realize that if each child is n o t settled on a f a r m there is a f a i r l y good chance that he m a y be lost to the church. constant pressure for more land. Thus, there is a In m ost A m i s h c ommunities the available land is g radually t a k e n over by the A m i s h u n t i l the community grows toward regions that are i naccessible because they have become urbanized, firmly entrenched. the land is too poor, too W h e n l a n d w i t h i n the m o t h e r c o m m u n i t y b e ­ comes scarce and expensive 52. of 1575 families. or others are small groups of m e n go out in In 1955 the c e n t r a l Ohio c o m m u n i t y w as comprise Gingerich, op. c i t . . 1955. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 622 - search of n e w locations. O f t e n the r e a s o n for the specific individual l e a v i n g the m o t h e r c o m m u n i t y to start a n e w colony is not that he p e r s o n a l l y is u n a b l e to obtain land in the home community, but behind h i s p e r s o n a l r e a s o n is u s u a l l y press u r e on the land, knows he c a n X f he does own land in a n e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n y he sell it for a s u b s t a n t i a l sum and land in a n e w community c a n be bought for less. men, u s u a l l y three, Typically a small g r o u p of start out in search of a good location. When they arrive in a prom i s i n g a r e a t h e y often spend seve r a l days walking around it and m a k i n g inqui r i e s as to its a v a i l ­ ability. X f they are p a r t i c u l a r l y i nterested in a specific region they g a t h e r all the I n f o r m a t i o n and t h e n g e n e r a l l y re ­ turn for a second visit at a d i f f e r e n t time of y e a r before deciding to buy the land a n d move to the n e w location. The land is u s u a l l y judged e m p i r i c a l l y rat h e n t h a n h a v i n g soil samples tested a n d obtaining m e a s u r e m e n t s runoff. 54 of d r a i n a g e and D u r i n g these inspe c t i o n t o u r s little us e made of the Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service. such matters as the school and noti c e seems to be The A m i s h l o o k into the age of the farmers. 53. For description s of such trips see H a r r y F. Weber, Centennial H i s t o r y of the M e n n o n i t e s of Illinois., 1 629-1929 (Goshen, Ind., M ennonite H i s t o r i c a l Society, 1931), pp. 539-40. Kempes Schnell, "John F. F u n k ' s l a n d I n s p e c t i o n T r i p s as B e c o r d e d In His D i a r i e s , ".1872 and 1873, MSB, October, 1950, pp. 295-311. This man was a M e n n o n i t e leader an d in some m e a s u r e h i s trips differed from the typical A m i s h trips. D e l b e r t Gratz, Bern e e s e Anabaptists (Scottdale, Pa.: H e r a l d Press, 1953). Jonn Gmble , "Mennonites of L y o n County, K a n s a s , " M Q R , July, 1952, BP* 232-53. Gives a good account of n o w the land w a s selected ior the community. C o n t r a r y to t h e i r u s u a l c o n s e r v a t i v e p r a c t i c e o* visiting a n e w lo c a t i o n at two d i f f e r e n t times of y e a r these colonists u n h a p p i l y v i s i t e d it only once. The c o m m u n i t y peri s h e d due to a p o o r economic base. 54. W h e n choosing land in M a r y l a n d , the A m i s h m e n e a c h carited a small shovel and d u g small h o l e s in several pla c e s in e a c h iieid to determine the cond i t i o n of the soil. D i e t e r Bunz. M a r y ­ land Germsns (Princeton, N.J.; P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1948). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . Received without p a tre (s) S______ . Filmed as received. University Microfilms, Inc. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 624 - They are p a r t i c u l a r l y i ntere s t e d in regions whe r e the farmers are old and t h e i r children seem to have left tions of p ossible are a s are Descrip­ often w r i t t e n u p in the H e r a l d and occasionally h o p e f u l commun i t i e s w i l l write suggest that the farm„ other A m i s h f am i l i e s join t h e m c of their r e g i o n and The following is a fairly t y p i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of a region. .'..it's splendid w e a t h e r fo r soy bean h a r v e s t i n g , w h i c h w a s a fair crop, y i e l d i n g from 25 to 50 bu. per acre. The price wa s $ 2 . 4 0 the other d a y in Atmore. Soy beans are raised here on a large a c r e ­ age. The c o m crop is m o s t l y harvested. The h a r v e s t ­ ing is done by pickers. The crop was good. Cotton was a n e x tra good crop this year, and is n e a r l y done. One of the neig h b o r s told me he had 16 a c r e s out and it n e t t e d h i m over $1,700. The b e a n fields are n o w being plowed or d i s c e d again and put into fall oats, w h i c h is u s e d for pasture in the w i n t e r months. D a i r y i n g is on the increase, and brings a good income. The m i l k goes to P e n s a c o l a , 37 mil e s to the south fr o m us, a city of 47,000. No w h e a t is raised here but I r i s h potatoes are a l s o raised in the e a r l y spring in large quantities. O u r soil here is f ar superior to the light sands of Sarasota, except the b l a c k celery land. W e have the chocolate color soil, w i t h v a r i a t i o n of lig h t e r or da r k e r , , a n d seems to be quite productive. I n fact, this c o untry looks m o r e like n o r t h e r n farm i n g sections than most of F l orida does. W e s t of Tallahassee, n e a r Quincy, is also a nice farming country, but they raise that stuff w h i c h some people put in their m o u t h w i t h fire at one end and a sucker at the other end. It is also good to k i l l lice in h e n ' s nests, and a large g r e e n w o r m thri v e s on it. D a n D. Stoltzfus of Hess t o n , Kans.. (formerly of Lancaster Co., Pa.), mov e d here r e c e n t l y a n d b o u g h t a 600-acre farm, 250 ac r e s cleared, for $48,000... Land is selling from 50 to 150 d o l l a r s a n a c r e . 55 55. Herald, O c t o b e r 25, 1951, p. 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 625 - There is a tendency to t hink of the A m i s h as a people who are born on one farm, marry and live settled on a joining f arm w h e n t hey there u n t i l they die. great deal of mobility. A c t u a l l y there is a A n occasional u n f o r t u n a t e child may attend six different schools du r i n g h e r eight years of school. Families move f rom one farm to a n o t h e r w i t h i n the c h u r c h d i s ­ trict, from one church district to a n o t h e r w i t h i n the community, and move from one community to another. Du r i n g 1953, 12.79^ of the families m o v e d out of the church district in w h i c h they had been living. This figure is supris i n g l y h i g h f or it does not include m ovements of n o n - m a r r i e d members, the most mobile group.56 N o r does it include m o v e s within a c h u r c h district. 57 Loomis states that the amount of w a r t i m e migration, m u c h of which consisted of t e m p o r a r y moves, was tremendous. He refers to S k r y o c k 5s study56 that e stimated that 13 percent of the civ­ ilian population mi g r a t e d at least August 1945. line. line 59 once between A p r i l 1940 and He d e f ined a migrant as one who crossed a county D e f ining a migrant as one who crosses a church dis t r i c t the Amish show a similar m o b i l i t y d u r i n g the period of 56. This is not only true of A m i s h y o u t h but of f arm youth in g e n eral between the ages of fif t e e n and twenty-five. T. Lynn Smith, The Soci o l o g y of Rural Life ( N e w York: H a r p e r and Brothers, 1947)," p. 186. 57. Charles P. Loomis a n d J. A l l a n B e e g l e ; R u r a l Social S ystems{ New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1950), p. 211. 56. H e n r y S. Shryock, Jr. “Wartime S h i f t s of the C i v i ian P o p u l a t i o n ." in Postwar P roblems of M i g r a t i o n . 59. The c o mmuni t y is so placed, in the corner of four counties, that this often involves crossing a county line. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 626 only one y ear (rather than fivej). - Two percent w a s the lowest mobility in a single church d istrict while the h i g h e s t was thirty-two p e r c e n t 0 The chu r c h that showed the least mobil i t y , #17, was n ear the center of the community, w hile the one that showed the greatest m o b i l i t y was a c hurch district, # 1 2 , on the edge of the c o m m u n i t y that h a d div i d e d the p r e v i o u s year. The reasons for m o v i n g from one l o c a t i o n to a n o t h e r wi t h i n the A mish community and the reasons for starting n e w c o m m u n i t ­ ies are u s u a l l y similar. The first r e a s o n is a v a i l a b i l i t y of land. Families move to locations w here them. Generally farms can be found in more t h a n one location, even within n e c e s s a r y price ranges. farms are avai l a b l e to T h e n the choice of l o ­ cation is often determined b y residence of f amily members, minor variations in the ordnung, and the social life spiritual life of the community. To some extent, Influenced by the farming practices. or the choice is This is e s p e c i a l l y true in the selection of n e w c o m m u n i t y sites. Once a comm u n i t y is established, ..healthy c ommun i t y life m a y out w e i g h m i n o r d i s ­ advantages in farming. I n d i v i d u a l f amilies a lso m ove to n e w locations to resolve pe r s o n a l problems w h i c h are often phr a s e d in terms of d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the ordnung. Amishman writes succinctly, 60. (One Old O rder "Some move into n e w settlements 0 0 A 1 6 3 , QOA101 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 627 - simply because they can't bear to live in a c o m m u n i t y where others disagree w i t h them. 6 "1 Community Success and Failure The Ami s h r e l i g i o n is a c o m m u n a l r e l i g i o n that cann o t be practiced by one family, a single f a m i l y v i r t u a l l y n e v e r m o v e s alone to a n e w location. A l o c a t i o n is selected, land is bought and a small g r o u p of families move t o g e t h e r to e s t a b l i s h a co m ­ munity. D u r i n g the e a r l y yea r s t h e y t r y to enco u r a g e ilies to join them. other f a m ­ I f others come the c o m m u n i t y ha s a good chance for survival, if n e w families do n o t mov e in during the first few years the settlers g e n e r a l l y turn to e s t a b l i s h e d communities. sell the i r land and re- 62 The m a j o r reas o n for s t a r t i n g n e w s e t t l e m e n t s is the p r e s ­ sure on the land. Die junge Brtfder die ihre Zeit a u s a r b e i t e t e n in IW Arbeit k o m m e n w i e d e r so r e g e l m S s s i g zunJtck a b e r in u n s e r e Gegend wie a u c h in v i e l e n and e r e -Ansi e d l u ngen ist oft n i c h t B a u m a u f e i n F a r m fflr alle. Wo sollen sle h i n oder w as ist die A n t w o r t zu dieser Frage? W i r e r w a r t e n v i e l l e i c h t G e d a n k e n ittber diese V e r M l t n i s .63 It is a pr o b l e m that u n d e r l i e s a l l the others. other factors influence the to move. As m e n t i o n e d above However many specific i n d i v i d u a l s w h o decide some move to get a w a y f r o m an 61. H. G. "The A m i s h Chu r c h in the Old T e s t a m e n t , Jer. 3 5 ” W i t n e s s i n g ;-May. 1956 . p. 4. 627 (0)GMC2 reported that a n A m i s h f a m i l y bought a farm just beyond the b o u n d a r y of the c e n t r a l (Ohio community. They lived on it for about three years a n d t h e n sold it b e ­ cause the E n g l i s h were so firmly e n t r e n c h e d t h e y r e a l i z e d that other Amish would find land too d i f f i c u l t to obtain. U m b l e ob­ serves, "Amish... refuse to rema i n in a c o m m u n i t y w h e r e a strong congregation cannot be built u p . " U m b l e , "Disintegration" QP. c i t . . p„ 123. 63. HdW, A p r i l 1, 1955, p. 98. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 628 - unhappy situation, to avoid p e r s o n a l i t y conflicts a n d to remove themselves from those w i t h w h o m they cannot agree. Others feel that they cannot raise their children p r o p e r l y in the large w e l l established communities w i t h firmly e n t r e n c h e d traditions. Some families w ho object to the prevailing c o u r t s h i p patterns a n d wish to form n e w communities where bidden,, "bed c o u r t s h i p " w i l l be f o r ­ T h e y w o uld p refer the i r you n g people to be in a c o m m u n ­ ity that was so small that there w o u l d be n o excuse to use to transverse cars it and eve r y adu l t w o u l d reco g n i z e e v e r y you n g person by sight. This w o u l d be a great st e p their young people's behavior; toward controlling toward p r e v e n t i n g smoking and drinking and wild behavior at t h e i r singings„ Just as the ordnung is relaxed slightly to e n able a n e w young farmer to get e s t a b l i s h e d financially, so the ordnung is generally relaxed in a n e w c o m m u n i t y to enable the n e w church to build a f i r m f i n a n c i a l basis u n d e r it. This slight relaxation in the ordnung is e a g e r l y sought b y v a r i o u s m e m b e r s of the community. This is c e r t a i n l y a c o n t r i b u t i n g r e a s o n f o r some families m o v i n g to n e w settlements. is also effective The opposite r e a s o n in e s t a b l i s h i n g n e w colonies. Some of t h e m are started in order that the ordnung m a y be e n f o r c e d more strictly. However, the stricter e n f o r c e m e n t is u s u a l l y only in one area and that area is rarely e conomic. New religious d e v e l o p m e n t s m a y a l s o stimulate the f o r m ­ ation of n e w communities. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 629 - NOTICE: A rather d e t a i l e d questio m a i i e is being is being prepared for people interested in e v a n g e l i z a ­ tion by colonization by a study committee that was formed at a recent M. I. C. (Missions Interest Committee) meeting. The q uesti o n n a i r e s w i l l be available from D a v i d L.. Miller, Jerome, Mich. The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine h o w m u c h interest there is in resettl e m e n t and what the chief reasons causing such interest are. In case there should be e n o u g h u n i t y e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h these questionnaires, efforts w i l l be put f o r t h to aid such c o l o n i z a t i o n . 64 An interest in missions and strong feelings aga i n s t the u se of to­ bacco were a m o n g the factors that led to the e s t a b l ishment of the Pike County community in Ohio (1947J). U s u a l l y the f o rmation of n e w A m i s h communities is i n t e r ­ preted as a sign of health. The c h u r c h is h o l d i n g its young people and is e s t ablishing t h e m on land in compact communities where they can practice the r e l i g i o n of their fathers. is of course true, This but on closer i n v e s t i g a t i o n it is also a p p a r ­ ent that ne w communities m a y be f o r m e d in order n o t to practice exactly the r e l igion of t h e i r fathers. An o t h e r answer to our t roubled times is Seen in the w a y n e w settlements are springing up. Being geographically removed from the parent co l o n y the n e w colonies are somewhat removed f r o m its influence. Because they are smaller and to a less extent because t h e y are n e w they are more susceptible to change and can more quickly and e a s i l y adapt to the changing world ar o u n d t h e m 0 A m o n g the A m i s h com­ munity size is closely related to conservatism. 64. 65. For two or W i t n e s s i n g , May, 1956, p. 6. H. G. "Amish C h u r c h , ” loc. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 630 - more members may prevent the introdu c t i o n of “E p p e s Neues" regardless of the size of the group,, In a large settlement there invariably seem to be a few i ndividuals who object to any and every c h a n g e . The individuals who d o n o t like change rarely move and therefore they do not reach the n e w c o m m u n i t y . A new community is forced to make m a n y adjustments. The me m b e r s are somewhat amenable to change and some innovations slip in that are not absolu t e l y essen t i a l a n d that m a y be at variance with the m o t h e r community. The n e w comm u n i t y being both small and n e w is less sheltered f r o m the w o r l d and the lack of isolation is r eflected in the social patterns. C o m m u n i t y ; D i s o r g a n i z a t i o n There is an idea that because the A m i s h select the land carefully a n d always move in groups, t h e i r c o l o n i z a t i o n efforts meet with complete success. This is far f r o m true. Mook, in a study of Pennsylvania A m i s h communities that h a d f a i l e d , 6 ^ pointed out that there are more extinct A m i s h communities in the commonwealth of P e n nsylv a n i a t h a n successful surviving ones. (There are at present t e n A m i s h communities in P e n n ­ sylvania and there have b een four t e e n c o m m u n i t y failures.) What are the reasons that one n e w c ommunity succeeds and another fails? 66. This q u estio n has been studied i ntensively Maurice A. Mook, op. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 631 - by various M e n n o n i t e schola r s . 6 '*’ Fretz places on the posi t i v e side of the balances 1) Religion that enables the colonists to endure h a r d s h i p and overcome p e rsonal a n d gro u p c o n f l i c t . 3) Industry and frugality. economic conditions. Good leadership. 2) M u t u a l aid. 4) F avorable g e o g r a p h i c a n d 5) Adequate f i n a n c i a l credit. 6} 7) Government laws a n d c o n c e s s i o n s that reflect favorable public opinion, an d fina l l y 8) P l a n n i n g and supervision. As factor s that c o ntribute to failure, he lists: 1) Inadeq u a t e prepar a t i o n , 2) lack of l e adership, 3) absence of group consciousness, 4) i n t e r n a l conflicts, 5) poor land, 6) u n f a v o r a b l e climate, 8) inadequate f i n a n c i a l credit. Umble ors in the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of Menno n i t e 7) p o o r mark e t s , and considers five f a c t ­ communities: 1) too small a community, 2) intermarriage w i t h n o n - M e n n o n i t e non-Amish young people, or (this r a r e l y h a p p e n s except in v e r y small communities), 3) w i d e l y scat t e r e d farmsteads, e s p e c ­ ially if the total communit y is small, 4) u n f a v o r a b l e e c o n ­ omic factors, leadership. (poor land and climate) and, 5) the inadequate Umble believes the last tw o factors to be of greatest significance. I w o u l d say that the success of a new settlement is mo s t closely r e l a t e d to, 1) its size 67. For example see, U m b l e , " D i s i n t e g r a t i o n ," on. c J. Winfield Fretz, "Factors C o n t r i b u t i n g to Succ e s s a n d Failure in Mennonite Colonization," M Q R , April, 1950, pp. 130-35; J. Winfield Fretz, Menn o n i t e C o l o n i z a t i o n (Akron, Pa.: M e n n o n i t e Central C o m m i t t e e , 1944)• R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 632 - (after the first five years), 2) the strength of its economic base, and 3) the a b i l i t y of its leaders,, or not it grows well, factorso If there Its size, w h e t h e r is c losely r e l a t e d to the other two is avail a b l e f a r m land, r i c h soils, good climate and suitable markets the mem b e r s w i l l p r o s p e r e c o n ­ omically and others w i l l be a n x i o u s to join them. A n d if the leadership is able there w i l l be a m i n i m u m of intracommunity strife and a h e a l t h y social life w ill develop that will also attract n e w members. a function of e c o n o m i c s ships. (There Thus size u s u a l l y is and s mooth i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n ­ seems to be a n o ccasional exception. The Knox County c o m m u n i t y in Ohio a p p e a r e d to be f a v o r a b l y e n ­ dowed but n e w families d i d n o t join the original six setC.O tiers so after a few years they dispersed. The Defiance County community in Ohio t o d a y m i g h t be consi d e r e d a similar case.) The accounts of commu n i t i e s that failed because the settlers did not k n o w h o w to farm n e w soils a nd in d i f f e r ­ ent climates are often e x t r e m e l y sad. his childhood in such a community. John Umble described In 1885 he m i g r a t e d to Kansas w ith h i s fam i l y and a group of industrious, Amish families from Pennsyl v a n i a . that destroyed the crop the 68. Umble, He wr i t e s well-to-do of the flood first year, the d r o u g h t that "Disintegration," loc. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 633 killed it the second, the cattle - starving to death, the hot winds k i l l i n g the corn the third, his three brot h e r s d ying that winter a n d the t o t a l crop a g a i n d e s t r o y e d the f o u r t h year. The settlers had no fuel to cook their food, m u c h less heat the sod houses. Some of the m e n traveled f ifteen miles to work in a coal mine* and their teams. T hey furnished food for themselves T h e y were paid f ifty cents a day. No one in the K a n s a s c o m m u n i t y k n e w of h ard wheat that was l ater introduced; but none t h e y tried w i n t e r wheat a n d a v a r i e t y o f crops of t h e m were c o n s i s t e n t l y r e a l l y successful. Al­ though a few families too p o o r to leave rem a i n e d for a few •years and a n o c c a s i o n a l fa m i l y joined the settlement, most of the settlers ha d m o v e d to other commun i t i e s by 1889* The h i s t o r y of the A m i s h settlement in C o l o r a d o is not much different. century. It started d u r i n g the first decade of this The A m i s h settlers were a t t r a c t e d to the a r e a b y the homestead la w that e n a b l e d a person to file of land, build a house, acres and live on 320 a c r e s fence f o r t y acres, b r e a k out t w e n t y on the h o m e s t e a d f o r a po r t i o n of e a c h y e a r for three years. At the end of three years they were to get free title to the land. Some A m i s h families a r r i v e d w i t h considerable c a p ital and a y e a r ' s supply of food, but others arrived w i t h almost n o t h i n g and t h e n could find n o work. The Amish settlers k n e w n o t hin g about d r y land agriculture. tried wheat and d i d not e v e n get the seed back. They A f t e r lab o r i n g to dig post h o l e s in the baked e a r t h and stringing fence, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. they - would watch the i r crop come up. cowboys would fields. 634 - T h e n one of the ranchers or cut the fence and tu r n the range cattle into the The crops were so po o r that c h i l d r e n were young thistles to feed the stock. sent to cut Even without competition from other people's live s t o c k the h o m e s t e a d s were incapable porting large families. of sup­ Some people a p p a r e n t l y abandoned their land; one family sold their house land for five d o llars an acre. for f i f t y doll a r s and the The last A m i s h m a n to leave traded his land for some cut-over pine timber land in M i s s i s s i p p i and moved there to live. ers left his Tw e n t y - f o u r years a f t e r the h o m e s t e a d ­ son returned to the site. The only thi n g left of the sod hou s e a n d b a r n was one splinter of wood. The fences were a l l gone and the land was Just as barren as w h e n we went there in 1910. Another frequent cause of c o m m u n i t y d e a t h is i n t e r n a l d i s ­ cord 7' 0 The U n i o n C o u n t y community wa s founded in a prosp e r o u s agricultural section of P e n n s y l v a n i a but in spite of this in­ ternal dissention and constant bickering lead to its extinction. Although there were p r o b a b l y a n u m b e r of causes that c o ntributed to the extinction of a n A m i s h comm u n i t y in Mexico, J o h n Martin, an Old Order A m i s h m a n pres e n t l y l i v i n g in M e x i c o reports, 69. David A. Hostetler, "Life in Colorado," Herald, June 16, 23, 30, J u l y 7, 14, 1955, p. 6. 70. U m b l e , "Disintegration," op. cit. a n d J o h n Umbl e , "Amish Mennonites of U n i o n County, P e n n s y l v a n i a , " M Q B , April, 1944, pp. 71-96, July, pp. 162-90. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 635 - According to the w a y I was informed, the m a i n r e a s o n for its failure was because of church disu n i t y , and no m i n i s t e r we n t there n o r was there a n y ordained, so tie flock w a s w i thout a leader, and t h e n a ll w a n t e d to do the leading. This X don't say w i t h the ide a 7 of fault finding but to a n s w e r the ques t i o n as asked. There is a great deal of A m i s h w r i t i n g and preac h i n g on u n i t y and much discussion of t h e evfls of judging and criticizing. Passing judgment on others is so natu r a l . J u d g i n g others and starting slanderous g o s s i p about them, is v e r y n e a r l y one and the same thing. B o t h proceed fr o m the same spirit-the spirit of mali c e and n o t of love. Judge not, that you w i l l not be judged on the J u d g m e n t B a y . 7,c We do not like to be judged by others w h o make false reports about us; n e i t h e r do we like to have our faults and w e a k n e s s e s become the subject of d i s c u s s i o n in the community; then w i t h the h e l p of God, let u s al s o not do that for others.75 You m a y say that if there is strife, it is because of those w h o are in opposition to you, that it is n o t y o u r fault. What about y o urs e l f ? Have you, too, changed in your thinking and gott e n a w a y f r o m original c h u r c h stand­ ards?74 The simplest w a y to achieve u n i t y is to a v o i d i n t r o d u c t i o n of n e w elements, to go back to the way of the forefathers. "The m o o n and the stars too are p u r s u i n g the same courses they have b e e n for h u n d r e d s of years. They, too, seem to be getting alo n g n i c e l y t o g e t h e r . " 75 71. Herald, J a n u a r y 27, 1955, p. 3. 72. D a n i e l E. Mast, L e s s o n s in the S e r m o n on the M o u n t . (Tr. John B. M a s t ) ( Scottdale, Pa; M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g House, 1953), p. 137. 73. I b i d . p. 150. 74. A b urdened Sister, "Unity," HdW, O c t o b e r 15, 1952. p. 633 75. E. M. "Modernism" H d W . F e b r u a r y 15, 1954, pp. 112-13. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 636 - Unity means c o n f o r m i t y in almo s t e v e r y sphere of life. the sake of u n i t y m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s are more For safely ignored than discussed. Communities are s o m e t i m e s forced to m ove due to e x t e r n a l pressures. T h e y m a y move w h e n the city e n c r o a c h e s 7® or w h e n industry or the g o v e r n m e n t takes over a vlarge tract of land near them. The Montezuma, Georgia, c o m m u n i t y was from JLyrmhaven an d Norfolk, Virgina. started b y A m i s h It has h a d support f r o m the Old Order A m i s h and h a s b e e n v i s i t e d by m a n y © L d O r d e r Amishmen, but the comm u n i t y is p r i m a r i l y a B e a c h y A m i s h set­ tlement. ing. The l o c a t i o n was cho s e n a f t e r several y e a r s search- In March, 1953 the first options were t a k e n on the land. On October 11 they ha d t h e i r f irst five families in the community. 78 church s e r v i c e . 79 There were Since that time t h e y h a v e h a d a scribe that w r i t e s r e g u l a r l y for the H e r a l d . The c o l u m n s are full of reports of n e w h o u s e s and barns b eing b u i l t a n d the n e w families that are m o v i n g into it. T h e y have h a d two w e d d i n g s and young people are u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n and are church. j o i n i n g the Communion h a s b e e n celebrated twice a y e a r and there is much visiting w i t h singings al m o s t e v e r y tueek. there were seventy-two c h u r c h m embers. It I n 1956 seems to be a v e r y young community off to a n u n u s u a l l y g o o d start. 76. 77. 78. 79. Herald, M a y 19, 1955, p. 6. Herald, A u g u s t 21, 1952, p. 1. Herald, M a r c h 19, 1953, p. 1. H d W . N o v e m b e r 15, 1953, p. 675. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - During the course 637 - of this study at least seven n e w A m i s h communities have been started:£Ck o n t e z u m a , Georgia, K e n t o n , Ashland County, O h i o ; 82 D a vies County, Missouri; ity in Missouri; sylvania. O h i o , 81 a second c o m m u n ­ Chesley, O n t a r i o ; 88 a n d one n e a r A a r o n s b u r g , Penn- Prince E d w a r d I s l a n d is being c o n s i d e r e d as a possible location for a d a u g h t e r c o l o n y fro m N a p p a n e e , Indiana. The r e are undoubtedly more c ommunities that hav e be e n started d u r i n g the past five years that have n o t come to m y attention. New and Old Co m m u n i t i e s in Ohio 3h Ohio, during the course of t h i s study, Amish communities have been started, two n e w Ol d Order one has become and another one is s uccumbing to a l i n g e r i n g death. extinct, The K e n t o n community in H a r d i n C o u n t y started in the w i n t e r of 1952-53. The first letter it sent to t h e H e r a l d wa s p u b l i s h e d in the March 19th issue, 1953. The c o m m u n i t y wa s started b y a gro u p of families from L a G r a n g e , Indiana. Close ties h a v e tained with the m o t h e r comm u n i t y an d a l t h o u g h ing visiting w i t h other Ohio c o m m u n i t i e s there been m a i n ­ there is i n c r e a s ­ is still more intervisitation w i t h I n diana tha n w i t h O l i o communities. The community is growing steadily, m o s t l y by a d d i t i o n s f r o m Indiana. (Gne family has m o v e d away). 80. December 25 P. 2; March 81. 82. 63. 84. Planning to In 1956 there wer e t w e n t y - e i g h t Mennonite Community. May, 1953, n. 29: Hera l d , ,“ 1952, p. 1; M a r c h 19, 1953, pp. 1-6; May~23',' 1954, 22, 1956, p. 6. D a u g h t e r of the I n d i a n a Community. D a u g h t e r of the c e n t r a l Ohio Community. The m o t h e r settlement w a s Ethri d g e , T e n n e s s e e . Six families m o v e d from Belleville. .A p r e a c h e r is join them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 638 - families85 and fifty-eight members,,86 and no deacon communion. T h e y have n o bishop so these officials have to be impo r t e d for They are b u i l d i n g their own school an d seem to have an u n u s u a l l y h i g h birthrate. The y o u n g people have frequent g a t h e r i n g s and singings. Their English neighbors have received them h appily. The p r o s p e c t s fo r their c om­ munity are good. The second n e w c o m m u n i t y County. started a y e a r l a t e r in Ashl a n d (There had b e e n a M e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y in t h i s county but it has be e n e x tinct for m a n y y e a r s . ) 87 There are ilies in the no deacon. community. There is a bishop six f a m ­ but n o p r e a c h e r and The b i s h o p for m e r l y served i n the c e n t r a l (Ohio com­ munity and the m e m b e r s are fr o m the same community. land community is only a b o u t The A s h ­ fifteen m i l e s f r o m the n o r t h e r n part of the ce n t r a l Ohio community. There is quite a bit of visiting between the two n e w c o m m u n i t i e s of K e n t o n and Ashland. 88 Ashland is reported t o have a c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p of thirty. The six families h a d thirty ^ n i n e c h i l d r e n in 1956. and the original settlers h a v e n o t It has no re g u l a r H e r a l d scribe. It is small been join e d by n e w families. Howe v e r , the families are large and the community is betwee n two other Ol d O r d e r A m i s h c ommunities 85. Herald, M a r c h 22, 1956, p. 6. 86. M e n n o n i t e Y e a r b o o k . 1956, op. cit., p. 85. 87. J o h n U m b l e , "Extinct Ohio M e n n o n i t e Churches,,V. The Churches of A s hland Coun t y , " M Q R . J a n u a r y 1945, pp. 41-58. 88. Ibid. R ep ro du ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 6 3 9 that can be visited fair l y easily. - The social n e e d s of the members can p r o b a b l y be satisfied by p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the life of the ne i g h b o r i n g communities. community along for awhile, This will h e l p to c a r r y the but if the original gro u p is no t augmented, it, too, will dissolve. In 1949 seven families started a n e w c o m m u n i t y at P i k e t o n D Q in Pike County, Ohio. There were tw o m i n i s t e r s in the group. This small c o m m u n i t y had ve r y defin i t e ideas about the ordnung. They had strict dre s s regulations, forbade the use of tobacco, and alcohol, u s e d the ban, a n d believed in m i s s i o n work. The y would hold church w i t h the C e n t r a l Ohi o Old O r d e r A m i s h co m ­ munities, but w o u l d not celebrate communion w i t h m o s t of them. In August 1952 they learned that the government w a s plan n i n g to build an atomic plant just five mil e s east of t h e i r c o m m u n ­ ity „ One c ommunity m e m b e r wrote to the H e r a l d , We have been here n e a r l y three years a n d like it better e v e r y year. I d o n o t believe a n y of the families had an t i c i p a t e d eve r m o v i n g a w a y and we also had h o p e s of our settlement i ncreasing soon. But things are a l l changed n o w and we do n o t k n o w what is best to do, but are confident that as always, there will be a way,.. We have no promise of h a v i n g things n i c e on our journey h e r e . 90 They finally d e cided to move as a u n i t to Canada. M e m b e r s of the community v i s i t e d Canada in Septe m b e r and a g a i n in November. In February 1953 several f a m i l i e s bought farms n e a r Aylmer, 89. 90. P e r s o n a l correspondence, XI/23/54. N. Herald, August 21, 1952, p. 1. Stoltzfus. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ... - 640 - j Ontario. A f t e r p u r c h a s i n g a f a r m one of the m i n i s t e r s learned, that his feeble m i n d e d son could not immigrate t o Canada so he remained in this country (and fin a l l y joined the B e a c h y c h u r c h . } In 1954 one family had no t yet sold t h e i r farm, but w ere planning to join the others in Canada as soon as t h e y did. M a n y hopes died with the community. In the n o r t h w e s t e r n c o m e r is a dying community. of the state, E i g h t e e n families i n Defi a n c e county, (widows a n d u n m a r r i e d girls not included} receive t h e i r m a i l at three d i f f e r e n t post offices.90 I n 1954 the church m e m b e r s h i p w a s sixty-seven, 1956 it was f o r t y - s i x . 91 but no deacon. There in is a b ishop and two prea c h e r s The ordnung is c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e l a x e d t h a n is the ordnung of the c e n t r a l Ohio community. M o r e m a c h i n e r y is permitted, bottled gas is u s e d and sweaters m a y be worn. When the Amish were told they m u s t go to h i g h sc h o o l they did, w i t h ­ out an audible murmur. years. T h e y h a d h a d Su n d a y schools for m a n y The land is not as r i c h as in the c e n t r a l O h i o community. The Defiance community is n o t only small but the families are scattered. I have gone t h r o u g h the sc r a p - b o o k s k e p t by a w o m a n who grew u p in that community. These s c r a p - b o o k s c o v e r the period from h e r second or third y e a r in school t i l l h e r marriage. From the time 90. 91. she started school u n t i l she left D e f i a n c e t o w o r k Gingerich, 1956, op. cit., Vol. H , p. 29. Mennonite Y e a r b o o k , on. c i t . . 1954, p. 89, 1956, p. 85. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 6 4 1 - in the central O h i o c o m m u n i t y h e r best friend -was al w a y s a n English girl. Tw o of h e r b r o t h e r s a n d two of h e r sisters eventually joined the C o n s e r v a t i v e s j Old Order. only one h as r e m a i n e d F rom h e r scrapbook it w as obvious that there was a great d eal o f social i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the A m i s h and non-Amish c h i l d r e n and y o u n g people. tact she has had w i t h E n g l i s h people her attitudes tow a r d diet, The a m o u n t of c o n ­ is v e r y evident. f a m i l y size 3h and child care she is more like he r E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s t h a n h e r c o m m u n i t y sisters. Defiance is rat h e r a p o o r c o m m u n i t y w i t h a small A m i s h p o p ­ ulation that is scattered a m o n g the English. any other A m i s h community. It is not n e a r The m e m b e r s h i p is d e c l i n i n g both through people m o v i n g a w a y and joining other churches. This community seems doomed to extinc t i o n . The A m i s h c h u r c h a n d the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y are coterminous. The church is committed to s eparation from the world, community must exist in the world. but the A b alance b e t w e e n w i t h ­ drawal and p a r t i c i p a t i o n can be m a i n t a i n e d only w i t h i n struc­ tured communities.9 2 - W i t h i n a f a i r l y wide range t h e r e ap p e a r s to be an ideal comm u n i t y size. The size should be d e s c r i b e d in terms of g e o g r a p h i c a l area, t o t a l A m i s h p o p u l a t i o n a n d d e n s i t y of Amish population relative to d e n s i t y of n o n - A m i s h population. 'Wien for various reasons the u p p e r l imit of a c o m m u n i t y is reached, daughter communities are f o r m e d that are i n d e p e n d e n t sically isolated f r o m the m o t h e r community, of and p h y ­ but c l o s e l y tied to her by means of communication. f, 92. “There is the U n i t e d States a f o r m of the community "IS fver7 recognized A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . " Co n r a d M. Arens b e r g , P 8£l§8n Comm,:in3-'t;ie s »H A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . D e c e m b e r , 1955, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 642 - TENSIONS R E S U L T I N G F R O M THE I N F L U E N C E O F C O N T I G U O U S P R O T E S T A N T I S M An important area of ten s i o n w i t h i n the Old O r d e r A m i s h c o m ­ munity results from the i n f i l t r a t i o n of religious ideas from the surrounding c u l t u r e that are at v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e b a s i c p a t t e r n s Amish religious configuration. Most of of the i n f i l t r a t i o n has been by means of the w r i t t e n w o r d , 93 but pers o n a l contacts a n d critism from E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s have also been important. M a n y of the Mennonites w i t h w h o m the Old O r d e r A m i s h m e n served in C i v i l i a n Public Service camp had b een i n f l u e n c e d by d e v e l o p m e n t s in A m e r ­ ican Protestantism to the ext e n t that h i s t o r i c M e n n o n i t e beliefs had been greatly modified. In C i v i l i a n Public Service the A m i s h campers were e x p o s e d , i n d i r e c t l y , to "typical" A m e r i c a n P r o t e s t ­ antism. The Old Order A m i s h are d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s ation Anabaptists. of the R e f o r m ­ The A n a b a p t i s t s came into b e i n g at the period JLuther an d Z w i n g l i were same preach i n g , but t h e y d i s a g r e e d with these reformers almost as m u c h as t h e y disagreed w i t h the Catholic church from w h i c h t h e y w e r e separating. beliefs and practices c ongeni a l w i t h those N o r w e r e their of Calvin. Du r i n g the ensuing centuries the d e s c e n d a n t s of t h e A n a b a p t i s t s have devel­ oped more or less i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f the v a r i o u s P r o t e s t a n t sects that surround them. T hey h av e m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r somewhat inter- 93. T his is l a r g e l y d ue to a p a u c i t y of M e n n o n i t e material. V e r y little M e n n o n i t e d e v o t i o n a l m a t e r i a l h a s been produced and in m a n y Menn o n i t e Sunday Schools le s s o n h e l p s p u b ­ lished by other churches are used. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. reli - 643 - mediate position between the Cath o l i c church an d Protestantism. Thus their religion is more calend r i c a l w i t h a far mor e d eveloped, if largely unconscious, ritual system t h a n is that of mos t con­ temporary Protestants a l t h o u g h b y c o mparison w i t h the Catholic church the religious calende r is c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced an d is more mobile. The Amish, w i t h the Protestants, c o n s i d e r only baptism and the Lord°s S u p p e r as sacraments. firmation; marriage and ordi n a t i o n are may functionally replace penance. extreme unction, T h e y have n o c o n ­ o r dinances and the ban A l t h o u g h th e y d o n o t call it they annoint w i t h oil a m e m b e r w h o r e q u e s t s it when he is ve r y ill. In their concept of the church, have aspects of b o t h the Catholic a n d P rotestant the A m i s h belief. 1/Vith the Catholics they believe that m e m b e r s h i p in the B o d y of Christ, the true church, is e s s e n t i a l fo r salvation and e n a b l e s the m e m ­ ber to live a g o d l y life. But u n l i k e the Cath o l i c s the y do not believe in a n h e i r a r c h y of authority. The only a u t h o r i t y is the Bible, which is interpreted by the community. the local congregation h a v i n g t r e m e n d o u s power, T h i s results in for the ind i v ­ idual must be a m e m b e r of a c o n g r e g a t i o n to achi e v e salvation, yet there is n o h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y to w h i c h the i n d i v i d u a l ca n appeal if the l o cal c o n g r ega t i o n d e c l a r e s that he is not con­ forming. These beliefs combine to make the local c o n g r e g a t i o n more important to the A m i s h t h a n to e i t h e r the Catho l i c s or the contemporary Protestants. The t h e o l o g y of the A m i s h an d the t h e o ­ logy of their Protestant n e i g h b o r s d i f f e r suffi c i e n t l y so that practices from one cannot e a s i l y be a s s i m i l a t e d by the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. other. - 644 - The Amish are non-theological'j they express t h e i r r e l i g i o n in a practical disciple ship rat h e r than in v e r b a l i z e d but most Amishmen systems, sense that there is sufficient d i f f e r e n c e between their religion and E n g l i s h r e l i g i o n to prevent exchange of techniques* Those w h o do n o t realize t h i s diffe r e n c e and are trying to introduce e l em e n t s of P r o t e s t a n t i s m into the A m i s h community are proving quite disruptive. There is almost n o Catholic influence on the A m i s h today. They have no contact w i t h m e m b e r s of the Catholic c h u r c h and the only w r i t t e n ma t e r i a l on the C a t h o l i c s that t hey read is anti-Catholic polemics of the M a r i a M o n k variety. By "continguous P r o t e s t a n t i s m " I m e a n the r e l i g i o n that is believed and practiced by the n e i g h b o r s of the Amish. These rural churches have m a n y more p r a c t i c e s in c ommon w i t h one a n o t h e r then they do w i t h the Amish. The churches r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n the geographical limits of the c e n t r a l Ohio c o m m u n i t y b e l o n g to v a r ­ ious branches of the M e t h odi s t s , Brethren, P r e s b y t e r i a n s , E v a n ­ gelical and Reformed, Chu r c h of God, -Lutherans and M e n n o n i t e s * All of these groups have S u n d a y school and support m i s s i o n s and most of them are against d r i n k i n g a n d smoking and p e r i o d i c a l l y hold revival meetings. T hey have been influ e n c e d b y f u n d a m e n t ­ alism to varying degrees. The Amish are extreme B i b l i c i s t s w h o conceive as saints. They of themselves believe that the life t h e y lead is as c o m p l e t e l y Christian as is possible to a c h i e v e in this world. Thus they are disturbed by an y suggestion that all asp e c t s of t h e i r b e ­ havior are not Christian. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 645 ~ If in addition the Bible can be i n t e r p r e t e d to support p r a c t i c e s of their neig h b o r s that d i f f e r f r o m t h e i r own. It places the c o m ­ munity in an u n c o m f o r t a b l e position,, susceptible to influences This m a k e s them p a r t i c u l a r l y of f u n d a m e n t a l i s m . had developed an d fluori s h e d in isolation, A m i s h b e l i e f s that are h e l d w i t h more d i f ­ ficulty w h e n they must be justified to strangers w h o h a v e n o t h a d the same religious training. Protestantism in this country has b e e n strongly i n f l u e n c e d by Mew England Puritanism, a n influence w h i c h the Old Order A m i s h had completely escaped. The Amish believe c h ildre n to be sinless. 94 The P u r i t a n parent was pleased w h e n a child of five had a w e l l d e v e l o p e d sense of s i n . A n A m i s h parent w o u l d b elieve the D e v i l was directing such a parent. A l l c h i l d r e n are bel i e v e d to go d i r e c t l y 94. Menno Simons e x p l a i n s t hat c h i l d r e n have n o know l e d g e between good and e v i l (Deut. 1;39); they have n o t the fear of God, yet they have the promise of e v e r l a s t i n g life, out of pure grace. Merino Simons, The Complete W r i t i n g s of M e n n o Simons ( Scottdale, Pa.; Herald Press, 1956), p. 24. 95. "My D e a r Child - Yes, y o u r h e a r t is a bad heart; and of yourself you can n e v e r make it a g o o d one. If y o u were to t ry ever so hard, e ven for one day, to t h i n k and f e e l and act just right, you would find that yo u could n o t do it wi t h o u t h e l p f r o m above. And yet, m y child, all y o u r sins are d i s p l e a s i n g to God." gagy Lessons for The Little Ones at Home ( Boston; A m e r i c a n T r a c t Society), p. 40. "...the faults of our y o u t h are n o t considered by God as trifling, but are p u nished by h i m a f t e r the same m e a s u r e as 'the sins of men." Dr. A r n o l d "The Boys a n d the B ears," The C h i l d 9s £a£er( Boston; A m e r i c a n Tract Society), March, 1852, p. 1. "Your parents cannot alw a y s see you; A n n a 0s m o t h e r d i d n o t see her; but God did, t h o u g h he w a s only four y e a r s old. She had been taught to fear h i m ..." The C h i l d 0s P a p e r , op. c i t . , April, 185<;, p. 16. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 646 - to heaven,,96 ’’E x c e p t ye... become as little c h i l d r e n ye shall not e nter into the k i n g d o m of h e a v e n . ” are not only sinless and 97 Chi l d r e n saved, but t h e y are the s p i r i t u a l model for the adult. Amish c h ildren are told Bible stories a n d stories about the e a r l y h i s t o r y of the A m i s h and M e n n o n i t e s but these are u s u a l l y related as other parents w o u l d read, The Little Engine That C o u l d , ” in Wonderland." "Winnie the Poo," or "Alice The stories f r o m the Bible and of the mar t y r s are interesting stories; there out any moral or a p p l y the is little e f f o r t made to point story to the c h i l d 0s life. child is believed to be b e l o w the age The of a c c o u n tability, 98 he is being taught to k n o w right from wrong, but he is not troubled w ith the religious j u s t i f i c a t i o n for w h a t is right and what is wrong. That w i l l come later. "In Ad a m ° s fall, we sinned all," does not d a m n A m i s h c h i l d r e n . 99 96. This belief is r e f l e c t e d in most obituaries of children. The family w r i t e s of the d e a t h of a seven year old boy, "Our circle is broken but started in h e a v e n , " H e r a l d , January 21, 1955, p. 6. One Amish woman, 0 0 A 9 4 , w a s telling me about here children, "...and one b a b y died," she said. "It gives me comfort to think that I have a b a b y w a i t i n g for me in heaven. (Our f a m i l y "s already started there." M e n n o Simons, on. c i t . , 1956, p. 241.. 97. Matt. 18:3. 98. A. A. Miller, "Sin," Hdw, A p r i l 1, 1954, p. 211. Menno Simons, op. cit., 1956, p. 704. 99. N o r do the A m i s h a p p l y it to a n y children. Thus children themselves are n e v e r blamed for their m isconduct. Only the parents. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 647 - Even though the boys are d r e s s e d as m i n i a t u r e adults, the Amish do not c o nsider childr e n as little adults."1"00 Although the A m i s h w o r k v e r y hard and u s u a l l y are Sundays and h o l i d a y s are d ay s of complete rest, py sociability and m o d e r a t e feasting. frugal, spent in h a p ­ The S u n d a y prohibitions 101 make the day more enjoyable rather than less so. I n spite of the fact that the Amish prea c h e r s do not t e a c h t h e i r churches that an individual ca n be certain of h i s own salvation, most Amish adults seem confident that they p e r s o n a l l y and the m e m ­ bers of their f a m i l y will be a m o n g the few w h o go to h e a v e n . l ° ^ They believe the indivi d u a l h as a free will a nd by e x e r ­ cising it in a dis c i p l i n e d obedience to the church, he, grace of Jesus, oy the is saved. 100. The m o t h e r - c h i l d relationship is c omplementary rather than symmetrical or reciprocal. The b e l i e f that a child is incapable of sin while a n adult must a l w a y s guard against sin, Immediately rules out a symm e t r i c a l attitude. N o r is the r e l a ­ tionship a reciprocal one. The parents have n o rights, only duties. No batering r e l a t i o n s h i p exists. The parent does a l l the giving in order to n u r t u r e a n i n d i v i d u a l who w i l l choose to be one of G o d 9s children, an d who in t u r n w i l l give of h i m s e l f completely to h i s children. See G. E. Hutchi n s o n , "Toward a translation from the feminine," in The I t i n e r a n t Ivory T ower (New Haven, Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1953), pp. 112-15. The adult Amishman, in turn, does n o t have a barter r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h God. Here, too, the r e l a t i o n s h i p is complementary, on. cit. 1 101. The A mish are a l l o w e d to c ook a n d do all n e c e s s a r y work, they m a y not w o r k in the fields, sew, or w a s h or paint. On the other h and t hey do not have to wear thems e l v e s out on Saturday preparing for Sunday as w a s r equired of some groups. Sanford Fleming, Ch i l d r e n and P u r i t a n i s m ( N e w Haven; Yale Press, 1933), PPo 18-25. 102. A few individuals leave the c h u r c h because t hey feel "they must be assured of their salvation. A n occasional m e n t a l patient expresses the frear that he is n o t saved. However, most oi the writing shows a clear confidence of the a u t h o r of h i s sal­ vation. (Byler, Mast}, and certa i n l y all the A m i s h I k n e w were quietly confident of the place they were to spend the after-life. Daniel E„ Mast, Lessons in the Sermon on the Mount (Seottdale, Pa0; Mennonite Publishing House, 1953). D a v i d Jbei'jLer, D a s Wahre is tent h u m ( Lancaster, Pa.; J o h a n n Bd'r6s S d n e n , 1888), R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. The Old Order A m i s h have n o t drinking and smoking. been opposed to moderate The B ible t eaches that d r u n k e n n e s s is a sin, but that drinking is w r o n g a n d there is, of course, no mention of tobacco. Since the A m i s h have b e e n in America t hey have b e e n turned in u p o n themselves. T hey h a d a l r e a d y lost the m i s s i o n ­ ary zeal that characterized the e a r l y A nabaptist m ovement and most of their e n e r g y was u t i l i z e d to m a i n t a i n t h e i r communities in isolation. M u c h time wa s Bible study and none was spent on the ordnung but little in "wasted" in Sunday schools or Bible study groups. The Bible was read and large parts of it mem103 orized, it was to be applied to daily living but it was not interpreted, e s p e c i a l l y no t In spite by g r o u p s of laymen. of the effort to m a i n t a i n the Old Order A m i s h communities in isolation there has been considerable religious acculturation during the two h u n d r e d years the Amish have in this country. been U s u a l l y small communities a n d churches on the edge of larger communities show g reater eff e c t s of their c o n ­ stant buffeting by Protestant churches. The Amish attitudes toward both drinking and smoking have been influenced by the Methodists, the P r e s b y t e r i a n R e ­ formed Church members and the M e n n o n i t e s who are their neighbors, 103. Occasion a l l y a n A m i s h f a m i l y w i l l have a b o x of Bible quotations by the sink so that verses (unrelated to c o n ­ text) can be memorized while working. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 649 - Publications such as the He r old der W a h r h e i t , W i t n e s s i n g , a n d the Amish M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r '1'04 reflect the P r o t e s t a n t influence to a greater extent than do the A m i s h communities. E v e n the Herold prints m a n y a r t i c l e s against the evils of smoking and drinking. The editor cons i d e r s both prac t i c e s to be d e p l o r a b l e and most of the A m i s h w h o f ee l there us n o t h i n g wrong w i t h a n occasional drink or enjoying a good pipe rarely trouble t h e m ­ selves to write about these pleasures. On the other h a n d those who have recently reached the c o n v i c t i o n s that it is w r o n g to drink and smoke p r o c l a i m thei r n e w b e l i e f loudly. There f o r e , written comments m a y give the erro n e o u s i m p r e s s i o n that most Amishmen are opposed to these practices. Oral Behavior Before discussing the A m i s h a ttitude toward smoking and drinking it might be h e l p f u l to digress and des c r i b e t heir attitude toward food and towa r d oral s a t i s f a c t i o n in g e n e r a l . Most Amish m o t hers feed the baby w h e n e v e r it cries. It may have to cry for a few m i n u t e s if the m o t h e r is in the midst of a task that is difficult to leave. "can°t stand to hear the baby cry." 104. ft. Mancini, the was formerly a Catholic and is n o w iodical is the least Amish an d the Since his rejection of C a t h o l i c i s m testant. Typically Amish mothers Food is g e n e r a l l y the first e d i t o r of the A m i s h M i s s i o n E n d e a v o a n "Old" M e n n o n i t e . H i s permost P r o t e s t a n t of these three. he has become m i l i t a n t l y P r o ­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 650 - comfort offered the b a b y a l t h o u g h its d i a p e r s m a y be checked. He is fed w hen he c r i e s or w h e n the rest ing, not a c c o r d i n g to schedule. i of the f a m i l y is eat- At about three or four m o n t h s of age, or w h e n the baby reac h e s for food, he is g i v e n tastes of food from the table, perhaps a little apples a u c e , tato and gravy or coffee on his mother's plate. soup w h a t e v e r soft food h a p p e n s to be B y the time he is a y e a r old, quite a bit earlier, he is on three m e a l s a day. baby is given a bottle w h e n e v e r bed time. some m a s h e d p o ­ he fusses sometimes I n a d d i t i o n the for it and at n a p and The m o t h e r s who cannot n urse t h e i r babies seem c o n ­ stantly to w o r r y that the for m u l a is not right. from boiled milk, T h e y change to canned milk, to p o w d e r e d m i l k in various proportions and w i t h surprising frequency. I n a d d i t i o n they may give the baby v a r i o u s teas brewed from g a r d e n h erbs. mother was told to put prepared the bottle "blue1’ milk. out.) the b a b y on skimmed milk. she a p o l o g i z e d to the One E v e r y time she baby for giving h i m (Skimmed m i l k is u s u a l l y fed to the h o g s or poured After a few days she could n o t and went back to nice , r ich milk. stand m i s t r e a t i n g the child The A m i s h w o m e n w h o cannot 105. (One A m i s h w o m a n said, "When I wo r k e d out on baby cases for E n g lish people the babies were a l w a y s on four h o u r schedules. It wa s v e r y convenient. I had lots of time and thought, "my babies w i l l be that way, too. 9 But none of m y babies were." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - nurse their babies do n o t stitute» 651 - seem satisfied w i t h a n y sub- A m i s h m o t hers w h o are n u r s i n g their babies wean them w h e n t h e y become pregnant again or w h e n t h e y lose their milk.'*'07 W eaning is g e n e r a l l y a n e a s y gradual process. It is more something that h a p p e n s rather t h a n something that is done. The baby may refuse the breast or more there is a dim i n i s h i n g q u a n t i t y of m o t h e r ' s milk. likely The Amish tendency is to over-feed rather t h a n u n d e r f e e d . If there is a n y Indication that there m a y be i nsufficient milk, the m o t h e r is anxious to s upplement it. I f the b a b y takes the bottle (Once this happens there it is a s s u m e d he was hungry, is a growing t e n d e n c y f or the m o t h e r to give the baby a bottle because then someone else can h o l d it or she can p rop the bottle for a while and to be sure he is not hungry. I f h e r breasts feel f u l l or she has time she wil l sit d o w n and nurse him, she will give h i m a b o t t l e . she wants otherwise G r a d u a l l y without e i t h e r the mother or the baby r e a l i z i n g it the child is w e a n e d from the breast to the bottle. The last n u r s i n g period to be 106, Those w h o nur s e their babies comment. "I n e v e r had any trouble w i t h m y babies, I n u r s e d them," "My b abies never had a d r i n k of water. I n u r s e d t hem a n d . t h e y w ouldn't have an old rub b e r nipple in t h e i r mouth," The l a c k of sat­ isfaction w ith the b a b y ’s formula m a y be related to t h e i r attitude that m o t h e r an d c hild are in a c o m p l e m e n t a r y r e l a t i o n ­ ship, and the mot h e r whose b a b y is on a bottle is n o t g i v i n g enough of h e r s e l f to the baby. One m o t h e r ’s c omment m a y t h r o w light on their attitude. She said, "After the f o u r t h one I never had enough milk, I g uess I w a s too spiteful, " She w as Claming h e r s e l f for insuff i c i e n t milk. P regnant w o m e n m a y rub their abdomen w i t h W o m a n ’s Friend, but n o t t h e i r breasts, "be­ cause i t ’s g r e a s y and a n y fat m a y h u r t y o u r mi l k , " 107. One m o t h e r of seven sons said, "I n e v e r w e a n e d a Daoy, except Venus, the young e s t , w i t h the others t h e y w o u l d suddenly refuse the breast a n d t h e n I k n e w I w a s pregnant again." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 652 - given u p is often the one just before night0 sleeping for the Most little babies are rocked to s l e e p , at this time of night the mother's w o r k is f inished and she may nurse end rock him. This period m a y be g i v e n u p w h e n the family is v i s i t i n g or ha v i n g guests a nd it is i n c o n ­ venient to n urse the baby. I woman who wea n e d he r children only h e a r d of one A m i s h to a c u p e She only h a d two children w h o were m any year s apart and she did not w e a n her babies u n t i l they w ere older t h a n usual. Children usually use a bottle u n t i l they are about two a n d a half. The night bottle m a y be g i v e n u p w h e n t h e y move u p s t a i r s to sleep w i t h their older brothers a n d sisters,-1-08 hut a midmorning bottle is u s u a l l y kept as long a.s the child requests it.^09 At mealtimes the children m a y eat as m u c h as they went until the food is gone. food he does no t like. N o child is made to eat a n y The b a b y sits on the m o t h e r ' s lap, for ‘'even babies eat better w i t h other p e o p l e , is awake. if he The n e x t youngest child sits in a h i g h chair next to her, and the third and f o u r t h y o u n g e s t sit on 108. The child is g e n e r a l l y m o v e d u p s t a i r s to sleep when he n o longer w e t s the bed at night. 109. The child m a y be te a s e d ge n t l y about still having a bottle. 109a. People of all ages are bel i e v e d to eat better and have a better appetite w h e n t h e y eat w i t h a group. Even two people eating together is c onsidered insufficient. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 653 - either side of the father, the older c hildren are arranged with the oldest child sitting n e x t to the fifth youngest, the next oldest child n e x t to the sixth youngest, u n t i l the whole family is accounted for.^° A n y child m a y have a n y food on the table that he indicates he wants. If the little one in the h i g h chair does not seem to be ea t i n g u p h is food, his mother reaches over and starts eating f r o m h i s plate. Often the child begins eatin g again. I f he does or if he objects to seeing hi s food d i s a p p e a r his m o t h e r stops, menting to h i m that she did not t h i n k he w a n t e d it. com­ His plate is always clean b y the end of the m e a l a l t h o u g h it is often the mot h e r who has finished u p the food. E i t h e r the mother or the father w i l l eat a n y food that is being left by the next two youngest children. rarely leave food on their plate. eats it. Chil d r e n older than four I f one does a n o t h e r child The young child is I ntroduced into a group w here food is enjoyed and eaten eagerly, he If for a meal or two, or even a d a y or two the y o u n g child does not eat, n o t hing is done a b o u t nagged or forced. the effect, it, he is not encouraged, If any comment is made it is something to '‘J o s e p h i s n ’t hungry. I never observed a n soon is d o i n g likewise. H e ’ll be h u n g r y later." "eating problem" a m o n g the A m i s h children. 110. See ap p e n d i x IV, Part C, for chart of seating arrangement followed in A m i s h families. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 654 - The pre-school ch i l d r e n are n o t a w a k e n e d for b r e a k f a s t „ They are fed w h e n e v e r t h e y wake up. I f a c hild should be late to a meal, w h i c h is v e r y rare , he is fed w h e n he in. I have n e v e r h e a r d as punishment. by the of f o o d b e i n g w i t h h e l d f r o m a c h i l d Such a parent w o u l d be s e v e r e l y criticized community. children. comes It is the p a r e n t ' s job to n u r t u r e the T h e y w o u l d n o more w i t h h o l d f o o d f r o m a n a u g h t y child than they w o u l d refuse to f e e d a s t u b b o r n h o r s e cow that kic k e d while she wa s being milked. or a P a r e n t s do not even w i t h h o l d food t h e y have b e e n t o l d m i g h t be harmful. While I was p r e p a r i n g tomato e s three little p r e - s c h o o l boys constantly begged for pieces f rom me. T h e y were e a t i n g fast I had little to show for m y labors. so F i n a l l y I asked their mother if it wa s all right f o r t h e m to have the t o ­ matoes. She answered, "Dr. Dave says t o m a t o e s give t h e m that rash on t h e i r ankles, but t h e y want t h e m so. I don't think it w i l l h urt them.'1 F ood cared for a n d r a i s e d on t h e i r own land is good. Good food is inca p a b l e of d oing harm. The Amish are v e r y careful w i t h the care and p r e p a r a t i o n of their food so it w i l l be good. I never heard of a n y ill­ ness attributed to food e a t e n (other t h a n babies on f o r m ­ ula). In contrast illness can be ca u s e d b y f ood n o t being eaten.-1--1-1 I was told of one child that h a d funny teeth, 111. J o h n W. M. W h i t i n g anc? I r v i n JL. Child, Child Training and P e r s o nality ( N e w H a v e n ; Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1^56), pp. 119-28. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. T T . - they were "like spikes," give h e r cod-liver-oil.H2 655 - "It w a s because h e r m o t h e r d i d n ’t All vari e t i e s of spec i a l foods a n d m e d i c i n e s are u s e d for minor and more serious i l l n e s s 9 and herb teas. M o s t o f these are soups C e r t a i n c o m m e r c i a l m e d i c i n e s l a r g e l y brewed of herbs or barks are a l s o u s e d as are a v a r i e t y of tonics. There are a f e w food p r o h i b i t i o n s that are menstruating woman. applicable to a H e a v y or sour foods are b e l i e v e d to make her periods more d i f f i c u l t but there are teas that h e l p her. Several t i m e s X wa s told, without c a n d y . C a n d y "You can't raise chil d r e n is g i v e n to a child w h e n e v e r he must face a n u n p l e a s a n t s i t u a t i o n f or w h i c h he is n o t re­ sponsible. Thus w h e n the p arents leave the c h i l d r e n for a few hours t h e y give t h e m candy, may be given candy, if a c h i l d is hurt, he if he must h a v e a sore d r e s s e d or a cut cleaned, he is g i v e n candy. When something unpleasant h a p ­ pens that is n o t his fault he is r e a s s u r e d w i t h a f f e c t i o n and c a n d y . H 3 a . 112. 00A8 113. 00A108 113a The e q u a t i o n of sweet food a n d c a n d y was nicely illustrated w h e n a seven y e a r old g i r l brought me a picture she h a d d r a w n of a large ice c r e a m cone. The cone was marked w i t h b r i l l i a n t l y col o r e d d i a m o n d s a n d the l a v ­ ender ice cream was h e a p e d in mou n d s . Across the ice c ream was written, "I love you." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 656 - Delicious meals w i t h m a n y sweet des s e r t s are served to welcome back a m e m b e r of the family or as a far e w e l l to a family m e m b e r w h o must be a w a y for a little time. Then if a person is leaving food is al w a y s sent a long w i t h him.'*"'*’4 I n e v e r was served a m e a l in w h i c h there w ere seven sweets and seven sours, but the A m i s h d i n n e r is b o t h more sour and more sweet than the "Good H o u s e k e e p i n g V menu. Desserts and e v e n salads m a y be v e r y sweet and sugar may be added to the most u n e x p e c t e d m e a t s and v e g e t ables. At the same meal one m a y be served a h e a p i n g m o u n d of m i x e d v e g e ­ tables that have been pickled. At the c h u r c h l u n c h there are always both pickles and jams. D rinks are n e v e r sour. Coffee is made w i t h the sugar in it and sugar is added to canned fruit juices and m a l t e d milk. The m a n a g e r of the freezing plant said t h e y h a d trouble w i t h the A m i s h lockers because t h e y put so m u c h sugar in t h e i r f r u i t it w o u l d n o t freeze properly and the juice made the lockers sticky. School age c h ildren and a dults do n o t eat between meals. They are too b u s y a n d it w o u l d make e x t r a work. Eating between meals or ea t i n g before g o i n g to bed is c o n ­ sidered wrong an d w o r t h y of gossip. However, pregnant 114. W h e n I left S t o n e y r u n a f t e r h a v i n g worked as a hired girl, I w a s giv e n eight quarts of v a r i o u s home canned foods, a pa n full of g a r d e n lettuce a n d several bags of vegetables f r o m the garden. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 657 - - women eat more frequ e n t l y an d w o m e n m a y nibble w h e n they are upset or depressed. V i s i t o r s are g i v e n something to eat ev en if the host does not eat w i t h them. Homemade ice cream and cake are a favorite refreshment. In contrast to the absence of b e t w e e n m e a l snacks o b ­ served in the home, A m i s h w h o are outside constantly. the c ommunity eat As one man, w h o liv e d in the small m a r k e t city to the n o r t h of the c e ntral Ohio community, see an A m i s h m a n that he they go to isn't said, "You n e v e r stuffing h i s face." Even when S t o n e y r u n to b u y pot a t o chips, p r e t z e l s or popc o r n to munch and often stop in at the ice c r e a m p a r l o r for a n i c e ­ cream cone or to sip a m i l k shake' t h r o u g h a straw, or at the restaurant for a glass of beer. Real food, in contrast to snacks, pared outside the c o m m u n i t y is n o t that is bought or pr e ­ believed to be v e r y good. Many Amish will not eat meat bought at a butcher store, and never would think of t o u c h i n g c o m m e r c i a l l y canned meat. say merely, Some "Store meat does n ' t taste right," others say, "We've been to a u c t i o n s and we've seen the poor a n i m a l s those meat packers buy."^--^ Meals outside the c omm u n i t y are thou g h t 'to be h a r d l y 115. The A m i s h w i l l no t eat a n a n i m a l that h a s be sick or that was killed a c c i d e n t l y u n l e s s t h e y saw the a c ­ cident and d r e s s e d the a n i m a l immediately. A l l t h e bee f I ate was baby beef, a calf that h a d b e e n a l l o w e d to continue to nurse its whole first ye a r in a d d i t i o n to receiving su p ­ plementary food and then wa s butchered. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. -• 658 - worth eating. I w a s a s k e d if the food at college wa s as bad as h o s p i t a l food. eat one m e a l a d a y at They feel sorry f o r I- W w o r k e r s w h o the hospital. food to members w h o are away. for two months. and The f a m i l y often sends One g i r l w a s w o r k i n g in Florida D u r i n g that p e r i o d e a c h of h e r s e v e n brothers sisters sent h e r packages of food f r o m Ohio. Periodically I have been sent v a r i o u s k i n d s of food that range f r o m V a l e n ­ tine cookies to smoked turkey. There is o f t e n a s u g g e s t i o n that they w i s h they could cook me a m e a l . ^ 6 The A m i s h w i l l not acce p t food from strange E n g l i s h people. There is a w i d e s p r e a d belie f that can d y a n d chew i n g g u m is o f ­ ten doped by w i c k e d w o r d l y men. T h i s g u m a n d candy is th e n of­ fered to a n A m i s h child or an adult an d if he eats it he w i l l be in the E n g l i s h m a n ' s power. I n contrast to food f r o m w o r l d l y sources A m i s h food is always good and h e a l t h - g i v i n g . The p e rson u n d e r the ban is outside the community; he is almost an Englishman. The aspect of the b a n that is most strictly adhered to is t h e r e g u l a t i o n f o r b i d d i n g e a t i n g w i t h the banned person. The banned m e m b e r is h u r t w h e n food he has raised h i m s e l f a n d h i s wife h a s l o v i n g l y p r e p a r e d is refused. He cannot h e l p nurt u r e h i s f o r m e r b r e t h r e n and they will not feed h i m . 117 116. See l e t t e r in C h a p t e r III. 117. In a case of a c t u a l n e e d they w i l l bring food to the banned person, but wi l l n o t eat it w i t h him. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 659 - The i m p o r t a n c e of oral a c t i v i t y has "been g e n e r a l i z e d , not only to the role of m e d i c i n e s , hut a l s o to t a l k i n g . The most important a c t i v i t y of the A m i s h is v i s i t i n g a n d w h e n t h e y visit the m a i n o c c u p a t i o n is t a l k i n g . T h e i r c h u r c h s e r v i c e s are also highly v e r b a l w i t h v e r y l i t t l e v i s u a l s t i m u l a t i o n o r r i t u a l that would a p p e a l to the v a r i o u s words are v e r y i m p o r t a n t . senses. T h e Word, delivered by the p r e a c h e r s , words T h r o u g h o u t t h e i r culture f r o m the B ible, The W o r d as e x c h a n g e d at f r i e n d l y g a t h e r ­ ings , joking w o r d s a g a i n s t the r e s t r i c t i n g ordnung, and w o r d s that chide v a r i a n t m e m b e r s a n d k e e p e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o b e d i e n t . The o b s e r v a t i o n s o n o r a l a c t i v i t y a m o n g the A m i s h t h r o u g h ­ out an A m i s h m a n ' s life m a y be b r i e f l y s u m m a r i z e d : pleasant ex p e r i e n c e . that is d o n e , but W e a n i n g is g r a d u a l ; s o m e t h i n g t hat h a p p e n s the mother's m i l k d i m i n i s h e s . f e e d i n g is a it is not as the something child grows or F o o d is n e v e r w i t h h e l d and it is often offered a l o n g w i t h a f f e c t i o n as a f u r t h e r t o k e n of a f f e c t ­ ion. Eating is a s o c i a l a c t i v i t y that the security felt in the home and the is s t r o n g l y l i n k e d w i t h community. forbidden i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c , m o s t g o o d books, enjoyment of the v i s u a l a r t s . they are allowed. It is not the t h e a t e r and E a t i n g is one of the f e w p l e a s u r e s s u r p r i s i n g that o r a l a c t i v i t y offers the Amish one of t h e i r g r e a t e s t physical work) T he A m i s h are outlets ( another b e i n g h a r d an d is a p o w e r f u l a i d in the r e d u c t i o n of v a r i e d emotional d r i v e s . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 6 6 0 - Strongly nartu.ra.nt trends that are evid e n t a m o n g the Amish w o man m a y p o s s i b l y be r e a c t i o n formations agai n s t aggressive feelings. A m i s h w o m e n are wan t to press food upon one, and e s p e c i a l l y durin g illness the y m a y ply the unfortunate i ndividual w i t h a series of u n p l e a s a n t con c o c ­ tions. As the effects of it (flu) lingered for quite some t i m e , it seemed t o me that the Mrs. w a s conducting some k i n d of l a b o r a ­ tory, w i t h m y s e l f as the innocent victim. This m o r n i n g the shoe is on the other foot, and I a m trying to persuade the Mrs. to "take u n t o h e rself" the lemons, honey, slippery e l m a n d bone set tea, cold tablets, anahist, aureomycin, p e n n i c i l l i n shots, hot bath, sweat, fast, m o u t h washes, etc. through w h i c h I had to run. ° 118. H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 10, 1955, p. 1. Kaplan and Plaut found that seven out of t h i r t y - t h r e e Hut ter ite w o m e n responded to a TAT card that is c o n s i d ­ ered as u n m i s takable a g g r e s s i o n by most people in our own culture as a picture of one w o m a n h e l p i n g a n o t h e r who is sick or in pain. Th i s led t h e m to postulate that aggressive impulses were t r a n s f o r m e d into n u r t u r ance. "The card: A w o m a n has h e r h a n d s squeezed a r o u n d the throat of another woman, w h o she a p p e a r s to be pushing backward across the b a n i s t e r of the stairway." Bert Kaplan and T h o m a s F. A. Plaut, An A n a l y s i s of the Mental Health of t h e H u t t e r l t e s . d i t t o e d report, p. 38- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 661 - Use of Tobacco Within the A m i s h church there is a great d e a l of d i s ­ agreement over the use of tobacco* The attitude v a r i e s f r o m one community to another, f r o m one church dis t r i c t to a n o t h e r and from one fam i l y to another. There is a l s o difference of opinion on the relative evils of t h e diff e r e n t forms of t o ­ bacco. The cigarette is gene r a l l y the most ized, chewing tobacco the least. 1 1Q ^ "There is n o w a y you can start trouble quicker than to print bacco." severely critic- something a b o u t t o ­ M a n y a p p a r e n t l y wrote as k i n g h i m to refuse to print any article opposing the us e of t o b a c c o . H e refused their request stating, Smoking m a y not be p a r t i c u l a r l y harm f u l , but I have n e v e r heard a n y smoker say that tobacco has benefitted t h e m physically, mentally, m o r ­ ally or financially, so if I h e l p to k e e p some lpi young person from devel o p i n g the habit, w h y not?-1-' ± A few favorable comments about tobacco slip into the scribes" columns and some are occasion a l l y r eprinted by a n A m i s h m a n who wants to refute them.122. The use of tobacco has b een wide spread a m o n g the Amish, but there a p p a r e n t l y have a l w a y s been some w h o were against it. The early w r i t e r s against t o b a c c o did not -LI-9 * H e r a l d . P. 1; March 3, 1955, 120. Herald, 121. Ibid. 122. Herald. A pril 19, 1955, p. 3; J a n u a r y 21, 1954, p. 7. M a r c h 11, 1954. O c t o b e r 23, 1953, p. 7; June 2, 1955, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 662 - demand complete a b s t i n a n c e , but pointed be used in moderation, 123 out that it should pre f e r a b l y only w h e n it w a s n e e d e d to improve the i n d i v i d u a l ’s health, and t h e n tobacco should be smoked in private. I k n o w of n o e a r l y m e n t i o n of the evils of u s i n g chewing tobacco, only smoking. B y 1905 an article had crept into the Strassburg D i s c i p l i n e forbidding the public of 1568 (flffentliche) smoking of t o b a c c o and asking that w h e n doctors r e c o m m e n d e d it, that the be done in private.'*-24 Durin g the first decade smoking o f the Herold der W a h r h e l t m a n y a r t i c l e s w e r e p u b l i s h e d d i s c o u r ­ aging the smoking of tobacco. reprinted recently.-1-2 ^ S everal of these have been A l t h o u g h a c o n s i derable a m o u n t tobacco is u s e d by the A m i s h there of seems to be a steadily growing condemnation of smoking a n d a l s o of chewing t o ­ bacco. The question of w h e t h e r or not it is w r o n g to raise tobacco has no t been a p r o b l e m in central tOhio where t o ­ bacco has n o t been g r o w n b y the Amish. this is an issue. I n Pennsy3.vania It is a crop w e l l su i t e d to the A m i s h 123. "No one w o u l d cons i d e r f o r b i d d i n g bread but w h a t would we think if a p e r s o n w o u l d carry a p a c k of bread along, chewing a way at it at a l l times*" Herald, (October 29, 1953, po 5a 124. The Discipline in this f o r m lias p e r i o d i c a l l y been reprinted. 125. HdW, J uly 15, 1954, pp. 419-21; HdW, M a y 1, 1954, P. 27 0 j June 1, 1954, pp. 329-30; HdW, J u l y 1, 1954, pp. 397-99. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 663 - because it brings good retur n s on t h e i r v e r y h i g h priced land and it takes a great d e a l of h a n d l a b o r that k e e p s their children busy t h r o u g h o u t the y e a r .126 The M ennon- ites are t u r n i n g to the c u l t i v a t i o n of other crops such as peas, tomatoes, potatoes a n d f l u i d milk. The L a n c a s t e r cou n t y A m i s h are 1 2*7 still p r o d u c i n g t o ­ bacco, but there is growing senti m e n t against it, a n d pressure is being a p p l i e d f r o m other A m i s h communities. 1 2 ft Within the central Ohio A m i s h c o m m u n i t y the a t t i t u d e t o ­ ward the use of t o b a c c o v a r i e s g r e a t l y from one c hurch district to another. S t o n e y r u n reflects its e d g e p o s i t i o n in the relatively strong stand it t a k e s against smoking. None of the m i n i s t e r s smoke a n d at ch u r c h services a n d the lunch following the service there is little smoking. never observed an y ash trays in the h o u s e s I of S t o n e y r u n nor did any of the m e m b e r s smoke at the s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s 126. W a l t e r M. K o l l m o r g e n , Culture of a C o n t e m p o r ­ ary fiural C o m m u n i t y : The Old Order A m i s h of L a n c a s t e r C o u n t y . Pennsylvania. R u r a l Life Studies: 4. U n i t e d States D e p a r t m e n t of Agriculture, September, 1942, p. 35. 00A111. 127. W i n field Fretz, '’The Growth and U s e of T o b a c c o Among Mennonites," P r o c e e d i n g s of the S e v e n t h A n n u a l C o n f e r ­ ence on Mennonlte Cu l t u r a l P r o b l e m s . 1949. pp. 87-100. Me n n o n ite farmers converted b y the B r u n k s p lowed u n d e r t h e i r to b a c c o acres, and the p l o w i n g u n d e r is still g o i n g on." D o n Yoder, "Plain Dutch and Gay D u t c h , " The P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , Summer 1956, p. 54. 128. W h e n m y h u s b a n d w a s v i s i t i n g in P e n n s y l v a n i a w i t h some Old Order A m i s h m e n f ro m Ohio t h e i r P e n n s y l v a n i a h o s t of ­ fered them cigars. M y h u s b a n d a c c e p t e d it w i t h t h a n k s a l t h o u g h he explained that he di d n o t smoke. The two Ohio A m i s h m e n r e ­ fused it politely, but in such a w a y that it w a s c l e a r that they thought that n o one should smoke. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - I attended. Young people w h o when w ith other young people 664 - anoked (which they did only or in the secret of t h e i r rooms or in the buggy) were a d m o n i s h e d a n d c onsidered Some families firmly oppose the use of tobacco. " w i l d . 11 One father periodically wrote the supe r i ntendent of the state m e n t a l hospital w here hi s son w a s a patient, itively do not wan t R o m a n to smoke." "Please note: we p o s ­ T h i s is in contrast to another A m i s h bo y about the same age as R o m a n w h o was encouraged to take u p chain smoking to quiet h i s nerves.-^-29 Apparently some fa m i l i e s believe n o t h i n g can j u s t i f y smoking, but the more u s u a l response, e v e n of those w h o are tobacco in general, opposed to say that m o d e r a t e u s e is a l l r ight 130 if it is u s e d as a n aid to the p erson's health. All Amish believe that is to "tobacco had a n orderly place p lan,"131 and then some g o on to criticize cial form.132 in the Auth o r ' s it in its c o m m e r ­ E v e n if t o b a c c o is r aised w i t h i n the community, 129. I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m state m e n t a l hospital. 130. "Some doctors recommend tob a c c o in c e r t a i n k i n d s of Dyspepis, in limited q u a n t i t i e s . " H e r a l d , O c t o b e r 29, 1953, p» 5. "Ich w ill a b e r n i c h t sagen das e i n e r k e i n C hrist sein kann, un d dabei ganze mfissig T o b a k b e g r a u c h e n fdr seine Gesundheit, so e r es im g e h i m e n tut..." D. E. Mast, "Das L i c h t unter dem Scheffel," H d W , J u l y 1, 1954, p. 399. Art ike 1-u n d JQrdnungen de r C h r i s t l l c h e n Gemeinde in Chr i s t o J e s u , 1954, article 22, p. 5. 131. The q u o t a t i o n continues, "for m a n ' s w e l f a r e and not to defile and benumb hi s senses." -R e s t o r a t i o n ." HdW, March 1, 1954, p. 150. A l s o "When God c r e a t e d t obacco it was no doubt created for some purpose of w h i c h our Lord h a d in mind." H e r a l d . October 22, 1953, p. 7. 132. Herald, Octobe r 22, 1953, p. 7; O c t o b e r 29, 1953, p . 5. . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 665 - it is not p r o c e s s e d w i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y a n d t herefore it can be suspect. The arguments u s e d against t o b a c c o are, as those u s e d to support the ordnung, a mixture of relig i o u s santions an d soci­ ological reasons. It is not Christllke 133 and does n o t belong to J e s u s ’. Kingdom^134 It is n o t done for the h o n o r and g l o r y of Go d . 1'35 It is sinful,I3 ® i d o l a t r o u s ,137 0£ hell. 139 D e v j_]_l3 8 an d leads to It harms and d e f i l e s the body w h i c h is the Temple the Holy Ghost,140 it fulfills the It makes the kiss of peace u n p l e a s a n t 142 of lusts of the f l e s h . 14 1 Tobacco does n o t belong to h o l y people, separated from the sins of the w o r l d , 143 it i nterfers w i t h the i r w i t n e s s 144 and sets a bad example for the I - W b o y s . 145 In addition 133. Herald, June 16, 1955, p. 1, "Der U r s p r u n g die Tobakgebrauchen," H d W . June 1, 1954, pp. 329-30. 134. Herald, O c t o b e r 22, 1953, p. 7, "Ein w i c h t i g e r Traum," H d w . S e ptember 15, 1952, pp. 585-86. -An Impor t a n t Dream ( Tamps, Mexico, Est. Manuel, J o h n W. Martin^ 135. Herald, O c tober 22, 1953, p. 7; J u l y 8, 1954, P° ii-,"Der U r s p r u n g die T o b a k g e b r a u c h e n , " HdW, June 1, 1954, PPq ocy-o30o 136. Herald, D e c e m b e r 16, 1954, p. 7, 137. H e r a l d . A p r i l 9, 1953, p. 3; D. E. Mast, "Das Licht unter dem Scheffel," H d W , J u l y 15, 1954, pp. 419-41. 1 3 8 • H e r a l d , O c t o b e r 22, 1953, p. 7. 139. "Ein w i c h t i g e r Traum," HdW, S e p t e m b e r 16, 1953, pp d 585—86 ^ 140• H e r a l d . D e c e m b e r 16, 1954, p. 7; June 5, 1956, p. 6. 141. D. E. Mast, "Das Licht u n t e r d e m Scheffel," HdW, Jtly 1 and 15, 1954, pp. 397-430, 419-21. 142. "Andere K a u e n d e r T o b a k so dass ihr M a u l so u n l i e b l i c h aussieht, dass es andere e i n Greule ist i h n e n der Ku s s des Friedens geben." E i n Bruder, "Ein Z u z p r u c h , " H d w , Oct. 15, 1952, pp. 616 ?-4 3 » H e r a l d . A p r i l 9, 1953, p. 3; Octo b e r 22, 1953, p. 7. 144. "The Use of T o b a c c o in Soul W i n n i n g , " W i t n e s s i n g , January, 1956, p. 3. This article is a reprint of a tract that has been circulating for several years. 145. H e r a l d . A p r i l 9, 1953, p. 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 666 - tobacco was forbidden by the e l d e r s , 146 it w a s t e s m o n e y 147 and is a selfish, filthy h a b i t . 148 Just because the A mish have used tobacco for a long time, its u s e "And a is n o t j u s t i f i e d . 149 “bad h a b i t ” cannot be h i d u n d e r a broad bri m m e d hat or modest a p p a r e l . .. m 1 5° These numerous quotations m a y give the false impres s i o n that the Amish as a c o m m u n i t y are stro n g l y opposed to tobacco. Rather there are individuals w i t h i n the c o m m u n i t y that are strongly opposed to tobacco. This o pposition is c losely re- lated to the g e n eral influence of evange l i c a l Protestantism. The Amish w h o are against tobacco are a l s o a gainst a l c o h o l and in favor of missions, Sunday schools and revivals. This group is still small, but it is very v i g o r o u s and is growing. They are better e d ucated ing members. The (self-educated) and the outward - l o o k ­ older, less w e l l educated, more t r a d i tional members oppose a l l outside influence. Part of a n u n s i g n e d letter was printed by a H e r a l d scribe that rece i v e d it: You also said about c h e w tobacco are smoke you can not shoe me b e t w e e n Bible bit about smok or chew-you are of this m a n that like to ad to the bible- you are of this m a n that say I ”m saved -,53_ I made mistake an d w ou l d not like to say I ' m saved. 146. J. K. G&ngerich, "Mission," HdW, M a y 1, 1954, P« 270; same article reprint e d in English, HdW, February, 1955, pp. 44-45. 147. Herald, A pril 9, 1953, p. 3; D e c e m b e r 16, 1954, p. 7. 1.48. Herald, A pril 9, 1953, p. 3; (October 22, 1953, p. 7. 149. "Die L^nge d e r Zeit tun k e i n e n Geb r a u g h heli g e n . " Gdngerich, "Mission," op. cit. p. 270. 150. One of the Least of You, "Ye are the Salt of the Earth," H e r a l d . A p r i l 9, 1953, p. 3. 161 ° H e r a l d , June 2, 1955, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 667 - The group represented by the a u t h o r of this l e t t e r is large, conservative an d v e r y important in the c o u n c i l m e e t ­ ings and in h e l p i n g to form the d e c i s i o n s of their own church district, but t h e i r influence r a r e l y e xtends beyond t h e i r p e r ­ sonal friends. It is e x c e p t i o n a l for such a m e m b e r to b o t h e r to write a let t e r in disagre e m e n t , t h o u g h he w o u l d argue the subject v i g o r o u s l y w i t h a n opposing member. The general accept a n c e of tob a c c o that still pre v a i l s within the A m i s h comm u n i t y is felt in a n aside in one of the Herald columns. To E m e r y P„ W e a ver, get y o u r axe sharpened to cut the k n o t s of f those logs at Andys, a n d b r i n g lots of chewing t o b a c c o a l o n g as you w o n ’t have much time to t alk.1-52 The constant reference to the fact that t o b a c c o m a y help the individual, made e v e n b y those w h o are c r i t i c i z i n g its use, is to be a n t i c i p a t e d w h e n one is aware permissiveness of the A m i s h culture. believe that what clude smoking. one eats can h u r t o f the oral The g e n e r a l r e f u s a l to one is g e n e r a l i z e d to in­ It is d i f f i c u l t for the A m i s h to believe that smoking can cause physical h a r m and it is only u n d e r pressure from other church groups that they are b e g i n n i n g to believe that it may be spiritually harmful. ation of all use W h e n Protestant condemn­ of t o b acco is taken over by certain A m i s h - men it strikes a dissonant n o t e that d oes n o t h a r m o n i z e w i t h the general A m i s h pattern of oral permissiveness. 152. M a r c h 2, 1955, p. 7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Use of Alcoholic - Beverages The A m i s h attitude to the attitude 668 toward a l c o h o l i c "beverages is toward tobacco. considered a sin punishable similar D r u n k e n n e s s h a s a l w a y s been by the ban. T h e r e is a consider­ able amount of w r i t i n g a g a inst d r i n k i n g by Old O r d e r Amishmen, but usually they are writing only a b o u t e x c e s s i v e d r i n k i n g a l ­ though a few d i s a p p r o v e of a n y n o n - c e r e m o n i a l drin k i n g . 1951 discipline stated that they d i d not The care to h o l d commun- ion with any church that allowed h a b i t u a l drinking. Alcoholic beverages were n e v e r s erved at a n y s o c i a l gath e r i n g I attended, n o r d i d X see a n y in the a m p l e food cel l a r s of the homes in w h i c h I worked. Howe v e r , X h a v e v i s i t e d h o m e s where the w o m a n w a s mak i n g wine a n d there are presses to which A m i s h m e n brin g t h e i r apples. used at communion. guests have water. a wedding." Wine is always The A m i s h I spoke to str o n g l y r e j e c t e d the idea of using grape juice w h e n the Bible wine is served to s everal cider said wine. At w e d d i n g s the b r i d a l couple a n d their party, the other "Xt w o u l d n ' t be right n o t to h a v e wine at At some w e d d i n g s there is a wine jug on the table at the b r i d e ’s c o m e r j at others a small w i n e glass is f illed for each of the p a r t y and put at t h e i r p laces to be sipped d u r ­ ing the evening. It is assumed that a d o l e s c e n t boys w i l l drink. minister-*-54 was explai n i n g h o w h o g s r eacted t o whey. 153. 154. (One A m i s h "When y o u D i s c i p l i ne of a C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h . 1951. 00A5 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - first give it to them, beer. 6 6 9 - it's just like boys w h e n t hey first try They don't k n o w w h e n t o & o p . " bring cider or b eer to their singings. buggies. darkness. of the y o u n g people T h e y k e e p it in the T h e y d r i n k it, in small groups, u n d e r cover of the Some of the young people o v e r - d r i n k at the sing­ ings although i n (Ohio there as in Indiana. is not as m u c h trouble w i t h this A n A m i s h m a n w h o was l e a d i n g a n A l c o h o l i c s Anonymous M e eting, alcohol; Some said he got d r u n k the first time he tasted it was hard cider w h e n he was sixteen. Drinking is somewhat of a p r o b l e m in the A m i s h community. Of thirty-two case hist o r i e s the state m e n t a l institution, drinking. of A m i s h m e n that I studied at three were i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d for O f the e i g h t e e n w o m e n n o n e had d r i n k i n g indi c a t e d as a contributing factor, a l t h o u g h one of these w o m e n h a s p e r ­ iodically d r u n k excessively. after her m a r r i a g e . ) (Twas told she did n o t d r i n k u n t i l A m i s h are t a u g h t n o t to m a k e a spectacle of themselves in front of E n g l i s h people. I n e v e r saw a d r u n k Amishman n o r did a n y of the E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s (who e n j o y e d telling me d e r o g a t o r y stories about the A m i s h ) ever m e n t i o n having seen a n i n t o xicated A m i s h m a n , a l t h o u g h the E n g l i s h often mention that the A m i s h do drink. among the Amish The p r o b l e m d r i n k e r s d r i n k alone , in t h e i r h o m e s and u s u a l l y get drunk on hard c i d e r or wine. W h e n a church m e m b e r is obvi o u s l y mentally ill, w h i c h he is if it is n e c e s s a r y to instit u t i o n a l i z e him,159 the chu r c h does no t e x c l u d e him, but ra t h e r regards 159. A n A m i s h a l c o h o l i c is i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d only if he becomes d angerous w h e n h e is drunk. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 670 - M m as someone too ill to come to communion. to make a public spectacle Were a m e m b e r of h i m s e l f in front of E n g l i s h people he would probably be placed u n d e r the ban. lem drinker is no t The p r o b ­ shunned but he is barred from communion. There is one couple in a n e i g h b o r i n g church district both of whom have spent time in the state m e n t a l hospital. He is an alcoholic and she lias on occasio n d r u n k t o excess. The m a n joined the Mennonite church but the w oman stayed A m i s h a l ­ though she almost n e v e r came to church. When her husband was out of w o r k or in the h o s p i t a l the church district sup­ ported her and h e r children. Fin a l l y he came back to the Amish and they accepted him. I w a s told that h e r sister is married to his brother a n d that t h e y are fine people,, The Amish community seems to have no obje c t i o n to the problem drinker joining A l c o h o l i c s Anonymous. X-t is not considered as d i s regarding the u n e q u a l yoke, but as p art of the cure. One A m i s h ma n X spoke to said he was a b e t t e r Amish since he joined A A . ^ ^ A Brethren minister who worked with the A A said he could a l w a y s count on this A m i s h ­ man to come, and to lead the m e e t i n g w h e n he w a s in a pinch. Another former B r e t h r e n mi n i s t e r w o r k e d w i t h a n A A g r o u p that held meetings n e a r the center of the A m i s h community. He said that about h a l f the m e m b e r s of the group were Amish; they were all A m i s h men, n o A m i s h women. 160. However, the A m i s h A1 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 671 - wives may go to the A A me e t i n g s w i t h their husbands.-*-6-*When the alcoholic feels he is r e a d y to take communion the church welcomes h i m backo make a confession* I f he He is glad a n d anxious to is a m e m b e r of A A he has h a d p r a c ­ tice confessing the problems of d r u n k e n n e s s and has learned that confessing h e l p s to k e e p h i m cured* As w i t h smoking, the A m i s h w h o subscribe to the H e r a l d , various Mennonite publ i c a t i o n s a n d e v e n the H e r o l d d e r W a h rheit, are constantly b e i n g e xposed to n u m e r o u s on the evils of drink* a rticles (Only those articles appea r i n g in the Herold d e r Wa h r h e i t are w r i t t e n b y Old Order Amishmen. Surprisingly few of these articles d e a l w i t h dri n k i n g and most of these do not c o n demn the occasional drinker. Mast criticizes only the D. E. "Gewohnheitstrinker" who makes a greater effort to fill his wine cup then to a ttend church. A. Y. in discussing things that God abhors refers to the drunkard who is overcome w i t h wine, occasional drink. 163 but d o e s n ot m e n t i o n a n H o w e v e r some seem to con d e m n a l l drink, not so much in itself but because of its association.-*-64 161. "My wife says she gets as m u c h out of these m e e t ­ ings as I do and she's n e v e r b een d r u n k in h e r life." 162. "Das Licht u n t e r d e m S cheffel," H d W , J u l y 15, 1954, p. 420. 163. "Was ist ei n Greue l v o r Gott?" HdW, N o v e m b e r 15, 1953, p. 682. 164. P.Y. "Der Trunkenb o l d hat k e i n e V e r h e i s s u n g ." H d W , August 1, 1954, pp. 451-52. "Starke GetrSnk, K a r t e n - S p e i l e n , Zigaretten-Rauchen, u n d so we iter, geht H a n d in Hand, . . . " He also mentions that drink m a y increase the lusts of the flesh." Noah A. Keim in two articles ( rS e l f - R i g h t e o u s n e s s " HdW, F e b r u a r y 15, 1955, pp. 61-2) m e ntions as sin or evidence of immorality, drinking, smoking, bed c o urts h i p and filthy or fo o l i s h talk. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 672 - The most complete c o m d e m n a t i o n of wine wa s made by a n A m i s h preacher from (Ohio n o w l i ving in C a n a d a . He specifically con­ demned the m a n w h o to o k a n o c c a s i o n a l d r i n k beca u s e he feels more people are led into d r u n k e n n e s s by d r i n k i n g w i t h a g r a c e ­ ful drinker than by d r i n k i n g w i t h drunkards. B e f o r e taki n g a drink of wine the pre a c h e r is cautioned to a s k h i m s e l f if he is doing it for the g l o r y of God or for h i s h e a l t h or is he merely exposing h i m s e l f to n e e d l e s s d a n g e r s e Some of these needless dangers that wine m a y b r i n g are w i l d n e s s self control, q u a rrelsomeness, poverty, loose, unchaste, or l a c k of p r o s t i t u t i o n and idle talk, r i o t o u s n e s s instead of praise and thanksgiveing to God, and woe, p a i n and g r i e f for b o d y and soul.. In a n s w e r to the o b j e c t i o n th a t Jes u s t u r n e d w a t e r into wine and therefore wine must be good, the a u t h o r c o m m e n t e d that Jesus w h o was great e n o u g h to w o r k the m i r a c l e could make wine that w o u l d n o t intoxicate Although moderate d r i n k i n g is no t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s i d ­ ered wrong, the A m i s h a ssocia t e d r u n k e n n e s s w i t h the Devil. Some believe that it is the D e v i l w h o a p p e a r s to the p e r s o n suffering fr o m d e l i r i u m tremens. He takes the f o r m of snakes and other h o r r i d images to t o r t u r e hi s no hope for the soul of a m a n w h o 165. pp. 581-83. 166. N. Stoltzfus, v i c t i m . -*-66 "dies w i t h the There is snakes." "Wein," HdW, O c t o b e r 1, 1953, 00A2 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 673 - 167 Drinking is worldly. D r i n k i n g d e s t r o y s the C h r i s t i a n w i t ­ ness of the Old Order A m i s h church. "Drunk “Christians' may actually be the cause that some m e n are k e p t a w a y from Christ and eventually go to hell."-1-68 The feeling against a n y u s e of a l c o h o l other t h a n in c o m ­ munion and at we d d i n g s seems to be growing. One m a n w h o does not drink n o w told me g ayly that w h e n h i s f a t h e r b r o u g h t home the wine left over f r o m c ommu n i o n up." There "We chi l d r e n w o u l d f i n i s h it is less d i s c u s s i o n about d r i n k i n g t han smoking, because there is more agreement. E x c e s s d r i n k i n g is con­ demned by everyone and ceremon i a l dri n k i n g is e x p e c t e d of everyone. It is only what could be called that is u n d e r question. social d r i n k i n g A n d s ocial d r i n k i n g has n e v e r in­ cluded hard liquors, m o s t l y cider a n d wine that c a n be made within the community, or perh a p s beer.'1'®9 P r o h i b i t i o n first changed the d r i n k i n g habits, t o d a y one of the m i n o r causes for the reduction in dr i n k i n g m a y be the gre a t e r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n on the Amish farms. Few A m i s h w o m e n still go to the trouble to make wine and m any farms n o l onger h a v e their own orchards. 167. We say that is t ragic and piti f u l - w h i c h it lsbut that belongs t o the world. H e r a l d « J a n u a r y 5, 1956, p. 6. 168. Church, on. cit. p. 4. 169. W h i c h the A m i s h n o l o n g e r make. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 674 - Religious T e nsions In regard to m a t e r i a l posessions the Old Order A m i s h c o m ­ munity of 1956 differs more from the surround culture t h a n it ever has before. There is a m u c h gre a t e r d i s c r e p a n c y between modes of communication a n d transportation, b e t w e e n h o u s e h o l d appliances and farm e q u i p m e n t - o f the A m i s h and the E n g l i s h then there was in the past. As one m a n put it. "My f a t h e r didn’t farm as different from hi s E n g l i s h n e i g h b o r s as I do. We've gotten f a rther apart." a growing gulf b e t w e e n the At t h e two same time that there is cultures w h e n only the a r t i f a c t s are considered, e c o n o m i c a l l y the A m i s h are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y involved in the surrounding culture. tension for the A m i s h are Thi s sets u p a t remendous competing e c o n o m i c a l l y w i t h their neighbors but they are competing w i t h s e lf-imposed handicaps. At the present time in central Ohio the d i s c r e p a n c y ca n l a r g e l y be made up by the h a r d p h y s i c a l lab o r of the A m i s h farmer and his family. One aspect of t h e i r economic involv e m e n t is their p a r t ­ icipation in the A l t e r native Service p r o g r a m s of the g o vernment. This has lead the Old Order Amis h to c o o p e r a t e more other Mennonite groups, e s p e c i a l l y the closely w i t h "Old" Mennonites. The men in Civilian Public Service camps lived and w o r s h i p e d w i t h other Mennonites. In the I - W p r o g r a m an Old Ord e r A m i s h b oy may live with other Amish or M en n o n i t e boys, his living arrangements, he but regardless of spends tw o years outside the c o m m u n ­ ity working in the world. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 675 - In addition the A m i s h are n o longer being r eally p e r s e c u t e d 0 As a persecuted church they k n e w what their relationship to the surrounding culture was. relation to the world. T o d a y they must find their n e w This is n ot an e a s y task. The Amish k n o w they are a chosen people, t hat t hey are the salt of the earth. was clear. As a p ersecuted m i n o r i t y their role T hey were the suffering remnant of God which m u s t be k ept of the true c h u r c h alive at a l l costs. N o w t h e y are n o longer persecuted, they live in the world and e c o n o m i c a l l y are ever more tightly tied to the world. In an ef f o r t to relate themselves to this n e w situation t h e y are turning out 170 to see what it is that t h e y mus t relate to, and t h e y are t urning in to see in w hat ways they d iffer f r o m the world outside. This leads to greater interest in w h a t is h a p p e n i n g in the world and a lso to a type of s e l f - e xamination that is n e w to the Old Order Amish. The n e w concept of the r e l a t i o n of the Amish community to the w o r l d is that they are a ch u r c h chosen as God's witnesses, that as the salt of the e a r t h they m ust not withdraw completely to t h e m s e l v e s but m u s t season the world with their savor. M a n y a n Old O rder A m i s h m a n rejects this new interpretation and continues to search d i l i g e n t l y for evidences of persecution a nd he can f ind some. But it is increasingly difficult to build a whole r e l a t i o n s h i p on 170. The turning out is e n c o u r a g e d by the I - W service which plunks the Amish boys in the outside w o r l d and then gives them two years in which to look around. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 676 - such scant evidence . need reassurance I n the absence of p e r s e c u t i o n the A m i s h of their goodness. Some of the Amish believe that they are w i t n e s s e s to the world that the world w ill see them, the c h o s e n people, know what the C hristian life is like. H owever, only live their type of C h r i s t i a n life in communities. the A m i s h can strong, h o m o g e n e o u s They are witnes s i n g in order to lead Christ, but they do not r e a l l y want a n y own blemishless church. and w i l l souls to strangers in t h e i r Some are a ttempting to resolve this by trying to be so good and loving and ideal that lost souls (non-church goers, w r o n g church goers, and obvious sinners} will be attracted to them, but at the same time t h e y h o p e f u l l y keep their requirements for m e m b e r s h i p so rigid that n o one who was not raised A mish can p o ssi b l y f u l f i l l a ll the requirements. Thus they can direct their converts to other churches and t h e y will have the reassurance of having saved a soul f r o m sin, not the difficulty of trying to integrate the beloved community. ness. out such a p e r s o n into Thi s w o u l d reassure them o f t h e i r g o o d ­ They could demonstrate t h e i r excel l e n c e as w i t n e s s e s Christ in that they could lead others f r o m sin. At for the same time their very h i g h C h r i s t i a n s tandards would be e v i d e n c e d by the fact that these Amish standards. “babes in Christ' could not p o s s i b l y achieve I f s u c h a p r o g r a m w o r k s it w o u l d be h i g h l y rewarding for the Amish, but its chances of successes seem slim. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . W. I - 677 - i 6 * It did h a p p e n once, w i t h one man, an d this single instance has made a t r e m e n d o u s i m p r e s s i o n on the Amish. a Catholic that w o r k e d in a D e t r o i t factory, Bussel M a n i a c ! , just learned of the Amish when he w a s doing some r e s e a r c h in the D e t r o i t library,, He finally got in touch w i t h several Ol d Ord e r A m i s h l e a d e r s in Michigan. T h e y in t e r p r e t e d the B i b l e w i t h h i m and taught h i m the plan of salvation. bishop pointed He w a n t e d to join the A m i s h but the out that he did no t k n o w P e n n s y l v a n i a Dutch. They then d irected h i m to the M e n n o n i t e s a n d he ily were baptized into the M e n n o n i t e Elkhart and church. and h i s fa m ­ He m o v e d to since that time ha s s t r u g g l e d v a l i a n t l y to deve l 6 p an interest in m i s s i o n In 1950 he called in Kalona, Iowa. among the the first 171 Amish. Amish Missions Conference 1 72 The d i s c u s s i o n was in E n g l i s h an d M a n i a c i p l a y e d a prominant part. Here was a m a n w h o w a s a t t r a c t e d to the Old Order A m i s h because of the i r C h r i s t i a n w a y o f life. This f l a t t e r e d them. He would have like to join them, but he did n o t k n o w P e n n s y l ­ vania Dutch. and Therefore t h e y c o u l d direct h i m to a n o t h e r c h u r c h the h o m o g e n e i t y of t h e i r own church w a s not threatened. 171. "Sorry I do n o t ha v e a n y other old lett e r s to give you an Idea of the Struggle I hav e w a g e d (with God as the leader and d i rector} to a w a k e n the A m i s h churches." Per­ sonal correspondence, IX/9/52. 172, For a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of the effect of M a n i a c i on the Amish, see, J o h n A. Hoste t l e r , "God V i s i t s the A m i s h , " Christian L i v i n g . M a r c h 1954, pp. 6-7. - R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 678 - Even the g r o u p of A m i s h m e n w h o b elieved in miss i o n s , who wanted their lives to be a w i t n e s s to the .Lord, did not want their community invaded, or even g r e a t l y influenced, b y anyone who was not raised Amisho^-'7'3 T hus this group of men, w h o came together t h r o u g h the influence first of M a n i a c i , decided to hold all 1heir conference d i s c u s s i o n in Pennsyl v a n i a Dutch. He still attends, but in thi s m a n n e r h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n is effectively prohibited. In the J a n u a r y 1956 issue of W i t ­ nessing the editors felt it b e h o v e d t h e m to print a small comment. ...WITNESSING is publi s h e d by the M i s s i o n Int e r e s t Committee of the A m i s h Church. This committee r e p ­ resents fo r m a l l y the inte r e s t s of m i s s i o n - m i n d e d brethren in the A m i s h Church. Its me m b e r s are m e m b e r s of the A m i s h church. And they are not u n d e r the l e a d ­ ership or subject to m e n outside the C h u r c h . ! ^ The Mission Interests Committee seems to feel that t h e y m u s t make it clear that t h e i r m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y w i l l n o t bring strangers to their in-group. A rather u n u s u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of missionary activity; Persecution strengthens and u n i t e s the A m i s h community. All their energies can be di r e c t e d to w a r d survival and a g ­ gressions can be directed t o w a r d the outside. The p e r s e c u t i o n 173. To be a good A m i s h m a n one must be b o m of A m i s h parents and raised In an & m i s h community. A n a d o p t e d child is looked u p o n w i t h c e r tain susp i c i o n and e v e n the c h i l d r e n of an adult who has m a r r i e d into the A m i s h is watched to see if he is really a good Amishman, It seems to take about three genera­ tions to "grow" a n Amishman. One A m i s h m a n said of h i s adopted two year old, "We should have ado p t e d h e r three y ears ago." 174. P. 7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. I' f - 679 - \ ! is interpreted as a blessing in d i s g u i s e . ; loveth he chastenetho" 175 ’ "For w hom the JLord 'When there is no such exte r n a l force to bind t h e m together the c ommunity is more dissentlon. susceptible W hen it becomes evident that the w orld is not l i m ­ iting them or excluding them, they must look about to -find e x ­ planations and j u s tification for their l i m i t e d life. lead to a resurgence of interest in Bible high German, and Sunday Schools. T h i s has study, in k n o w i n g These interests are closely related to the n e w role of Chri s t i a n w i t n e s s e s to a sinful world. to The m o n t h l y relief sewings are related to both renewed interest in the outside w o r l d and the closer connection of i the Amish with the Men n o n i t e C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e . The central (Ohio c o mmunity r eflects both the c o n s e r v a ­ tive outlook of a large com m u n i t y and also the interest in group religious study that is c h aracteristic surrounding them. of the culture Sunday schools are d e f i n i t e l y forbidden although there is considerable interest expressed in them.-*-^ Group meetings for prayer and d i s c u s s i o n of the Bible are also forbidden. 175. Heb. 12;6. 176. The a r ticles made at the m o n t h l y sewings are distributed by the Mennonite C o m m u n i t y outside the Amish community. 177. Some of the other Old O rder A m i s h communities ba Olio have Sunday Sch o o l or Bible S t u d y for a period e a c h year, 177a M y husband a n d I were invited to such a m e e t i n g out were unable to attend. Lat e r the m e e t i n g s had to be stopped. Finally, the leader left the Old Order Amish. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 680 - This may seem surprising as the Bible is often d iscussed in informal social g a t h e r i n g s „ But social g a t h e r i n g s d o not have the continuity or the influence on the c h u r c h that a regular scheduled m e e t i n g w o u l d c- Prayer m e e t i n g s are worldly, in that they are found in the w o r l d and have n e v e r been a part of the A m i s h community. D u r i n g the past five years there have been periodic a t t e m p t s to start groups to study the B i b l e . 1,78 But o p p o s i t i o n is u s u a l l y great enough to stop them; e i t h e r by i n h i b i t i n g me m b e r s f r o m attending or d r i v i n g those w h o insist on a t t e n d i n g into the Mennonite church. such a group. One l a y m a n in church d istrict # 1 9 led Finally he w a s put u n d e r the ban and of the group dropped out. others He was surprised and h u r t w h e n the former members of the group observed the b a n against h i m Maniaci wrote , “There is a c e r t a i n brother w h o h ad the m i s ­ sion burden in his heart for many, m a n y years. The church leaders tried to suppress hi s H o l y Spirit d i r e c t e d d e s i r e . .. And finally w h e n he refused to bend, budge, cast him out'. I n the elsewhere for the or burn, they same lo c a l i t y families h a v e m i g r a t e d same r e a s o n . 1 7 ^ Not only is the central (Ohio c o m m u n i t y t r o u b l e d but 178. Amish Mission E n d e a v o r . July-August-SeptemberQetober, 1955, p. 10. 179. A m i s h M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r , J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1955, P» 10. "A few years ago a b r o t h e r a n d his sister w e r e cast out. Why? Qh, the y ha d committed m a n y sins, such as attend ing revival meetings, believi n g in m i s s i o n s , in divine h e a l ­ ing, in Sunday school an d pra y e r m eeting." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 6 8 1 - the large communities in P e n n s y l v a n i a an d in I n d i a n a „ "A brother from P e n n s y l v a n i a " writes, X have a f e w questi o n s to a s k of those lead e r s who believe in and a l l o w m a n y sinful practices, such as square dances, smok i n g a n d chewing tobacco, using strong drinks, an d strictly f o r b i d d i n g S u n ­ day school, p r ayer m e e t i n g , etc., u n d e r p e n a l t y of the ban, or shunning. Xs that y o u r call i n g to lead y o ung people to S u n d a y n i g h t s i n g i n g an d d a n c ­ ing and d r i n k i n g bee r ? 180 The Indiana comm u n i t y w o u l d a p p e a r to be the m o s t d i s o r g a n ­ ized. The young people have a r e p u t a t i o n amo n g the A m i s h 1 D*| for rowdiness. T h e i r singings hav e raided by the police. I n a n eff o r t occasionally been to h o l d t h e i r d r i f t ­ ing youth some church l e aders e n c o u r a g e d districts not to report the boys i n the i r for their X - W assignment.-1-83 180. "Ungodly Practic e " A m i s h M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r , January-February, 1955, p. 6. 181. Edito r i a l , "Sowing m i d (Oats," M i s s i o n E n ­ deavor B u l l e t i n . J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1954, d e s c r i b e s M a n i a c i ® s visit to an Old Ord e r A m i s h singing. P e t e r C. W. Gutkind,"Secularization v e r s u s the C h r i s t i a n C o m m u n i t y * " npublished Master’s t h e s i s , , U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago, 1952, pp. 206-207. His observations would indicate that the I n d i a n a c o m m u n i t y is dangerously disorganized; the y o u n g people are lawl e s s and rowdy, the leaders are m o t i v a t e d b y p e r s o n a l desires, and e c ­ onomically the c o m m u n i t y is b a r e l y succeeding. I have never visited the community. I w a s talking to a Napp a n e e m a n w h o had married a Ston e y r u n girl. He said that a l t h o u g h t h e y had settle in Napp a n e e , he s p o k e h i g h l y of the Ohio c o m m u n i t y then the Indiana community. There is some c r i t i c i s m of I n d i ­ ana farming. Once X a s k e d one A m i s h m a n w h y he- di d n ot mo v e to Indiana. He replied he did n o t like the i r E n g l i s h (small) barns. 182. H e r a l d . N o v e m b e r 5, 1953, p. 3. 183. This a c t i o n b r ou g h t strong p r o t e s t f r o m other Amish communities. H e rald, J a n u a r y 21, 1954, p. 4 ; F e b r u a r y 25, 1954, p. 6 1 M a r c h 11, 1954, p. 2. N o v e m b e r 25, 1954, p. 1. See Chapter VIX. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 682 - Some of the leaders a p p e a r to he s t e a d f a s t l y set a g a i n s t any infiltration of n e w religi o u s i d e a s , while some of the laymen have a c c e p t e d m u c h of the s u r r o u n d i n g P r o t e s t a n t belief* D u r i n g the last f e w y e a r s fami l i e s have left this 9 community to start n e w communi t i e s an d mor e n e w commu n i t i e s are being considered. Stone.yrun church has h e e n able to k e e p out m a n y of the new religious p r a c t i c e s w i t h o u t causing their m e m b e r s to feel resentment a n d suffocation.-1-8^ The c h u r c h leaders , while forbiding S u n d a y school and Bible study as a c o m m u n i t y activity, are sympathetic. I n the summer o f 1956, the ministers had an A m i s h t e a c h e r in h i s home for a w e e k to teach "our children a n d R u t h H u s h b e r g e r Bible It is very interesting."-1-85 one of Schoolc G e r m a n R e a d i n g s are h e l d at scheduled intervals for the c h i l d r e n and the parents-. ever, it was a g r e e d that How­ German R e a d i n g w o u l d n e v e r be h e l d on a Sunday and that there w o u l d be n o d i s c u s s i o n of the text. Cine woman said, "We d o n ’t d i s c u s s .the Bible. thankful we are allowed to read it together."-1-88 184. cause they 185. 186. We should be Attendance However, one f a m i l y left the church p r i m a r i l y b e ­ w a nted more r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n for the i r children. P e r s o n a l correspond e n c e , VI/21/56. 00A24 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 683 - at Mennonite revivals is no t forbidden. (One m i n i s t e r and his family attended one r e gul a r l y w h e n it was in the v i c i n i t y and two of the three sons of the strict old d e a c o n a t t e n d e d with their wives. . D u r i n g the revival in 1955, about h a l f of the members of the Stoneyrun church attended at least once and a few individuals went almost e very night. G e r m a n -1-87 E e a d i n g German Reading is a f a i r l y n e w d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h i n the Amish community. D u r i n g the first W o r l d War the public stopped teaching German. schools B y n o w there are v e r y few A m i s h m e n who read or write h i g h German easily. M o s t of the m i d d l e - a g e d members of the c ommunity lear n e d to read h i g h G erman at home rather than at school. A typ i c a l practice was to have the children sit aro u n d the dinin g r o o m table w i t h a kerosene lamp in the center. E a c h child in turn w o u l d read one verse of the New Testament in German u n t i l the chapter was finished. This method was only p a r t i a l l y satisfactory. M a n y of t he adult women today cannot read G e r ma n . I 88 And the m e n read it with some difficulty. children alone. German Testament, These parents f e e l t h e y cannot instruct their Thus in a d d i t i o n to the f amily study of the German R e a d i n g s have b e e n i n s t it u t e d in the 187. One f a m i l y from S t o n e y r u n church d i s t r i c t timed their visit to relatives that lived in another c o m m u n i t y in the state so that it w o u l d co-incide w i t h the revival meet i n g s there. 188. (One w o m a n e x p l a i n e d as she read E g e r m e i e r ' s Bible story B o o k . "I can't read German." She reads the chi l d r e n Dible stories in E n g l i s h and then ret e l l s t h e m in Pe n n s y l v a n i a Dutch. "They are m u c h better in D u t c h , " one s e c o n d -grader said. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 684 - Tag Stoneyrun church d i s t r i c t s (and quite a f e w other districts.]) German Reading u s u a l l y mee t s fall. only during the spring, summer and It is too cold in winte r t o t r a v e l b y b u g g y w i t h all the children to a Reading. urday afternoon. day evening. One summer they ha d German R e a d i n g - S a t ­ U s u a l l y it is in the evening, often on T h u r s ­ The disadvantage to this h o u r is that it keeps the children u p v e r y late. rural school house G e r m a n R e a d i n g mee t s e i t h e r in a or in the home where church is b e i n g held. The bishop and b o t h preachers g e n e r a l l y attend and mo s t of the parents w h o have c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n the age s of abo u t nine and fifteen. A few other couples also attend. are conspicuous by their absence. The g r o u p a s s e m b l e s be­ tween seven-thirty and eight o'clock. one who is e x pected has arrived. on the benches and t h e y hymn book. The a d olescents T h e y wait u n t i l e v e r y ­ The n the gro u p sits dow n sing a n u m b e r of h y m n s fro m the small They u s e the h y m n b o o k i 9 £hat are ke p t fo r the young p e o p l e ’s singings. These boo k s are t o m and in m u c h poorer conditi o n than the that supplement the Ausbund in the church often t a t t e r e d and small h y m n books service. No v e r y slow tunes are sung to the old hymns. :lh. fact, some of the tunes 189, Some churches still object to German Reading. 190. Elne U n n a r t e l l s c h e L i e d e r - S a m m l u n g zum Gebrauch beim (Qaffentlichen Gottesdienst u n d d e r H g u s l i c h e n E r b a u u n g 'bc ottdale, Pa.: M e n n o n i t l i s c h e n V e r l a g s h a u s , 1954). ( B a e r 9s Aufgabe) Das Kleine Liederbuch. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. are lively and gay. A f t e r singing the group divides. The men go into one room, the w o m e n into a nother and the chil d r e n are divided into beginners w h o are lea r n i n g their l e t t e r s and an older group that is reading sentences.1 91 E a c h p e r s o n has 192 brought his own T e stament and e a c h child h i s own primer. The bishop then announces w h a t ch a p t e r shall be read. The time I attended the bishop was called outside and was not present when it was time to read. The people gathered, a n d m o s t l y under the direction of the m i ni s t e r s selected a chapter. They usually read a chapter that w i l l be read at the coming church service. H o w e v e r on this o ccasion c o m m u n i o n w as to be celebrated the following Sunday a n d there were m a n y p o s ­ sible chapters. The group selected one; we had our T e s t a ­ ments open and were just r e a d y to begin, w h e n the bishop came in and a n nounced that we were to read another. women had pulled the benches around one another in two lines. The so t hey were faaing A ra t h e r e l d e r l y w o m a n began 191. The selection of teachers is informal. Someone who is able and willing is a s k e d to t e a c h the children. The two who were teachers during m u c h of the last three y ears were very well selected. I w o u l d have ju d g e d them a mong the best, if not the v e r y best suited for the task. The m a n told me that as a child he had wante d to be a teacher. 192. In Stoneyrun t h e y u s e d A B. g B u c h s t a b l r - u n d JLesebuche zum Gebrauch fdr deutsche Schuler in d e r V e r e i n g t e n Staten. W j l t e r ’s D e u t s c h e - E n g l i s h e r Schr£i b - u n d JLeseflbel u n d leues E rstes L esebucher fflr Ame r i k a n i s c h e s F r e i s c h u l e n -(Saint houis, Mo. 1917). (Other primers u s e d in German H e a d i n g and at home are: Das Ueue Spelling B u c h zum Gebrauch d e r J u g e n d in gir ibnlsnhe und M e m o n i t e S c h u l e n . (St . £ b e A r k a n s a s ; M a r t i n Printers)T Erstes Deutsches JLesebuch fflr a m e r l k a n l s c h e S c h u l e n (Bevidirt fdr Hausunterricht u n d P r i v a t s c h u l e n ) (Baltic, Olio; A. Baber.) Continued on next page. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 686 ~ and read the first verse wel l . When one stumbled or m i s r e a d a plied the correct word. T h e n e a c h w o m a n r e a d in turn. letter, the g r o u p s o f t l y s u p ­ It wa s a long slow process. Most of the women read h e s i t a t i n g l y an d w i t h quite a f e w mist a k e s . of the mistakes were due to a poo r command Some of German, but at least as ma n y slips were caused b y the e m b a r r a s s m e n t the w o m e n felt when th e y read aloud in the group. that the men read quite e a s i l y they did not seem to suffer fr o m shyness. reading the chapter at least M y husband reported a n d w i t h little h esitation; The m e n f i n i s h e d te n m i n u t e s before the w o m e n did. A little after t e n we g a t h e r e d the children to start the b u g g y ride h o m e . To be able to read h i g h G e r m a n is a m a r k of belonging, for in a region where n o G e r m a n is tap.ght in the the Amish can read it. It was after this schools, only T o re a d it w e l l e l e v a t e s ones status. German R e a d i n g that I wa s f i n a l l y a c c e p t e d by even the c o n s e rvative m e m b e r s of the community. After hearing me read the .woman w h o had mos t c o n s i s t e n t l y avoided me came over to " v i s i t . 11 Ger m a n R e a d i n g is succeeding in 192. Footnote c o n t i n u e d from p r e v i o u s page. Schrelblesefibel fflr d e n U n t e r r i c h t d e r E l e m e n t a r k l a s s e n (St. Louis, M o . ; Concordia P u b l i s h i n g House). E n g 1 1 sh-German Primer adapted f r o m Sanders ^ P i c t o r i a l P r i m e r (Scottdale, Pa.: Mermonlte P u b l i s h i n g H o use). Mos t of these pri m e r s are reprintings of old books. The only .one that gives the original copyright date-list's it a s' 1887; M o s t seem to date fro m this period. * This book was a d v e r t i s e d in the H e r a l d (December 18, 1952, p. 8.) The new German spelling': books are n o w avail a b l e . The books co n ­ tain 2750 spelling words, n e a r l y a l l t a k e n out of the N e w T e s t ­ ament, also some hymns, etc. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 687 - teaching the chi l d r e n h o w to pronounce page. But the meetings are G e r m a n f r o m the printed too infrequent to do m u c h more. There is no a t t e m p t made to teach the c h i l d r e n to u n d e r s t a n d the meaning of the Germ a n they are reading. who read and sing G e r m a n ; often have it means.193 E v e n the w o m e n only a h a z y idea of what I have be e n told that f o r m e r l y d i c t i o n a r i e s were frowned upon;, but e v e r y home I v i s i t e d had a G e r m a n - E n g l i s h dictionary and these are a d v e r t i s e d along w i t h other religious docks and are sold at A m i s h boo k stores. A gathering German Reading could e a s i l y t u r n into a pra y e r m e e t i n g such as or a Bible study group, but the bishop is there a n d h i s presence inhibits d i s c u s s i o n of the Bible. B i b l e S t u d y There are n o w n o S u nday schools, n o r Bib l e the Old Order A m i s h of c e ntral Ohio. Umb l e 194 schools among reported that in 1866 there w a s a n Old Order A m i s h S u n d a y sch o o l in what is now the southern section of the community, but its f o r m e r existence seems to have be e n lost from the m e m o r y of the A m i s h today. 195 193. A l t h o u g h th e y d o no t u n d e r s t a n d the precise mean i n g of the words they k n o w v a g u e l y w h a t it is abo u t an d ma y have a n intense emotional r e action to it. 194. J o h n S. U m b l e , O h i o Menno n l t e S u n d a y Scho o l s (Goshen, Ind.; , The M e n n o n i t e H i s t o r i c a l Society, 1941}, p. 334. 195. Its supporters, though A m i s h at the time, became Mennonite and were lost to the A m i s h community. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 688 - At least two of the other Old Order A m i s h commu n i t i e s in Ohio have Sunday schools. In other A m i s h c ommunities in the coun­ try Sunday school or Bible year.-5-9,7 school are held for a period eac h As m e n t i o n e d above a n i n d i v i d u a l family in the Ohio community m a y have Bible central school for their own c h i l d r e n in their h o m e . Every family is responsible for the relig i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n of their children. E a r l y religious training does no t consist of being taught the Bible, the ordnung or e v e n being taught the religious sanctions behind good and bad behavior, rather teaching the child obedience. The but obedient child will, when he is old e n ough to u n d e r s t a n d religion, submit to the will of God as it is interpreted by the community, "(Oh dear Father you were concerned h o w we children did our errands. How could we follow Jesus Without obeying parents." I have not heard young c hildre n told that God wan t s t h e m to be honest or not to steal or to dress p r o p e r l y or to go to church, but th e y are occasionally told that God w a n t s them to 196. H e r a l d , M a y 19, 1955, p. 1, 00A10. 197. Anna Bella Stauffer "Heport of a Ger m a n Bible School, Millersburg, Indiana." W i t n e s s i n g , (September-October 1954), p. 8. Hutchinson, Kansas, HdW, F e b r u a r y 15, 1956, p. 50, Kalona, Iowa, H d W , 43, Feb r u a r y 1, 1954, M a r c h 1, 1954, p. 130. b. Paul Miller, "The Amish in K a n s a s , " M e n n o n i t e Life , April, 1951, pp. 20-23. Author, 111. Herald, A p r i l 14, 1955. For a history of Mennonite Sunday Schools see, Silas H ertzler, "Early Mennonite Sunday Schools," MQR, A p r i l 1928, pp. 123 - 2 4 and J u l y 1928, pp„ 205-06 and J o h n U m b l e , "Seventy Years of P r o g r e s s in Sunday School W o r k Among the M e n n o n i t e s of the Middle West," M9R, VIII, October, 1934, pp. 166-79. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - obey their parents. 689 3h m a n y families the c h i l d r e n h e a r Bible stories and t h e y m a y be taught to say a p r a y e r d u r ­ ing the silence before and a f t e r the meal. and older children say the L o r d ’s prayer. Some (The adults silence is so long I could easily get t h r o u g h the L o r d ’s prayer twice.) School age ch i l d r e n m a y recite a m e m o r i z e d prayer to themselves in Pennsylvania Dutch. (One seven year old girl would repeat a prayer h e r m o t h e r ha d taught her. contained two sentences of thank-yous. the rest of the time," I asked her. wered. It ‘'What do you do "I just sit," she a n s ­ Twice a d a y the family k n e e l s while the father reads a prayer from the p r a y e r book. 199 E a c h m e m b e r of the family kneels in front of stool or chair to rest his arms or h e a d on. T h e y are a r r a n g e d a r o u n d the room facing away from one another. The father reads rather softly and it is usually difficult to u n d e r s t a n d him. I f it is late and the children are tired the m o t h e r m a y r e q u e s t s "Ivan, read a short one." tires as a unit. A f t e r pray e r s the fami l y g e n e r a l l y re ­ There are n o bedtime problems for the children are tired and n o child w a n t s to stay u p alone. The parents may talk in bed for several hou r s stay up to read. The c h i l d r e n who are or they m a y finished school ma y 199. Die e rnstha f t e C h r i s t e n p f l l c h t e n t h a l t e n Sch geistreiche G e b e t e . wom i t sich fromme C h r i s t e n h e r z e n zu a l i e n jpelten und in alien U d t e n trflsten kflnnen (Scottdele, Pa.: Mennonitische V e r l a g s h a n d l u n g , 1945) is g e n e r a l l y used, but other prayer books are often used. See C h a p t e r V. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - also stay u p to read the Bible 6 90 - or w r i t e l e t t e r s 0 whole family often retires at about the same h o u r v a r i o u s m e m ­ bers get u p at diff e r e n t h o u r s in the morning. rises first, t h e n the parents, t h e n the A l t h o u g h the The h i r e d girl older c h i l d r e n and the younger children get u p a p p r o x i m a t e l y in order of t h e i r age. School children are called in time to complete t h e i r chores b e ­ fore school but e v e n t hen t h e y m a y n o t get u p u n t i l two hours after the parents and the littl e chil d r e n m a y s till sleep five more hours after the parents rise. M o r n i n g p r a y e r s are held just before b r e a k f a s t w h e n all the school age c h i l d r e n are assembled. The young A m i s h child is taught to be o bedient to h i s p a r ­ ents whom he sees practi c i n g t h e i r religion. He receives informal religious i n s t r u c t i o n in the h o m e , but it is not the eighteen w e e k s before he joins some until the church that he is given any formal religious instruction. R e l i e f S e w i n g In Stoneyrun relief sewing is held once a month, nesday. The w o m e n the members, often a s s emble in the the family that on a W e d ­ m o r n i n g at the home is h a v i n g church. of one The p r e ­ school children come along w i t h their m o t h e r s a n d e a c h woman brings a dish to contribute to the n o o n meal. baked dish, a salad, © r a dessert. A H frames quilting or k n o t t i n g comforters, clothes that have been cut out at mittee cutting rooms. It m a y be a morning they sit around or t hey s e w toge t h e r the M e n n o n i t e C e n t r a l C o m ­ Quilts and c o m f o r t e r s are t h e m o s t p o p - R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. o - ular items. pretty. - The Jtoish feel they are n eeded, u s e f u l and One w o m a n h e l d u p a n e w quilt that h a d just come off the frame, "I think t his w i l l cheer u p that doesn't have a real home. warm." 6 9 1 At these some poor family I t ' s n i c e and br i g h t and sewings the w o m e n e n j o y m a k i n g quilts in colors they ma y n o t use. As t hey a t a round the quilt frames they have a fine time t a l k i n g and g ossiping. around during the morning, The w o m e n move so that almost ever y o n e has a chance to talk to e v e r y o n e else. T h e y d i s c u s s t h e i r children, the school, the young people, m a r r i a g e s and p regnancies. they t a l k their fingers fly; will be finished in a day. As sometimes a s m a n y as s i x qu i l t s A f t e r a full, long morning, the quilts that are complete are t a k e n off the fr a m e s a n d the fremes d ismantled numerous dishes so there w i l l be r oom to eat. T h e n the of g a y l y colored foods are a r r a n g e d on tables and everyone h e l p s herself, s m o r g a s b o r d •s t y l e ! , A fter lunch a few of the people f i n i s h the quilts that s t i l l n e e d a l i t t l e : work, the others h e l p clean u p the k i t c h e n a n d m o s t bers leave in time to be home b e f o r e the school. It makes a pleasant, scholars ar r i v e f rom sociable day. lief Sewing Is often h e l d outside, w i t h the the shade of a big tree. of the m e m ­ 3 h summer the R e ­ frames The f i n i s h e d pro d u c t s are set u p u n d e r shipped to the Mennonite C e n t r a l Commit t e e f r o m wh e n c e t h e y are d i s t r i b ­ uted. Belief Sewing is considered a church a ctivity. It is a rather n e w a c t i v i t y and a few chur c h e s still d o n o t feel it is right. Others w i l l only make quilts a n d comforters, and'.'Will/inot R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 692 - sew worldly clothes. W h a t e v e r the g r o u p makes, it is a pleasant, r e stful d a y for the w o m e n w h o g r e a t l y e n j o y the sociability. E v a n g e l i s . m a n d R e v i v a l s . Evangelistic mee t i n g s a n d r e v i v a l s are p r e s e n t i n g a ne w problem to the Old Order Amish. discipleship w a y of life; T h e i r r e l i g i o n has b e e n a it's ryt h m i c and orderly.' Twice a year in the c o m m u n i o n sequence a p e a k is reached that may be intensely emotional, but this e m o t i o n a l response is r e g ­ ular and regulated. There is a long period of build u p and controlled release. J o i n i n g the c h u r c h is an orderly process building u p over m a n y wee k s to the f i n a l commitments. With some individuals it is a d e e p l y e m o t i o n a l experience; wit h others it is a n important ing lives. step in their orderly and d e v e l o p ­ D u r i n g the peri o d s of persecution, was a steadying, reass u r i n g base. their r e l i g i o n The p e r s e c u t i o n itself sup­ plied sudden e m o t i o n a l outlets a n d reassured t h e m of their Christianity. There was n o n e e d to seek e m o t i o n a l outlets, nor reassurance in r e v i v a l meetings. The h a t r e d of the w o r l d and the mist r e a t m e n t they, as Christians, received at the han d s of the w o r l d , u n d e r l i n e d the truth of their r e l i g i o n an d p r e ­ vented any d e a d e n i n g of the faith. T o d a y t h e y look for p e r ­ secution and g r a s p at a n y i n d i c a t i o n that the wor l d is a n insecure p l a c e , but t h e y can find little p e r s e c u t i o n from the outside world and coupled w i t h the adve n t of m o d e r n R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 693 - medicine, little evidence orderly and limiting. of i n s e c u r i t y . 200 T h e i r life is M a n y are h u n g r y for excitment. It is more and more difficult for the leaders to k e e p the i r m e m b e r s away from Mennonite re v i v a l meetings, or to stay a w a y t h e m ­ selves. P eriodically w i t h i n the A m i s h c h u r c h e v a n g e l i s t s arise. During the course of this study, a n e v a n g e l i s t n a m e d D a v i d A. Miller was i nfluencing hundreds. He came f r o m a small Amish community in Thomas, Oklahoma. At the time his i n f l u ­ ence was sweeping the ce n t r a l (Ohio c o m m u n i t y he was fortythree years old and h a d be e n a p r e a c h e r for f i f t e e n years. In the summer of 1953 he spent ten d a y s in the c o m m u n i t y (from August 1 to August 11) ally three times a day. His 201 p r e a c h i n g two a n d o c c a s i o n ­ sermons were "filled w i t h the Holy Ghost"202 and we r e v e r y w e l l attended. W h e n only three OQ'Z hundred people came it w a s newsworthy. u One Friday evening (August 7) abo u t eight h u n d r e d people a s s e m b l e d to sing h y m n s and hear h i m p r e a c h "under d e m f r e u e n Himmel. "204Because of the time of the y e a r he could p r e a c h in bar n s an d b r o i l e r hou s e s 200. Obitua r i e s often m e n t i o n the i n s e c u r i t y of life and whenever possible the A m i s h w r i t e r m a y dr a g in a comment about the brevity of life. "Life is v e r y u n c e r t a i n . We m a y be well and strong one minute an d be h u r l e d into e t e r n i t y the next." Herald, F e b r u a r y 7, 1952, p. 6. 201. H e r a l d , August 6, 1955, p. 5, H d W , September 15, 1953, p. 547. 202. "It takes H o l y G h o s t - f i l l e d p r e a c h i n g to p u s h the dead church m e mbers into a corner where t h e y w i l l have to do something." David M i l l e r , W i t n e s s i n g , N o v e m b e r - D e e e m b e r , 1953, P • 3, 203. Herald, August 13, 1953, p. 5. 204. HdW, S eptember 15, 1953, p. 547. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 694 - and the overflow could sit outside to l i s t e n to h i m . 205 Those who heard h i m w e r e d e e p l y stirred. I received e n ­ thusiastic letters about the good he w as doing the ity and how everyone Spirit. commun­ should w o r k to bring others to the He n e v e r preached twice in the same place. Some followed h i m a r o u n d the c ommun i t y a n d h e a r d h i m m a n y times. He seemed to be able to get h i s message a c r o s s to a l l ages. The adolescents, w h o u s u a l l y w h i s p e r dur i n g mos t ular church services, listened atten t i v e l y . of the r e g ­ Adu l t s were particularly impressed w i t h h i s a b i l i t y to a f f e c t the young people.206 After Dave M i l l e r ' s tour in the c e n t r a l Ohio c o m m u n i t y he went to Hutchinson, Kans a s to the fou r t h a n n u a l M i s s i o n 205. This a f t e r n o o n we had chu r c h at Yost H. M i l l e r s in their 40 x 80 b r o i l e r house w h i c h w a s filled to c a p a c i t y with people, and some outside yet." H e r a l d , Aug u s t 13, 1953, p • 5. 206. Because of the A m i s h b e l i e f that c h i l d r e n are unable to k n o w the d ifference between right and wro n g a n d are all assured of salvation (until th e y r e a c h the age of a c c o u n t ­ ability) there has be e n little a t t e n t i o n paid to t h e m in church. The age of a c c o u n t a b i l i t y is believed to v a r y w i t h d i f f e r e n t i n ­ dividuals and gene r a l l y is a s s u m e d to coincide w i t h the joining of church. Therefore, the you n g people w ho have n o t yet joined church are admoni s h e d to be obedient, as al l c h i l d r e n should be, but there is little effort made to arou s e t h e m religi o u s l y . David Miller made a p a r t i c u l a r effort to speak to the y o u n g people, not merely about o b e d i e n c e , but abo u t t h e i r religion. D u r i n g the eighteenth and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y in H e w E n g l a n d the y o u n g people were often the most responsive gro u p in revivals. S a n f o r d Fleming, Children and P u r i t a n i s m (Hew Haven: "ale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1933), pp. 133-141. (The Puritans mad e little d i s t i n c t i o n betw e e n the conversion exper i e n c e of a c h i l d four years old a nd a m a n of eighty; each was believed to be sinful a n d in n e e d of conver s i o n . ) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - Conference. 695 - There he preached, on the n e e d for a H o l y Ghost revival in the Old Order A m i s h churches. On the last e v e n ­ ing of the conference , A f t e r another p e n e t r a t i n g mes s a g e brought, in all probability, f r o m the H o l y Spirit t h r o u g h D a v i d A, Miller, we come to the c r o w n i n g point of the entire conference. A f t e r some p o i n t e d advice, what to do and what not to d o w i t h the bles s i n g s received, Bro. David gave a n i n v i t a t i o n to a n y w h o w i s h e d to c o n s e ­ crate t h e i r lives to the service of God. Eighteen young souls responded. It w a s made clear that this would not n e c e s s a r i l y involve leaving home, but it was a lso p o i nted out that it involved the oblig a t i o n if it should be necess a r y . H o t at a n y time t h r o u g h ­ out al l the sessions could the sacred n e a r n e s s of the Spirit be so p l a i n l y f e l t . 207 When I a r r i v e d in S t o n e y r u n a m o n t h a f t e r D a v i d M i l l e r had left everyone wa s feeling. still talking a b o u t h i m w i t h intense There was n o doubt that he h a d had a n influence, but the people were d i v i d e d as to w h e t h e r the influence was for the good or bad. to hear Dave , the hour. In the homes of f a m i l i e s that had gone c h ildren w o u l d p l a y "Dave M i l l e r " A five year old boy w o u l d by the stand by the stove g e s t u r i n g and preaching * H i s voice rose a n d f e l l in v i v i d imitation, 207a but he u s e d n o words. I n front of h i m sat a seven y e a r old, a four year old, and for a fe w m i n u t e s the two a nd a h a l f year old. Holding Sears catalogues u p s i d e d o w n t h e y w o u l d imitate the slow singing of the A m i s h w h e n e v e r the The children seemed to believe "preacher" paused. that the louder they sang the 207. W j t n e s s l n g , S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1953, p. 6. 207a In a n o t h e r A m i s h f a m i l y the f i v e - y e a r - o l d boy a l s o jjlayed revival w i t h the h e l p of h i s y o u n g e r brothers. As he preached" he shouted over and over again, "Prediger, Prediger, ■finally his m o t h e r said, "Mosie , w h e n y o u p r e a c h y o u should talk about Jesus, not p r e a chers." (They spoke in P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h , not English.) However, he con t i n u e d to shout "prediger" in s t e a d of "Jesus." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 696 - PQp more nearly their play r esem b l e d church. Many A m i s h people were d e e p l y m o v e d by Dave M i l l e r ' s visit. This c o m m u n i t y has been w o n d e r f u l l y b l e s s e d wi t h spiritual food the past week, b r o u g h t to u s by Bro. D a v i d M i l l e r of Oklahoma. The Bib l e says, "Blessed are t h e y w h o h u n g e r a n d thirst a f t e r r i g h t e o u s n e s s for t h e y shall be filled." I don't t h i n k a n y have., b e e n f i l l e d but our thi r s t was q u e n c h e d . 209 ...the w o r d s preached b y h i m hav e fall e n on good ground and are b r i n g i n g for t h g o o d f r u i t . 1 Those w h o m he had inspired felt called u p o n to defend h i m agai n s t those who refused to h e a r h i m a n d agai n s t r u m o r s that circulated about this n e w phenomenon. N o w you m e n and w o m e n w h o put out false rumors about h i m and say he is a false p r o p h e t should be careful, because if he is fil l e d w i t h the H o l y Ghost and you spe a k agains t him, are y ou not speaking against the H o l y Ghost? And wha t doe s B i b l e say abo u t b l a s p h e m y ag ainst the H o l y Ghost? M a r k 3:29. If you did no t h e a r h i m preach y o u have n o right w h a t e v e r t o speak agai n s t him. Xn I n diana a b r o t h e r from (the c e n t r a l Ohio community) a s k e d me if P r e . D a v e M i l l e r is a l l right since he is at my home. X answered, "Yes, why ? " He said that there is a report that he lost hi s mind. X affirmed that he is p e r f e c t l y sane. W h e n we came home (to Thom a s , Okla.) we h e a r d at least three p e rsons wh o h a v e r e c e i v e d letters i n q u i r ­ ing abo u t the matter. One e v e n m e n t i o n i n g of h a v i n g taken h i m to the insane asylum. X w i l l simply answer, there is n o t one w o r d of t r u t h in t h i s falsehood. It is n e x t to imp o s s i b l e to find out w h o started this report, but it i s v e r y p l a i n to see what k i n d of person started it. I f you are guilty y o u ca n see your 208. See a p p e n d i x X X Part B f o r p i c t u r e s of c h i l d r e n p l a y ­ ing "revival" a f t e r th e y h a d bee n tak e n to a M e n n o n i t e e v a n ge l i s t 209. Herald, Augu s t 20, 1953, p.5. 210. H e rald, October 1, 1953, p.6. 211. H e rald, August 20, 1953, p.5. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 697 - reflection plainly in J o h n 10:20 and J o h n 8:44-45. Please do not -understand me to l iken anyone who passed this report on i g n o r a n t l y or carel e s s l y to the above reference, but take h e e d and be careful that you do n o t pass on such lies. And if you are guilty, you had better repent before it is too late. It is a serious m a t t e r to c o n d e m n the Lo r d ' s servants. Read J ohn 13:20. J o h n 15:16-25. Those of you who accuse Dave of causing c ommotion in the churches, w i t h h i s p r e a c h i n g can find the cause, if you will, in Matt. 10:34-42. So I plead once' more w i t h you in this matter, be c a r e f u l w hat you say. For Jesus said h i m s e l f in Matt. 25:40. "Inasmuch as ye have done it u n t o one of the lep,s£ of these m y Brethren, ye have done it u n t o me."^-*-^ In various communities it h a s oeen reported that the A m i s h evangelist, D a v i d Miller, h a d lost his mind. I saw h i m last evenin g and his m i n d is e n t i r e l y r a ­ tional. I' m sure that folks w h o take such delight in either originating or p assing on such rumors, or a ny other slanderous tal k a bout t h e i r fellowmen, w o u l d be v ery fortunate if they c ould lose their c arnal m i n d and get a "New mind in C hrist J e s u s . " (Romans 8:5-14). Within the Amish community the role of the preacher, 3 ( u n d e r the supervision of his bishop) is to k e e p h i s f l o c k separated f r o m the ways of the world. the old way. it. He is to protect h i s people by m a i n t a i n i n g He is to preach the word "They do not of God, but not i nterpret speak their own w o r d but their Lo r d ' s w o r d . " 2 ^ Here was a n Old Order A m i s h pre a c h e r w h o w a s p reaching d i f f e r e n t l y from other Old Order preachers, 212. 213. 214. therefore he must be speaking Herald, October 1, 1953, p. 7. Herald, O c t ober 15, 1953, p. 7. M a r tyrs M i r r o r ,op. c l t . , 1813, p. 313. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 6 9 8 his own word instead of the L o r d ’s. or to be leading a faction.. - He did no t seem m a l i c i o u s The c o nservative Old Ord e r Ami s h - man was confused by this p a r t i c u l a r p r e a c h e r ' s behavior. The obvious and most charitable e x p l a n a t i o n w a s to decide that the poor man must be c r a z y .215 He m e a n t w e l l but w a s out of t o u c h with reality; he did not k n o w the role of a n A m i s h preacher. Among certain people the name ously avoided. of Dave M i l l e r wa s studi­ (I w a s caut i o n e d no t to t a l k to _______ about Dave and to see what _______ thought abo u t h i m . ) arise the Amish chose W h e n it d i d sides as to w h e t h e r he was f i l l e d w i t h the Holy Spirit and doing God's w o r k , or simply out of h i s mind. The third S u n d a y in September the Thomas, Okla h o m a community celebrated communion. be ordained. That da y a bishop w as to The lot fell on D a v i d A. Miller. from Thomas quoted Samuel, scribe "The Lo r d seeth not as m a n seeth; for man seeth on the outward appearances, on the h e a r t . "216 The Perhaps he could have but the Lor d l o o k e t h quoted, "The lot 215. He w a s either sinful or sick and giv i n g h i m the benefit of the doubt he w a s called sick. A few m o n t h s a f t e r Dave Miller's visit to S t o n e y r u n one of the memb e r s ha d a n e r ­ vous breakdown. D u ring a chu r c h service he stood u p a n d started preaching. (Lay members m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t n e s s in churcli, but never preach.) The r e a c t i o n w a s one of u n c e r t a i n t y ; wa s he filled wi t h the H o l y Spirit or out of hi s mind. It soon be­ came clear and he w a s taken to the state m e n t a l hospital. 216. I Sam. 16:7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 699 - causeth contentions to c e a s e ."217 For m a n y of the Old Ord e r Amish God was b e l i e v e d to have spoken w h e n He caused the lot to fall on D a v i d Miller. Since his o r d i n a t i o n as a bishop, D a v i d M i l l e r h a s not undertaken a n y e v a n g e l i s t i c t o u r s a l t h o u g h w h e n he travels he preaches.21® He p r e a c h e d three Indiana c o m m u n i t y in the late sermons in the Goshen, summer of 1 9 5 4 #2 1 ® He a t t e n d ­ ed the fifth a n n u a l M i s s i o n C o n f e r e n c e p r e a c h i n g there e a c h evening.2 2 0 fluential that He is still s u f f i c e n t l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d in­ some of t h e c o m m u n i t i e s do not want to hav e him visit t h e m .221 But it is d i f f e r e n t n o w that he is a bishop and not a m inister. The b i s h o p is e x p e c t e d to r e ­ flect the most conservative o p i n i o n of h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n e v e n if he h i m s e l f does n o t essential. strongly endorse P r e a c h e r Dave M i l l e r h a s become B i s h o p Dave M i l l e r and is the fin a l a u t h o r i t y in h is Gebrauch." it or h o l d it to be church d i s t r i c t on "das alt He h a s the g rea t e s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for h o l d i n g the church together. It would a p p e a r he ha d a c c e p t e d thi s 217. Prov. 18;18. 23.8. H e rald, M a r c h 3, 1955, sec. II. 219. W i t n e s s i n g . S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1954, p. 12. "We believe that the only people w h o we n t h o m e e m p t y were a few who were d i s c o uraged by the size of the o v e r f l o w i n g crowd at the last service and left a g a i n before the service began." 220. The subjects of h i s sermons w e r e "Matt. 12;22 f f , The Way of Holiness, The T e n V i r g i n s . " W i t n e s s i n g , October, 1955, p . 1 1 . 221. A m i s h M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r , J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1955, p. 1 1 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 700 - responsibility and perhaps w i t h it some of the the Amish b i s h o p .222 vels, but he stereotypes of He tra v e l s some and p r e a c h e s w h e n he t r a ­ is n o longer an A m i s h e v angelist. Revivals are r e l a t i v e l y n e w to the M e n n o n i t e s .223 and their acceptance is a b r e a k w i t h the h i s t o r i c t r a d i t i o n of M e n n o n i t ism.224 The e m p h a s i s revivals give to a p e r s o n a l c o n v e r s i o n experience as c e n t r a l to religious life has a t e n d e n c y to w e a k ­ en the community a s pects of the religion. Mennonite E v a n g e l i s t s are h a v i n g a grow i n g influence the Old Order A m i s h community. Some on church d i s t r i c t s e m p h a t ­ ically discourage t h e i r m e mb e r s f r o m attending these revivals and in all d i s t r i c t s there are m e m b e r s w h o are v e r y opposed to them. S t o n e y r u n is on the edge strongly of the c o m m u n i t y and has been i nfluenced b y the .'surrounding P r o t e s t a n t more than the central churches. culture A b o u t h a l f of the m e m b e r s of 222. X do not k n o w Dave M i l l e r p e r s o n a l l y so this statement m a y n o t be accurate. Xt is possible that he is learning his n e w d u ties as a b i s h o p (he n o w perf o r m s the crucial parts of the wedding, baptism, o r d i n a t i o n a n d c o m m u n ­ ion service. He a l s o p l a c e s the ban on e r r i n g m e m b e r s a n d welcomes them back into the church.) There is a great dea l to memorize and he m a y be consol i d a t i n g h i s n e w role before he again goes into the l a rge r c o m m u n i t y as a n e v angelist. 223. "Mennonites are t o d a y t u r n i n g r a p i d l y to 'oldtime r e l i g i o n 8 the e a r l i e r M e t h o d i s t - B a p t i s t - f r o n t i e r r e v i v ­ al system, seizing u p o n it in the h o p e that it w i l l enable them to mar c h f o r w a r d into the future w i t h the g r o u p s o l i d ­ arity they have h a d in the past." D o n Yoder, "Plain D u t c h and Gay Dutch," The P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n , . Summer 1956, p. 5 4 . "The a cceptanc e of e v a n g e l i s m came late in the nineteenth c e ntury a n d only a f t e r o p position, losses of young people, and several c h u r c h d i v i s i o n s . " J o h n A. H o s t ­ etler, The Soci o l o g y of Mennonite E v a n g e l i s m (Scottdale, Pa.I Herald Press, 1954), p. 50. 224. Robert Friedmann , M e n n o n i t e P i e t y T h r o u g h the Centuries( Goshen, I n d i a n a t M e n n o n i t e H i s t o r i c a l Society, 1949), p. '250. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Stoneyrun thought that 7 0 1 - specific revivals were good alth o u g h they were against revivals in general. R e v i v a l s that have tee n attended by the central Ohio Ami s h in recent years have been conducted by the Hamm e r Tent R e v i v a l and the C hristian .Laymen’s Tent Evangelism. I n the e a r l y summer of 1 9 5 5 225 the for Christ" caused quite a stir. about that time. from Stoneyrun a n d One "Crusade I was plan n i n g a visit for of the c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s telephoned me suggested that I come e a r l y in order to participate in the revival. The revival wa s w e l l a t t e n d e d with between two and one h a l f and .four a n d one h a l f t h o u s ­ and people participating. percent of the a udience I w o u l d judge that ninety-five belonged to v a r i o u s M e n n o n i t e churches. There were perhaps two hu n d r e d Old Order A m i s h in the a u d i ­ ence on the two n i g h t s I attended. The atmosphere was intoxicating. The r e wa s a t r e m e n d ­ ous tent (107 feet wide and 227 feet long.) It wa s brightly lighted and loudspeakers were the spaced so that dynamic" e v a n g e l i s t ' s 226 voic e boo m e d a r o u n d leader sang well and the large audience feeling. perience. ters, For m a n y of the one. The song joined the h y m n s w i t h sheltered A m i s h this w a s a n e w e x ­ They are forb i d d e n fairs, All their religious barns or broiler houses, "young a n d sports events, a n d t h e a ­ services are in the home or in that c an at the most accomodate 225. June 2 - 1 9 . 226. The Crusade Staff.•Crusade f or C h r i s t [ Orville, Ohio; Christian Layman's Tent E v a n g e l i s m , Inc). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - about five h u n d r e d p e o p l e . 2 2 7 - 702 - The A m i s h ba rn or house filled with worshipers is u s u a l l y fairly dark; the only light in the barn comes t h r o u g h the d o o r a n d cracks in the wall, in the house the w i nd ow shades are pulled d o w n to the h a l f w a y mark. There are n o lamps or candles. The preac he r speaks without training in elocution^ w i t ho u t the a i d of a micro ph on e and for long periods without a break. He must be h e a r d over the rustle of closely packed people, the fussing of infants, whispers of the adolescents. the sermons are long, It is a long, and the slo w service, the prayers are long and read in a low monotone , the h y mn s are long and ve ry slow. The tent m e e t i n g w a s still a religious service, but what a different one! T h i s was the first time most Amish had ever b e e n w i t h so m a n y people. united in purpose, w h a t e v e r the purpose, A large tent were rolled u p crowd is exciting. stead of the close dimness of an A m i s h service the blazed with hu n d r e d s of bright lights. of the In­ tent The sides of the so there was a feeli ng of openness as the evangelists voice spread not only to the thou sa nd s in the tent but also to those standing, m i ll in g and sitting outside it. The ev an g e l i s t w a s a t r a in e d speaker, haps more a c c u r a t e l y a pract ic ed s p e a k e r . ) or p e r ­ H i s sentences 227. The largest group that a s s e m b l e d for Dave Miller was about eight h u n d r e d people and t h e y a s se m bl ed outside. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 703 - were simple an d clear and he made cons t an t use gestures of h i s a r m s a n d body. Thes e of e m ph at ic gestures we re so com­ pletely systemized that I was r e m in de d of H i n d u dan ce s in which each word, phrase bodily m ovements. "damned," "lost," "the Devil," or idea is r e pr es en te d by stylized Terms such as ’’heaven," "born a g a i n Chris ti an ," "saved," "Jesus Christ," "washed in the blood of the lamb, " had the ir own motion that was repeated e ve r y t i m e used.228 "hell," the e x p r e s s i o n was The e va ng e l i s t d em an de d a u di en ce p ar ticipation, hot only did the audience to queries: sing but as a mas s t h e y responded "All y o u folks w h o wa nt to be b e t t e r C hr is ti a ns raise your h a n ds ." The e vangelist did n o t t a l k to the people; he shouted to t h e m "If the only w a y I can get y o u in to h e a v e n is to scare yo u in, I' ll scare you in!" A n d h i s shouting 229 was magnified by the m i c r o p ho ne s . The service w a s w e l l or ­ ganized so there w a s a freq ue nt change of pace. was congregational singing, Thus there solo singing, pr eaching, confess­ ions from the a ud ie n ce , more p re a c h i n g a n d the n singing again. 228. A to t a l l y d e a f p e r s o n could e a s i l y have g r a s p that there was a series of choices to be made a n d that in each case one choice w a s bad a n d one was good. 229. Before the first service I said f e a r f u l l y to of the Amish fami li es I wa s d r i v i n g , " I ' m a f ra i d I ' l l f a l l asleep." I ha d h a d less t h a n four h o u r s sleep the n i g h t b e ­ fore and had a l r e a d y that d a y d r i v e n four h u n d r e d m i l e s a c ­ companied by a scared t h i r t e e n - y e a r - o l d a n d a t e m p o r a r i l y difficult child of f o u r t e e n months. I w a s told, "Don't w o r ­ ry he'll k e e p you awake, n o b o d y sleeps." N o b o d y did.- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 704 - The Aims o f t h i s crusade are f o r the salvation of sinners, r e fr es hm e nt of the C hristian, and the b u i l d ­ ing of the C h ur c h of Christ. A n y d e c i s i o n s made f o r Ch ri s t d u r in g this Crusade w i l l h a v e l i b e r t y of d e n o m i n a t i o n a l choice in m e m b e r ­ ship a f f i l i a t i o n . 230 Almost e v e r y t h i n g abo ut the C r us a de s f o r Christ wa s con ­ trary to Old O r d e r t r a d i t i o n s an d practices. went once found it hard to stay away. It Yet those that stimulated their thinking on t h e o l o g i c a l q uestions a s t h e i r own services r a r e ­ ly do. ^Hat it al s o b r ou gh t to the fore : v a r i o u s confli c ts between the A m i s h w o r l d v i e w a n d the more g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d Christian w o r l d view. I n c e n tr al Oh io n o m e m b e r of the A m i s h church participated to the exten t public dedication, but several a d o l e s c e n t A m i s h c h il dr en and former Amis hm en m a d e about fifteen y e a r s such commitments. old wh o s e through the sermon on hell. reading and Bible of m a k i n g a c o n f e s s i o n or One little A m i s h girl father is a n alcoh ol ic wept all The c am p a i g n stimulated Bible study but b y i m p l i c a t i o n and t e a c h i n g it tended to weaken the c o m m u n i t y and b re a k d o w n barri er s that separate the D i d Order A m i s h f r o m a l l o t h e r people. An a d d i t i o n a l feature of the C r u s a d e for Christ w a s a bookstore s ponsored by M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g House. I n the 230. H e r a l d , June 9, 1955, p. 1. This crusade w a s sponsored b y the d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s of the M e n n o n i t e s in the county (except the Old Orde r Amish}. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 705 - book tent, before and a f t e r services, the a u d i e n c e could buy Christian l iterature. co m ­ M a n y A m i s h bought Bible mentaries, Bible d ictionaries, a n d books on religi o us sub­ jects. Du ri ng the services p h o t o g r a p h s were staff and the tent. the a u di en c e. These, too, ta ke n of the could be purc ha se d in E v e r y A m i s h f am i l y I k n e w which was in the p i c ­ ture purchased a p h o t o g r a p h of the audi en ce a nd a long time was spent in c a r e f u l l y scrutinizing the picture i d e n t i f y ­ ing everyone t h e y knew. to be photographed, Since a ch u rc h m e m b e r is n o t allo we d it is a rare treat for one to be able to purchase a picture of himself. B ecause he the picture w a s be in g t a k e n he is a b s o l v e d "did not k no w" of blame, as long as it has b e e n t ak e n h e m i g h t as w el l b u y the print. Although there were perhaps as m a n y as two h u n d r e d Amish in the tent on a single night, the A m i s h c om m u n i t y cannot be said to a p p r o v e of revivals, or strange evangelists. 2 31 Even the more l i b e r a l and progre ss iv e Old Order A m i s h m e n who believe t hat their own c o m m u n i t y should be e v a n g e l i z e d 2^ 2 feel that it is w r o n g to call gelist, that the ev a ng e l i s t der Amish church. in a professional evan­ should be a m e m b e r of the Old T h i s would, of course, Or­ circu mv en t some of the problems raised b y a n e v a n g e l i s t from a n o t h e r b r a n c h of 231. The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of the c e n tr al O h i o A m i s h community is p r o b a b l y b e t w e e n five a n d e i gh t thousand. 232. B o y Schlabach, "Evangelism," op. c i t . ; R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 706 - the Mennonite church. The large m a j o r i t y of the Amish. are type of e va n g e l i s m and agein st revivals. articles and so the They do not writ e only wa y their n u m b e r and o p in io n can be determined is to spend time a m o n g whelming m a j o r i t y # strongly a g a in st a n y them. They form the over­ E v e n amo ng the small, lucid grou p that favors e va ng el is m and revivals w i t h i n the Old Order A m i s h church, there are m a n y w h o still have v a r i o u s reservations. They all agree that a c h ur c h in good order does n ot n e e d a revival.233 One writ er points out that the h i g h e m o t i o n m a y lead to unbalanced ecstasy; that the individual m a y l o o k back on this one emotional experi en ce but not be changed by it; or that an individual m a y a t t a c h su pernatural significance to the evangelist.234 There is a l s o the criti ci sm that a r e ­ vival stirs u p a lot of commotion, but the mud r e m a i n s . 2 ^ 5 Others say that people w h o are converted do n ot stay faith- ful,236 an£ that those who go to revival m e e t i n g s and 233. See for example, Alvi n R. Beachy, "The Perils of Bevlval," W i t n e s s i n g . November, 1955, p. 5, and N o a h Keim, "Revival or D i s c i pl in e ," H d W , J u l y 15, 1954, p. 436-37. Also Noah Keim, "Self-Highteousness , " W itnessing . J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1954, p. 3, and HdW, F e br ua ry 15, 1954, pp. 115-116. 234. Beachy, "Revival," on. c i t . 235. "Unfortunately m a n y of the w ho l es om e effects of revivals melt a w a y as fast as the snow and when the shouting and tumult die a w a y the m u d remains." Schlabach, "Evangelism," 5£i_cit. "Professional e v an ge li st s and imported leaders stir up a lot of emotion, a n d ' t h e n w h e n the y leave, the mud sti ll r e ­ mains." Amish M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r . J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1955, p. 11. 236. A n d r e w M. Miller, "Spurious Convers io ns " GH, M a y 3 > 1955, p. 412. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - respond to them, leave the church. 707 - There is only one a u t h o r I have read w h o seems to see at a l l c l e a r l y the m a j o r d a n g e r of revivals and that is N o a h A. Keim. He points out that r e ­ vivals weaken the home c h u r c h . 237 W h e n talking writh A mi s h m e n who were both for and agai ns t revivals the statement closest to the above was, "It isn't good f o r u s . " Those w h o were in favor of revivals g e n e r a l l y saw clearly the n e e d for a more vital personal religion, but t h e y h a d not looked bey on d to see what they w o u l d l o s e . The A m is h r e l i g i o n is h i g h l y social, it has its own i n ­ ternal rhythms a n d it f un ct io ns in small f a ce-to-face prima ry groups that are v i r t u a l l y autonomous. The social aspec t s are illustrated by the fact that b a p t i s m s , w e d d i n g s a n d co mm u n i o n can take place only w i t h a gro up of believers. p'T.a Fo r a l l these ceremonies the fu nc t i o n s of a m i n i m u m of three chur c h officials are necessary, u s u a l l y six a c t i v e l y participate and in communion even more church officials m a y have a part in the ceremony. laity are also important. The i ndividual is baptized into the visible church; and the chu r ch is visi bl e there 237. 238. The in the m e mb er s R e vi va l or D i sc i pl in e, op. c i t . And t y p i c a l l y only at certain seasons of the year. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - that are present. 70 8 - The couple is m a r r i e d w i t h f o u r u n m a r r i e d attendants, hut a l l the m a r r i e d w o m e n of the b r i d e ' s church district are d r e ss ed as church behind her, occasion). for a c h u rc h service, (the othe r w o m e n are d r e s s e d as for a social A ft e r the c e r e m o n y the bride and in her costume r e p r e se nt in g the changes h e r c o ve r in g joins the w o m e n of h e r church. Communion 239 must be celebrated in a g r o u p in w h i c h l a i t y are present. Christ is not b e l i e v e d to be congregation. in the bread a n d wine but in the It is seen that these three important ceremo ni es In the life of a n i nd iv i d u a l d e m a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a c o m m u n ­ ity and they are as e s s e n t i a l for c o m m u n i t y h e a l t h as for i n ­ dividual health. S i m i l a r l y the e r r i n g i nd iv i du al confesses his sins to Christ, but t h r o u g h the community. The c h u r c h is the body of Christ a n d the in di v i d u a l c o n f e s s e s to the church which decides the p un is h me nt and grants forgive ne s s. a public co nfession, It is n o t in that all n o n - c h u r c h m e m b e r s are barred, only those who are in the bo d y of Christ are present. These confessions s t r e n g t h e n bo th the i n d i v i d u a l a n d the community. The Amish c h u r c h h a s its own i n t e r n a l rythm. The C h r i s t ­ ian year is rela te d to the round of seasons, but it is no t 239. M i n i s t e r s are forbidden t o celebrate it alone. "This Supper is to be ob s e r v e d c o n c o r d a n t l y b y a l l b e li e ve rs (as many as are g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r ) an d not b y one alone, as some do. ...the m i n i s t e r is to observe the Sup pe r w i t h the congregation." D i e t r i c h Philip, E n c h i r i d i o n or H a n d B o o k (Elkhart, Ind; M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1910,) pp. 87-88. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 709 - definitely d e te rm i ne d b y e i t h e r a s e cu la r or reli gi ou s calendar. Communion is celeb ra te d "when we can get rea dy for it." All the ceremonies have a long p e r i o d of b u i l d - u p „ then sudden release. Bef or e b a p t i s m there semi-secret instruction, a four week build-up, is a n e i g h t e e n w e e k period th e n baptism. of F o r c o m m u n i o n there is th e n the g l o r i o u s celebration. B e fo re a wedding there is the long peri od of secret courtship, th e n sud­ den activity begins w i t h the a n n o u n c e m e n t in c h u r c h of the com­ ing marriage. A relig io us e x p e r i e n c e orderly, rythmic process. The is the c u l m i n a t i o n of a n i n d i v i d u a l is part of the r h y t h m of his own group; h i s e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s are r e l at ed to those of the people around h i m w h o make u p h i s The degree church. of a u t o n o m y o f the i n d i v i d u a l church distr ic t is Illustrated b y the slight v a r i a t i o n in the specific time baptism and co mm u n i o n are c el eb r a t e d a n d the v a r i a t i o n ex- 240 pec ted from the Regi st e r v o n S c h r i f t e n u n d L i e d e r n . * Only the home church d i s tr ic t can p u n i s h a n i n d i v i d u a l or receive him back into the church. O n l y the home d i st ri ct c an its bishop, prea ch er or d e a c o n . I t church that a laym an ca n celeb r at e silence is only in the home communion. The A m i s h r el i g i o n Is c e r t a i n l y n o t w i t h o u t emotion, 240. (Johann M b e r , B a l t ic , Ohio.) 241. Thi s is only done a f t e r a d vi c e and c o n s u l t a t i o n of ministers f r o m other congreg at io ns . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7 10 - but the e m ot i on is built u p by the r h y t h m w h i c h in a sense is a ritual, rather tha n by f i e r y word s or i nd iv id u al e mo ti on a l appealo The A m i s h religion believes in the Word. It attempts to be devoid of m y s t i c a l br ea k-throughs. ation is d i s c o u r a g e d and the issue active.242 Individual interpret­ of Wort u n d G-eist is still R e l a t e d to the strong reliance the highly social n a tu re ition of obedience. of the Word, and of their religion, is the cent ra l po s­ The g o o d A m i s h m a n is a n obedient Christian. Almost all A m i s h sin is b a si ca l ly disobe di en ce . One A m is hm an classified sins as falling into fou r categories: disobedience to G o d ’s Word, d i s o b ed ie nc e to the Gemeinde, disobedience to ones parents, and disob ed ie n ce to the govern me nt . There could be no occasion w h e n disobed ie nc e to God's wo r d or to the Gemeinde wa s not a sin.243 Finally it should be m e n t i o n e d that b a p ti sm is almost as much a community c om mi tm en t as a n i n d i v i d u a l commitment. The baptism by fire of the H o l y Spirit is supposed to precede baptism by wat er a d m i n i s t e r e d by the bishop. The w a t e r b a p t ­ ism is believed to be a sign of the former b a pt is m a n d mar ks the i n d i v i d u a l ’s in i ti a t i o n into the community. He is n o w an adult, accountable for h i s own sins an d responsible to the 242. In d i sc u s s i n g D a v i d B ei l e r ' s W a h r e s C h r i s t e n t h u m , Friedmann, on. cit. p. 246 states, "One feels d i s t i n c t l y h o w the brethren wer e eag er to a v o i d a l l p e rs on a l interpretation, be it rational or mystical, e v e n w i t h a text as tempting as John 3. It is the W o r d alone w hi c h counts a nd n e v e r the i n sp ir ­ ation: the old issue of "letter a n d spirit" (Wort u n d Geist) b e ­ comes actual here a g a i n . ” This d e s c r i b e s m y r e a c t i o n to almost all Old Order A m i s h w r i t i n g a n d c e r t a i n l y to the Old Orde r A m i s h preaching that I have heard. 243. H d W , June 15, 1954, p. 355. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 71 1 - community for his conduct an d for t h e i r support. The c o m m u n i t y will guide and care for h i m and in t u r n he w i l l h e l p guide and care for hi s brothers in the community. is still b elieved to be a grow and mature. A f t e r h is baptism, he 'babe in Christ' It is also believed and is e x p e ct ed to that some individ ua ls are baptized and become church members without being convert ed .^ 44 The t ypical revival sermon preached b y a n evangelist who is not a m e m b e r of the Old Order A m i s h church threatens the very basis of the A m i s h religion. It places the i m p o r t ­ ance of the i n d i v i d u a l above the c o m m un it y and b y so doing breaks d ow n the c o m m u n i t y . 2 4 ^ E v e n the Old Order A mi sh ev a ng el is t the autonomy of the church d i s t r i c t 9 would b re ak down He wo ul d interrupt the rhythmic d e v e l o pm en t of that p a r t i c u l a r church and a p p e a l to the individual m em b e r s to respond to h i m as a n individual, a pattern c ontrary to t h e i r t r a d i ti on al one in w h i c h the in­ dividual responded to the rhythm of the community. B y inducing individuals to confess t h e i r sins to him, e v e n if he were 244. For a full di sc u s s i o n of b a p ti sm see Chap t er IX. 245. In d i s c u s s i n g Meth od is t revivalism, B o i s e n points out "The n e w type of church was so m u c h interested in saving souls that it lost sight of the r el a t i o n s h i p of these souls to a public order." A n t o n T, Boisen, H e l l g l o n in Crisis a n d Cu s ­ tom » (Hew York; Harper, 1955, p. 128.) Those A m i s h m e n w h o are enthusiastic about revivals and soul-s av i ng seem to be unaware of the role the c hu r c h - c o m m u n i t y plays in their religion. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 712 - preaching to a n audience composed l a r g e l y of Old Order families, he would be in t ro du ci ng public c on fe ss io n f o r the m e m b e r s of various church districts woul d be present a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n w h o are non-members w o u l d al s o be there. I n a d d i t i o n there m i g h t be some Old Order Am i s h m e n prese nt who were n o t in g o o d stan d in g and therefore outside the body of Christ. Th us the i n d i v i d u a l s would be mak in g a confe ss io n that should be made to Christ, either to a strange evangelist differs little from the world). (a man.) or to the publ i c (which "They have left t h e i r first love and in the end are often in clo se r u n i o n w i t h the world... This reduces the a u t h o r i t y of the home ministry. ual. co mm u n i t y a n d the home The whole a p p e a l of a n e v a n g e l i s t "Evangelism is the art 246 is to the i n d i v i d ­ of allowing o n e s el f to be u s e d as PA 7 a channel by w h i c h the H o l y Spirit revea ls h i m s e l f to others." The evangelist stresses the r e la t io n of the i n d i v i d u a l to the Holy Spirit and the relat io ns of m a n to m a n are b a r e l y m e n t i o n e d for they are e x p ec te d to tionship is good. follow n a t u r a l l y if the p r i m a r y r e l a ­ W h e t h e r or n o t this is correct, the immediate result of an e v a n g e l i s t s v is i t is often a w e a k e n i n g of the c o m ­ munity. This is e s p e c i a l l y true among the A m i s h of 1956 for there is conflict w i t h i n the c h u rc h over the role of evangelism. 246. N o a h Keim, "Revival or D i s c i p l i n e , " op. c i t ., p. 437. 247. Ro y Schlabach, "Evangelism)' W i t n e s s i n g j N o v e m b e r December, 1954, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. i - Therefore, 713 - such a visi t cannot be other t h e n disruptive to the community h o w e v e r h e l p f u l it m a y be to specific individ- usls o If the e v a n g e l i s t a p p e a l s to the A m i s h youth, w h i c h he generdly tries to d o 2 4® the A m i s h c h u r c h is so organized that there is no w a y for the n e w convert to e x p r e s s h i m s e l f r e l i g ­ iously and little chance to gr o w religio us ly . I f he h a s a l r e a d y teen baptized he becomes, h o p ef ul ly , a better church member. If he has not yet b e e n baptized, w h i c h is u s u a l l y implied by the Amish d e f i n i t i o n of y o u t h , th en there is a b s o l u t e l y n o way for h i m to e x pr es s h i m s e l f other t h a n reading hi s Bible each day and l i s t e n i n g t o the p r a y e r h i s father reads. There is no Sunday school, n o you ng p e o p l e ’s p ro gr am j an d you ng people generally join the c h ur c h only once or twice a year. Th i s is always done as a g r o u p a n d the g r o u p forms im m e d i a t e l y a f t e r communion. If the y o u n g pers on doe s n o t join the gro up u n d e r Instruction at the ver y beginning, he m a y not join c h u r c h until the follo wi ng year. Thus there can be little f ol lo w- up of interest a w a k e n e d in the y o u t h by the evangelist; they s ti l l must adjust t he ms el ve s to the r h y t h m of the i r own community. Without e xt er n al i nterference smoother and more such an a d j u s t m e n t is u s u a l l y successful. 248. Dave M i l l e r a d d r e s s e d h i m s e l f s pe c i f i c a l l y t o t young people on v a r i o u s occasions. The M e nn on it e e v a n g e l i s t also had one service p r i m a r i l y for the y ou n g people. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 714 - Finally it should be m e nt io ne d that the evangel is t s to whom the A m i s h are e x po se d d e m a n d a c o n v e r s i o n e x p e r i e n c e . 2 4 ® The Amish b a p t i s m a l service requires the c o n f e s s i o n of sins, but it does not demand a n e m o t i o n a l u p h e a v a l . 2 ^ 0 B a p t i s m has been symbolic of g r o w t h and it rema in ed part of a g r o w t h process. A c on v e r s i o n ex pe ri en c e is h i g h l y personal. Amish allow for it, it is the ideal c l i m a x of t h e i ns tr uc t io n period, but it is n o t a test for c h u r c h membership. idual can be a goo d c om mu ni ty m e m b e r w i t ho ut The An indiv­ it. In man y wa y s the A m i s h r el i g i o n is static, it is ruled by tradition an d "Thou shalt not si' M a n - m a n relations are b e ­ lieved to result f r o m good God-man r e lationship, but in p r a c ­ tice the God-man re l a t i o n h a s b e e n d e p e n d e n t on the m a n - m a n relations. The ev an g e l i s t challenges the p r ac ti ce s of the Old Order Amish. He offers them the "sweet" Christ ism in exchange for the disciple ship of Anabaptism. of p i e t ­ I f his challenge is accep te d there w i l l be a great change among the Amish; subjective religious life w i U take precedence over a vigorous c o m m u n i t y of discipline. 249. I h a d to l i s te n to a h a l f - h o u r tirad h e a pe d on by one former A m i s h m a n because I could n o t -tell h i m the d a y and the hour I h a d b e e n saved. 250. I d e f i n i t e l y think everyone m u s t come to the point where t h e y confess t h e y are s i nn e rs . I n c l u d i n g our own girls (who are n o t real bad) God grant that it m a y be soon." Personal correspondence, XX./11/55. 251. Littel, o p . c i t . , p. 42. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 715 - The early Anabaptists made the Great Commission bind­ ing upon all church members. They were the fore-runners of 252 the modern missionary movement. Menno Simons believed in evangelizing all of society. God a great number of men "He?' drew, from dark turned and won to and erring oopery; 253 from the idols, to the living God. ‘ yea, 25^ In Witnessing several pertinent extracts from Mennon Simons writings were reprinted. We sincerely seek nothing but that we may save all mankind. 255 This is my only joy and desire of my heart, that I may extend the borders of the kingdom of God, publish the truth, reprove sin, teach righteousness, feed the hungry with the word of the Lord, lead the stray sheep into the right path, and win many souls to the Lord through his Spirit, power and grace. 2 5 6 However all missionary zeal had been lost by the time the Amish arrived in America. An Amishman attempted to explain this loss. Die ersten amischen Ansiedler in der neuen Welt, waren mehrstens ungelehrte, durch viele Verfolgungen verarmte Leute gewesen. Die unter dem Druck der Verfolgung in die Wildnis Pennsylvania kamen, urn sich dort ein Asyl zu finden, wo 252 . L i t t e l , on. c l t . , p. 9 6; J o h n H o r s c h , M e n nonites in E u r o p e ( S c o t t d a l e , Pa.: M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g House, 19^2), p. 31^. Ind.: 253* Martyrs M i r r o r , o p . c l t . 195 0, 25^. May-June, 195^, P* P» 10. 255* T h e C o m p l e t e W o r k s of M e n n o S i m o n s Jo hn S. P u n k a n d B r o t h e r , I 87 D , P a r t II, 256. I b i d ., P a r t ^5 5 1 « (Elkhart, P. 255» I, p. 7 5 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 716 - sie ihren Gottesdienst ungestttrt halten kflnnten, und waren lebensfroh .dass sie nur Gewissens Freiheit hatten. Es war niemand da um. Mission mit zu treiben, denn sie waren weit von der Volksmasse entfernt, im dichten Dusch wo sie lange Zeit mit der lieven Not zu k&mpfen hatten um die allerntttigsten Levensbedttrfnisse zu erwerben« Auch hatten sie keine Schulen. Die einzige Bildungs Anstalt war das elterliche Heim wo es oftmals recht sp&rlich zuging. Doch sind sie ihrem Glauben treu geblieben, und haben die 18. Artikeln unsers Glaubensbekenntnisses beigehalten. 25 7 A Beachy Amlshman wrote Finally, persecution became so severe that many of them fled to the free country of America, where they settled among those who had likewise come for religious freedom. As most of these early settlers were of a religious mind, the need for missionary work was not so great, which is probably the chief reason that our own forefathers lost their missionary interest when they came to the free shores of America. 258 The Mennonites too had lost their evangelistic zeal by the time they arrived in America. For almost two hundred years they evidenced no interest in mission activity. In 1882 an Evangelizing Committee was organized at Elkhart, Indiana. In 1892 the name was changed to Mennonite Evangelizing Board of America and a new statement of purpose proposed 257. J .D . Gttngerich, "Mission," HdW, May 1, 195^, p. 270 . 258. Herald, September 8, 19555 P* 1° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 717 - «. . . the s p r e a d i n g of the Gospel, not only a m o n g Mennonites 259 but among others also." The M e nn on it e m i s si on movement grew out of the earl ie r Sunday school movement. evidences of accultu ra ti on . these developments in the The condit io ns B o t h were that lead to "Old" M e n no ni te chu rc h are now largely b e i n g reenacted. Wit h the d e v e l o p me nt of a g r i c u l t u r a l technology, increase in economic competition, and gro w th in population, there came a l s o closer contacts with other religious groups. The increased social i nterac ti on with many kinds of out-groups brou gh t p r e s s u r e upon the Me nn o n i t e l e a d e r s h i p to m a i n ­ tain their way of life. 260 This describes the p os i t i o n of the Am i s h today. The earliest a r t i c l e on missions that I have come 261 across is one w r it te n in 1885- This a r t ic le a pp ar en tl y resulted from the gr o w i n g interest a m o n g the Mennon it es 262 mission work. in 2.59 • Minutes of the M e nn on i te E v a n g e l i z a t i o n Board of America (1892-9.9), May 18, 1892, as q u ot e d in Hostetler, Mennonite E v a n g e l i s m , o p . c l t . , p. 53260. Hostetler, M e n n o n i t e E v a n g e l i s m , o p . c i t ., pp. '+7-4-8. 2.61. "Einige Wort e bezttglich auf das Missio ns we rk " David A. Treyer, H i n t e r l a s s e n e S c h r l f t e n von David A. T r ev er (L.A. Miller, Arthur, Illinois, 1925), PP- 156-60. It was also printed in B a b e r ' s Calendar, on. cit., 1952, po„ 17, 19, ?1. 262. "Ich v er st e he die alte n M e nn on it en und viele andere R enennunge seien e i n s t i m m i g in d i es er Sache, und glauben der B e f e h l zu den Aposteln, um h i n z u g e h e n in alle Welt zu predigen das E v a n g e l i u m alien VO l k e r n usw. gelangt ,1etz noch fast an all e L e h r e r und Diener." Treyer, Ojo„ c l t . . P. 156. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 718 - It was a r efutation, for the w r i t e r b e l i e v e d that no evidence could be found in the B i b l e s u p p o r t i n g present day missionary work. N o r could he re m e m b e r r e a d i n g of the Importance of m i s s i o n a r y a c t iv it y in the Mart y rs M i r r o r . Henno Simons or D i e t r i c h P h i l i p . At that time the Old Order Amish seemed u n i f i e d in r e l a t i o n to the b e l i e f that M a th ew 263 10:5,6 meant that only the a p os tl es were c o m m i s s i o n e d to carry on m i s s i o n a r y activity. joining their c h u r c h bu t T we nt y- fi v e years A few o ut-group membe rs were these were u n so li c i t e d converts. later, in 1910 a small group of Old Order Amishmen b e c a m e i n t e r e s t e d in s t a r t i n g a p u b l i c a t i o n that would activities, "awaken more interest and talent in spiritual su c h as relief, missions a n d i n d o c t r i n a t i n g our youth in the peace princ ip le s w h i c h our c h u rc h has sto od 265 for, for centuries." Th e i r desire to start such a p u b l i c a ­ tion was s timulated by the cessation of a M en n o n i t e publica2.66 tion in German. The editors of the Herold W a h r h e i t have 263. S u r p r i s i n g l y T r e ye r does not quote Matt. 10:5,6. He supports his o os i t i o n w i t h the f o l l o w i n g passages: Acts 20:28, I Pet. 5:2, I Cor. 12:28, E p h . Jj-rll; and Luke 12rL7-L8. 7oh. David Beiler, "Eine A b sc hr if t von einem Schre iben von Di e n e r v e r s a m m l u n g e n gehalten in P e n n s y l v a n i e n und Ohio,"' o£. c i t . . pp. 26-27. 2 6 5 .Pers on al correspondence, V I I / 2 6/55° 266. W i t n e s s i n g . S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1953, P» ^° The German edition of Der H e r o l d der W a h r h e i t was s u s p e n d e d in 1901. The first issue of The H e ro ld der W ah r h e i t was p u b l i s h ­ ed in 1912. The period ic al is "designed to a w a k e n and m a i n ­ tain the full Gosp el of the Lor d Jesus Christ." Title of ownership, July 15, 1956, p. 211. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 719 - staunchly and co n si st an tl y a rgued in favor of missionary activity by the Old Order Amish a n d have been opposed to drinking and smoking. influential, A l t h o u g h this periodical has been quite it has never been completely a c ce pt ed for it has not reflected the attitu d es and sentiments of the Old Order Amish community. The next important step in the development of Old Order Amish interest in missio na r y a ctivity was the conversion of Russel Maniaci by two Old Order Amishmen, church. to the Mennonite His letters to A m i s h ministers and later his p u b l i ­ cation, the A m i s h Mission E n d e a v o r , b rought of the interest in missions into the open some that was present, but submerged, in the Amish church. In 1950 Manaici called the first 2o ( Christian Fe ll ow s h i p Meeting. A group of about eighty / * r~i Amishmen b e l o n g i n g to the Old Order, servative church, evangelists, the Pe ac hy and the C o n ­ a s s e m b l e d and d iscussed prayer meetings, mission work and witnessing. At the second a n ­ nual meeting the Mission Interests Committee was formed. 268 In August 1952 five b o ar d members were elected. 2 6 7 . Am is h Mission E n d e a v o r , HdW. , Spetemberl, P- 515, J u l y - A u g u s t - S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 1955? P- 1952, 268. Chairman; An d re w A. Miller. Holmesville, Ohio; Asst. Chairman, Daniel H. Beachy, Millersburg, Indiana; Secretary: David L. Miller, Hutchinson, Kansas; Treasurer: Eli Helmuth, Hutchinson, Kansas; 5th member, David Yoder, Kalona, Iowa. A m i s h Mission E n d e a v o r . Conference Report, September, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 720 - At first the b o a r d had no official name., 1952, In December, the members met at the home of Daniel B e e c h y in Indiana and decided to start p u b l i s h i n g W i t n e s s i n g . came out in April, 1953* The first issue At that time the b o a r d a d op te d the name Mission Interests Committee. The Mission Interests Committee arra ng e d and supervised the 1952 c on fe r en ce and has been in charge of subsequent conferences. At the second conference in 1951 it was dec id ed by the Amishmen present that the w o r k wou ld go b e t t e r divorced themselves from R. Manlaci. He had been but he had genera te d a great deal of ill will. if they influential, He is an outsider who does not think like an Amis hm an and does not accept such common belie fs as the n e ce ss i ty to limit e d u c a ­ tion, to forbid automo bi le ownership or to insist upon the use of German. a whole. He has no feeling for the Ami s h culture as The Mission Interests Committee ar r a n g e d and s u p e r ­ vised the 1952 confe re nc e w h i c h was hel d August 17, 13, and 19 at the Clinton C hristian Day s-chool five miles east of Goshen, Indiana. F o l l o w i n g this conference Maniaci announced io the Mission En d e a v o r Bulletin December, Mission Interests Bulletin Committee 1952, that the "has n o t h i n g to do wi t h this . . . Contrary to the opinion of some, I have no official connection w h at so ev er wi t h the Amish M i ss io n E n de av or Board. /Mission Interests C o m m i t t e e _ 7 I am NOT their or anybody else's LEADER . . . This Bull et in is not financed b y the Ami sh Mission Endeavor B o a r d ." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 721 - 269 In the second issue of W i t n e s s i n g there a p p e a r e d a note The M. I. C. recognizes w i t h a pp r e c i a t i o n the efforts and time w hi c h our Bro. R. Maniaci has spent in st i m u l a t i n g mission interest amo ng the A m i s h people. They feel that our efforts to carry on wit h p e rs on ne l of our own denomin at io na l ba ck g r o u n d and cultural e n ­ viron me nt will in no way discre di t his noble work. A long article in the H e r o ld expla in ed the l ea de r s h i p of the Amish Mission Conference. In d is cu ss in g Maniaci the a u th o r stated However, since the last conference, Mr. Maniaci has n o t h i n g to do w i t h it anymore, and it is entirely under the s u p e r v is io n of A mi s h Brethren. Mr. Maniaci still hopes to continue to print "Amish M i ss io n Endeavor," a lt og e t h e r on his own hook, and is in no way_ conne c te d w i t h the A m i s h Mission Board. /Mission Interests Committee/. 270 The Old Order Ami s h are -determined to eliminate outside l e a d e r ­ ship. They have done this by formal p ro c l a m a t i o n and by c o n ­ ducting all their meeti ng s in Pe nnsylvania Dutch. The annual m e et i ng s have had several labels. At first they were known as A m i s h Christian F e l l o w s h i p Meetings. Re­ cently they have be en called Amish M i ss i on Conferences. The 269- May-June 1953, P° 7* 270. W r i t t e n M ar c h 30, 1953, prin te d in the April 9, 1953 issue, p. 6. The arti cl e a l s o points out that Joe W. Yoder author of A m i s h Tr ad it i o n s (and al s o R o s a n n a of the Amish) has n o t h i n g to do w i t h the committee. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 722 first one was - called by Russ el Maniaci in 195°- At the second meeting the b oa r d that b e c a m e the M i s s io n Interest committee was formed. They sponsored the third m e e t i n g in 1952. In 271 1953 the four th m e e t i n g was hel d at Hutchinson, ^he theme was Witnessing;, or more fully, Kansas. "Ein jeder Wi ed e r g e - 272 borener erlftsster Mench, ein Zeugnis fttr J e s u m . " Order Amishmen from nine states attended. Old In 195^ nio meeting 273 A s tatement In W i t n e s s i n g . explains briefly. was held. The / Mi ss io n I n t e r e s t s / commi tt ee has p l a nn ed spiritual f e ll o ws hi p meetings, or conferences, as often as It ap p e a r e d that b e ne fi ts d e r iv ed from such meetings wou l d o ut w ei gh probable damages. At this time there was meetings. strong disapp ro v al voiced agai n st the They wer e b e g i n n i n g to be too important and too influential. In some instances Old Orde r Amis hm en had been excluded from c ommunion for h a v i n g a t t e n d e d a conference. In 1955 the fifth conference was held at Goshen, August 17, 18, 19- Indiana on The theme of this conference was Disciple- ship . Over four h u n d r e d A m is h me n a t t e n d e d the Mission In­ terests Committee a d m i n i st er s as an old people's home at 271. A u gu st 12, 13, 1A. 272. H d W Septem be r 15, 273. N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r 195^, 1953, P- 5^7. P- 3- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 723 - Harrison, Arkansas. None of the guests of the home b e l o n g 2 74 to the Amish church, but all the workers are Amish. The workers conduct short devotions in each g u e s t ’s room every night. They are a n x io us before they die. to lead their guests to the Lord, The M i s s i o n Interests Committee also sup ­ ports three Old Order A mi sh me n a t the "Old" M en no ni te mission 275 station at Gulfport, Mississippi. Dur in g the two year period 1953-55 over 38,265 was contri bu te d to the Mission Interests Committee. One family c on tr ib ut ed over $1,400. The general interest in missions At the present time the most Interests Committee seems t o be grow in g rapidly. important work of the Mission is the publi ca ti on of W i t n e s s i n g . The central Ohio Old Order Amish c om m u n i t y has had individual members p a r t i c i p a t e in the conference. period one of the community members Interest Committee. Old Order A m i s h ) . For a served on the Mission (He was later e x c o m m u n i c a t e d by the V a r io u s individuals have be e n active at the meetings and some w r i t e r e gu la rl y for W i t n e s s i n g . ever, the community does not support the committee, How­ there are more antagonistic than sympathetic responses. Within the Am i s h c o mm un i ty the terms revival, evangelism, 274. T - W worke rs may be a s s i g n e d to the home and girl also volunteer to w o r k there. At this w r i t i n g two unmarried girls aged 26 and 28, from Stoneyrun church distr ic t are w o r k ­ ing t h e r e . 275. W i t n e s s i n g , N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r , 195^» P* 3* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7 2 k - mission work and wi tn e s s i n g are used very loosely and often interchangeabley. Reviva l is m refers to the effort to revive indifferent or spiritually weak Christians. E va ng e l i s m r e ­ fers to any effort that leads a no n- C h r i s t i a n to accept Christianity. Miss io n work is interpreted as e v en ge li sm as it is directed toward the non-Christian. active, verbal persuasion. implies W i t n e s s i n g on the o therhand does not necessarily involve verbal persuation. witness by his work It generally An individual may or life witho u t ever me nt i o n i n g C h r i s t i a n ­ ity. One of the recent difficulties a m o n g the Old Order Amish is that there is no agreement on wh o is a Christian. The traditional view is that every member of the church is a Christian. E a c h individual became a Christian w h e n he con276 fessed his sins a n d was b a p t i z e d into the community. How­ ever, this ne w small group of Amish me n w h o fervently b e l i e v e in revivals, evangelists, missions and witnessing, d e ma nd a conversion experience as a n e ce s sa ry pr eliminary to b e c o m i n g a Christian. By their definition many church members are not 277 Christian and are in need of evangelizing. 276. R a y mo nd Wagler, "1st es mflglich fttr ein Gleid sein in der Gemeinde, und doch verlosen sein?" HdW, k7>, September 1 5 , 1 9 5 k , p. 529. 277. It is possible that a c h u r c h may be w e l l - o r g a n i z e d but poorly evangelized." Ro y Schlabach, "Evangelism", ojc. c i t . P. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 725 Mission w o r k is vario us ly interpreted by the Old Order 278 Amish. There is no agreement am o ng them as to who should be missionized. The majo r it y feels that all t h e i r missionary zeal should be dir ec te d toward their own children in order to bring them into the church. Others feel that it should be directed b o t h toward the children and the members church who have not had a conversion experience. of the A few feel that everyone w ho is outside the Old Order A mi s h should be missionized. Others feel that everyone who is not a Mennonite is in need of b e i n g b r o u gh t to Christ. (Various individuals draw their own d istinctions wi th in the Mennonite church. Thus some would not try to m is si on i ze the Conservative Mennonites but would labor dutifu ll y w i t h the General Conference M e n n o n ­ ites). Peyond this there is a whole h e ir a rc hy of Protestant churches and there is little agreement on wh ic h are greatest need of evangelism. in the Virtua ll y all Am i sh bel ie ve that 278. In the first five issue of 1956 the p ub li ca ti on committee of W i t n e s s i n g publis he d an "exposition and defense of the view on w h i c h the p ublishers of this p eriodical stand." Witnessing. December, 1955, P* 7It was entitled "A L ov in g Appeal From God's Word." The five subarticles were; I. Pur­ pose of This Appeal, II. The Plan of Salvation, III. The assurance of Salvation, IV. The Duties Involved in the P o s ­ session of the Holy Spirit, V. Practical Implications of M i s ­ sion Work. However, their views as expounded in these a r t i ­ cles are not in complete ag r e e m e n t w ith other views that are expressed in the publication. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 726 - 279 Catholics are not Christians- Jews are e s pe ci al ly selected 280 as needing an Evangelist. Some Amish me n feel that every individual who does not live a c c o r d i n g to the Amishman's own precepts is in dang er of he ll - f i r e and thus in need of evangelizing. N o t only is there n o agre em en t a m o n g the A mi s h who do believe in miss i on work abou t w h o m should be be m i s ­ sionized, but even the single A m is hm an vacila te s abo ut this questi o n . Within the c o mm un it y the r e is also a d if fe r en ce of opinion about the qu e s t i o n of s up po r t i n g n o n - A m i s h m i s s i o n a r ­ ies. Some p e op le think m is si on ar y a c ti vi ty is fine, but, should not b e carr ie d on by Old O rd e r Amishmen. However, it it 281 is alright for A m i s h m e n to support such projects financially. It is d i f f i c u l t to tell what an A m is hm an means w h e n he 279. "• • • frtthern . . . aus dem Irrtum von dem Katholischen G l a u b e n ." H d W . September, 1, 1952, p. 515° 280. Stories of c o n ve rt ed Jews are popular: D a v i d , A Jewish Lad's C on ve r s i o n to C h r i s t i a n i t y , and Rachel, A T h r i l ­ ling Account of a a h e r o i c Jew es s who dared to give her heart and life to C h r i s t , are a d v e r t i z e d In Habe r' s C a l e n d e r , 1952, 1953, 195^• Whil e we were in S to n e y r u n a c o nv er te d Jewess spoke at the "Old" M ennonite mission church to the Amish. Isaac M. Baer, "Why the M e n n o n i t e Church Should En t e r J e w i s h Evangelism," GH, December 6, 1 9 5 5 s P° 1168. 281. A Brother, Oklahoma, "What isa Mi ss i on ar y, " HdW. June 1, 195^, P° 339° "A L o v i n g Appeal from God's Word, Part V. Practical Im pl ic a ti on s of Miss io n Work." Witnessing., May, 1956, p. 3° They do not commit t hemselves on this issue. "We have not tried to evaluate the wo r k of others . . . " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 727 - speaks of his m i s s i o n a r y calling,, Some consider themselves missionaries if they live a c c o r d i n g to Christ's command282 283 ments, others "if they do good works, or aid someone in 28^ distress. ...Many A m i s h b e l i e v e that all mission wor k should 285 begin at home. L i t e r a l l y in the home or in the home corn286 287 munity, and a m o n g ones n o n - A m i s h neighbors. Some feel that everyone w h o has had a conversion experience is a mis- 288 sionary ipso f a c t o . Others point out that w h e r e v e r a m i n i st er of the 289 Gospel preaches the full Gospel, there is a mission. The 2.82. H.G., mentions this b e l i e f bitterly. fly" W i t n e s s i n g . December, 1 9 5 5 > P- ^ • "The G a d ­ 283. "I b e l i e v e it is a cc e pt ab le to God if Ke receives glory from peo pl e by the good deeds of people. We are not condemning m i s si on work, bu t let us be careful in the wa y it is done . . . " A Brother, "Remark on Romans 12," HdW March 15, 195^, PP. 182-8^4-. 2.8L. H e r a l d , April 9, 1953 s P« 5. 285. Alma Beachy, "Have Y o u a Chris ti on Mother?" HdW. May 1, 1 9 5 5 , P« 139; Bish. Elam Hochstetler, "Discipleship in the Home," W i t n e s s i n g . October, 1 9 5 5 , P» 5 286. E z r a P e a c h y , "The S i n of s i n g . O c t o b e r , 1 9 5 5 , P» 6; N o a h K e i m , o p . c l t .. pp. 1 1 5 - 1 6 . 287. N. S t o l t z f u s , "MatthSus 195^, pp. 579-81; Peachy, 0 0 . c l t . Earth Dwelling," W i t n e s ­ "Self-Righteousness," 2^-:lL," H d W , N ov em b er 1, 288. "We are m is si on ar ie s by virtue of the fact that the Holy Spirit dwells w i t h i n us." "A L o v i n g Appeal From God's Word, Part IV. The Duties Involved in the Posse s si on of the Holy Spirit," W i t n e s s i n g , April, 1956, p. 2. 989. Brother, "Missionary," ojo. cl t . , p. 339. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 728 - Amish w h o d o n o t b e l i e v e the a b o v e practices in m i s s i o n s mission do not consider any activity and are annoyed by of t he label. Those A m i s h who profess to b e l i e v e aware that there are some dangers However, possible errors are in missions are involved in mission activity. usually individual a n d not the community. phrased in t e r m s of the Thus an individual may become a m i s si on ar y for the w r o n g reason and not be "gather- 290 ing with Jesus." It is observed that Amish individuals who are interested in m is si on ar y acti vi ty are often lax in 291 following church regulations. Members who do missio na ry work among the n o n - A m i s h are b e l i e v e d to be inclined to dress in a more w o r l d l y fashion and to lose the correct /strict/ interpretation of the ban. Y o u t h are especially susceptable to w o r l d y influence whe n they attempt mission 290. H e r a l d . April 9, 1953, p. 6; E . Y . U ., "Gathering with Jesus," H d W . M a r ch 15, 195 5, p. 89; N. Stoltzfus, "Matthaus", OjDo c l t . 291. "I think I dare say that by far the largest percentage of our A m i s h mi ss io n - m i n d e d people do not live true to their own church, as far as their regulations are concerned, w h e t h e r they are hindrances to the church or not, and are inclined to dress and act in a more modern way." Brother, "Missionary," ojo. c i t . Such individuals tend to experience a subjective religion and for them the community of discipline has less meaning. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 729 - 29? work. There is the common a p p r e he ns io n felt a bo u t any individual who is ph y si c a l l y outside the community " . . . the chances are great we will lose more than we gain by going 293 so far to do mission work." Even those Amishmen who are active ly interested in missions do not want to b r i n g strangers The treatment of Maniaci is a case of a church that demanded, into the community. in point. The minis te r as a crit er ia for communion, that the communicant be interested in missions is explicit that only a completely converted, lowed to join the community. obedient individual may be a l ­ He continues that not many believers will be converted, rather it is the duty of the Amishman to warn un believers occasionally of their condition, but otherwise to avoid them, b e c au se the true Christian has 29^4a loathing for the b e h a v i o r of the unbeliever. G en e ra ll y the emphasis of the m is s i o n a r y is on w a r n i n g individuals and 295 then letting them choose their own church. 292. ject." N. Stoltzfus, "Matth&us," op. clt. 293E l a m S. H o c h s t e l l e r , "The R e d W i t n e s s i n g , July, 195 6, P* 2. 29^. Stoltzfus, "Matth&us, ojo. It w ou l d be Lake Indian Pro­ cl t . , p p s . 580-81. 295* Hosteller, Mennonite E v a n g e l i s m , o p . c l t . , p. 119 w r i t e s of M e n n o n i t e r a d i o e v a n g e l i s m . He reports "Those br oa d c a s t s r e p o r t i n g a n y f o l l o w - u p w o r k a d v i s e t h e i r i n t e r ­ viewers to j o i n a s o u n d B i b l e c h u r c h , b u t n o s p e c i f i c c h u r c h was m e n t i o n e d . " He quotes a former M ennonite whose g r a n d ­ father w as a m i n i s t e r , b u t w h o s e m o t h e r w a s n o t of M e n n o n i t e parents. " M e n n o n i t e e x c e p t a v e r y , v e r y f e w f o r m a k i n d of clique b y t h e m s e l v e s . If y o u a r e n ' t o f f s p r i n g of M e n n o n i t e you are in t h e o u t s i d e , n o t s p i r i t u a l e n o u g h t o l i v e a n o v e r c o n c e r n i n g life.'? p. 230 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 730 - impractical to have A m e r i c a n converts in a Ger ma n church 296 service. The emphasis, is often on quality and not quantity. No matter how much m i s s i o n a r y activi ty is carried on the Amish believe small. that the n u m b e r of Christians will al wa y s be Menno Simons writes Yes, my reader, if you a t t e n ti ve ly read the Scriptures you wil l find that the n u m b e r of the elect was always small and the n u mb er of the unrighteous very great. 297 Contemporary Amishmen w h o are interested in missions fre­ quently mention this fact. We must repre se nt the interests of Christ in this world, w h i c h to us is a foreign country. Altho ug h Christ pred ic t ed that the majority of men w ou l d reject His offer of salvation, that is n ot His will. 298 There are two Amishmen, Graber, both from Indiana, Daniel B o n t r a g e r and Harvey who point out that G er m a n services are a stumbling b l o c k to c onversion of n o n - A m i s h m e n and 296. "The Great C o m mi ss io n in the Greek places more emphasis on the m a k i n g of disciples than in the going. Our first mission is right at home a m o n g ourselves . . . Our mission is to he lp p e o pl e find Jesus. Quality, no t quantity, is what Christ wants." Peachy, op. c i t ., I have no idea where he got the "Greek" in te rp re t at io n of d i s c i p l e s h i p . It fits in conveni e nt ly wi t h the Amis h b e l i e f that their greatest mission is to their own people, e s pe ci al ly their children . 997 • Menno S i m o n s , o p . c l t . , 1956, p. 7,32. The Complete Writings of Men no Simons (Scottdale, Pal: Herald Press, 1956) P. 732. 298. "AL o v i n g Appeal From G o d ’s Word, Part IV, Duties Involved in the Posses si on of the Holy Spirit." clt. See also N. Stoltzfus, "Matthaus," op. c l t . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. The Op. - 731 - therefore w i s h to abandon Germ an in t he i r services but r e ­ tain Pennsyl va n ia Dutch in the home. but this is a radical 1956. Ger ma n is dy i n g o u t s suggestion for Amishmen to make in Bot h these men b e l i e v e that the church's mission to evangelize the world. However, n e i t h e r seems pletely committed to i n t r o d u c i n g strangers is to be c o m ­ into the Gemeinde. Thus Bontra ge r a dm on i s h e s the youn ge r g e ne ra ti on to be patient 299 with the older ones wh o have trouble p r e a c h i n g in English. It is not c om pl e te ly clear w h et he r he w o u l d al l o w the older men to continue to p re a c h in Germ an or insist that they p re a c h in English and be tolerant of t h e i r mistakes. former, strangers could not If it is the join for quite a few years. And Graber writes Are we not mu ch more ready to enter a field of this type than s o m e t h i n g such as city miss io n work? The culture of the Indians is a drastic contrast to ours, and this should hel p us to think what it means for an Indian to be a C hristian rat he r than to m e re l y have him adopt our culture. 300 One possible in te rp re t at io n of this statement Indian convert, an Amishman. unlike Most the city convert, is that the w o u l d not beco me of G r a b e r 1s w r i t i n g indicates a w i l l i n g ­ ness to throw over all asp ec ts of the c o m m u n i t y that h in d e r 299. Daniel Bontreger, "Clearing the Wa y for Missions in the Home Church," W i t n e s s i n g . October, 1955, P« S • 300. Harvey Graber, "Why not Ente r the Field?" Witnessing. October, 1955, P • 10. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 732 - evangelism. Since we realize that mission work and some of our traditions wouldn’t work together too well, we throw out mission work because what does a soul amount to compared to our traditions? And isn't the German language worth more any day than getting unsaved people into out church services? 3 0 1 We as a church are so concerned about preserv­ ing the life of the Amish church with little thought of anyone else. 302. There is still some genuine disagreement within the community over the correct interpretation of the Bible teach­ ings on Missionary activities in the modern world. However, an increasing number of the agruments against missionary activity by the Amish are sociological rather than religious. This discussion may give the misleading impression that a high portion of the Amish community support missions. This is largely because the small group that advocates mis­ sions believes in using the printed work to disseminate its 303 ideas, while the more conservative members rarely write about their position, which is still the dominant one. Although I know quite a few individuals from the 301. "The Gadfly," ojo. c l t . 302. "The Amish Church," ojo. cit . , p. 5* 303. "In the past our use of the printed word has been very limited." HG, "Plain Thinking for Plain People through the Publication Programs," W 1 tnessing, SeptemberOctober, 195^, p. 11. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 733 central Ohio Amish community who have attended the mission conferences and who write for Witnes sing. I only know of one member of the Stoneyrun church district who attended a conference. She is a young unmarried girl and therefore is not quite in full membership status. have written for Witnessing. None of the members One member 00A3 gives consider­ able financial support to various mission programs of other churchs . What is the state of the religious health of the Amish community? answer. I do not feel that I can give a satisfactory There appears to be a great deal of variation from one community to an other and from one church district to another. The essence of the Amish religion is the community of discipline. There are always those individuals who are more attracted to a pietistic religion than to the Anabaptist tradition. A certain amount of pietism can be accommodated by the community, and can act as a leaven for the community. But the community of saints must create the rhythm and set the pattern. If the pietist can fit into this framework, he is accepted, otherwise he must leave. And the community cannot understand why he could not share their religious ex­ perience. Throughout their history the Amish have lost 30^ individuals to pietism, and pietism has crept into the 30^. An early example was Hans Denck who was the leader of South German Anabaptism during the first decade R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 73^ - 305 church, especially into their the A m i s h h a v e maintained, the e s s e n c e the of to of Christ, give to the d e e p e s t is even Anabaptist compromising endeavor that prayers. to Christian In though life faith, with this limited extent, "an earnest and of a expression of to a movement: live a spite in true discipleship fellowship full un­ and readiness to love suf- 306 fer in c o n f l i c t the A m i s h with religion terpretations, the is evil old, static. world tradition The tradition enabled t he religion to b e c o m e is not they are too th at t ra d i t i o n a l cussing w h i c h bound and, by is a good one Their traditional the A m i s h church is to trying and missionary re lig ion 's old. Certainly but some religious that in­ that has problem they are not enough. Within meetings o r d e r ." creative is the introduce activity. state and is group Bible It h a s we have been study, the questioning revival enthusiasm the dis­ customs of and 307 habits of its church, and challenging some of the church's 304. but then withdrew. He was too much of a mystic to re­ main interested in a visible church founded on discipline and believed in external symbols. Alfred Coutis, Hans Denk, I/-t-95-l‘527 (Edinburgh: Macmillan and Wallace, 1927), PP° 86. 87 . 305. Friedman, 306. Ibid., p. 11. 307. Roisen, ojc. clt . , pp. 3 3 -3 ^* o]g. c l t . , pp. 192-93* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 735 - basic assumptions. There have always been individuals or groups of this type arising among the Amish. They have been excommunicated or have withdrawn and the main church has continued with fewer members, but with little change. questionable if this group will be excommunicated. It is It is more likely that the Old Order Amish will experience a great wave of withdrawal of members and congregations to the Beachy Amish. The nucleus of members remaining Old Order will start again their slow process of growth by gradually rais­ ing their many children in the faith. There are many who are dissatisfied to varying degrees with their life in the Old Order Amish church. The most de­ tailed and uncharitable expression of dissatisfaction I will quote in full. It should not be thought of as typical but as an extreme reaction of one who obviously has many pent up hostilities. In releasing them he gives a fairly accurate though completely unsympathetic description of religious life in an Amish community. A Good Church Member--He never makes any trouble. He is always obedient to the church rules and regulations. He never took his vow under his feet. He always remained with the church where he joined. He would not for anything ever change his methods, because if he promised to have his hair grow long and always wear home­ made garments, it would have been a ter­ rible breaking of his vow if he changed this to any extent; and by keeping this vow he believes he could eventually be- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 736 - c o m e s a v e d w h e n h e c o m e s to t h e e n d of life's journey. However, he does like an occasional smoke from his pipe and a l s o s o m e t i m e s e x c h a n g e it f o r a c i g a r e t t e , b u t o n l y b e l i e v e s in s m o k i n g m o d e r a t e l y a s w e l l as t a k i n g a g l a s s of b e e r o n c e in a w h i l e if h e d o e s n o t s t a y in t he t a v e r n or b a r t o o l o n g . It s h o u l d n o t e f f e c t h i s r e w a r d m u c h , s i n c e h e is a n o b e d i e n t m e m b e r a n d if he reads the l o n g prayers in t he p r a y e r b o o k b e f o r e g o i n g t o b e d then the L o r d certa i n l y w o u l d not cast him out, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e h e n e v e r c a u s e d t h e church any trouble. He e v e n c o m e s to church quite regularly. H e b e l i e v e s it is w o n d e r f u l t h a t w e h a v e s u c h a f r e e c o u n t r y that we can hav e c h u r c h eve r y other Sunday; a n d b y his s t e a d f a s t n e s s he things going to church every Sunday would be l i k e the w o r l d does. Oh, no, h e c o u l d n o t do t h a t . T h e n h e is a l s o so s t e a d f a s t , in n o t a t t e n d i n g S u n d a y s c h o o l s . It w o u l d b e g e t t i n g to o m u c h w i s d o m ; the c h i l d r e n w o u l d be g e t t i n g t o o smart, a n d l e a r n m o r e than their parents. He thinks he could n o t b e a g o o d o b e d i e n t c h u r c h m e m b e r if h e w o u l d k n o w t o o mu ch , f o r h e f i r m l y b e ­ l i e v e s w h a t h e d o e s n o t k n o w h e is n o t b e i n g h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e for. Sunday schools w o uld also cause a great h i n d r a n c e in g o i n g v i s i t i n g on t h e S u n d a y b e t w e e n a n d h o w m u c h b e t t e r it is to go v i s i t i n g a n d e n c o u r a g e e a c h o t h e r to r e ­ m a i n s t e a d f a s t in t h e o r d e r o f t h e c h u r c h s i n c e t h e o r d e r of c h u r c h r u l e s s h o u l d always come first any time. Then since t h e y e x p l a i n t h e l e s s o n in S u n d a y s c h o o l s I n a n o t h e r w o r l d l y way , s o o n one w a n t s to k n o w m o r e than the other. Yes, we all h a v e the B i b l e at home a n d can re a d that if t h e y w a n t to. But with church rules it is d i f f e r e n t . P e o p l e are so a p t to forget and then they o v e rstep the m and h o w w r o n g t h i s is in t h e e y e s of t h e c h u r c h . A n d a l s o u s u a l l y t h o s e k i n d r e a d t he B i b l e m o s t t o o m u c h f o r it s e e m s t h e y g e t f i l l e d w i t h t h a t - - - w e l l , t h e y c a l l it H o l y Spirit - - - a n d w h e n t hey get that once R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 737 - the 'look out'. You just c an’t get them to see how important it is to hold the traditions which the elders have set up long ago, and if they become disobedient to the traditions, and especially since they promised to keep them up, but take them under their feet, the church just must expell them and set the ban against them even if they join another church. It does not help them for they have broken their promises and he believes the only way to mend his ways again is to come back and hold exactly to these traditions again. Here you can easily seee what that thing called Holy Spirit often does to such. Then also this Holy Spirit leads them to where they believe that prayer meetings should be held, especially in the evenings. He does not know, since he has never been there just what they do at prayer meetings, but he supposes they learn to pray without a book just like the world d o e s . They no longer want the prayer book which our forefathers have written and handed down to us so we can read them off more easily, even if we do not know what all the words mean. Then he does not believe that any revival meetings should ever be started among their churches. Wonder what its for anyway? One thing it is liable to arouse some in their minds, that they are not strong enough in the faith of the scriptures and that also makes troubles in their church rules. He thinks all members should be weak members, for it seems when that Holy Spirit once gets a hold of a person, then the traditions of the elders will be counted secondary matters and then the Word or Bible must come first and that certainly destroys the sacred rulings which our forefathers have set up for us. Oh, if we only could have more Nicodemuses who was so well learned in the traditions of the fathers, even if he did not understand that thing called 'new birth' and why should we know more than he did? And then so many claim to know that they are saved. What a great danger! Such thoughts! Salvation is only something that man can hope for and if God sees fit, then such a one is lucky enough to get to heaven. And about R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 738 - every time those who attend Sunday schools or revivals and get filled with that Spirite - Holy Spirit, as they call it - they they claim they see such Scriptures that tell them such stuff and hoitf can we know? Better to be safe and hope and be obedient and remain with the traditions of the elders which they promised to keep up. Then an­ other question, called 'mission work', which so many fallen ones believe that it means to keep this command today, when we can know that the apostles carried that out and many of the elders have preached that it is not for us anymore today. Surely when our preach­ ers tell us that then we should believe it. How thankful we should be that the apostles have fulfilled that and that we can remain at home. Another thing - we cannot expect the heathen to join our church with our precious traditions and rules. Also, they could not understand our language, and it is a settled matter that we could not change our language. So that settles that. Well in closing, we are glad to say with the Bible, "We have Abraham to our father", and who is greater than our father Abraham? 308 Although this Good Church Member makes some valid criticisms he is inaccurate and unfair when he implies that traditions are more important than the Bible. It is correct that the traditions determine the way the Bible is interpreted and that a good church member may know innumerable isolated quotations from the Bible rather than the meaning of large passages, but a good church member would honestly believe that the Bible was the foundation on which his life was built. Also 308. A Good Church Member, "A Good Church Member," Mission Endeavor Bulletin. October, 1953- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 739 - the writer seems to need a type of assurance of salvation that the typical Amishman does not miss. In the beg-.nning of the letter the writer implies that most members believe they will be saved if they are obedient to the church and their vows. Later he refers to the fact that a member can­ not know that he is saved. The typical Old Order Amishman will not say that he is saved in so many words but it is remarkable the quiet assurance the various members have 309 of their own salvation and in general that of their families. This confidence is evident in their daily living, in discus­ sion, in obituary accounts and in the following letter. To the man who wrote this letter his wife's worry over her lack of salvation was incomprehensible. 309. As persecution, which has always been inter­ preted as proof of God's love, ceases, the need for other assurance of salvation increases. Hostetler, Mennonite Evangelism. o p . c i t ., p. 214 quotes various former members of the Old Order Amish who expressed satisfaction with the "assurance of salvation" they had received from the "Old" Mennonites . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7^0 - The majority of Amishmen would react as he did. one is really obedient, why should he worry? 310 obedient, he deserves to worry. If If he is not Although every member of the Amish church participates in the church government and in all important decisions of the church, there is little opportunity for him to express his special talents in teaching or organization. If he sings well he may act as a foresinger, but this is very different from directing a choir. If he knows high German well, he may be asked to teach the children their German letters, but this is hardly exciting teaching. If the lot should fall on him, he has a busy life of service ahead of him, but if it does not there may be little use for his abilities, little chance to express himself religiously. or In most Protestant churches such individuals can teach Sunday school and throw themselves into whatever church activities they can excell in. Some Amish individuals feel intently the re­ striction and their need to preach and teach. This was not a problem for the early Anabaptists for then each member accepted the Great Commission and went into the world teach­ ing and preaching. The Great Commission has been lost and nothing has come to replace it. The "good Amish" who leave the church usually become active in the new church of their 310. hospital. Letter to the superintendent of the state menta R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 741 - 311 choice. The Amish have singings for their young people, but these are more social than religious. There is no formal organization to a singing although an older unmarried church member may lead the songs and make some suggestions for the play. The younger children may be taught German but most of their religious instruction is informally learned in the home. Some Amishmen feel that these activities should be supplemented by Sunday schools for children and adults and active programs where the youth work together on mission pro312 jects. A member of the central Ohio community writes. Many seem to express in one way or another that there is something wrong with our churches. There seems to be a spirit of bondage among some, among others a spirit of distrust. Still others seem­ ingly are contented enough to just sit down and watch the world go by. Some, It seems, have no vision whatsoever of the mission purpose of Christ's church here on earth. Some seem to give evidence that they feel that just belonging to the church gives them a ticket to glory. 3 1 3 311. Hostetler, Mennonite Evangelism, op . cit . , p. 214 quotes various former members of the Old Order Amish who give a part of their reason for joining the "Old" Mennonites the greater opportunity for service and participation in religious activity. 312. D.E. Hoshstetler, "Our Mission Project," Witnes­ sing , January-Pebruary, 1954, p. 9. Hostetler, Mennonite Evangelism. op. c i t . quotes former Old Order Amish who ex­ pressed satisfaction with Mennonite Sunday schools. "We also wanted our children to go to Sunday school." 313. Hoy Schlabach, "Evangelism," ojo. ci t ., p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7^2 - The group of objectors is still in the minority. The same people who object to one aspect of the Old Order Amish church object to many. And now that they can make some of their objections openly they make them with vigor. The preach­ er who writes in favor of mission work in Witnessing, does rot preach about missions in his home church. of peace this interest is repressed. For the sake His articles show greater revolt than does his behavior. Religiously Stoneyrun is a healthy church. The mini­ sters get along fairly well together and the preachers have genuine respect and affection for their bishop. The deacon is a bit steadfast, but he is old and it has usually been possible to work out compromises. Only once during the course of this study has the church been unable to celebrate communion. They maintain discipline well, but not harshly. The ministers try desperately to avoid placing people under ban, but every time I have been in the community there has been at least one member who was being shunned. Members are encouraged to take communion even if they have been en­ joying some minor variation and not to abstain because there is someone in the church who is unworthy. Attendance at re­ vivals and the mission conferences is not forbidden, although it is not encouraged nor is it mentioned during a church service. Relief sewing meets regularly and German Reading fairly regularly. Many homes have a fair religious library R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 743 - ana home devotions are the rule. Spontaneous prayer in ad­ dition to read prayers is beginning to become a part of family worship in some homes. In one home I visited the father had read a chapter of the Bible and instead of having silent prayer he delivered an oral prayer that had not been memorized. (Spontaneous prayer has always been encouraged, but as a completely private occupation. were used for group devotions). Written prayers Within the church there is discussion in.favor of building a church house and there are some who would like to have Bible study groups. However, they are willing to forego these innovations for the sake of oeace. Many heard Dave Miller and when he was in Ohio he 314 preached in the new broiler house of one of the members. Stoneyrun is aware of the religious tensions that are caus­ ing dissension in the Old Order Amish community, but so far it has been able to manage them successfully. The ministers are dedicated, and within the framework of their church, they are understanding. They repress their own interest and desires and reflect the consensus of the congregation in all important matters. Although they are steadfast in the doctrine of their church they are not inflexible as some Amish ministers become. If these religious tensions pull the Old Order Amish 314. 0 0 A 9 5* of this b u i l d i n g . 3ee Appendix I, Part H for a p h o t o g r a p h R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7 ^ - community apart, a large portion of the Stoneyrun church would probably go with the more liberal group. There is the possibility that whole congregations will transfer to the 315 Beachy Amish. TE N S I O N S R E L A T E D TO A M I S H A D O L E S C E N C E The Old Order Amish of central Ohio refer to indivi­ duals who have finished school but are not yet marrried as "the young people," "young folks," or "youths." Usually this covers the years from sixteen to twenty-two or three. This is the critical age group. Many of the tensions within the community are exaggerated in this group. The Amish youth provide healthy criticism of the Amish community. They act as a safety valve for the community; "letting off steam"' that otherwise might blow the community to pieces. The youth express smoldering aggressions that their parents must repress. They Invite mild persecution of the community by their "English" neighbors. They express community attitudes in a forthright manner that the church members themselves could never condone, but that function admirably to brings deviant community memb: ers into line. They sin sufficiently to remind themselves and others that natural man is very bad and that the Old Adam must be put off by 31 5 * in V i r g i n i a . D u r i n g the course of t h i s study, this happened R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7^5 - accepting Christ. The "wild" behavior of Amish youth essenti­ al to community existence. Although many Amish elders and preachers bemoan the behavior of the Amish youth, the stages in life cycle of the Amish individual have become fairly well institutional­ ized, and the patterns of behavior of this period are gener­ ally accepted and expected as is the behavior of children, 316 adults (married couples) and old folks. Most Amish say of the young people The y’ll settle down later. Let them sow their "wild oats." They are young yet. This is oats sowing time. 317 The period between the end of school and baptism (at about the age of 19 or 70) is characterized by considerable per­ sonal freedom and testing of the rules of the community. It is a period of frivolity, revolt, and inner conflict. Amish childhood, birthday. in Ohio, ends with the sixteenth On this day, the child is legally free from corn- 316. The generally recognized stages are as follows Raby - 0 to 1+ years (or until toilet trained) Child - 1+ years until he enters school Scholar - child attending school (generally 6-16 years) Young person - 16 till married (usually about 23) Adult - married couple with unmarried children Old Polks - after the marriage of their youngest child. 317. Herald. April 21, 1955, p. 3- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 7*4-6 - pulsory school at te nd a n c e an d bec ome s a person w h o can work full time a t an economic pursuit. but is now a "youth." He is no longer a "scholar" The period of youth is furt her s u b ­ divided into the p r e - b ap ti sm period and the post-b apt ismpreraarital peri od w i t h different conduct req uired of members in each of the s u b - g r o u p s . About the time of his six tee nth bir thday begins to a t t e n d y o u n g peo p le 's "crowds." singings, the youth corn huskings and He has been wea ne d from school and eagerly a n t i c i ­ pates the n e w and b r o a d e r life a waiti ng him. standards the individual has tremendous By Amish freedom. The parents gradually relax some of their control a n d the community is not yet in a pos it io n to reg ulate for mally his conduct. is a period when he learns the di men sio ns ity and the dimension s of his own p e r s o n a l ­ of the church in w h i c h he has been raised and is b e i n g enc ou raged to man has many internal It .loin. The mat u r i n g A m i s h ­ struggles that wo u l d ap pe a r to be u n ­ manageable were it not for some relax at io n of the rigid rules typical of his community. He needs this liberty and space to grow i n . Singings and Oth er Social Ga the rings The A m is h fam il y is exp ected to have a horse a n d bug gy available for the use of the chi ldren w h o are sixteen years of age or older. Those families wh o may be slow to secure an R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7^7 - 318 extra rig are severely criticized. (1) The horse and buggy enables the child to travel, often distances as great as ten miles, to join with the youth of the whole community in their various social gatherings. Unlike any other period in the life of an Amishman, these gatherings do not consist of families, but only of young unmarried people. If the parents are present they are expected to stay strictly in the back­ ground. When the party is in the barn the married couples generally stay in the house with the group being led by a 319 bachelor (or perhaps the oldest girl present). (2) There are no children present to tattle on the adolescents or talk 318. "His children started going around with the Con servatives because he was too slow giving them a buggy and so they went with a boy who had a car and could take them places, often places they shouldn't go. We've just bought a safe horse and we must get another buggy. By next year Mary will need one to visit with the young folks." 00A2. 319Around Stoneyrun the young people's singings were usually led by an unmarried brother and sister in their mid-thirties, 00A13 and 00A118. 00A13 acts as song leader at other Amish gatherings. They were children of a well known bishop, were interested in young people and have the type of personality that was well suited to this informal leadership. Often singings were held at their home. 00A2 said that whether young people have a good time and behave well is largely dependent on who acts as their leader. If there does not happen to be anyone in the community who has the proper qualification then the young people do not really know how to plan parties (the married couples may not help) and they do not have nearly as much fun. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7^8 - indiscretely and there are no adults present to represent authority and discipline. These young people are a law unto themselves working out their own ideas of right and wrong, guided by a carefully developed conscience and a well disci­ plined childhood. Singings are held Sunday night and sometimes Saturday night. The character of the two sings is somewhat different, and a different group of young people may attend each sing­ ing-. Singings are usually held at a home in which there are children of an age to attend singings. When a family with several young people "has church" they generally have singing for the young people in the evening or if there is another singing planned they may have a wiener roast on Wednesday. Saturday night singings are held at the request of some of the young people in the family. These tend to be more rowdy. The size of the singing is related to its location in the larger community, if the farm is near the edge the singing in all probability will be smaller than when it is held near the center of the larger community. It is also related to the strictness of the parents and the popularity of the child or children of the owner of the farm. Although I worked as a hired girl, I was married and married people do not attend singings. Therefore I have never been to one. My informa­ tion is gathered from talking to young people who attend, and whom I know well and to parents who discuss singings at R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - ?49 - great length,t especially as their children grow old enough to attend. There is a feeling that parents of young people should have singings. It is their responsibility to see that there is a place for the young people to gather, but around Stoneyrun they have little function as hosts once the young people start to arrive. A group of perhaps twenty to forty young people may be invited to suoper before the singing, but the 320 host does not serve refreshments during the evening. The parents not only feed a group of young people before the singing but they have borrowed the church benches and the small hymn books and arranged the house or barn for the singing. Then they retire . In central Ohio the young people come to the singing in the buggy with their brothers and 321 sisters. They do not pair up until during the singing and not always then. Some Conservative youth often come and some of the Amish boys who have not yet joined church have cars. These may sometimes bring friends if they have had to come a long distance to the singing. 320. I have discussed the possibility of serving lemonade or some fruit drink and potato chips and crackers. Some parents say that they would be glad to, but that there would be criticism for other families would not like to spend the money for all those refreshments. 321. In Pennsylvania the young people pair up at a central meeting point before going to the sieging. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 750 - The young people who did not have supper together gather at about eight or nine in the evening. They sing some hymns; on Sunday a few old tunes and hymns; on Saturday they sing English humns and folk songs, any songs that the group may know. then some faster German Sometimes an Amish girl who has been working out for English people will teach them a song she has learned from listening to the radio, so they 322 may sing popular songs too. After singing for a while, more of the boys may come in and possibly there will be some square dancing. Those who are especially strict will watch and sing while the "faster" onesdance. been baptized also watch as they are dance. Those who have no longer allowed to The music may be furnished by a radio, a phonograph, or an harmonica and guitar. Many of the boys play harmonicas, some of them are expensive and beautiful, and both girls and boys olay guitars. Occasionally an Amish child has learned 323 to play a violin. Out in the buggies or in the cars are often jugs of beer, cider or wine. The boys go back and forth from the 322. One woman told me of teaching her crowd a song she had learned where she worked. When the high school Amish children were interviewed for the school paper and were asked what their favorite popular song was, they could always respong with an acceptable title. 323. 00A2 said that when she was young an Amish boy who played the violin very well supplied most of their music. He later left the Amish church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 751 - buggies to the barn, watching the dancing, then drinking, then watching. The boys may also play cards although this is more frowned upon than the drinking. The girls may also 32^ drink, but usually very little. It is not unusual for boys to become slightly inebriated or even drunk at a singing. One girl described to me, with much feeling of horror, an episode of. one singing she had been to. One of the boys who had been drinking too much went into the smaller parlor of the house where the owner of the farm sat with his wife and a few other people. The young boy dared the farmer to fight with him and throw him off his prooerty. The owner refused 325 to be provoked and largely Ignored the boy. 3 2^4-. At a singing in Indiana that the police raided two girls were arrested for drunkenness, Herold, November 5, 1953• I have not heard of girls around Stoneyrun getting drunk. One woman in a neighboring church who drinks apparent­ ly started after her marriage. However, before her marriage she "ran around with men." 325. Under normal conditions this would be highly a typical behavior for an Amish child. He is taught from a very early age to be obedient and to repress hostility he feels towards this father or authority. Even during this period of revolt, the revolt is supposed to be covert in that the individual may not directly and flagrantly oppose his parents. Indirectly he expresses his revolt in many stylized ways. Because the boy 'was not himself1 his behavior was not interpreted as directly flaunting authority. He would be re­ primanded for drinking rather than for his behavior while under the influence of alcohol. Within the Amish community it is a much greater sin to be disrespectful of authority than to drink. The more serious sin would be overlooked at this period. The boy carried a can of beer in his hand during this episode, so It was clear from the beginning that he was drunk, not disrespectful. N. Stoltzfus "Wein." on. cit,, mentions one of the dangers of drinking wine is that the Imbibers become quarrelsome. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 752 - At the singings the young people often pair up and go home with dates instead of with brothers and sisters. If this means that a girl will have to go home alone in a buggy, her brother or sister may meet the person of his choice at the girl's home, for it is generally considered "not nice" for a girl to be out alone late at night in a buggy. It is easy to have romantic ideas of riding home in the moonlight, but buggies are really not very comfortable. They are small and cramped, and the boys pride themselves on having fast, high-strung horses, that are barely safe. Often the horse takes almost the full attention of the driver. Singings 326 generally break up between ten-thirty and midnight. 326. Gutkind, 0 £. c i t . , p. 206-07 describes vividly a singing in Indiana he attended univited. The boys finally drove him out with such comments as "Get the hell out of here, you ain't no Amisher." Going to steal our girls to . . . them?" etc. A newspaper article in the News Democrat (Goshen, Indiana) reported a raid made on an Amish singing. The state policeman said the evidence points to young people, formerly Amish, who now bring alcoholic beverages to the 'singings' and sell the beverages to the Amish young people. The sale was unlicensed. The raiding officers found from 10 to 13 cases of empty beer bottles, many empty wine bottles and several full bottles of beer on the premises. men juveniles, whose ages range from 15 to 18 years, ’ were taken into custody. The raid was conducted at 11:30 p.m. Officers said from 150 to 200 persons, whose ages ranged from fifteen to twenty-seven, were in attendance. Complaints against the drinking have come from a number of persons, mainly the older Amish people themselves, for more than a year. Reprinted in the Herold, May 29, 1952, p. ^ . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 753 - In addition to singings the young people gather for other social events. Corn huskings and pound suppers used to he popular but now weiner roasts and barbecques are more popular for large gatherings of young people. One woman mentions such a gathering We had a Hymn singing and weiner roast for the young folks 'last Wensday eve. It was a little cold. We had lemon ade and 2 milk buckets of coffee - We all enjoyed the singing and the rest too I think there must have been 200 boys and girls. 327 Feigned Ig no ran ce of A d o l e s c e n t Be h a v i o r Just as the Amish parents do not participate in the gatherings of the young people, so they also shut their eyes to much of their adolescent children's behavior. The youth is still expected to obey every direct command of his parent quickly and quietly. Economically he is completely dependent upon his parents; working where his parent directs and return­ ing his earnings to his parents who decide how much spending money he shall have. However, the parents do not ask how the adolescent spends his money although they do encourage him to develop the habit of thrift by saving a portion of 328 it. An Amish youth may save his spending money to use for 327. Personal correspondence, VIII/30/55* 328. The parents are realistic in their approach to money. They realize that the young people need some extra money and they do not insist that they save any of it if the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 75^ - a camera, a m o u t h organ, a guitar, a phonograph, a por ta bl e radio and occ asi onal ly several y o u n g men may pool their money and buy an old car. if possible, much freedom. All these for bid den items are ign ored except the car w h i c h gives the y o u n g people too D u r i n g the course of this study the p os se s s i o n of cars b y un ba pt i z e d boys in the church has greatl y increased. The community cannot act a g a in st this b r e a k i n g of the Ordnung, because the boys are no t yet co m m u n i t y members. The parents have been g r a d u a l l y re l a x i n g their control a n d are not in a position to keep their m a t u r i n g sons from owning or at least driving this coveted object. Girls' parents say, forbid her to go with a bo y in a car, in a car, I wan t to know it. "I will not for if she is going If I forbid h e r she will start out in a bugg y and then get into the car in secret." Neither the boys nor the girls' They pa rents will say that the communi ty is too big. take the blame. The pro blem is a g g r a v a t e d by the fact that some of the I-W boys must have a car or access to a car to be able ends. Boys w i t h cars often take many couples ho me aft er a singing and then in the early m o r n i n g will go a r o u n d an d pick to return to the c om mu nity on week­ up the boys w h o live nea r them to take t he m b a c k to their portion of money r e t u r n e d to the m is small. Families that are comfortably off may save all the child's earning s in a separate b a n k a c c ou nt to return to him whe n he comes of age. If the family is po or his m on ey is used for current family expenses. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 755 - own homes. Although owning a can may lower the young man's status In the eyes of the community It raises his status among many of his contemporaries and the Amish adolescent is even more susceptible to group pressure of his peers than the average American child. His parents may get a certain 329 vicarious satisfaction out of their son's freedom. The girl's parents admit that on a cold winter night it is much nicer for their daughters to be driven home in a xvarm car than to spend two hours working their way home in a buggy drawn by a slipping, shying horse. Many a parent knows his child has a camera; the adole­ scent girls keep snapshots of their friends on their dressers and when I have been sent snapshots of Amish children there is generally the explanation, made by the parent, that one of the adolescent sisters or cousins took the picture. The pictures taken by the adolescents are extremely interesting. They illustrate how far outside the Ordnung the adolescent is In that he can both take photographs and pose for photo- 329. A minister’s unbaptized son near Stoneyrun was discovered to have a car. A General Conference Mennonite (GCI) reported that when he asked another Amishman what the toy’s father would do about It, he responded "Give him hell and be proud of him." The Amishman undoubtedly did not use these words, but he probably implied that the father did not completely condemn his son. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 756 - graphs. But of much more interest is the costume of the sub­ jects. I have never seen a posed picture of an adolescent in which he or she was dressed completely Amish. 330 Although photographs have been forbidden since 1865* 331 The adolescents have constantly broken the Ordnung. Umble describes a picture taken by a professional photographer about 1870 or 80 of a deacon's daughter (after she had joined church). She had not changed her clothes, but had combed out her long hair. A generation ago a girl being photographed wore short socks, (forbidden), a wrist watch (forbidden), and a contrast­ ing belt (all belts are forbidden). head covering. She did not wear her A boy being photographed would wear a shirt with pockets and perhaps hold a guitar. 332 are forbidden). (Musical instruments Today when the adolescents photograph each other they often do not look at all Amish. The boys wear broad belts on their trousers, and a bright shirt obviously bought from a store and perhaps having pockets. The girls generally have 330• Arikel und Ordnung, pp. 13-19-. den to be carried or hung on the walls. They were forbid­ 331. "The Amish Mennonites of Union County, Pennsylvania, Part I, "Social and Religious Life," MQR April 1933, P- 89332. From photographs I have been shown of people who are now staunch members of the Old Order Amish. This couple also has a picture of themselves that was taken by a profes­ sional photographer. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 757 - on a full skirt with a contrasting short sleeved blouse and a decorative belt. They never have on a head covering and usually are wearing socks, if they own a wrist watch that too is worn. They greatly enjoy these pictures and they will all be saved to bring out years from now at family gatherings show the children and grandchildren. to 333 The feeling against musical instruments is not strong. 33^ Mouth organs are barely hidden and I know of one case where an Amish mother gave her daughter a guitar. The daught­ ers never play it except when they are alone or with a group 335 of young people. There is stronger feeling against radios 333George R. Brunk, Musical Instruments , published by Nicholas Stoltzfus, P ketown, Ohio, printed by Saint Joe, Ark., 1953Has been sent me by two different Amishmen. No mention of adolescents is made in it. 33^. ’//hen I was shown through one couple's house a beautiful, expensive mouth organ lay on the table by the hired hand's bed. No specific mention was made of the musical in­ strument, but as we walked through the room the hostess, 00A116, said that in some ways their hired hand was not quite as they would like him. 335• One evening I was bringing their parents home from a trip. It was after dark and the car made much less noise on the lane than a horse and buggy would. The baby was asleep so I carried him into the house while the parents were gather­ ing up their packages. I went in very quietly so as not to awaken the baby and in the kitchen I surprised the adolescent girls, one of whom was playing the guitar and the other was coloring her nails with an orange crayon. As I came in they jumped up surprised, put away the guitar and wiped off their nails as one reached for the baby and the other went to fix his bed. No mention was made of the musical instrument by the girls or by the parents when they came in. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 753 - and the adolescents sometimes hide them outside the house. 336 One of the clerks in the hardward store told me they were kept busy repairing portable radios that had been frozen or rained on when hidden in such insecure soots as a pile of 337 cornshocks. Another clerk said one of the boys who bought a radio from him said he would not have it in for repairs any­ more. He used to hide it outside, where his Dad would not find it, but one day the son came out to the field unexpected­ ly and found his Dad listening to his radio as he worked. Apparently both the father and son ignored the presence of the radio, but the son felt he could now risk hiding it in a safer place. One Sunday night I stopped in at an Amish home in which two girls were dating. As I stood in the upstairs hall talk­ ing to the mother music from two different radios drifted out from behind closed doors. fifteen minutes. I talked for about ten or Neither of us mentioned the music. This was my fifth trip to Stoneyrun and I, too, had learned to ignore. The younger brothers and sisters rarely tell on the older ones. In the parents' absence the adolescent children 336. GC13. 337. GC11. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 759 - are responsible for the care and punishment of the younger children and the younger ones generally have enough sense not to talk indiscreetly. An older sibling is often responded to as a parent substitute. If a younger child should by chance mention a forbidden article in the possession of an older child the parent ignores the comment in such a way that further discussion is not invited. Older brothers and sisters do rot often tattle on younger ones that are disobeying the crdnung for they are either in the same stage of rebellion or they 333 have recently passed it. Often the forbidden articles of the adolescent children have recently been purchased from an older brother or sister who sold them during the instruction period prior to baptism. 339 The importance of the parents ignoring some of the 333. However, an older child telling the parents abo the younger child's deviation appears to be more common than a younger child reporting on an older child. The older child is used to being responsible for the younger child and may con­ tinue to be an alter-parent who has not yet learned the true parental role. It may also be related to the fact that the older child must always give in to the younger child and may be subject to a good deal of repressed hostility. The older child who has become a church member may be jealous of the freedom and privileges that the young child still enjoys. 339- This type of purposeful ignoring plays an import­ ant part in the life of the community and generally is carried out with great flness. On one occasion I was photographing an Amish baby when I thought the father was in the far field and would not return until the next meal. I was so intent on getting the picture that I did not hear him approach. When be spoke I whirled around startled and blushing violently. From my neck hung my Rolechord and in my hand was the light meter. The father looked at me closely, then ignoring the situation completely made some comment about his having to come in to get something, talked about trivia for a moment or two, then turned and left. He never mentioned the episode. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 760 - p ro test behavior of t h e i r a d o le sc e n t c h ild re n if tra g ic a lly is v iv id ly , i l l u s t r a t e d by th e c a s e of an e i g h t e e n y e a r 340 o l d A m ish b o y whom I s h a l l r e f e r t o a s M e l v i n . ( 2 ) A lthough 341 M e lv in s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n o f l o w i n t e l l i g e n c e ( 3 ) his d e s i r e s a n d way o f e x p r e s s i n g h i m s e l f w e r e t y p i c a l f o r a n Amish a d o l e s c e n t . childhood b u t He a p p a r e n t l y h a d a n u n e v e n t f u l , tow ards th e end of h i s came s o m e w h a t o f a p r o b l e m ; his f r ie n d s d o cile s i x t e e n t h y e a r he b e ­ he w ould ev ad e work a n d v i s i t o r go t o t h e n e i g h b o r i n g t o w n . Because h is f a t h e r d i d n o t r e t u r n a n y s p e n d i n g money t o h i m f r o m t h e w a g e s he e a r n e d a s a h i r e d h a n d , Melvin f o r g e d f i v e checks over a period o f s e v e r a l m onths in h is h a l f - s i s t e r ' s t h e money f r o m t h e s e c h ec k s he b o u g h t a cam era w rist w atch and. a p h o n o g r a p h ($ 8 .7 5 )• bought a se c o n d h an d c a r and Vie l e n t a f r i e n d ($ 4 .6 0 ). ($ 25- 00) and l i c e n s e $1 0.00 . He s o o n s o l d t h e name. W ith ($ 2 . 50), a He a l s o p lates for i t, c ar and i t is 340. P a r t i c u l a r s of th e case a re c o n ta in e d in a con­ f i d e n t i a l r e p o r t o f t h e O hio S t a t e B u re a u o f J u v e n i l e R e­ search. 341. A c c o r d i n g t o t e s t s g i v e n him s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s a r r e s t and a g a i n s e v e r a l m onths l a t e r he h ad a m e n t a l ag e of a l i t t l e o v e r t e n y e a r s , t h o u g h h i s l o w s c o r e may h a v e b e en i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e d i d p o o r l y i n t e s t s i t u ­ atio n . Had h e b e e n m o r e i n t e l l i g e n t h e c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e o u t w i t t e d h i s s i s t e r a n d a v o i d e d much o f t h e c o n f l i c t . To t h e members o f h i s f a m i l y i t may h a v e s e e m e d t h a t h e w a s f la g r a n t in h i s d is o b e d ie n c e and f l a g r a n t d i s o b e d ie n c e c a n ­ not be a l l o w e d . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 761 - not clear whether he ever drove it or if he bought it Just for the pleasure of owning a strictly forbidden article. The smaller items he was forced to give up because his older halfsister, who appeared to be very conscientious in following the Ordnung, constantly reported to his father, who was also over-zealous. At the same time his sister kept urging Melvin to Join church. Things came to a climax after he had bought a phonograph and some records which he hid under his bed and played when his parents were away from home. told on him and he had to sell the phonograph. ly urged him to Join church. His sister again She continual­ He told the Juvenile officer that he finally became so upset and in such conflict about Joining the church that he hardly knew what he was doing. One day he came from working in the fields and felt sick at the dinner table. When his father asked him why he looked so pale, he got up from the table and went to the barn where he had hidden a shotgun. He returned to the house and shot his 3^2 older sister through the screen. (1) He had been denied the 3^2. Although seriously injured his sister survived. At the state mental hospital where Melvin was eventually sent he made a good adjustment and seemed to enjoy smoking, card playing and reading stories. On his release from the hospital he worked as a hired hand for various Amish families. He got along well except with his family who sent him back to the hospital when he "threatened severely to my daughter to kill himself." There is a man of the exactly same name who belongs to a. church neighboring the one in which he was raised. I was rot able to determine whether or not this man was the same Melvin . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 762 - outlets f o r h i s a g g r e s s i o n t y p i c a l l y a l l o w e d A m i s h y o u t h . Fowdiness In m a n y to call d o w n areas the the Amish puritanical youth are wrath of just r o w d y their enough Protestant neigh- 3^3 bors who lecture loud and sm o k i n g a n d b u n d l i n g . A mi sh y o u t h rette. seen They yo ut h r a c e s almost his a their buggy midnight in S t o n e y r u n These enjoying shake on a grouo long a the neighbors glass heads through Saturday of on four evils of carefully of b e e r or drinking, note smoking a disapprovingly when the streets night. or five of Each any the an Amish village Saturday different ciga­ at evening Amish'boys 3 ^ gather strut on t h e main li k e banta.m fall pan ts , adolescent corner cocks, of the dressed black shoes and broad revolt shows in always store-bought may be of orange village. their and although sateen and t r i m m e d w i t h w h i t e immaculately There hats. Their are shirts. These shirts they solid colord, are cowboy blue, they in b l a c k b r o a d - brimmed black or a b r i l l i a n t snappers, (2) piped fashion. they with white Some of t h e 3^4-3. In s o m e a r e a s t h i s r o w d i n e s s m a y g e t o u t of h a n d and the p o l i c e a r e c a l l e d in. Police have raided Amish sing­ ing in I n d i a n a s e v e r a l t i m e s . H e r a l d , M a y 29, 1 9 5 0 , P* and N o v e m b e r 5, 1 9 5 3 , P* 3, c h a r g i n g t h e a t t e n d e r s w i t h v i o ­ lation of t h e s t a t e l i q u o r l a w s . I do not know of a ny such trouble in t h e c e n t r a l O h i o c o m m u n i t y . See Appendix I, Part E, for a photograph corner. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. of this - 763 - more daring boys may even have been able to keep their mothers from ripping off the patch pockets that are considered especi- 345 ally worldly. The boys hang around the corner carefully looking over any young girl that passes, but never speaking to one. The individuals in the group change but until it begins to grow dark there are always a few Amish boys talking quietly among themselves or swaggering back and forth in front of the drug store. They are never noisy and they do not speak to any of the English people, but each movement of eye or body expresses their need to be noticed and considered import,ant. As dusk falls the boys go into one of the various resta­ urants for a milkshake or a glass of beer and then, under cover cf the darkness, each climbs into his own buggy and generally goes to the home of the girl he wishes to date. The Amish ministers have told the young boys that they should be 'outside the village by nine o'clock and must leave the village by nine-thirty. They all obey the informal regulation and the only Amish boys seen after this hour are those who rush through town in their buggies returning from 346 a date or a singing. (2) Although the Amish boys cause no 345. One boy's mother took his shirt when she was washing it and ripped off the pockets. The boy found the pockets and hid them until he was able to persuade his sister to sew them back on. After that his sister washed and ironed his shirt for him. 346. One time I drove an Amish preacher into Stoneyrun at about 8:30. We thought it was later and when he saw there R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 7 6 ^ - trouble in the village, the English people are quick to dis­ cuss the way they hang around the corner and eye the people who pass. "Nice boys" do not behave that way. In the summer the English boys of corresponding age are usually at the com­ munity supper or baseball game and in the winter they are at home or getting ready for one of the social functions that is closely associated with the high school. The adolescent Amish boys obviously revel in their momentary freedom and the English neighbors seem especially to resent this period when the Amish are not bound by rigid rules. Actually it is of the adolescents the English are speaking when they say, no better than ours." really carry on." "The Amish morals are "They pretend to be holy, but they At the same time the English like to see the Amish elders embarrassed by the behavior of their adoles­ cent children and the English do what they can to lure the Amish youth from their church into the English world. though most of the Amish adolescents' Al­ expression of revolt takes place within the community and undercover of its protect­ ive customs, enough of it can be observed by English neighbors so they believe they have good grounds for criticizing the Amish, converting them and forcing them to be "better." In other x-rords the Enlgish, using the adolescents as a criterion, were a few Amish boys still in town he became quite angry and sad. He was greatly relieved when we learned the time and dis­ covered that none of them were disobedient. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 765 - feel righteous when they try every means at their disposal to make the Amish conform. The adolescents stir up some of the hostility the English harbor. This leads to mild perse­ cution, which strengthens the community. Although generally each parent pretends to ignore cer­ tain aspects of the behavior of his own adolescent children and although there is concern about the "Sins of Our Young 3^7 People," much of the adolescent behavior is vicariously enjoyed by the older members and enviously watched by the younger members of the community. The period of freedom not only acts as a safety valve to protect the individual who is going through a difficult period of adjustment and self reali­ zation, but it also helps the other members of the community who seem to enjoy the adolescents' flaunting of tradition. The adolescents are also free to express community resentment or attitudes in a way the older people may not. Thus when a group of adolescent boys paint an Amish preacher's buggy white, they are rebelling against the authority of the church, but they are also expressing the community disapproval of that particular preacher. In similar fashion groups of adolescent boys may harass a family which has been overly strict about regulating the dating of their daughters or their hired girls. 3^7o Herald, September 18, p. 6, October 9, p. 6, November 13, p. 6, 1952, and numerous articles in the Herold der Wahrheit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 766 - In these instances the adolescents are making a nuisance of themselves but they have most of the community behind them, enjoying the fun. Pressure to Join Church Although extremely important this period of revolt and conflict is difficult for everyone. As young as seventeen the parents may start hinting that the adolescent, should think about joining church, for when he joins he accepts the rules of the church and its discipline, freeing his parents, in a large measure, from being responsible for his conduct. It is not unusual for a girl of eighteen to start joining church and after several weeks decide she is not yet ready to live by its discipline. She drops out of the oreToaration class and 3^8* generally joins the following year. A group of women were discussing some of the young boys in the community who had not yet joined church and were very much in "unordnung." They were saying that they should be constantly admonished to join the church. to me. One woman said little at the time. Later she said "I suppose I should admonish _______ and tell him how he is wrong. But I don't think I will. When I was his age I would stay away three or four weeks at a time. I didn't want to come home because everyone would talk to me about joining 3^8. 00A2 6 , OOA72. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - church. 767 - Ever if mother did n’t say anything it would seem that everyone else at church mentioned it. and hated their talking." I knew I wa s n ’t ready She is a warm intuitive woman who spontaneously gives support with little criticism to the young people. Before the advent of Selective Service the boys joined later than the girls, often not until they were serious­ ly courting. There is no criticism of those who join late, once they have joined, but until that time there is consider­ able pressure to make them join. One mother wrote me of her 3^9 daughter's joining church. God grant it may be soon. Eight months later the oldest daughter joined the group under instruction . The baptised youth continues to go to all the young people's parties, but if the young people do any barn dancing he only watches for if he dances he must make a public confes350 sion in church. he may not be too He sold his forbidden articles and though strict about having his picture taken he will not pose or photograph a friend. He may have kept his mouth organ, but generally he has sold it, though he can be 3 ^9 * Personal correspondence, IX/9/56. 3 50 . A minister's wife and I were discussing different barn d a n c e s w e k n e w a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n the w a y t h e y h a d d a n c e d t h e m in O h i o a n d I h a d d a n c e d t h e m in Pennsylvania. S u d d e n l y s h e s a i d w i t h s t r o n g f e e l i n g , "b ut I never d a n c e d o n c e a f t e r I w a s b a p t i z e d . I never had to c o n ­ fess it." She l o o k e d at me a n d asked, "Have y o u d a n c e d since you've b e e n m a r r i e d ? " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 768 - co ax ed to p l a y but h e w i l l even w e a r one a t listen one ripped all t h e details against it. is he b e c o m e s a encouraging the Ordnung, he has young the step th e y o u n g m a n to he to be and ends with people two are to its radio, playing. ye t live longer He may exactly by revolting its wit h marriage; th e "join restriction of to the of hi s the period indivi­ first child community. Many of a d o l e s c e n c e church and uttered as begins a it. member often or w o m a n of p l a y i n g a r o u n d not the b i r t h shorten owns " h i g h " s h i r t s , w i t h the is n o follow period to does longer formally accepted responsible attempt Significantly happens conservative learning fully the that He no Although he adulthood elders ins tea d on e adolescent dual a c h i e v e s of the of "crowd." more off. Rather and g r a d u a l l y The to of h i s pockets a one. support by marry." With the this community edges. W e b e l i e v e t h e r e a r e h u n d r e d s of y o u n g m e n a n d w o m e n r o a m i n g t h e p a t h of t h i s w i c k e d w o r l d and falling into t emptations and snares, who w o u l d b e m u c h b e t t e r off m a r r i e d . However, too o f t e n t h e y a r e so m u c h c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h i s w o r l d a n d its p l e a s u r e s , t h a t t h e y d o n ' t c a r e to s e t t l e down. 351 Comparison of A m i s h a n d Perhaps among the A m i s h the s t a g e s 351 - the Q.uaker A d o l e s c e n t characteristics can be summarized of d e v e l o p m e n t H e r a l d . April of the 21, of t h e and Experiences adolescent clarified by Amish with 1955 , P* that of period comparing the 3* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Quakers, - 769 - 352 as portrayed in their journals. They seem to parallel one another with the exception that the stages the Amish pass through have to some extent been institutionalized and may take place at a slightly older age. Most Quaker journalists record a period of "youthful frivolity." This would corres­ pond to the post-school Amish child who is reveling in what is to him freedom and tasting some forbidden fruits. At this 3 63 stage the Quaker youth engaged in light conversation, (1) 35^ interest in worldly fashions 355 (2) and worldly literature (3) 352. Much of this material is taken from Howard Brinton, "Stages in Spiritual Development as Recorded in Quaker Journals," Children of Light (ed. Howard Brinton, Macmillan Co, 1938), pp. 381-^06, and was stimulated by a seminar Brinton gave at Pendle Hill (Wallingford, Pa. on "The Quaker Journalists." 353* "Jesting, joking and vain conversation, I went considerable lengths in; and sometimes joined the foremost in filthy and obscene discourses." Job Scott, A Journal of the Life, Travels, and Gospel Labours, of that faithful Servant and minister of Christ, Job Scott (London: James Phillips and Son, 1797), p. 19* " . . . when in company used my utmost endeavors to hid my condition, by being chearful and arch in my discourse, and was thought by most young people to have a knack, as they called it, at jesting and witty turns." John Churchman, An Account of the Gospel Labours, and Christian experiences of a faithful minister of Christ. John Churchman, Late_of Nottingham, in Pennsylvania, deceased (reprinted, London: James Phillips, M.DCC, LXXXI), p. 9. 35^"• • • I lent out an Ear unto the Enemy of my Soul, and let my mind go forth after fine clothes;" Elizabeth Stirredge, Strength in Weakness Manifest in the Life. Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that Faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord, Elizabeth Stirredge, Who Departed this Life, at her House at Hempstead in Hertfordshire, in 72th year of her age. (3rd Edition, London; Mary Hinde, 1772), p. 12. "My mind was drawn out after the vain plays, customs, fashions, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 770 - 356 used "you" instead of "thee" to a single person, (4) and 357 some of them even played cards and danced. (5) The Amish 358 a t t h i s a g e a l s o may d a n c e a n d p l a y c a r d s . (6) They t o o e n g a g e 359 360 in joking and vain conversation (l) and worldly literature (2) and will-worship of the world" James Dickinson, Friends Library; Comprising Journals, Doctrinal Treatises, and other writings of members of the Religious Society of Friends, William Evans and Thomas Evans, Ed. Vol XII (Philadelphia; the Editors, 1848), p. 370. "But I loved vanity and folly, and to keep unprofitable company, by which I was lead into many evils." Rebecca Jones, Memorials of Rebecca Jones, compiled, William J. Allensin (Philadelphia; Henry Lonstreth, 184-9), p. 53 55 « j[I delighted much in books of a very contrary nature . . ./She/ had opportunities of obtaining plays and ro ­ mances, which I read with avidity." Catherine Phillips, Memoirs of the Life of Catherine Phillips: to which are added some of her epistles (London: James Phillips, 1797), p. 7* 356. " . . . being advanced to about fourteen or fifteen years of age, I remember that I used to shun the cross of speaking in theplain language (which I always read in the Holy Scripture) to those whom I conversed with, except my father and mother, who would not allow me to speak otherwise,"Thomas Chalkley, The Journal of Thomas Chalkley (New York: Samuel Wood, 1 8 1 0 ), p. 5 . 357- Job Scott, Journal, pp. 1 7 , 19. 3 58. "Some of the boys who only go to Saturday night singings, play cards and don't even help with the singings." 00A104. 359• • . die J u g e n d . . . in E i t e l k e i t m i t S c h e r z und unniitzen R e d e n d i e kttstliche G n a d e n z e i t z u v e r b r a u c h e n ." David B e i l e r , ojo. c l t . , p. 5* V a i n c o n v e r s a t i o n is in c o n t r a ­ di cti on t o t h e t e a c h i n g s of D i r k P h i l i p s : "So b e y e h o l y in all m a n n e r of c o n v e r s a t i o n . " L e v . 11:44. D.P. ojo. c l t ., 1910, p. 231. " Y o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n - h a v e y o u m a d e p r o v i s i o n f o r the best of t h e f l e s h b y p e r m i t t i n g s m u t t y jo ke s , c u r s e w o r d s , etc., e s c a p e f r o m y o u r l i p s ? " H e r a l d . Oc t . 18, 1951, P* 3" . . . y o u n g f o l k s a r e l i v i n g s i n b e c a u s e of . . . f o l l i s h ta lk in g . . ." "Kel n, S e l f - R i g h t e o u s n e s s ," 0 0 . c i t ., p. 116. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - A lth o u g h t h e y do n o t u s e they o f te n the use tab o o w ords, They t o o b e c o m e i n t e r e s t e d b rig h t s h ir ts 771 - "S ie" form i n s t e a d g en erally in fa s h io n w ith th e boys w earing sh o rt as dared; th e and w earin g fan cy p in s and perfum e. The n e x t p e r i o d r e c o r d e d b y t h e Q u a k e r jo u rn a lists search and c o n f l i c t . se em g e n e r a l l y experienced t h i s "d u ," 361 o f an e x c r e t o r y n a t u r e . and c u t t i n g t h e i r h a i r as g i r l s w aving t h e i r h a i r , of the The Q u a k e r y o u t h a t a younger age is t h a n do t h e A m ish . t h is p e rio d th e Quaker y o u th c o n tin u e d w ith t h e i r one of to have D uring v ain life , 362 but g r e a t ly h a te d th em se lv e s for it a n d p r a y e d t o do b e t t e r . 360. M ost o f t h i s t y p e o f l i t e r a t u r e r e a d by t h e Amish y o u t h a r e p e r i o d i c a l s on p o p u l a r m u s i c a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y m o v i e m a g a z i n e s may b e s e c u r e d b y t h e m o r e d a r i n g . "Was l e s e n unsere K in d er?" HdW ( S e p t e m b e r 1, 1953?, P- 527Levi R o n t r a g e r , "Wha t i s on y o u r R e a d i n g T a b l e " H e r a l d , N o v e m b e r 19, 1953, P. 2. 361. "’When we t h i n k o f a l l t h e f i l t h y l a n g u a g e t h a t i s used among o u r y o u n g p e o p l e . . . " H e r a l d , S e p t e m b e r 18, 1952, p . 6 , f i l t h y t a l k i n g " K e i n w h a t a r e we o f f e r i n g o u r c h i l d r e n ? " HdW, F e b r u a r y 15, 1955, P P - 60-62. F ecal term in o lo g y i s n o t as s e v e r e l y t a b o o e d a m o n g t h e A m i s h a s i t i s i n o t h e r e l e m e n t s of o u r p o p u l a t i o n . 362. "O ften a t n i g h t , o r in t h e n i g h t , and som etim es r e a r t h e b r e a k o f d a y , I h a v e r e t u r n e d home f r o m my m e r r y m eetings g r i e v o u s l y condem ned, d i s t r e s s e d , a n d ash am ed ; w i s h ­ ing I had n o t gone i n t o su c h company, an d r e s o l v i n g t o do so no m o r e ; b u t s o o n my r e s o l u t i o n s f a i l e d me, a n d a w a y I w e n t again and a g a i n , and th u s c o n ti n u e d m aking s t i l l g r e a t e r s t r i d e s in f o l l y t h a n b e f o r e . T h e L o r d f o l l o w e d me c l o s e , i n m e r c y , and o f t e n b r a k e i n p o w e r f u l l y u n o n me, t u r n i n g a l l my m i r t h in to m ourning; y e t I s t i l l g o t o v e r t h e h o ly w i t n e s s , d id d e s p i t e t o t h e s p i r i t o f g r a c e , a n d r e p a i r e d a g a i n t o my h a u n t of d i v e r s i o n a n d m e r r i m e n t . S o m e t i m e s when I h a v e s t o o d u p o n the f l o o r t o d a n c e , w i t h a p a r t n e r by t h e h a n d , b e f o r e a l l w ere q u i t e r e a d y , God h a s a r i s e n i n j u d g m e n t ’, me t o t h e v e r y h e a r t . . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 77 2 - The Amish youth go through a similar period. My life was miserable. I wanted to be a .Christian . . . Before I would leave home for some social affair I would kneel before my window and plead with God that He would be patient with me. I would confess my wrong-doing and promise God that I would serve Him as soon as I could (!), but how could I now unless I'd forsake either mar­ riage or else the Amish church? 363 The young Amishmen continue to ignore some of the Ordnung, but they are beginning to feel guilty about their lack of responsibility. Gradually their sense of guilt builds up until they are ready to exchange the pleasures of youth for the assurance and release from guilt that baptism offers them. Baptism would correspond to the Quaker's "convincement;" the stage at which the individual intellectually chose to identify himself with the corresponding religious group. Following this the Quakers experienced a gradual change (oc­ casionally it was sudden) to a point where they accepted their religious affiliation with their emotions as well as with their reason. Today the typical Amishman also experience a I felt ready to sink under the weight of condemnation and anguish; but, resolutely mustering all the stoutness I was master of, I brazened it out, until the musick called me to the dance; and I soon drowned the voice of conviction, became merry, and caroused among my companions in dissipation, until time urged a dismission of our jovial assembly, and called me to return, often lonely, to my father's house, my outward habitation . . . again and again I took my swing, and drank my fill; and again and again remorse and compunction seized upon me. Job Scott, Journal, o p . cit., pp. 17-19. 363» A brother, July, 1956, p. 2. "A Young Man's Confession," Witnessing, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 773 - change in their emotional relationship to the church that takes place some time after the formal declaration of their affiliation. However this change seems to be of a different nature than that experienced by the Quakers. What Brinton 36^ has termed "conversion" (l) among the. Quakers is almost purely a personal phenomenon that is little effected by events external to the Quaker's spiritual development. With the Amish the internalization of the principles of their religion seems to be closely related to their role as parents who must be an example for their children. As parents who are producing and raising a large number of children, they represent the Amish ideal. Their behavior is in line with this and gradu­ ally their attitudes and prejudices reflect it. 365 ly identify with the ideal type. They complete- Courtship The problem of courtship is a very delicate one among the Amish. The family is the basic unit of the church and it 36^. Conversion "applies only to the actual solution of the inner conflict." "Conversion in the Quaker sense occurs when man turns . . . to complete obedience to the Divine Leading." Howard, Brinton, ojo. clt. , pp. 391, 39^- 365. The group of Amish who are interested in increa Bible study and in missionary activity also experience a personal integration that follows baptism, often by several years. This group demands a sudden integrating experience. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - is essential that romantic 77 ^ - the family be strong. The Amish have a ideal of marriage that is correlated with their be ­ lief that God knows which woman is best for which man and if the young couple follows His Will their marriage will be 3 66 blessed. with the There is no separation and divorce, so coupled romantic view of marriage is the knowledge that it is permanent and must be maintained regardless of the sacrifi­ ces. Amish children are raised to work hard and be obedient. They are well-trained in the skills necessary to keep a house, manage a farm and raise Amish children. Although the relation­ ships in marriage are new, the work is familiar. before children begin to attend singings their parents teach them the essentials of reproduction. Young children are not taught or told anything about birth or sex, but they live in a community with a high birth rate and new brothers, sisters and cousins are born at fairly short intervals. addition the farm animals are bred and reproduce. In Usually the children know most of the facts before their parents talk to them, but this does not excuse the parent from explaining them to the child himself. Both boys and girls are told ex­ actly how conception takes place. There is no laboring under false fears that pregnancy may result from kissing or any 366. " . . . only God can plan a perfect marriage. Kan is incapable of choosing his own companion for so sacred and blessed a union as God wants marriage to be . . ." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 775 - other pre-coital activity. Boys and girls usually start dating by going home to­ gether after a singing. As they get to know one another bet­ ter or become more sure of themselves they date on Saturday right and on Sunday nights when there is no singing. The date may be prearranged or the boy may take his chance that the girl is not busy. Often two couples will double date. 367 Dating behavior is just as stylized among the Amish as it is in any clique of high school students. certain rules that are followed. There are These may differ consider­ ably from one community to another and occasionally cause mi sunderstanding. In the Stoneyrun area groups of young people meet for singings, barbecues, weiner roasts and smaller parties are held for birthday celebrations, brate the end of school. for sick friends and to cele­ These consist of groups of young people rather than of couples or dates. Dating only takes place after a social event or fairly late at night at the girl's home. There are many advantages to these rather unorthodox hours for dating. First, they differ from those observed by the. English neighbors and so function as an iso­ lating mechanism. 367. see Appendix X. Secondly, courting under cover of the dark- For a detailed discussion of courtship behavior R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 776 - 3 68 ness gives the Amish young people much needed privacy. The Amish community is usually sufficiently well integrated so that everyone knows everyone else. If courting took place during daylight, who was dating whom, would be general know­ ledge and the subject of much discussion. It also gives the young couple a measure of protection from numerous brothers and sisters whose presence can be most -trying at such a time. Finally, by confining his courting to the hours during which most people sleep, he gains the greatest amount of independence for neither partner needs to miss any work and therefore does not have to ask anyone's permission to date or be beholden to them for permission granted„ own. The time is completely their Thirdly, the adolescent is in a period of revolt. He has been raised to be obedient to parents who directed his every action and as far as possible his every thought. He is now gaining some independence from them which he protects by lack of communication. At this stage the only way he can avoid their influence is for them not to know (or pretend not to know) what he is doing. It has always been their task to guide 368. "Cover is needed to give time . . . for love-mak­ ing . . . A fellow and a girl will ignore each other in day­ time should they meet on the road, but with the utmost pro­ priety he will be calling at her home just about the time of night when bourgeois etiquette would expect him to leave. Good manners require that he be gone before it is light." F. Fraser Darling, West Highland Survery. London: Oxford University Press, 1955- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 777 - him, but n o w he must l earn to guide himself. a marriage pa rt ne r is p r o ba bl y the most The choice of Important decision the individual will make* and he must make it himself, w i t h God's help rather than his parents." A mi sh yo un g p e o p l e are forbidden to a t t e n d movies, dances, in fact any of the places of e n te rt a in me nt that non- Amish y o u n g people f requent when they are dating. approved places are singings an d the home. ent with the A m is h emphasis important event fairs, This The only is c o n s i s t ­ on the home and the family. in an Am is h m a n ' s life takes p lace Certainly c o u r t s h i p is e xt r em el y important a n d in the home. it, be associated w i t h the h o me and the community. Every too, should By courting late at night and in the home they have pri v ac y w h i l e others sleep and a ls o the protec t io n of parents and family w h o are always close at hand. Given the A m i s h concept of marriage it is essential that their y o u n g people get to know one a n o t h e r well before they are married. One of the simplest and least expensive ways to a c c o m p l i s h this is to continue this pattern of dating. There is considerable result of infiltration the family sleeps. pressure, most of w h i c h is the of foreign ideas, a gainst dat in g while Some families w ou ld p re f e r to have the young man arrive be f o r e the p arents w e n t to b e d so that they, too, could talk to him for a few minutes. In many instances he may come early es pe ci al ly if they are engaged, but this is R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 778 - not the general practice and would be inconsistent with the rest of the adolescent patterning. Amish children do little discussing with their parents, they hardly ever mention their wishes and their fears or even their questions. As adolescents they have a lot to learn and a lot to understand. They spend a great deal of time among themselves talking about what they think and what they b e ­ lieve and what they are going to do with their lives. They not only talk about these questions but they act them out. This may cause worry and concern within the community but it enables the growing individual to understand himself and his place in the community and in the world. Members within the Amish church and English neighbors have frequently made the point that if Sunday schools and young people's programs were provided for the young people 369 there would be less trouble with rowdiness. This is probably true, for in an effort to let the adolescent become an indi­ vidual in his own right, he may be given too little guidance. When the communities were physically more isolated, and when the differences between Amish life and Worldly life were not so extreme, the young people could survive this period with a modified trial and error approach. Now it is becoming more 369. F.J. Schwarzendruber, "Die Roheiten der Jugend und ein Heilmittel dagegen," H d W , October 1, 195^, PP* 551-52. Graber, Youth Problem, ojo. c i t . , p. 5; Kollmorgen, ojo. cl t., p. 87. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 779 - difficult. Some people look at the behavior of the Amish youth and say that disintegration has set in, the community is fall­ ing apart, the youth reflects the rottenness at the core. The Amish themselves true to their pattern, look back to the better days in the past and exclaim with sadness over the be­ havior of their youth and the terrible conditions that pre­ vailamong them today. Certainly the Amish youth of today is 370 faced with more choices and more problems. But the Amish have always had a youth problem. It is built into their culture. In i 8 6 0 a bishop wrote of the contrast between the behavior of Amish youth when he was young and youth at the time of his writing. Damals wurde die Jugend mehr daheim an der Arbeit gehalten. Damals wurden nicht zwei, drei und mehr Monate verwendet in der Welt bei Freunden und Bekannten zu verweilen in Eitelkeit mit Scherz und unntitzen Beden die kbstliche Gnaden zeit zu verbrauchen. 3’ 71 In 1923 Jacob P. Swartzentruber wrote a tract in which he 320. These are greatly exaggerated by high school at ­ tendance and I-W service. 371. David Beiler, "Eine Schrift oder Vermahnung geschrleben von BIschof David Beiler ungefShr im Jahr i860," in Vermahnung. o p . cit., pp. if-5 • Another Amish bishop in 1865 wrote In a message to a conference that he would "not be satislfied" If nothing is done "about the behavior of the young people." John Umble, "Catalog of An Amish Bishop's Library." MQR, July, 19^3, p. 238. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 780 - attempted to explain why Amish youth of that day were so much 372 rougher than they had been previously. But how is it that the roughness among our youth is worse nowadays than it was in the youth of earlier years? '//here does the roughness in the young people come from, of which outbreaks comes so frequently today, that now and then the government feels called forth to take hold with force to establish order so that the country will be safe for all to live peacefully? In addition to the "nights11 the youth are free to go as they please, only to be back by morning in good time to go to work. 373 3 7^ A letter to the editor of the Amish Mission Endeavor describes the writer’s youth and then goes on to explain Things are worse now. It will probably,always appear that way for at thetime of writing the author is a member that is responsible for main­ taining the community, but in his youth he had not yet accepted, and was only vaguely aware of, that responsibility. During the problem period the Amish youth reach the age 372. This article was reprinted in the Herold der Wahrhelt. October 1, 195^> P P • 551-52. It was entitled "Die Roheiten der Jugend und ein Heilmittle dagegen." In trans­ lation it appeared in the Amish Mission Endeavor. SeptemberOctober, 195^-» under the title "The Voice From the Grave." 373. Tr. Elam Hockstetler. 37^. March April-May-June, 1955 > P • 1°- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 781 375 of a c c o un ta b il it y and b u i l d up a substantial quot a of guilt that makes b a p t i s m necessary. The guilt u n de rl i ne s his ne e d for the c ommunity a n d is e ssential for the i nt im a t e l y social 376 life he leads. At the same time his b e h a v i o r is a safety valve for the community, it expresses and enables good c om mu ni ty members commu ni t y resen tm en ts to identify, if only momentarily, w i t h the r eb el li o us youn g people. The a d o l e s c e n t b e h a v i o r is an index of internal c o n ­ flict rather than di si ntegration. Once a co mm u n i t y is well established the A mi s h seem to be abl e integrate it even thought it harbors to p er pe tu at e it a nd r e pr es se d conflicts. Disintegration is p a r t i a l l y avoi de d b y the relief of tension and open c ri ti ci sm that the r e v o l t i n g a d o l e s c e n t s express. In spite of cons ta nt discussion of the state of t h e i r youth, most A m i s h elders r e al iz e that this peri od of revolt is natural and necessary. They try to curb it slightly and to hide it from the outside world, b u t there are eno ug h cases of tragic results whe n y o u n g people were not a l l o w e d to "blow 377 off steam (1) so that few parents or m in is te rs try to ho l d 3 7 5 » In p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l terms the age of a c c o u n t a ­ bility repres e nt s the t r a n s f e r from the parent to the s up e r ­ ego the paren ta l function of observing, g u i d i n g and t h r e a t ­ ening the ego. 376. "It is prob ab le that some degr ee of guilt is necessary for social living." W h i t i n g an d Child, ojo. cut. , p. 229. 377= The case of the eighteen year old b o y who shot R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 782 - down the youth too tightly. From long experience they know that the boy who is wildest during adolescence may in the end turn out to be a leading member of the community, a God-fearing and a steadfast man. Inspite of its h i g h degree of integration the Amis h community has many tension areas that are p o t e n t ia ll y d a n g e r ­ ous and sometimes a community. erupt with sufficient violence to destroy The surpr is in g thing is that there are not more frequent eruptions. Almost all the tensions are the result of incomplete separation from the world. This does not mean that if an Am i s h community a c h i e v e d complete i s o l a ­ tion, it w o u l d be a utopia. Not at all, but in that case the tensions wo u l d be d ifferent than those b e i n g experi e nc ed today. The a d o l e s c e n t peri od is so crucial, dividual and the community, probably the-gr ea te st b o t h for the i n ­ that h i g h school a t te n da nc e is threat the c ommunity faces. This danger is m a g n i f i e d b y the I-W pro g ra m b e i n g imposed on the community at almost the same tim e as hi gh school atten da nc e and further r e m o v i n g the liance of the community. (late) adole sc en t from the survalE o t h h i g h school attendance and bis sister and an episode more often referred to is that of a Bishop's family w h os e children "got into trouble amon g themselves" b e c a u s e he was too strict with them. I do not know if this case is true, but it is used as an argument against severe r e st r ic ti on of youn g people's social life. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 783 - participation in the I - W program b r i n g the y o u n g people in contact with the religious beliefs of the culture a r o u n d them at an age w h e n the y are usually susceptable to this influence. There is a d a ng er that the y o u n g people w h o have so man y n ew experiences w i l l introduce new ideas into the c ommunity at a greater speed than they can be accommodated. However, con­ sidering the lon g h i s to ry of the A m i s h a n d their apparent adaptability, that seems unlikely. Th e tensions w h i c h threaten to lead to disu ni ty are somewhat counter b a l a n c e d by a well worked out system of ceremonies the community. that function to integrate Wh en this ceremonial system is endan ge r ed the whole community is weakened. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. CHAPTER IX CEREMONIAL INTEGRATION OP THE COMMUNITY Ceremonies play a major role in the integration of the Old Order Amish community. The most important and most frequent ceremonies are expressions of the corporate­ ness of the community. The bi-weekly church service brings the whole community together at frequent intervals to wor­ ship and to eat. The patterns of seating both at the worship service and at the lunch tables blur family lines and emphasize the church as a group of brethren and sisters, a super family. The semi-annual communion sequence brings disagreements between members into the light and urges their settlement, it gives individuals an opportunity to overcome their guilt feelings, and it enables every member to feel that he is at peace with every other member and that together with Christ they represent a mystical union. At communion the church is in perfect harmony, it has a clear identity that can be loved passionately. The individual rejoices to be able to lose his feeling of separateness and to know that he, with his closest friends, forms a single body, whose head is Christ.The annual baptism service is of importance to both the idual and the community. indiv­ It is the rite by which members / are added to the community. For the individual it signifies he is an adult, accountable for his sins; for the community R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. it represents growth and Health. meets to choose its leaders. Periodically the community Although the ordination requires the services of a bishop, it is the congregation that chooses the leaders from within herself . The Amish use the simile of one body to represent their community. When a member of this body is injured or hurt, the whole body attempts to spare and help the injured part. Some­ times a member is in revolt and.then the community demon­ strates its powers of autonomy. But unlike the natural body, the cast off part is welcomed back when the individual again demonstrates that he is a member of Christ. Weddings and funerals are primarily rite-de-passage ceremonies for the individual but they are closely interprated with the community. A wedding service differs very little from a church service but unlike the previously mentioned ceremonies, the church district lines are crossed and the congregation assembled represents the extended families of the bride and the groom and functions to draw the larger community together. In funerals the family, rela­ tive to the community, has a more important role than in any other ceremony. It is the only ceremony in which the congregation or the congregation as represented by her leaders and rather detailed tradition, do not make the decisions of who will preach and what the texts, scrip­ ture reading and hymns will be. Even the seating arrange­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 786 - ment at the funeral dinner is determined by who will go to the interment (which is partially determined by family ties) and not by the age gradation that character­ izes all other gemeinde eating* Funerals are.usually big affairs to which everyone in the home church district comes and many others as well. They offer the bereaved family the support of the home community and of the wider community that stretches out into many states. All the Amish ceremonies, though based on helping man to know God, function to adjust the individual to the community. This is better understood if it is realized that Christ is often identified with the community, the believers are His body, He is in the midst of the congre­ gation, In every ceremony (with the possible exception 1 of the rather infrequently performed ceremony of anointing ) the community or representatives of the community are an essential part of the ceremony. The importance of a community is reflected in the fact that never does only 2 one man perform a complete ceremony and in the instance that an individual cannot attend the regular gathering of n There are always members of the family present and often at least one of the other ministers who may read a prayer. 2. Except anointing which can be performed by the bishop without assistance from any one else. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 787 - the community for a church service, baptism or communion, the community comes to him. Not only the ministers go to help him celebrate, but members of the laity are also essential. The Christian church is a gathering of a 3 Christian community, and religious ceremonies can take place only within the church. Throughout this chapter it will be evident how similar the various ceremonies are. The church service is the model form and all other ceremonies are but slight modifications or extensions of this service. CHURCH SERVICE The community gathers at the farmstead of one of its membdrs to hold church services. The tradition of the church meeting in a private home is an old one among the Anabaptist3 . In the early days of the movement the church was forced to meet in secret and for a long time church ' Paul Peachey, "Anabaptism and Church Organization,11 MQR, July, 1956, p. 217. 1. During the very beginning of the movement a few leaders such as George Blaurock (c. 1490-1529) tried to make their approach through the churches, occasionally even inter­ rupting services to do so. This was unsuccessful. Blaurock and his wife were burned alive after only two or three years of leadership. (Harold Bender, Mennonlte Origins in Europe, Mennonites and their Heritage (Akron, Ra.s Mennonlte Central Committee,’ 1946), pp. 22-23. The rejected Brethren were soon outlawed and their meeting had to be held secretly. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 788 - buildings were forbidden the "heretical” Brethren. It was natural that they would meet in members' homes or barns. However, there is also a deeper significance; that is, the equating of the church and the household. "... only a little household (ein klaines neuflen) has gone in the right ?5 : —- way since creation." In 1715 a Bernese Anabaptist sent 3 an epistle to "the household of faith." "The gospel is not to be preached openly in churches, but only in secret 4 byways and privately in houses." Dietrich Philips writes: Neither does the church need any external temple made with hands, which does not avail before God, and therefore none is found in the church, but the tabernacle of God is with them (Acts 7:48; 17:24), and the dwellings of the Most High are therein (Psa. 48:14; Rev. 21:22). Moreover the church herself is the temple of the living God, as it is i n Hans Sehlsffer, "EihtJCurzer Underricht zum Anfant Eines Recht Christlichen Lebens," printed in Muller, Lydia, ed., Glaubenszeugnlsse oberdeutscher Taufgeslnnte (Leipzig, M. Helnslus Nachf., 1958); XX: Quellen und For schungen zur Refornationageschichte, pp. 84-93, 84. As quoted in Llttell fhe Anabaptist View of the Church (American Society of Church History, 1952); p. 62. -----------3. Robert Friedman, Mennonlte Piety Through the Cen­ turies (Goshen, Ind. Mennonlte Historical Socle, 1949)j p. 165. 4. Karl Schornbaum, ed., Quellen zur Geschichte der Wiedertaufer: Markgraftum Brandenburg (Leipzig, M. Helnslus Uacnr, 1934). XVI: 8 Quellen und Forschungen zur Reformatlonschlchte. p. 65. And Muller, op. clt., p. 226. As quoted in Eittell, op. clt., p. 108. The deeper significance of the im­ portance of meeting in the home is indicated by the behavior of the Amish Mennonlte community in Lyon County, "in the begin­ ning they held church services in the Fairview schoolhouse... They also met in some of the hemes in the neighborhood, especi­ ally for counsel meeting and communion services." The most important community ceremony was still celebrated in a home. John Umble, "Mennonites in Lyon County, Kansas: 1880-90: A Memoir ," MQR, July, 1952, p. 235. Martyrs Mirror f op. cjt.t iQSi.inifi describing communion mentions that it is celebrated in une houses, as Christ and The Apostles did." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. written: "I will dwell in them, and walk in them; and I will be their God, and they shall be my people"..,5 Today a few Older Order Amish in other regions do have church 6 houses, and an occasional member suggests that there are good reasons for considering the building of a church, but most 8till feel that church services should be held in the home. The frequency with which a family "has church" is dependent to some extent on the size of the congregation and on the number of families that have houses, barns, or broiler houses large enough to accomodate the whole congregation. . Generally, a family has church once or twice a year. It is is twice a year, the second time Is for a second specific family who cannot have the service in their own home, but supplies the food and helps with the preparation and serving. In this event the host family takes two successive services so that the Intensive preparations need not be gone through more than once. As the families take church in rotation, T5T UTetrich (Dirk) Philip, Enchiridion or Hand Book of the Christian Doctrine and Religion, compiled (by the grace of God) from the Roly Scriptures for the benefit or al'l lovers of one Truth, (trans. A. B. Kolb) (Elkhart, Ind.; Mennonlte Polishing Co., 1910), p. 405. 6. Pour church buildings were reported for the Old Order Ami3h in Mennonlte Bodies ("Census of Religious Bodies, 1936" Bulletin N o . 17) (Washington, D.Ci! Government Printing Office, 1940). Shenandoah Valley, Va. ,’ Summerset, Pa., one in Iowa and one In Summit Mills are some of the Old Order Congregations that have ‘church--houses. The'women say~it would save them a great deal of work. 00A2, 00A4, 00A26, etc. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 790 - each family knows about when church will come around to them. Such things as the wife*s pregnancy or the presence of a new baby or illness in the family are taken into account so that 8 no undue hardship is worked on the family. 9 Preparations for church are extensive for it means accommodating between two and three hundred people for the 10 greater part of a day. Even on a large farm this means that every inch of the buildings and yards will be put to use and thus come under friendly scrutiny. Depending on the time of the year, the actual services will be either in the barn or in the house; but in either event there will be people through all the buildings — the men tending to con- ! 5T "’This lovely Sunday we are at home catching up with some much needed rest, as we have been working hard getting ready for church which is to be here on the 14th, and if present plans hold out we will have it two weeks later for Manasses and also the sewing is to be here on Wed. 18, and german school in the eve, well the month will be short...” Personal correspondence, n/7/54. "Stutzman church is announced to be at Eli D. Yoders although places could be changed as they are exposed to mumps and measels,..." HeralcL, February 18, 1954, p. 71. 9. One woman wrote me after they had church “...That is one reason I came down in bed. I was wore out." Personal correspondence, VIl/30/55. For a description of pre­ parations for church see John Umble, "The Amish Mennonites of Union County, Pennsylvania," MQR, April, 1933, p. 75. Only one week of the diary is given. In Stoneyrun the pre­ parations take much longer than that. "We are getting ready for church to be here in 2 weeks. So you know that means work. We are glad to do it if we can help someone or anyone to the light." Personal correspondence* VIl/5/53. 10. The average church membership for the larger community is 106.5, which does not include children or visitors. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 791 gregate around the barn and the women In the house. preparations are made long in advance. Some When the housewife is canning pickles, she makes enough extra jars of two or three of her favorite kinds to serve at the church lunch. She also puts up extra jars of various kinds of Jams and jellies to have ready for church. But it is really in the two weeks preceding the service that the family workb — from early in the morning until late at night intensively preparing for church. The house is cleaned from top to bottom. The cellar is scrubbed thoroughly, for it is in the cellar (which usually has a summer or canning kitchen) that the people will be fed. In old houses the cellar is given a new coat of whitewash. In the newer houses whitewash is no longer used and a good scrubbing is substituted. storeroom. All the jars are removed from the Fresh paper is put on the shelves and the jars are wiped off and put back neatly into place forming a pleas­ ant design of color and abundance. The windows are washed, the stoves are polished with emery cloth and blackened, or, if they are enamel, they are given a special scouring. ground floor of the house is similarly cleaned. The The floors are scrubbed and waxed; the walls and ceilings are washed unless they should need a new coat of paint in which case one or two rooms may be painted. The closets are all cleaned, fresh paper put in each, and every object wiped off. Of R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 792 - course, all the woodwork and windows are washed and all the rugs are washed. The t i n- wa re and silver plate that will be 11 used to serve the m e m b e r s are polished. The h o u s e w i f e supplements h e r own set w i t h some b o r r o w e d fr o m one of her sisters or n eighbors. modate large n u m b e r s Since the houses m u s t be able to a c c o m ­ of p eo p l e at one time, if th ey were not originally built b y an Amishman, w h i c h in m o s t not, there has b e e n conside ra bl e r e m o d e l i n g cases they were so that there are fewer rooms, but all of them are large and pr ef e r a b l y there 12 are double-sized door wa ys b e t w e e n rooms. The ideal is to i. have a house in w h i c h eve ry church m e m b e r can sit in such a position that the preach er s can be seen. This is u s u a l l y impossible, but it m u s t be a r r a n g e d so that everyone can hear 13 what is being said. To have eno u gh space, the dining roo m table must be m o v e d out, often the furnit ur e from the m a s t e r bedroom is m o v e d u p s ta i rs to be out of the w a y d u ri n g th e serv ice, and most of the k i t c h e n f u r n i t u r e m a y be removed. curtains are f r e s h l y w a s h e d and rehung. The The po tt e d plants are checked to see that all of t h e m are in good condition (the poorer ones are r emoved), the pots m a y be re pa i n t e d if 1 1 , TEe c h u rc h h a s some flatw ar e that was d o n a t e d to it, but it is no v e r y n i c e quality or condition. M o r e often the hostess use s h e r own flatwa re s up p l i m e n t e d w i t h that of her sisters and n ei gh bo rs . The cof fe e cups belo ng to the church and were also donated. On one o c ca si on I b r o k e the h a n d l e of a church cup. W h e n I b r o u g h t it to the h o s te ss to ask what I could to about it she answered, " D o n ’t w o r r y we d o n a t e d two doze n cups, it's probably one of ours." 12, These d o o r w a y s do not ha v e doors but in winter are hung with a f a i r l y h e a v y curtain. 13, Pat t erri’ . See* Appendi-3E; VIII, Par t A, for chart'of seating R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 793 necessaryo Flowers, either cut or pot te d d e p en di ng on the time of the year, are f o u n d throug ho u t the house, except in 14 the rooms whe re the actual service is h e l d c Upst ai r s m u c h the same proced u re is carried o n 0 are scrubbed; the windows, The floors, woodwook, ceilings, walls curtains and rugs w a s h e d . The bedspreads are w a s he d or better qui lt s put on the beds. 15 The furniture is w a sh ed and the closets c l e a n e d „ Needless to say, this is a real job w h e n it is r e m e m ­ bered that the regu la r f a r m w o r k must be done; m e a ls m u s t be cooked as usual for the family,* the little child re n must be taken care of. U s u a l l y some outside h e l p is used. a hired girl for a fe w days, drop in to h e l p or perhaps primarily the or one of the gr an dp a re nt s m a y some of the n e i g h b o r s » job of the- host, most of the wor k falls Perhaps But it is and all the organizing and on the m a n and w i f e 0 As well as cleaning the house, the h ou s e w i f e wants be sure that the yard is in go o d condition. to One of the chil- 14. The Amish love flowers, b o t h the y a r d and house are bright w i t h them, but they are ne v e r intro d uc ed into the severely plain r e li gi ou s ceremony. There are no extra flowers around the h o u s e at a w e d d i n g or a funeral a n d none are foun d in the graveyards. 15. This intensive cleaning does not r e p l a c e the semi-annual spring and win te r house cleaning, a l t h o u g h in some cases there m a y be a slight overlap. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 794 1 5 a dren or her h u s b a n d m o w s and rakes it „ is carefully w e e d e d and any flow er s past The garden their p ri m e are removed. The walks are sc r u b b e d and the picket f e n c e is 16 given any n e e d e d attention. Even the p a t c h - m a y ha v e special a t te nt i on for peo pl e are sure to notice h o w the vegetables are d o i n g 0 In the m e a n t i m e the fa r m e r h a s b e e n working in the barn, the shed, the barny ar d, as h a r d and other out b u i l d i n g s as his wife h a s „ Here too e v e r y t h i n g m u s t be spotless. it is summertime, the services will be h e l d in the b a r n or one of the sheds, u s u a l l y on the t h r e s h i n g floor, the farm equipment is kept. or where This m e a n s m o v i n g out all the machinery and r e - a r r a n g i n g any straw, hay, that is still in t h e barn. If or other f eed The r o o m in which the are held is well swept, dusted, services s c r u b b e d and o f t en just before the service a layer of f r e s h straw m a y be spread over the floor. Not only are the b arn, buildings all cleaned, sheds and out but the b a r n y a r d itself is spotless. Places are a r r a n g e d for the horses, bug g ie s and surreys* " 15a. The garden includes flowers and pretty plants like lettuce, herbs, peppers, and tomatoes. 16. The p a t c h is l ar g e r t h a n the g a r d e n a n d f a from the house. It is p l o w e d w i t h a team and contains f i e l d vegetables like corn, m e l o n s and cucumbers. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 795 A fe w days b e f o r e the service the b e n c h w a g o n is brought from the h o m e of the p e o p l e who h a d ch ur ch the last time „ the large c o v e r e d w a g o n are the backl e ss b en c h e s to seat the congregation, In that are u s e d the to we l l i n g w h i c h serves as t a b l e ­ cloths for the long l u n c h tables, and the song books, b o t h 1 6a 17 the Ausbunds and the little books that are u s e d during the regular service, and the second set of b a t t e r e d little books that are u s e d during Y o u n g P e o p l e ’s singings on S un da y evenings and at t h e G e r m a n R e a d i n g » S a t u r d a y a f t e r n o o n some of the ne i g h b o r i n g m e n arrive and h e l p to set up the b e n c h e s 0 Someone is sent to the f a v or i te cheese h ou se to b u y Swiss 18 cheese and t h e n to the store to b u y w h i t e b r e a d 3 coffee, and perhaps some m a r s h m e l l o w w hi p w i t h w h i c h to m i x s t r a w ­ berry jam to m a k e a de li c i o u s The dishes for the and b r i g h t l y colored spread. jams are set out - en o u g h so that "every19 one can reach a n d h e l p h i m s e l f , ” and there will h a v e to be 16a. Ausbund, Das ist; Et li ch e sc h 8ne Ch r is t i c h e Lieder, Wie sie im dem G ef&ngnis zu P a s s a u in d e m Schloss v o n den Schweizer-Brtlddern.u n d v o n a n d e ra n rechtglM.ubigen Ch r i s t e n h i n und her gedichtet worden. 17. Ga l l e d "The L i t t l e book, ’Kleines L i e d e r b u c h ’ and referred to a s ’Bfir* in R & b e r ’s Calendar. (Per Neue Airierikanische Calender. (Baltic, Ohio, J ohann R&ber)). Eve TJnparteiische Liedersammlung zum G e l b r a u c h b e i m - O r f f e n t l i c h e n G o t t e s d i e n s t und der h a u s l i c h e n Erbauung. 18. About 25 loaves. 19. T h e u s ua l to smile at the guests It certainly is a nice as well as saving a lot co mm en t after grace is for the h o st and say, "Just r e a c h and h e l p yourse lf . " way of m a k i n g the guest feel relaxed, of time at a large, w e l l - f i l l e d table. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - a minimum of passing. freshly 796 - The cups for coffee are put p o l is he d flatware. The out and the jars of jams, an d of green, white and per ha p s m i x e d pickles or p i c k l e d beets are put out with the f o o d f r o m the store along with the t remendous kett le s in which the coffee will b e made. Ideally, everything is r e a d y by suppertime S a t u r d a y night, but u s u a l l y the kerose ne lamps b u r n late befo re h a v i n g 20 church. This is a c a re fu ll y kept secret, for it m u s t appear that everything was well e no u g h or ga n i z e d so that p r e p ar at io n s 21 did not cause a g r e a t change in routine. Also the i m p l i c a ­ tion is that little extra n e e d e d to be done to h a v e e verything so spick and spa n and b e a u t i f u l l y w o r k e d out. 22 The m o r n i n g of the service everyone rises early, but as this is Sund ay only "essential" w o r k m u s t be done. ’JVhich m e a n s that the l iv e- s t o c k m u s t be take n care of, 20'.One f am i l y was exceedingly a n no ye d w h e n their tenant told some of the c o n g r e g a t i o n that lights w e r e b u r n ­ ing until cwo o ’clock S u n d a y m o r n i n g . This is not r e a l l y an approved subject for gossip. 21. One ve r y s teadfast fami ly told m e two weeks before they we r e to h a v e church, "We hav e e v er yt hi ng m o st ready now. Ideally one should b e ahead in his work. 22. S u n d a y starts wh e n the individual gets out of bed and dresses. It is not r e l a t e d to the clock - Satur da y can last m a n y h ou r s b e y o n d m i d n i g h t . This is of course v e r y different from t h e P u r it a ne who for w h o m S u n da y b e g a n on Saturday afternoon, "all m a y s u rc ea se thei r labor every Saturday t h ro ug ho u t the yea re at three of the clock in the after noone,..." S. Fleming, C h i l d r e n and P u r i t a n i s m , (New Haven: Yale U niversity Press, 1933), p. 19. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - "breakfast cooked, 797 - eaten and the dishes cle a re d away, and the children d r e s s e d for church well b ef o r e eight o'clock w he n the first m e m b e r s will p r o b a b l y start a r r i v i n g „ Everything is in order and the host and ho st es s greet the arrivals in a friendly, r e l a x e d fashion, chatting a little w i t h each ne w group as they indicate where t he y should put the horses, the buggies, their wraps or the baby. E a c h p e r s o n is g r e e t e d with a single, vigorous d o w n w a r d ha n d shake. B y about 8:45 m os t of the c o n g r eg at io n has assembled. The men and w o m e n h a v e for me d separate, now, with little apparent line. quiet g roups and sugge st io n the w o m e n drift The adolescent girls at the front, women and f i n a l ly the w o m e n w i t h babies. in and sit on front benches, older women. into then the older The girls wa l k leaving those b e h i n d for t he The mothers w it h babies and young c hildren sit near the door of disturbance. so that they come and go w i t h a minimum This u s u a l l y m e a n s that they are farthest from the preachers. After m o s t of the w o m e n are in, the men wander in from v arious doors in groups of two or three, taking their po s i t i o n in r e l a t i o n to the m i n i s t e r s ’ and the back of the room. The o ld m e n t en d to sit towards the front, the young m e n with c h i ld re n m a y m i x slightly with them or sit a little m o r e towards the back. The adolescent R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 798 23 boys come in last and sit at the ve r y back. the preachers, The bishop, the d e a c o n and any v i si t in g m i n i s t e r s come in and take their places on a facing b e n c h or on the front rows' of a centrally l o c a t e d gro up of seats. Perhaps the small son of one m a y come in a n d sit w i t h his father. As they wa l k in, they m a y shake hands with some of the m e m b e r s w h o m they have not ye t greeted. W h e n the preachers are seat ed and the c o n g r e ga ti on 25 is settled, the service is r e a d y to begin. A f or es in ge r announces the first song and the m i n i s t e r s file out while the congregation is singing the opening verse. The bishop, 23. As the Old Order A m i s h ar e strictly congregat the services and customs vary somewhat f r o m one part of the country to another. U si n g Bachmann* s account, C„G. Bach m an , The Old Order A m i s h of L an c a s t e r Count y (Norristown, Pa., Pennsylvania G e r m a n Society, 1942), I will note some of the differences . Compare B a c h m a n ’s statement, p. 122, "The m a r r i e d folks generally occupy one room, the u n m a r r i e d another. In all cases the m e n sit in front, the wo m e n find in g places on the benches at the r e a r of the room," wi t h seating charts in Appendix IX, See Part A. One service wh i c h I attended the a do le sc e nt boys d i d not come in on time. It was a f e w m i n ut es past nine whe n one of th e ministers, at whose h o m e the service h a p p e n e d to be, c o m m e n t e d on the fact that the b o y s were not in and went out to get them. He returned immediately and they f o l lo we d in a f e w minut es . There is almost no lateness to church. See also M. Gingerich, The M e n n o n i t e s in Iowa (iowa, City; The State H i s t o r i c a l Society of Iowa, 1939), pp. 187-193. Gingerich, op. cit., p. 188, states, "By the time the songs are completed, the you ng m e n will come in and everyone is ready for the service." 25. The foresi ng er s are m e n in the c o n g r eg at io n w lead the hymns. T h e r e are several in each congregation, in fact any m a n can lead a h y m n (a w o m a n m a y not). In S t o n e y r u n this is evident as the foresi ng er s do not sit in a d e s i g n a t e d R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 799 preachers a n d deacon, the A b r a t h . go to a pr e -arranged, s e c l u d e d ro o m for They d i s cu ss th e order of the services who will represent w h i c h part, an d a n y chu rc h b u s in e ss that m u s t be 26 brought b ef o r e the congregation. W h i l e they are out, the congregation sings. worldliness, W i t h d e e p feeling and a sense of o t h e r ­ they sing the s ix te en th a n d se v e n t e e n t h century hymns f r o m their no t e l e s s G e r m a n song books. tunes were once folk tunes Ap parently, the 27 or w e l l - k n o w n h y m n tunes, but during the centuries of c on gr e g a t i o n a l notes or m u s i c a l instruments, the singing u n a i d e d b y songs h a v e e v o l v e d into slow, place. (A p p a r e n t l y in P e n n s y l v a n i a the singers h a v e a pp oi nt ed places, "Little Christ sat at the s i n g e r s 1 table as u s u a l . , J. Yoder, R o s a n n a of the A m i s h (Huntingdon, Pa,; Y o d e r P u b l i s h ­ ing Co., l'W^UJJ~pT~SEoJ'. In central Ohio the f o r e s i n g e r s are chosen compl et el y inform al ly . M e n w i t h good voices who enjoy singing lea d the hymns, w h e n a m a n leads f a i r l y regularly, he is a fore singer. 26. Bachma n , L a n c a s t e r , op. c i t . , p. 123. "At -the beginning of the service the m i n i s t e r s are u s u a l l y in another room of the h o us e. . . The s e r v i c e ... starts as a c on gregational affair, b e f o r e the ent ry of the m i n i s t e r s f r o m their council meeting. Someone, p o s s i b l y a c h o se n song leader, announces the number of a hymn, and the service starts." 27. Jackson, "The Strange M u s i c of the O l d Order Amish ," The Musical Q u a r t e r l y , July, 1945, pp. 275-88. Y o d e r beli ev es that the A m i s h slow tunes o r i g i n a t e d fr o m the G r e g o r i a n chants. See Joseph W. Yoder, R o s a n n a ' s B o y s (Huntingdon, Pa., Yoder, 1948), pp. 3 0 0- 3 04 and Amisc he L i e d e r (Huntingdon, P a , , Yoder, 1942), p. v. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 800 28 richly e mb r oi de re d me lo d i e s , that are sung in uni s on , w i t h a pronounced nasal q u a l i t y that' somehow ex aggerates the fact that this is singing. These sad, crying m e l o d i e s are well suited to the involved stories of martyrdom and so m a n y of the songs r e l at e . emphasizes the spiritual devotional songs. Th e strangeness suffer in g that of the singing (g e i s t l i c h ) q ualities of the p u r e l y E a c h song is a n n o u n c e d b y page numb er b y the foresinger and a second f o r e s i n g e r gives the c or re s p o n d 29 ing page n u m b e r in the other song book. The f or es i n g e r then sings the four or five not e s the congregation joins in on the of the first syllable and second. T h e fir st syllable of each lin e is sung alone b y the f o r e s i n g e r u n l e s s the song is arranged in couplets, syllable of each couplet. in w h i c h case h e sings only the fi r s t Ther e is no w a y to tell by l o ok in g at the verses if it is a couplet song, but everyone seems to know. The seco nd song is always the "Lobe Song" (0 Got t Vater, 30 Wir loben dich) so it is neve r a n n o u n c e d and m o s t of the 28. A n instance of e m b r o i d e r y was obser v ed in one service w h e n 00A72, daug ht er of the deacon, who has a fine, strong voice, oft en a dd e d an ext ra not e or slide to the various syllables. The c o n g r e g a t i o n di d not f o l l o w her, nor did they seem to c r i t i c i z e .other t h a n to say, "she has a beautiful voice, b u t sings so l o u d no one wants to sit next to h er during the service." 29. Not all th e songs are f o u n d in b o t h books, although the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d ones are in both. Occa­ sionally only thos e w i t h the A u s b u n d can sing. 30. Ausbund, p. 770, numbe r 131, L i e d e r s a m m l u n g , op. c i t ., p. T Z See A p p e n d i x VIII, Part A f o r a t r a n s l a t i o n of this hymn. G.P. Jackson, "The S t ra ng e M u s i c of the Old Order Amish, M u s i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , July, 1945, pp. 275-88 says that it is sung to a tune that was p o p u l a r in 1534. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 801 people sing it without books,, Sometimes only two (parts of 31 two) songs at this stage of the service, though often three. The singing stops with the end of the verse w h e n the m i n i s t e r s 31a walk in. E v e n th o u g h the second song is an u n u s u a l l y short one and I h a v e never b e e n to a service w he r e t h e y f i n i s h e d the third, it still takes almost an hour to sing the three songs with perhaps two or three m i n u t e s The re t u r n e d m i n i s t e r s of silence b e t w e e n each. sit on the b e n c h in a d i f f e r ­ ent order t h a n p re vi o u s l y for n o w they are in the order in which they will p articipate in the service. As the last strains of the singing die away, the first m a n rises to make the "A n f a n g " or the Begin ni ng . This like the rest of the service is d e l i v e r e d in H i g h German and with a strong admixture of "Pennsylvania Dutch". The Biblical tions are from the Lut he r translation. quota­ It is a small sermon that lasts about half an h ou r to forty minutes. At the end of 3'l"o S u g g e s t e d songs are l i s t e d in Raber's C a l e n d e r 9 op. c i t . j, and in E i n Re g i s t e r v o n Schr if te n u n d L i e d e r n die in Amis'onen G em e i n d e n gebraucht we r d e n (Baltic, Ohios " Johann R&ber)„ See A p p e n d i x ll. However, the suggestions are often not followed. A re g i s t e r is also given in Yoder, Amische L i e d e r , op. c i t „ , p. xi i and in a small booklet, Regis te r von SchrifTen und Liedern die in d en A m is ch en G e m e i n d e n gebraucht werden. (Scottdale, fa., M e n n o n i t e Publi s hi ng House, 1933) . The first list applies m a i n l y to M i f f l i n Co., Pa; and the second is m o st widely u s e d in L a n ca st er Co., Pa. (Bachman, Lancaster, op. cit. p. 124-125 states that a copy of this regis te r is g i v e n T 5 ” every church member.) This is not the custom in this. Anyone who wishes m a y buy R a b e r ’s Cal en da r or E i n R e g i s t e r . Al t h o u g h the registers differ slightly, there seem to be general c o r r e s ­ pondence. For example, the Y o d e r and Rfiber registers c o rr e sp on d exactly for the C o m m un io n service as to w hi ch scriptures should he read and as to the hymns that should be sung, except that Yoder lists only 2 hymns and R&ber lists five. See also John Ufnble, i ^ l , PPo 29-32. "Amish Service M a n u a l s , " MQR, January, 31a. As they come in, the m i ni st er s m a y shake hands with a few people w ho m they h a d not g r e e t e d previously. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 802 the Anfang the c ongregation faces the b a c k of the r o o m and kneels, each w i t h his arms on his b e n c h and his h e a d in his 32 hands during the silent prayer . T h e n everyone stands, 33 the women still facing the back, the m e n facing forward, while the deacon reads a chapter from the New T estament 34 in a sing-song, c hant-like voice. 32”. Du ri n g this p e r i o d of about two m i n u t e s , I have been told one rep ea ts the L o r d ’s Prayer slowly to oneself. Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , op. c i t . , p. 124, "He (the mini st er ) m e n ­ tions various objects for w h i c h p ra y e r should be offered to the Almighty, ana after a familiar q uo t a t i o n .from the Psalms inviting to prayer, all kneel, facing the benches, and engage in a season of silent prayer. Gingerich, op. cit., p. 188, "After that, he (the m i n i s t e r who h as been preaching) leads in prayer with the audience kn e e l i n g .,s 33. Ibid. "At a certain point all rise to their feet, and remain standing, fac in g in the same d ir ec ti on as they had teen kneeling... They stand in an attitude of respect while the Word of God. is being read| facing in different directions so that the l ea st amount of di st ra ct i on m a y be pres e nt w hi l e they listen to G o d ’s word." The Amish I asked h a d no e x p l a n a t i o n for this. One Amish ma n said, "I sometimes w on d e r why we f a c e d one w ay and the w o m e n another." A nother said, "The w o m e n stand m o r e neater t h a n the men." When I s u g g e s t e d B a c h m a n 5s explan at i on they did not agree with it. 34. S ug g e s t e d scripture readings are also given in R&ber’s Calendar op. c i t . , and E i n Register, op. cit. mentioned above. These m a y or ma y not be followed. In one service I attended t he y were, in another, they were not. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. At the end of the scripture r e a d i n g the c o n g r e g a t i o n is seated and the sermo n is d e l i v e r e d h y another m i n i s t e r or b i s h o p „ T h e sermon u s u a l l y last s about an h o u r and m a y be admonishing the c o n g r e g a t i o n on behavior, or m a y b e an 35 exposition on such topics as the end of the world. In any event there is a grea t deal of quot in g fro m the B i b l e and the re ci t a t i o n of m a n y B i b l i c a l events is included. The minister u s u a l l y preaches in a rat he r unnatural voice, that has some of the intonations of a chant and carries well. The gestures are easy, flow in g a n d not d i stracting. Appar­ ently, this s t y li z ed f o r m of orat or y is p r e f e r r e d to preaching in an ordi na ry speak in g voice. Even b y the b e g i n n i n g of the sermon, the c o n g r e g a ­ tion has b e e n sitt in g at least an h o u r and a half. children are g r o wi n g restless. The Cookies or pretz el s m a y be 3 5 „ A t the three services I hav e at tended,, the first was the service immediately p r e c e e d i n g the b aptismal ser' :e, The mai n sermon in this instance was a tirade against the world, espec ia ll y radio, m i s s i o n a r i e s and b aseball. The second one was in N o v em be r and wa s on the end of the world. The third sermon was d e l i v e r e d by an A m i s h m i n i s t e r that travels a g r e a t deal an d ha s v i s i t e d all the I-W units. He preached v e r y e l o q u e n t l y on the pla n of salvation. J. TJmble, ’’The O ld Order A mi s h of L a n c a s t e r County, P a . , ” MQR, October, 1943, p. 213 says of the S c r ip tu re p o rt io ns chosen f r o m the Epistles, ’’N o n e of these w o u l d induce a morbid b r o o d i n g over one* s ..sinful state bu t r a t h e r a r e j o i c ­ ing in the b l e s s e d h o p e . ” Those h e m e n t i o n s are: the "new b i r t h , ” Rom. 6 ; the L o r d ’s Supper, I Cor. 5 and 10? the frdom c h a p t e r , ” Gal. 5; the h a r v e s t Scripture, Rev. 14? the faith chapters, H e b . 11 and 12; and th e r e s u r r e c t i o n chapters I Thess. 5 and I Cor. 15. For a complete l i st in g of the Scripture readi ng s u s e d in central Ohio see Appendix I, Part R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e c onvrinht ^ c o p y n s h , ovvner. Further reprodu ct|0„ ^ - S 04 - passed to the little c h i l d r e n w i t h their mothers* toys w i t h their f a t he rs who are hut the sitting near the m i n i s t e r s a^e not offered any nor are the c h il d re n who are old enou gh 36 to sit with their age group. In about fourth grade* just the time some of the l i t t l e girls are changing to ad u l t dresses* they start sitt i ng wi t h their age m a t e s of with a parent or g r a n d p a r e n t „ Instead The se child re n are c o n ­ sidered too o ld to n e e d foo d d u r i n g the service or to have toys to p l a y with* a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y go out for a f e w minutes if necessary. rocked* fed cookies* T h e y o u n g e r children are held* gi v e n special toys such as a plastic airplane or a b e a d gam e or a toy truck. They m a y go for • water or crackers and w h e n tired cf sitting with one parent 37 they m a y cross over to sit w i t h the other for a while. WQl TEe chil d who is old enou gh to refuse the cookie feels he has a t t a i n e d a sl i g h t l y h i g h e r status. U n d e r no conditions do the m o th e rs eat any of the cookies* eve n if the child has c ru m bl ed it an d does not want it. The crumbs are saved and eaten after the sermon* but not duri ng it. 37. I h a v e never o b s er ve d a child b e i n g p u n i s h e d for ■ misbehaving in church. The littl es t chil d re n receive m o r e p e r ­ sonal atte n ti on dur in g church t h a n un d e r other ci rc um s ta nc es and they hav e n e w a nd special toys and food. As y o u n g chil dr e n they seem to like church. They c a n wig g le and even w a l k ar ou n d a bit. B y the time t h e y are older t h e y m a y f i n d it p r e t t y dull for they h a v e no special toys and do not eat* but it gives the m time to l o o k arou nd and day dream. C hi ld re n have very lit tl e free time to t hemselves and at least d u ri n g this p e r i o d their thoughts are little disturbed. The y too m a y go out for a f e w minutes. A n occasional chil d w h o does not want to go to church is not f or c e d to attend. He m a y stay o u t s i d e quietly* but usually he appears to feel e x c l u d e d and he comes b a c k to the service. The paren t s want the ir ch i l d r e n to like c h ur c h and in this they are f a i r l y successful. The a dolescents m a y no t like the service, but they catch up on their own g o s s i p d u ri ng it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Usually the y o u n g e r children are t ak en out at least once to be toileted or c h a ng ed and even older people m a y leave for a few m i n u t e s . Mothers come and go to check on their ba bi e s sleeping in a n o t h e r r o o m and o c c a si on al ly an older p erson falls asleep, a l t h o u g h this is quite a feat on a h a r d back58 less bench. In general, the sermon is dir e ct ed m o r e to the men than to the w o m e n and as the m e n are caring for fewer chil dr en (there are twice as m a n y children on the women’s side), they can pay better attention. the length of the In spite of service and the grow in g restless n es s m o s t adults seem to l i s t e n closely. The se r m o n concludes w i t h the m i n i s t e r who has b e e n 39 preaching th e m a i n sermon r e a d i n g of the second scripture. One to several verses are r ea d at a time and then e xplained or rather c o r r e l a t e d w i th other pass ag es in the Ne w and the Old Testament thus each sec t io n is a m p l i f i e d and expanded. A couple of m i n u t e s be f o r e the end of the sermon the minister sits down. Wh e n he has f inished, the preacher ~ 38". One poor m a n slept so so un dl y he fell off the tench. The a c c o un t was g a i l y w r i t t e n u p in the H e r a l d . Most families try to go to b e d early on Saturday night so they will not b e sleepy in church. 39. The c o n g r e g a t i o n sits d u r i n g this part as during the s ermon proper. n e P r o t o d with p erm lssion o f th e copyright o w n er Further reproduction p r o h M e d ^ ^ - 806 asks for at least two m e n to w i t n e s s (zeugnis) or testify 40 as to the correctness of his p r e s e n t a t i o n of the Word. The witnesses m a y say only a f e w words or speak for as long as fifteen m i n u t e s „ The m i n i s t e r m a k e s a few remarks 5 then the congregation k n e el s again while he reads a prayer from 41 the C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t . The c o n g r e g a t i o n stands, fac in g 4 0 o "That in the m o u t h of two or three witnesses every word m a y he e s t a b l i s h e d ." Mat: 18:16. M i n i s t e r s are not considered infallible. Witne ss e s are ne c e s s a r y as the minister is expected to present The W o r d duri n g the sermon and not m e r e l y his opinions. "They (the ministers) do not speak their own word, bu t their L o r d ’s word..." T h i e l m e n J. von B r a c h t , The B l o o d y Theatre, or M a r t y r s ’ Mirror, of the Defenceless Christians, who suffered and were put to death for the testim on y of Jesus, T he i r Savior, from the time of Christ unt il the Year A.D. 1660. F o r m e r l y compiled from Various authentic Chronicles and testimonies p u b l i s h e d in the D u t c h language, by T he x l m e n <J, v on Bracht. Carefully translated into the German; fr o m w h i c h it is t ranslated compared with the original, and carefully revised;; the numerous texts of scripture m o r e co rr e c t l y quoted than in the German Edition, by 1. Dani el R u p p . (Lancaster County, J?a,, David M i l l e r , 1837), pT 313. F r o m a C on fe s si on of faith writt en p r o b a b l y d u r in g the last y e a r of the sixteenth century. U s u a l l y only the ministers, e sp ec ia ll y the deacon, witness, but m e m be rs of the c o n g r e g a t i o n m a y witness. One young m i n i s t e r ' c a l l e d on some of the m e n who h a d b e e n in the lot with h i m to witness, but they d i d not like it and he returned to the m o r e conventional p a t t e r n of asking other ministers to testify for him. There was no feeling among the ministers or the c o n g r eg at io n that h e should not ask laymen, only the m e n themselves objected. 41. Di e Er ns t h a f t e C h r i s t e n p l l i c h t d a r i n n e n sch8n e geistreiche Gebeter, darmit sich from me C h r i s t e p h e r z e n zu alien Zeiten u n d in alien Ntithen t r o s t e n k o n n e n . (Scottdale, Pa.: Menn on i te V e r l a g s h a n d l u n g , 1945), R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 807 42 as before, w hi l e the m i n i s t e r p ro no u n c e s the be nediction. 43 At the name of Jesus Christ everyone g e nuflects. After the benediction, the co n g r e g a t i o n is seated and the dea co n makes the announcements? Such as w h e re church is to be held next time, perhaps he publishes a couple, or if there is any church bu s i n e s s he asks the m e m b e r s to r e m a i n after the end of the service. When it is over to stay. T h e n the last h y m n is announced. "church is out," u n l e s s the m e m b e r s have In that event the n o n “-members pass orderly lines l e av i ng only a few presc ho o l out in quiet, children-with, their parents. It is a lo n g service l a s ti ng f r o m about nine in the morning until twelve-thirty, if there is church business until as late as o n e - f if te en or one-thirty. It is simple, 42. "SEGENS SPRUCH. Zuletzt, liebe Braider, freuet euch, seid vollkommen, t r 8stet euch, ha bt einerlei Sinn, seid friedsam. so w i r d Gott der L ie b e u n d des F r i e d e n s mit euch sein. Grusset euc h u n te r einander, mit dem h e i l i g i n Kuss. Es grtlssen euc h alle H eiligen. D i e Gnade unser-s H er r n Jesu Christi u n d die Lie be Gottes u n d die G e me i n s c h a f t des Heiligen Geistes sei m i t euch alien, Amen. 2 K o r „ 13, 11-13" Handbuch fflr P r e d i g e r , op. c i t . , p . 44. Finally, brethren, f a r e w e l l . B e perfect, be of good c o m ­ fort, be of one mind, live in peacej and the God of love and peace shall be w i t h you. Greet one another w i t h an h o l y kiss. All the saints salute you. The grace of the L o r d Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the H o l y Ghost, be with you all. Amen. 43. "That at the name of Jesus every kne e should bow," Phil. 2;10. However, there is no g e n u f l e c t i n g if the name of Jesus is m e n t i o n e d in the Scripture reading. In other words, it does not always occur w h en e ve r one is standing, but rather is a part of the ritual, of the Service. Gingerich, op. c i t . , pp. 191-92. "W h e n the e x p r e s s i o n ’in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the H o l y G h o s t ’ is reached, every church member bends his kne es at the m e n t i o n of the w o r d S on „" Fro m this it w o u l d appear that a diffe r en t b e n e d i c t i o n • is used is Iowa. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 808 relaxed and ye t h i g h l y f o r m a l i z e d in that the order of services never changes nor the way in w h i c h the m a t e r i a l is presented? it is the "straight" w o r d w i t h a m i n i m u m of p e rs on al interpretation as b o t h rational and m ys t i c a l suspect. a pproaches are equa ll y The slight physical disco mf or t hard benches stresses the importance of long h o ur s on of discipline. seating arrangement, w h i c h is u n i qu e to r e l i g i o u s stresses the brotherhood, sized family group, as it separates and places emphasizes in numerous and brotherhoods services, the xtsually e m p h a ­ the m e m b e r s pattern of the w h o l e congregation. The in the larger Thus e ve r y service ways, t h e W o r d of God, discipline, three essentials of the A m i s h religion. The h o s t p r ob a bl y attends t h e whole mind wanders little, bu t to serve attends but a small part and even t h e n trouble liste ni n g. the hostess, who service and his still has lun ch she m a y ha v e The fires were s t a r t e d b e f o r e the service, but gallons of w a t e r m u s t be put on to boil for the coffee. The cheese must be cut. and milk and w a t e r The pickles in p itchers. activities long e n ou gh to pass children and to be by the water. a n d jam put She interrupts crackers into dish es these or cookies to the sure that there is p l e n t y on the plates A f e w of the w o m e n stay out to h e l p h e r w i t h the preparations and to w a t c h the babies. the whole service, but m a y be They r a r e l y mi s s out for a l a rg e part of it. A few of the y o u n g girls l ea v e the service a lit tl e e ar l y R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 809 to help w i t h the last m i n u t e p r e p a r a t i o n and serving the tableso W h e n churc h is out some of the men, l e d b y the host, carry out b e n c h e s and place t h e m in the cellar to form two l o n g tables. Two b e n c h e s another and abutt i ng t w o others, is formed fro m four benches. are p l ac e d next to one in such a way that a table A s e co nd similar table is set up and bench es arranged so that people both sides of it. The impro mp tu tables are q u ic k ly cove r ed with yards of white, glass, k ni f e and of water, can sit along linen t o w e l i n g and places set: spoon at e a c h place. small white pitchers a cup, Lar ge clear pitc he rs of m i l k for the coffe e and dishes of pink, r e d and purp le spreads alternate w i t h plates of golden butter, sweet gre en pickles, r e d beets, pal e yellow cheese and stacks of whi te bread. The center of 44 the table seems f e n c e d with b r i g h t l y colo re d food. The older people are congregating, the men near the other. the w o m e n near one entrance, W h e n b o t h tables h a v e b e e n set up, the m i n i s t e r s w i t h the o ld e r m e n and the older women, many of w h o m are c a r i n g for a y o u n g g r a n d c h i l d four) who can h a r d l y wait long er for lunch, (age two to quiet l y walk 44. B ac hm a n, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t . , p. 128, regular m e a l w h i c h is. served at the pre se nt time, fr o m which there is ver y slight variation, consists of bread, jelly, pickles, beets, coffee, a n d 9snitz p i e .9" Che e se is substituted for snitz pi e in Ohio. Poorer famili es do not serve cheese. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. "The - 810 45 to the tables and take their places. A silent grace is said, one of the ministers giv in g an almost imperceptible signal, after w h i c h everyone starts eating and the girls come around w i t h steaming pots of fresh, There is litt le talking, sweetened coffee. and the people eat quic kl y for they kn ow that there will h a v e to be m a n y settings and it is hard to hav e to wait long for lunch. W h e n everyone is finished e a ti n g at both tables, silent grace is again o b ­ served, everyone rises and walks out. T he table waiters quickly r e fi ll any of the dishes that may need it and the people a s s em bl e for the next setting. These, too, are probably m o s t l y elderly people wi t h a few you ng children. The table service is not changed b e t w e e n settings. When the older p e o p l e have all be e n fed, the mothers wit h c h i l ­ dren eat, and f i n a l l y the adolescent and school children, who may not get l un c h u n t i l almost 3 s 00. It is not u n u s u a l for the a dolescents to go home, perhaps to do the chores and get some sleep, for they will p r ob ab ly come back in the evening for G e r m a n singing. If the m e m b e r s have stayed after the service to discuss the ch ur c h business, t h e n the school child re n and adolescents eat q u ic k ly and inform al l y 45. Ibid. "The pr e a c h e r s who are present are seate first; then there are separate tables for the old er m e n and women; after w h i c h the young m e n a n d w o m e n partake of the dinner, also occupying separate tables." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 811 before "church is out." Th e h o y s and girls stand around separate tables, gr a c e is not said (there is no adult to 47 lead it) and as soon as one child finishes, another steps into his place so that mo s t of them are fe d befor e the adults arrive, and the m e n start setting u p the b e n c h e s to f o r m the 48 table for the regular church lunch. After l u n c h the people visit, talk inform al ly in small groups, while the host es s w i t h a f e w women, h e l p clean up the dishes. The m e n and the w om e n rema i n r e l a t i v e l y separate altho u gh there is some mixin g. There are m a n y things to talk about: children's illnesses, work, visiting, w hi l e the m e n discuss farming, weather, and various economic concerns. A few - people leave i m m e d i at el y after the service, but most families do not go until about the m i d d l e of the afternoon. families slowly congr eg at e into distinct units everyone is ready, The and w h e n each g r o u p climbs into the b u g g y or surrey to start h o m e w a r d in time to do the evening chores. A few families stay for supper and are still there w h e n 48a the young people arrive for G e r m a n Singing. 47. Silence b e fo re meals is never observed if there is no church m e m b e r present to l e a d it. 48. The t e r m "lunch" is u s e d to m e a n a light repast. It is used f o r the chur ch lunch, f o r re fr e s h m e n t s at a q u i l t ­ ing or sewing, or for a packe d lu n c h that is ta k e n to school or on a trip. Otherwise, the m e a l s are breakfast, dinner, supper. 48a. For other accounts of an A mi s h chur ch service see: Bachman, Lancaster, op. cit., pp. 121-30. Gingerich, I o w a , op. c i t . , p. 187-93. W. I. Schreiber, "A D a y wit h the Amish of Wayne County, Ohio," A m e r i c a n - G e r m a n . R e v i e w , February, 1946, pp. 12-13. Umble, op. c i t ., p p . 212-13. "The Amis h M e n n o n i t e s of U n i o n County, Pennsylvania, " April 1933, pp. 75-79. ________ M e n n o n i t e s in L y o n County, Kansas: 1880-90, p. 243. Joseph W. Yoder, R o s a n n a of the A m i sh (Huntingdon, Pa.: Yoder P ub li s h i n g Co., 1940), p p . 39-37. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 812 The b i - w e e k l y church services are a g at he r in g of the visible churcho re-establishes H e r e the c om m u n i t y worsh i ps toget h er and its corporateness. D u r i n g the early part of the day the m e m b e r s are a s s o c i a t i n g with one another in a formal stylized mann er , dur in g this in purpose and action,, The p a t t er n of eating is formalized, but the personal ceremony they are u n i t e d contacts duri ng the lu n c h p e r i o d are freer than they were dur in g the actual service„ F o l l o w i n g lun ch members m o v e a r o u n d freely an d infor m al ly m a k i n g an effort to speak to e v er yo n e of their own sex that is present. Dur­ ing this p e r i o d the important fa c e - t o - f a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s on which the smoo th fu n ct io ni ng of the c o m m u n i t y depends, re-establishedo are Every item of interest to the c ommunity is mentioned i n fo rm a ll y and important topics are discussed,, It is a per i od dur in g w h i c h c o mm u ni ty opinions are f o r m e d and responded to„ The co mm u n i t y is i n t e g r a t e d b y the great b o d y of knowledge its m e m b e r s h o l d in common. is the wrong w o r d to use h e r e D Perh ap s k n o w l e d g e R a t h e r I should say the community is i n t e g r a t e d b y the innume ra bl e fac ts seemingly small and u n i m p or ta nt , that are k n o w n in common. To a surprising degree each m e m b e r k n o w s what member does a nd what his subject„ some each other attitudes are on almost every The se hours of informal d i s c u s s i o n f o l l o w i n g church services are e x tr em e ly important in m a i n t a i n i n g homogeneity w i t h i n the church,, Th e y are an essential p r e l i m ­ inary to the m o r e formal g at he r i n g s iately foll ow the chur ch service. of the m e mb er s that i m m e d ­ D e c i s i o n s ma d e b y the counsel R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 813 of the church mous . (all the b a p t i z e d membe r s) m u s t b e almost u n a n i ­ Such decis io ns w o u l d be impos si bl e were it not for the great h o m o g e n e i t y of the g r o u p and the fact that with ou t realizing it in m a n y instances the consensus h a d alrea dy b e e n taken in t h e informal g a th er in g f ol l o w i n g prev io us church services. The i mp r es si on m a y b e g i v e n that every A m i s h m a n attends every service of h i s church. This is, of course, 49 W o m e n who are f a i r l y a d v a n c e d in their pregnancy, or 50 have a small b a b y or sick c h il dr en stay at home. Sometimes not true. the farming operations r e q u i r e someone to stay hom e wi t h the 51 animals. Y o u n g m e m b e r s m a y be away at their I-W service or working for a few weeks in another church district. Although compared w i t h other P r o t e s t a n t Churches the attendance at the A m i s h ch ur c h services is remarkable, the Amish too h a v e are several m e m b e r s individuals who r a r e l y attend. There of S t o n e y r u n w h o m I hav e never m et (or have only m e t at some n o n - c h u r c h function) „ These 49. They a vo i d r i di n g in buggies and the long hours sitting on the w o o de n benc h es and the late, small l u n c h would make the d a y too difficult. 50. "Today ’J o s e p h 1 and the girls wer e to church at Monroe’s and report goo d a tt en d an ce and P r e . Joe M i l l e r f r o m Madison Co. I w o u l d ha v e enjoy e d b e i n g there, but the three toys have b e e n sore t h r o a t .... Personal correspondence. 111/14/54. 51. "oo.and we got three h u n d r e d b a b y chicks on Pri. and since there was such a h i g h w i n d goin g we thought we m i g h t have trouble w i t h the stove and so on. I am ta ki n g the r e s p o n ­ sibility to care for them. They are supposed to be pullets for layers, so they are c a ll ed m i n e v " P e r so na l correspondence, Hl/14/54. Raising b r o i l e r s is m a n ’s work, cari n g for layers is woman’s work. A m e m b e r m a y also h a v e to stay h o m e if a cow is calfing. B e c a u s e b ro o de rs cannot b e h e a t e d w i t h e le ct r i c i t y or bottled gas it is often n e c e s s a r y f o r one m e m be r of the family to stay hom e a nd w a t c h them. I was told of one f a m i l y in which one of the children did not mi n d m i s s i n g church. (This is unusual.) So hi s p a r e nt s oft en h a d h i m stay hom e w i t h the chickens and let his b r o t h e r s and sisters wh o wer e anxious to go to church come along w i t h them. This was m e n t i o n e d as a possible r e a s o n w h y he n ev e r joined the church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 814 are deviant individuals b y the very fact that t h e y do not attend chur ch regularly, but in other ways, too, generally express their deviation. they are the least low status. they Ofte n economically successful and i nvariably they are of Individuals who are u nd e r the ba n do not attend church unt il they are f ul l y repen t an t and w i s h to indicate that they are r e a d y to m a k e their confession, w h e n the c o m m u n i t y p e rm it s it, and are anxious to be re-admitted. Some families who do not own their land and work as tenants or hired ha n d s on short term basis m a y not change to the church district in whi ch they are living if th ey are fair ly near their h o m e chur ch or be l i e v e that their porary one. However, job is a t e m ­ this often m e a n s that t h e y do not attend church as r e g u l a r l y as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n is such a problem. Ideally, and f a i r l y often in practice, every single m e m b e r of the chur c h is present at communion, guests (other than minis te r s) fact that this m e e t i n g Meeting indicates is k n o w n as Gross Gma or B i g that the attendance a typical c h u rc h service. attend most of the are rare ly present. The is bet te r than at Howeve r, m o s t of the m e mb er s services and this is sufficient to give the buildingless c h ur c h a real identity. W o r s h i p i n g together community is integrated. is the v e r y bas is on whi ch the A s s o c i a t e d w i t h their wors hi p have developed patt er ns of in t e r a c t i o n that can be d i s ­ cussed sociologically, but with o ut the common w o r s h i p the other observable p a tt er n s w ou l d b e Insuff ic i en t to m a i n t a i n the group configuration. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8 1 5 - INITIATION OF MEMB ER S -BAPTISM B ap ti sm Is a rite that celebrates the passage from 52 childhood to adulthood. It is the initiation cere mo ny into the membership in esoteric community. It is an important ceremony in the life of the i ndividual and it is also e s ­ sential to the continuance of the community. Although an individual Is only bap ti z ed once in his life, this rite seems to be enjoyed v i c a r i o u s l y by the c om mu ni ty and often it has a greater emotional impact who were baptized m a n y years before actually receiving the baptism. on the old members than on the individuals E m o t i o n a l l y it functions as a yearly rede di c at io n for all the m e m b er s of the com53 munity. 52. The Individual Is b y no means a complete adult after the ceremony. He is responsible for his own sins, but in central Ohio he is still not fi na n ci al ly i n d e p e n ­ dent. (I have heard that in some communities children r e ­ tain their own m o n e y after they are eighteen which wo ul d be closer to the time of baptism.) W h e n he marries, he approaches complete adulthood, but it is r eally not u n t i l the birth of his first child that he is c onsidered a full adult. 53. This was very evident. The m a n n e r in w h i c h an individual d e sc r i b e d he r own b a p t i s m was almost d irectly related to the l e n g t h of time that had elapsed since she was baptized. Those who were b a p ti z ed t wenty years ago have accepted compl et el y the m y t h that they e xp er ie nc e d a transformation when they were baptized. A l t h o u g h the change in behavior p r e c e e d e d the change in attitude, in retrospect the order is revered. As one asks y o u ng er a nd yo un g people about this baptism, the religious aspects drop a w a y and it is usually described as something one did when one reached the right age and felt ready for the step. The younger in ­ formants reported that their ba pt i s m repres en te d a serious and important decision, but t h ey d i d not report a great em o ­ tional reintegration that some of the older informants s u g ­ gested. However, the older informants realize that the church meant more to them n o w than when they first joined. One woman wrote ,f. . .the y o u n g e r people as a whole I do not think they realize the purpose of our life here on e arth like you do when you grow some older .or .at least it is that wa y w i t h me. Per­ sonal correspondence, 11/20/53. This le t t e r was w r i t t en b y a 34 year old woman 0 0 A I 0 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 816 - In the period immediately preceeding his b a p t i s m the adolescent y o u t h has be e n p a s si ng t h r o u g h a p e r i o d of relative freedom: his parents have r e l ax ed m u c h of their control over him, the church has not yet m a n i f e s t e d its power. He has bee n testing the boundaries of his culture and stretching the rules of his p a r e n t s ’ church. enjoyed special en te rt ai nm en t that his own age group only, He has involved members of he has worked away f r o m home, visited in different communitie s and done a considerable amount of dating. There is tacit-agreement w i t h van 54 Bracht that m a n y youn g people "live after their lusts," 55 but this period of "sowing thei r w i l d oats" is a c c ep t ed 54. "die junge Leute, die n a c h ihren Wohllilisten leben,” un d nicht e rleuchter sind, . . „" T. J. V. Bracht (Braght) ; Per .Blutig Schau-Platz oder Marty re r Spiegel der Tauffs-Gesinnten oder w e hr lo se n Chri st en Die u m des Zeugnisses Jesu, inhre S e l i g m a c h e r s , willen, g e li tt en haben, und getodted worden sind, von Christi Zeit an, bis auf das Jahr 1 6 6 0 , Lancaster, Pa.; Jos e ph Ehrenfried, 1814, p. 6. Living after their lusts is i n t e r pr et e d as living af t e r the flesh w h i c h includes interest in sex but also all worldly pleasures and does not sanction sexual license. 55. 00A10. This m e a n s bein g wild (not o b e y i n g some of the rules of the church) and does not include sexual freedom. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - for they "have not come to 817 - ,56 the light." As they g r o w older* and cuite o b v i o u s l y have r e a c h e d the age where thev can 57 distintinguish goo d f r o m evil, f a m i l y a n d community pressure 56. Martyrer S u i e g e l , 1814, loc.cit. 57. " . . . sonde rn g leichwie die Sllnde in der Ungehorsarnkeit ihren TJrsprung g e no mm en hat, u n d in der Wissenschaft des G u t e n u n d Biisen in A d a m u n d E v a angefangenj in gleichern Maasse gehet das mi t den K i nd er n au c h zuj dann wiewohl sie alle von einem stlndlichen A d a m k o m e n , so wird ihnen d o c h die Erbslinde (wie m a n sie nennet) von Go tt zur Verdarnmniss ni c h t zugerechnet, u m Jesu Christi wiilen; aber 'sie sind eines Theils, g l e i c h w i e A d a m u n d Ev a vor dem Fall waren, m & m l i e h in d e m dass sie einfsiltig recht und schlecht sind, w ed e r Gutes n o c h E5ses verstehen, aber sobald. als sie zu d e r W i s s e n s c h a f t des C-uten und Rosen kornmen, aus der e i n a l t i g e n U mw i s s e n h e i t in die bekannte Bosheit treten, u n d d u r c h die eigene ITngehorsamkeit und. IJebertretung des gftttlichen W o r t s und Begots wie de r den IlErrn slindigen ; so ist es an d e r bequ em en und b e s t i m m t e n Zeit, dass sie z u m ersten gelehrt, (M a t . 28. c .) ia mit dem Gesetze Gottes zu der Buss e h e r z l i c h v er m a h n e t werden, (R8m. 3.b.) auf dass sie sich bessern, ihre Slinden vor Gott beklagen bekenen u n d Leid darftber tragen, (Apostelg. 2. d. ) darnach milssen sie wied.erum mit d e m E v a n g e l i u m getrftstet werden, (Marc. 1. a. Ephes. 2.b.) . . ." I have tr a n s c r i b e d a vowel with a small s uperscript "e" as the same vowel w i t h an u m l a u t .) Dietrich (Dirk) P h i l i p (Philips), Enchiridion, oder, H a n d buchlein, von der C h r i s t l i c h e n L eh r e u n d Beligion. Zum Dienst von alien L i eb ha be rn der V/ahrheit (durch die Gnade Gottes) aus der H e i l i g e n Schrift gemacht. Lancaster, Fa.: Joseph Ehrenfried, 1811, p. 20-21. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 818 - to dire ct t h e m towards 58 church community,, i ncreases the light and into the The only sign and p r o o f of i nc o rp or at io n into the 59 visible Christian churc h is b el i e v e d to be baptism,, There­ fore, this ceremony has be e n of supreme only to the c h u r c h community, church as well. but to the enemies D u r i n g the periods saints were always importance, not of the of pe rsecution the q u e s t i o n e d on the doctrine of adult baptism versus infant baptism. Thus a great deal of the 60 early writings and records of court cases deal w i t h their 61 concept of baptism. E v e n the E u r o p e a n names given to the group from w h i c h the Old O rd e r A m i s h d e v e l o p e d r e f e r to 58.". . . aber d e m E v a n g e l i u m muss en sie glauben, und auf das Bekenn tn is s ihres Gl a u b e n s muss en sie in d e m Namen des Herrn, d u r ch die Kraf t des h e il ig en Geistes, zu der Gemeinschaft des Leibes. ^ e s u Chri st i getauft, (Marc. 16.b. 1 cor. 12.b.) u n d also g e r e c h t f e r t i g e t werden, d u r c h Zuschreibung u n d M i t t h e i l u n g seiner G e r e c h t i g k e i t aus Gnaden, auf dass sie also w i e d e r g e b o r e n seyen (Joh. 3.a.) zu einem neuen Leben, ge sc ha ff en und ve rn e u e r t n a c h d e m Bild des himlischen Vaters, (l B u c h Mos. 3.d.) das ist na c h Christo Jesu, das alte m e n s c h l i c h e W e s e n verlaugnen, u n d in e i n e m neuen ge istlichen W e s e n w a n d e l n . " D.P., o p .c i t . , 1811, p. 21. '59.Heilige T a u f "ist das einzige Zeichen u n d Beweiss der Einverel leibung in die sichtbare Christliche Gemeinde; ohne welche niemand, wer er a u c h seyn mag, oder w e l c h e r Bekenntniss er moch te z u ge th an seyn, vor ein wahres Mitgl ie d derselben C h r i s t l i c h e n G e m e i n e mag erkannt werden, und wann er auch n o c h so a b g e s ch ie d en u n d g o t t e s f u r c h t i g in seinem Leben sich auffuhret. Dieses w i r d mit e i n e m u m s t a n d l i c h e n Beweiss (doch ohne Disputiren) in f o lg e n d e r Beschreibune: angewiesen u n d b e f e s t i g e t ." M a r t y r e r S p i e g e l , op.cit., 1814, p. 7. 6 0.Menno S i m o n s ’ works, D i r k Philips works, the early confessions and p r a c t i c a l l y the w h o l e of the Mart;fr s Mirror deal w i t h t he i r b e li ef c o n c e r n i n g baptism. Van Bracht summarizes b a p t i s m in e a c h cen tu ry f r o m the b i r t h of Christ unti l 1660. 6 1 . See, for example, G u n t h e r Franz et al„, "Wiedertauferakten 1527-1626 , TJrkundliche Q u e l l e n zur h e s s i s c h e n R e f o r m ­ ations ges chic hte . Vol~ IV, (Marburg: 1951^. W . W i s w e d e 1, Bilder und b-uhrerges taluen aus d e m Taufertum, x, (Kassel • J . G . dncken hacnfolger, 1928). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 819 ■baptism: "Wiedertauf e r ” , "Tauf gesinnte" , " D o o p s g e s i n d e " , and "Anabaptist". wished we were V a n Braght laments, "We could have cal l ed by another name, a fter the whole 62 only after the h o ly b a p t i s m " „ Bap ti sm religion a n d not is considered a "true, unchangeable ordinance and insti63 64 tution of the Lord," a "plan of Jesus Christ," a "sac65 ramental sign," but it is not a true sacrament in that it has, in itself (as ad m in i s t e r e d b y man), no saving grace, for "We are not r e g e ne ra te d because we have been baptized, . . . but we are bapt iz ed because w e have been regenerated by f a i t h and the W o r d of God Regeneration is not the result (I Pet. 1:23). of baptism, but baptism 66 is the result of regeneration." t» Or as Ph il i p puts it we are not r e d e e m e d by o utward baptism, but by 67 the precious b l o o d of Christ . . ." There are two e « o 62. "Wir h a t t e n w oh l gewunscht, das man sie anderes h&tte genennet, n e m l i c h nicht nach der H. Tauf Allein, sondern n a c h ihrer g anzen Religion:" Martyrer Spiegel, 1814, op. c i t . p. 7. 63. D.P., o p . c i t ., 1910, p. 20. 64. I b i d ., p. 38. 65. I b i d ., p. 53. 66. John Horsch, Menno Simons (Published by the Author, pr in t ed by Mermo ni te - Publis hi n g House, Scottdale, Pa., 1916) p. 260. Qu ot a t i o n f r om transla ti on of Menno S i m o n s ’ writing. 67. D.P., 1910, p. 51. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 820 aspects of baptism; the internal Spiritual aspect and 68 the external bapt is m by w a t e r . for adult B o t h are essential salvation, for w i t ho ut the external sign w h i c h 69 is a witness of spiritual b a p t i s m one cannot be recog70 nized as a true m ember of the Christian church, and 71 of the C h ri st ia n ch ur ch can a ttain s a l v a t i o n 0 72 Spiritual b a p t i s m must come first, and the outward sign only members 68. "Ich glaube und bekenne, dass da ist eine Christliche Taufe, die i nn er l ic h und “ d tusserlich geschehen muss, innerlich mit dem heffigen. Geist u n d Feur, ausserlich aber mit Wasser, in d e m N amen des Vaters, des Sohns un d des Heil. Geistes, Matth. 28. Joh. 1. L Joh.5. Marc. 16. Ausbund, p. 832. This is f r o m the confession of Thomas von Imbr oi c h (von Imbroek), (van I m b r o e c k ) . It also is found in the M artyrs M i r r o r , o p . c i t . 69. "Aber die a u s s e rl ic he Taufe des Wassers, die da ist ein Zeuge der g e i s t l i c h e n Taufe . . . ." A u s b u n d , p. 823. 70. M a rt y re r Spiegel, op. c i t ., .1814 T p. 7. 71. ". . .it Is necessary. . . to know w hi ch is the true Christian Church. . . They must ally themselves w i th this same church if they desire to be saved. . . ." D.P., op.cit„, 1 9 1 Q p. 367-368. The Old Order Am is h still believe this .but m a n y of them will say that there are saints in other churches than the Old Order wh o w i ll also attain heaven. I wrote to a n A m i s h m a n I had not met, but knew a great deal about. He had rec en tl y changed his m e m b e r s h i p f r o m the Old Order to the B eachy church. In m y letter I e x pl ai ne d that I was not A m i s h (which of course, he k n e w ) . In his a nswer he wrote, "You say y o u are an outsider, but our f am i l y and we share in hoping that y o u may still be of the n umber who have their names w r i t te n in the L a m b ’s b o o k o f life." Per­ sonal correspondence, X/lO/56. 72. "Aber die Ge is t e s t a u f e ist die e r s t e ‘und die wichtigste und nothigste, u n d ohne dieselbige kann N i e m a n d ein wharer Christ sein.” Beiler, Wahrer C h r i s t e n t h u m , o p .c i t ., p. 55. ” ... .Peter comman de d that those only should be b a p ­ tized who h a d received the Holy.Ghost, . ." J.C.Wenger, ed., The Complete Writings of M en no S i m o n s . Trans. L e o na rd Verduin, Scottdale, Pa.; H e r a l d Press, 1956, p. 277. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 821 - :x alone Is of no value. This internal b a pt is m by Christ 31 "with the H o l y Ghost a n d w i t h f i r e ” is possi bl e o n l y after a man has attained the years that he is able to d i s t i n g u i s h g ood f r o m evil: v of accountability, has I heard the w o r d of God: has a m e n d e d his life, and belie ve d 84 the gospel. A f t e r he receives the gift of the H o l y S p i r ­ it, he confesses his f ai t h a n d is o u t w a r d l y b a p t i z e d "b y a true messenger of Christ, in the name cf the Father, the Son, and of the H o l 7r G h o s t . ” 8 f ’ His and of "past life must be 80 buried w i t h C h r i s t , ” he mu s t "put off the old Adam" . and "through faith, aB rise to a n e w l i f e ” and be conformed 80. ,rD a n n kei n a u s s e r l i c h zeichen allein gilt nichts fur Gott. . . . " Ausbund, o p . c i t . , p. 827. 81. D.P., opoCit o , .1910, 82. D e u t . 1:39. p. 303. 83. "For Christ has in expl i ci t language or d a i n e d and commanded that the teach in g o f the gospel and f a i t h shall precede baptism." D.P., op.cit „, 1910, p. 20. 84. . .the candidate for b a p t is m must believe for himself, m u s t confess It in w o r d and deed, an d d e s i r e and receive b a p t i s m as a c om ma nd me n t of God, . . Menno Simons, o p . c i t . , 1956, p. 254. 85. D.P. , 1910, p. 303. 86. Mart yr s M i r r o r , o p . c i t .. 1951 , 87. D.P. . o p . c i t ., .1910, p. 368. p. 301. 88. M a r t y r s 1- M i r r o r , b p . c i t ., 1 9 5 1 , p. 368. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 822 - to t h e i m a g e o f J e s u s C h rist. T herefore, a fter b ap tism 7 .1 "a c o n s i s t e n t , good, pio u s, C h ristia n life " f o r t h e new man h a s b e e n u n i t e d w i t h G o d , m ust f o l l o w , in co rp o rated !-1' into C h r i s t J e s u s , and h a s and a l l become a p a r t a k e r o f t h e H o ly G h o s t , y ie ld e d h im se lf to th e the rv*~ sain ^o , to c o m m u n io n o f J e s u s C h r i s t the fe llo w s h ip of t h e body of H i s b a p t i s m w a s a t e s t i m o n y t h a t h e was r e - Christo 73, What b a p t i s m m e a n s i s w e l l summed u p b y P h i l i p s " . 0 0 d i e m u s s e n v o n o b e n , d i e m u s s e n a u s dem W a s s e r u n d G e i s t , d i e m u s s e n a u s dem u n v o r g a n g l i c h e n S a a m e n , d a s ist, durch des W ort d e s l e b e n d i g e n G O t t e s w i e d e r g e b o h r e n w e r d e n , ( J o h . 3 . a . 1 P e t . I . e . J a c . l . b , E p h . 5 . b 0 T i t . 3 . a 0) d i e ; mussen d u r c h d a s Bad d e r W i e d e r g e b u r t i n dem W o r t g e w a s c h e n , und d u r c h d i e V e r n e u e r u n g d e s h e i l i g e n G e i s t e s v e r & n d e r t w e rd en, d i e m u s s e n d e n a l t e n Adam a b l e g e n , u n d v e r n e u e r t werden i n dem G e i s t d e s G e m u t h s , u n d a n z i e h e n d e n n e u e n Menschen, j a d e n H e r r n J E s u m C h r i s t u m , ( E p h . 4 . C . C o l . 3 . a . ) das w e l c h e s a l l e s z u sam m en s o v i e l g e s a g t i s t , d a s s e i n Mensch a l s e r z u s e i n e m V e r s t a n d , u n d z u d e r E r k e n n t n i s s des G u t e n u n d B o s e n kommen i s t , s o m u s s e r G O t t e s W o r t h 8 r e n , s i c h b e s s e r n , dem E v a n g e l i u m g l a u b e , ( M a t , 3 . a Marc. l . a . L u c . 2 4 „ d 0) a u f d i e b e k e n n t n i s s s e i n e s G la u b e n s in dem Namen d e s H E r r n g e t a u f t w e r d e n , d i e Gab d e s h e i l i g e n G e i s t e s e m p f a n g e n u n d v e r n e u e r t w e r d e n i n dem G em iith n a c h dem E b e n b i l d G O t t e s , ( M a t t . 2 8 . c , M arc. 1 6 .b „ A p o s te lg . 2 . d . ) das i s t n a c h C h r i s t u m J E s u m , d e r d a i s e i n a u s g e d r u c k t e s E benbild d e s u n s i c h t b a r l i c h e n G O t t e s , e i n V o r b i l d a l l e r C h r i s t ­ en, u n d e i n A n f a n g d e r C r e a t u r e n G O t t e s , d u r c h w e l c h e n a u c h alle neue C r e a tu r e n , (C o l. 2 . b . Rom. 8 . d . O f f e n b . 3 0c 0) d a s i s t , a l l r e c h t g l a u b i g e n C h r i s t e n a u s G O t t dem h i m m l i s c h e n V ater i n dem h e i l i g e n G e i s t g e b o h r e n w e r d e n , d a r u m d a s s s i e g l e i c h f o r m i g s o l l t e n s e y n dem E b e n b i l d s e i n e s e i n g e b o h r e n Sohnes J E s u C h r i s t i , a u f d a s e r s e v d e r E r s t g e b o h r n e u n t e r vielen B r u d e r n ." D .P ., o p . c i t .» .1 8 1 1 , pp. 3 4 4 -3 4 5 0 74. D .P ., o p . c i t o„ 1910, p. 22. 75. " D a rd u ch w ir d d e r Mensch m it G o tt v e r e i n g e t (l C o r . 12.) m i t C h r i s t o JEsu e i n g e l e i b e t , u n d d e s h e i l i g e n G eistes t h e i l h a f t i g . A cto r 2 ." Ausbund, p. 827. 76. " . . . s i c h w i l l i g G o t t o p f e r n u n d e r g e b e n , zum Pienst d e r G e r e c h t i g k e i t , j a zu e i n e r K n e c h t s c h a f t G o t t e s , und g e m e i n s c h a f t J e s u C h r i s t i u n d a l l e r H e i l i g e n . " Ib id . , pp. 8 2 3 - 8 2 4 . 77. D . P . , o p . c j . t . , 19.10,p . 2 6 . T h i s i s why i t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a l l b a p t i z e u p e o p l e t o p a r t a k e o f communion. I b i d . , p. 386. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission . - 823 - corded, and c o u n te d i n s a i n t s and t h e as h i s saved, c h ild ren , th e number and f e l l o w s h i p o f th e whom God t h e F a t h e r h a s accepted whom J e s u s C h r i s t h a s r e d e e m e d b y h i s in ­ nocent d e a t h and bought w ith h i s p r e c i o u s b lo o d , en lig h t- ened b y t h e H o l y G h o s t , salv atio n . .3 In o r d e r t o h e l p t h e and brought unto e te r n a l re g e n e ra te d person in h is t h e Word o f God m u s t c o n t i n u e t o b e t a u g h t t o he may w i t h d i l i g e n c e commanded o f h i m s but, a s a b r i d e observe f o r he is no more l o r d o v e r h i m s e l f ; to h e r b rid eg ro o m , so su rre n d e rs h im s e lf to C h risto This p l a c e s a t r e m e n d o u s o b l i g a t i o n and a l t h o u g h he g e n e r a l l y him so t h a t th e G ospel and a l l t h i n g s surrenders h e rs e lf he , a f t e r r e c e i v i n g b a p t i s m , new l i f e feels on t h e secure he f e e l s u n w o r t h y o f t h e p o s i t i o n in d iv id u a l in h is sa lv atio n , to w hich he h as been 78. " . . . zu e in e m Z e u g n i s s , d a s s w i r dann a n g e schrieben und g e r e c h n e t w erden i n d ie Z ahl und G e s e l l s c h a f t a l l e r H e i l i g e n u n d S e l i g e n , d i e G O tt d e r V a t e r f u r s e i n e K in d e r angen om men h a t , d i e J E s u s C h r i s t u s m i t s e i n e m u n s c h u ld ig e n Tod e r l o s e t , m i t s e i n e m t h e u r b a r e n B l u t g e k a u f t , und m i t dem h e i l i g e n G e i s t e r l e u c h t e t , u n d z u d e r e w i g e n S e l i g k e i t g e b r a c h t h a t . ( M a t . 2 8 . c . Rom. 8 „ b . 2 C o r . 6 c . 1 Pet. I.e. Heb. 3 . a. l^Cor. 3 . b. 6.c.) Und d a r u m 3oilen wir als die au ser wa hl te n K i n d e r des h i m m l i s c h e n Vaters, als die heiligen Briider u n d M it g e n o s s e n JEsu Christi, ( l P e t . 3 . Co) a l s d i e m i t dem h e i l i g e n G e i s t v e r s i e g e l t , und m i t dem Z e i c h e n d e s l e b e n d i g e n G O t t e s e m p f a n g e n h a b e n , durch d e s H E r r n G n a d , i n s e i n e m Bund m i t g u t e n G e w i s s e n G O t t d i e n e n , dem S u n d e n A b s t e r b e n , d e n a l t e n Adam b e g r a b e n , u n u in e in e m n e u e n L e b e n f o r t g e h e n . . . 0" D . P . . o p 0c i t 0, 1 8 1 1 , pp. 5 2 0 - 5 2 1 o 7 9 e "o . o dann e r i s t n i c h t mehr s e i n e r s e l b s t m achtig, s o n d e r n w ie e i n e B r a u t s i c h i h r e m B r a u t i g a m u b e r giebt, a ls o i s t auch e in e r n ach em pfangener T au fe: e r e r g i e b t s i c h C h r i s t o u n d v e r l e u r t s e i n e m W i l l e n , s t e h t a l l e r Dinp; g e l a s s e n , n a m l o s u n d w i l l e n l o s , l a s s t d e n Mann C h r i s t u m u b e r und i n s i c h h e r r s c h e n , M a t t h . -28 Jo h an . 1 , "Ausbund, p. 824. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 82 b - ra ise d and o f th e gressions fo rg iv en ess th a t t h a t he i s fo llo w s th e t r a n s ­ bound to m akec He r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s c o v e n a n t h e m a k e s t o g i v e h i m s e l f e n t i r e l y t o God 93 and h i s c h u r c h i s t h e g r e a t e s t com m itm ent o f h i s l i f e . He i s n o l o n g e r a c h i l d f o r whom J e s u s w i l l a u t o m a t i 94 cally i n te r c e d e , b u t h e i s a n a d u l t , who knows g o o d from e v i l a n d h a s a f r e e w i l l w i t h w h i c h t o c h o o s e t h e 95 p ath he w i l l f o l l o w . I f he c h o o s e s t h e wrong p a t h he w i l l b e e t e r n a l l y p u n i s h e d f o r error i t is blood o f h i s it; i f he m a k e s a n o n l y b y t h e u n l i m i t e d m e r c y o f God a n d t h e S avior t h a t a f t e r he confesses h is s i n he is f o r g i v e n . 93. " . . . w a s S i e h i e r v o r e i n e m Bund m a c h e n / m i t / G o t t u n d s e i n e r Gemeine S i c h g a n z u n d g e r e r g e ben . . . " J o h n U m b l e , "An A m ish M i n i s t e r ' s M a n u a l . " MQR, A p r i l , 1 9 4 1 , p . 9 8 . 94. "So b e s c h l i e s s e n w i r n u n m i t d e n A p o s t e i n und m i t d e r g a n z e n h e i l i g e n S c h r i f t , d a s s d i e E rb silln d d u r c h JE su m C h r i s t u m b e z a h l t u n d h i n w e g genommen i s t , und d a s s d e r m a s s e n d i e K i n d e r u n d Adams U e b e r t r e t u n g w i l l e n n i c h t g e r i c h t e t n o c h v e r d a m m t mBgen w e r d e n ; d a s s d i e N a t u r d e r K i n d e r n z u dem BBsen g e n e i g t i s t , ( 1 B u c h Mos. 6 . b . 8 . d . ) d a s v e r d a m m t s i e n i c h t , j a d a s w i r d i h n e n a u s G n a d e n v o n G O t t n i c h t z u r Slind g e r e c h n e t , s o n d e rn so lan e ; a l s s i e e i n f a l t i g u n d o h n e W i s s e n s c h a f t d e s Guten u n d B Bsen s i n d , s o g e f a l i e n s i e G O t t und. s i n d i h m angenehm, d u r c h J E s u m C h r i s t u m . . . " D .P ., 1811, o p . c i t . , p. 4 3 . 95. H o r s c h , Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . 9 p . 2 5 4 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8 25 - These t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p ts with t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of th e are clo sely com m unity. to c h i l d t r a i n i n g a n d e s p e c i a l l y t o the in teg rated They a r e rela te d freedom g ra n te d to a d o l e s c e n t s a n d t h e n t h e se em in g ly s t r i c t and sudden 96 enforcem ent o f r e s t r i c t i o n s . T h i s c o n c e p t o f t h e "new man" a l l o w s f o r c o m p l e t e f o r g i v e n e s s 97 m cano rs o r e v e n s i n s . In f a c t , i t o f o re v io u s m isdeim plies th a t th e in ­ d iv id u a l' m ust have s in n e d In o r d e r to have so m eth in g t o 98 confess and t o s h e d . The b e l i e f t h a t b a p t i s m i n i t i a t e s one i n t o t h e "fello w sh ip o f th e body of C h r is t" "a s i g n o f t h e in co rp o ratio n church" p l a c e s the in to th e v is ib le and i s C h ristian in d iv id u a l under th e d i s c ip l i n e church a n d t h u s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f th e com m unity a s w e l l as b e s t o w i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ber upon h im . In th e is r e s p o n s i b l e for case of th e fo r h is fello w of f ir e , coming t o th eft c o m m u n i t y mem­ or the a id of h is illn e ss, he In ju red b ro th e r, 96. A c t u a l l y a f a i r amount o f f r e e d o m I s a l l o w e d b e tw e e n b a p t i s m a n d m a r r i a g e . I n some p e r i o d s o f h i s t o r y in some M e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e n o t b a p t i z e d u n til a f t e r th e y were m a r r i e d . J.G. W enger, H i s t o r y o f th e F r a n c o n i a C o n f e r e n c e ( T e l f o r d , P a . ' : F r a n c o n i a M e n n o n i t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 3 7 ) , p . 3 2 , Umble? " U n i o n " , o p . c i t 0 , p. 86. 97. " . . . fo r I doubt not but th a t th e m erceful F a t h e r w i l l g r a c e i o u s l y o v e r l o o k t h e e r r o r s o f t h o s e who have i g n o r a n t l y c o m m i t t e d t h e m , a n d who w i l l now f e a r a n d g l a d l y do w h a t i s r i g h t . . . " M e nn o . S i m o n s , o p . c i t , 1 9 5 6 , p 03 7 9 0 T h e ­ o r e t i c a l l y an i n d i v i d u a l i s b a p t i z e d a s so o n as he l e a r n s to d i s t i n g u i s h r i g h t f r o m w r o n g , t h e r e f o r e a l l s i n s com­ m itte d b e f o r e b a p ti s m were c o m m itted i g n o r a n t l y . 98. " I d e f i n i t e l y t h i n k e v e r y o n e m u s t come t o t h e point where t h e y c o n f e s s t h e y a r e s i n n e r s In clu d in g our own g i r l s (who a r e n o t r e a l b a d ) God g r a n t t h a t i t may b e soon." P erso n al correspondence, I X /ll/5 5 . "How c o u l d we come to J e s u s a n d t a k e Him f o r o u r p e r s o n a l S a v i o r i f we d i d n o t see o u r l o s t c o n d i t i o n , i f we d i d n o t a d m i t t h a t we w e r e i n R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 826 and d u r i n g c o m m un ion h e , to o , shares the s i n if some u n ­ w o r t h y m em ber p a r t a k e s . No o n e w i l l c o u n ta b ility is c o m m i t h i m s e l f on wh en t h e reached. It is 99 im n lied th a t ferent fo r d i f f e r e n t p eo p le. some may a d m i t t h a t If age o f a c ­ it is d if- p resse d very hard t h e l o w e r a g e l i m i t may b e 15 o r 16 I0>1 years o ld , It takes b u t no o n e w i l l v e n t u r e some p e o p l e good f r o m e v i l , but a lo n g tim e to an u p p e r ag e l i m i t . learn to d istin g u ish once t h e y have b e e n b a p t i z e d , they are b e l i e v e d t o kn ow t h e a cco u n tab le. d i f f e r e n c e , and i f th e y e r r th e y are 101 A b i s h o p ' s son was j o i n i n g c h u r c h , h e h a d been v e r y w i l d , but durin g the train in g p e r i o d he a p p e a r e d S atan’s hands? I n G a l . 5 : 1 9 , 2 0 a n d 21 we r e a d o f t h e works o f t h e f l e s h . T h i s m u st be t h e w o rk s o f w h a t ? ” Malva S h e t l e r , "W hose C h i l d r e n b e f o r e C o n v e r s i o n ? ” , W i t ­ n essin g , M a rc h -A p ril, 1955, p . 6 . 99. Menno S i m o n s w r i t e s t h a t t h e a g e o f a c c o u n t a ­ b ility v a rie s. ”. . . u n t i l th e se c h ild re n a re ab le to h e a r t h e Word o f G o d , t o b e l i e v e i t , a n d t o f u l f i l l i t in t h e i r w o r k s . Then i s th e tim e and n o t u n t i l t h e n , o f w h a t e v e r a g e t h e y may b e , t h a t t h e y s h o u l d r e c e i v e C h r i s ­ t i a n b a n t i s m , . . . ” Menno S i m o n , o p . c i t . 9v. 1 9 5 6 , p . 2 8 1 , see a l s o p p . . 2 4 1 , 7 0 4 . 100. One f a m i l y w a n t e d t h e i r e l e v e n y e a r o l d d a u g h ­ t e r t o j o i n c h u r c h and she i n d i c a t e d t h a t she w ould l i k e to. ( T h i s f a m i l y h a s C o n s e r v a t i v e r e l a t i v e s a n d members of t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e c h u r c h m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y j o i n t h a t y o u n g or y o u n g e r . ) They sp o k e t o t h e S to n y r u n m i n i s t e r s a b o u t i t, but the m in is te r s r e f u s e d , e x p la in in g t h a t th e y b e ­ l ie v e d i n a d u l t b a p t i s m a n d t h a t a c h i l d o f e l e v e n , no m a t t e r how m a t u r e s h e m i g h t s e e m , was n o t a n a d u l t . 101. 00A87. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - to be a l i t t l e b e tte r. service p re v io u s and r o b b e d . 827 - Then j u s t before the l a s t t o b a p t i s m a man was h i t I t was s o o n p r o v e d t h a t The c o m m u n i t y was s h o c k e d , o v er the head th is complice i n t h e r o b b e r y a n d h a d done t h e but a t the church boy was an a c ­ actu al h ittin g 0 sa m e t i m e w e r e r e ­ liev ed t h a t i t h r d h a p p e n e d a n d b e c o m e know n b e f o r e h e 102 was b a p t i s e d . As h e h a d n o t y e t c o m m i t t e d h i m s e l f a n d had n o t i l l u s t r a t e d ev il, by a cerem ony t h a t t h e r e was g r e a t e r h o p e f o r h i s he knew good f r o m so u l, than if he had b een i n v o l v e d i n s u c h a t e r r i b l e c r i m e a f t e r h e h a d j o i n e d 103 church. I t was f e l t t h a t now h e s t i l l h a d a c h a n c e t o repent h i s p a s t l i f e , achieve s a l v a t i o n . sharply f o r signs confess h is f a i t h and p ro b a b ly to T he w h o le co m m u n ity was w a t c h i n g h im 104 of rep en tan ce. A l t h o u g h members o f t h e com m unity r e f u s e Pn u p p e r a g e l i m i t f o r a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , of s e v e n te e n b e g in s to t o name th e norm al c h ild h e a r comments a n d s u g g e s t i o n s per- 102. P a r t o f t h i s r e l i e f may h a v e b e e n d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t a s t h e b o y w a s n o t y e t a c h u r c h m em b er t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n d i d n o t h a v e t o d e c i d e on h i s p u n i s h m e n t , but c o u l d l e a v e i t u p t o t h e c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s . When a n in d iv id u a l i s b a p t i z e d h i s p r e v i o u s s i n i s rem oved and h i s b a p t i s m i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e h a s t u r n e d h i s b a c k on h i s p r e ­ vious s i n f u l l i f e . U n t i l b a p t i s m some s i n i s e x p e c t e d , but a f t e r b a p t i s m a new l i f e i s t o be l e a d . I f the a t ­ tac k had h a p p e n e d a f t e r t h e b o y h ad b e e n b a p t i z e d t h e r e would h a v e b e e n l i t t l e h o p e f o r h i s s o u l . 103„ 00A82. 104. T h ere w as, o f c o u r s e , much g o s s i p ab o u t h im , and w h e n e v e r a n y o n e sa w h i m t h e y l o o k e d f o r t h e p r o p e r s i g n s o f sh a m e a n d e m b a r r a s s m e n t . L a s t I h e a r d , he s t i l l acted b r a z e n and o b n o x io u s . The c o m m u n i t y f e l t t h a t t h e c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s . had n o t b een s u f f i c i e n t l y s e v e r e w i t h him . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 828 105 tain in g to h is know i t jo in in g is not There i s step , he m i g h t p u t also P aren ts and th e good f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o r e a d y t o m ake t h e danger t h a t church* hut it some u n e a s i n e s s young p e r s o n who i s jo in before on t h e o t h e r h a n d off church he i s th ere is a too lo n g and n e v e r join* a b o u t what happens k i l l e d b e fo r e he has to a jo in e d church* In one o b i t u a r y o f a n e i g h t e e n y e a r o l d b o y t h e f a m i l y w rote t h a t h e h a d j u s t a t t e n d e d h i s class. In th e w ill happy b e . fo u rth a p p e n d e d poem t h e y w r o t e . ven I h a v e f o u n d , " in stru ctio n "W ith J e su s I . Only t h i n k o f t h e h a p p y h o m e/ I n h e a ­ A p p a ren tly the fa m ily f e l t th at eith er he h a d n o t r e a c h e d t h e a g e o f d i s c r e t i o n o r more l i k e l y 106 t h a t he w a s n e a r e n o u g h t o b a p t i s m t o b e s a v e d * In 105* One m i n i s t e r s a i d some y o u n g p e o p l e j o i n church b e f o r e t h e y a r e r e a d y f o r t h e s t e p an d a l t h o u g h t h e m i n i s t e r s h a v e some r e s e r v a t i o n s t h e y d o n o t d i s c o u r a g e t h e person f ro m j o i n i n g * (Of c o u r s e , i f he s e r i o u s l y i n f r i n g e s on t h e r u l e s o f t h e c h u r c h he i s n o t a l l o w e d t o j o i n * ) They a r e a l w a y s h o p e f u l t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l c h a n g e when he i s b a p t i z e d . A p e r s o n i s alw ays f r e e to d ro p out o f t h e c l a s s and q u i t e a few o f them do and t h e n j o i n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r * S e e c h a p t e r VI f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f p e rs u a d in g t h e young p e o p l e t o be b a p t i z e d * 106* H e r a l d , A u g u s t 2 7 , 1 9 5 3 , p* 2* The p h r a s e u sed f o r a p e r s o n who h a s r e c e n t l y j o i n e d c h u r c h i s " h e has made a d e c i s i o n " ( f o r C h r i s t i s u n d e r s t o o d * ) When h e r o l d e s t d a u g h t e r was u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n h e r m o t h e r w r o t e me "Yes we a r e h a p p y , t h a t E f f i e h a s m ade a d e c i s i o n * * *" The f a c t t h a t t h e y u s e t h e sam e p h r a s e f o r a p e r s o n u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n a n d on e r e c e n t l y b a p t i z e d , , a n d t h a t t h e y b e l i e v e th a t t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n ^ n d p e r h a p s t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e Holy G ho st? p r e c e e d s b a p t i s m ^ i n d i c a t e s t h a t a p e r s o n who h a s s ta r te d th e b a p tis m sequence i s , i n th e e v e n t o f d e a th , saved* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 829 - another o b i t u a r y of a n in e te e n year w r i t e s "He was l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o Amish c h u r c h t h i s su m m erB u t o ld boy t h e f a m i l y jo in in g t h e Old O r d e r he had n o t sta rte d in ­ stru c tio n . I n h i s o b i t u a r y poem t h e r e I s no m e n t i o n o f 1 0 7 luv heaven. An a r t i c l e i n W i t n e s s i n g r e f e r s t o t h i s p r o ­ b lem . I n t h e l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s a num ber o f Am ish youths and form er f r ie n d s have passed i n s t a n t l y in to e t e r n i t y under the in flu e n c e o f liq u o r , o u tsid e of th e c h u rc h and l i v i n g l i v e s t h a t were f a r from sa in tly . As f a r a s a n y h u m a n k n o w s t h e y w e r e u n ­ p r e p a r e d . 108 "But I f t h e y / w h o h a v e come t o and l e a d a n e a s y , im p en iten t ra tio n a lity / reject life , grace, then n e ith e r C h r is t’s 109 b l o o d n o r d e a t h w i l l a v a i l t h e m ; m u ch l e s s w o r d a n d w a t e r . The c o m m u n i t y i s the p e r i o d t h e not ad ju sted to in d iv id u a l Is d eath o ccu rin g during d em o n stratin g th a t he i s of Adam's f l e s h a n d i n n e e d o f b a p t i s m . There is co n sid era b le lam en ta tio n w ith in th e com­ m u n it y t h a t p r e s s u r e m u s t b e b r o u g h t t o b e a r on t h e y o u n g p e o p le t o p e r s u a d e same i n d i v i d u a l s them t o jo in com plain t h a t church, and t h e n th ese th e b a p tiz e d person d id 107. T h i s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t t h e f a m ­ i l y d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t h e w i l l go t o h e a v e n , b u t i t m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e y w ere a w a r e o f p o s s i b l e q u e s t i o n a b o u t it. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e poem a n d t h e t y p e o f poem, i t i s u n u s u a l n o t t o f i n d a n y m e n t i o n o f h e a v e n . H e r a l d . May 3 , 1 9 5 6 , p . 6 . 108. A b r o th e r , 1956, p. 2 . 109. "A Y o u n g M a n ’ s C o n f e s s i o n , " Menno S i m o n s , 1 9 5 6 , o p .c it., Ju ly , p. 704. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 830 - not e v id e n c e a re b irth .,. The y o u n g p e o p l e o f t e n h a v e t o b e c o a x e d t o take I n s t r u c t i o n , p r e p a r a to r y f o r b a p tis m and c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p ; a n d m any who a r e b a p t i z e d seem t o n o t b e c o m e new c r e a t u r e s i n C h r i s t , but l iv e in the form er l u s t s . I t i s more t y p i c a l f o r an A m ish y o u n g p e r s o n t o g row g ra d u a lly to w a rd f u l l m em bership a f t e r b ap tized , When i t th a n to is a f u l ly a w illin g n ess it g en erally ex p erience a sudden tr a n s f o r m a t i o n . v o lu n tary a c t h is b ap tism s i g n i f i e s to accep t the d i s c ip l i n e takes he has been some t i m e f o r h i m t o o f t h e com m unity, in te rn alize its ideals . Two q u e s t i o n s co rd a n d d i v i s i o n in v o lv in g b a p tis m have c a u se d d i s ­ in th e church in th e p a s t „ The f i r s t was w h e t h e r b a p t i s m s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d w i t h w a t e r o r in w a t e r . T h e r e was a g r e a t d e a l o f d i s c u s s i o n o n t h i s 0 111 At one t i m e i t w a s t h e s u b j e c t f o r s e r m o n s , a r t i c l e s 112 and m i n i s t e r s ' c o n f e r e n c e s and i t f i n a l l y r e s u l t e d in a d iv isio n . T he n e i g h b o r i n g C o n s e r v a t i v e A m i s h c h u r c h 1 1 0 . N o a h A. K e i m , "W h a t a r e we o f f e r i n g t o o u r c hildren?" HdW, F e b r u a r y 1 5 , 1 9 5 5 , p p . 6 1 . A lso H e r a ld , May 1 9 , 1 9 5 5 , p . 1 a n d M a r c h 1 5 , 1 9 5 6 , p . 1 . 1 11. " E in e V e rh a n d lu n g von d e r T a u fe " Wahre C h r i s t e n t h u m , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 2 - 8 7 . B e iler, 112. " L a n c a s te r C ounty, A p r i l den 2 0 te n , B e ile r, V erm ahnung, o p . c i t . , p . 2 9 . 1864." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 113 p rac tic ed b ap tism in a stream they do n o t o b s e r v e t h i s when i t sta rte d , but any m ore0 t i s m i s n o l o n g e r an i s s u e The m e t h o d o f b a p 114 in O hio. The s e c o n d q u e s ­ t i o n was w h e t h e r o r n o t M e n n o n i t e s who w i s h e d t o Old O r d e r A m i s h c h u r c h s h o u l d b e (r e )b a p tiz e d 0 burg d i s c i p l i n e 15 s t a t e s : wish t o u n i t e by o t h e r s , o f 1568, a rticle th em selv es w ith u s , s h a l l be d i l i g e n t l y have r e p e n t e d , and have been b a p t i z e d thereupon; On t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e The S t r a s - ,TA11 t h o s e who b u t have been b a p tis e d exam ined, w hether th e y b e l i e v e d on C h r i s t , such s h a l l P h ilip jo in and h a v e n o t be b a p t i s e d w rites th a t a person ag ain 0 to become a member o f t h e c h u r c h m u s t be b a p t i z e d o u t w a r d l y b y " a t r u e 116 messenger o f C h r i s t . ” Thus one s i d e a r g u e d t h a t t h e a p ­ p l i c a n t w a s a g o o d man who h a d b e e n b a p t i z e d on t h e sion o f f a i t h , the o th er sid e argued th a t b ap tized by a t r u e m esse n g er o f C h r i s t b a p t i z e d h i m was n o t i n he had n o t confes been i n t h a t t h e man who fe llo w s h ip w ith the O l d O r d e r A- 113 « CA2. v B a p t i s m w a s s t i l l b y p o u r i n g , n o t i m ­ m ersion, b u t i n an e f f o r t t o i m i t a t e C h r i s t ’ s b a p t i s m ' l i v i n g 1 w a t e r was u s e d . 114. M illersburg, Do S t u t z m a n , D e r s h a l e O h i o , 1 9 1 7 , p» 3 1 e V erlen g u u n g sw eg . 1 1 5 o H . S . B e n d e r , "The d i s c i p l i n e A d o p te d b y t h e S t r a s b u r g C o n f e r e n c e o f 1 5 6 8 , ” MQR J a n u a r y 1 9 2 7 , p 0 6 3 0 116. DoP. o p oc l t o, 1910, p . 303. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 832 117 m ish. The c h u r c h e s I have b e en w orking w ith have h a d n o on e r e q u e s t m e m b e r s h i p ( d u r i n g t h e 118 present m in is te rs who was n o t r a i s e d i n Thus t h i s does not se em t o b e a v i t a l ten u re o f the a n Amish. h o m e . 1 19 i s s u e any m o r e 0 The b i s h o p u s u a l l y k n o w s w h e n t h e r e a r e p e o p l e who a r e r e a d y a n d who w i s h t o first church s e r v ic e a fter They w i l l m e e t w i t h t h e (A brath) at communion, m in iste rs the b e g in n in g of any young jo in ch u rch . The the group fo rm s „ during th e c o u n c il each church s e r v ic e , for 117. D a v id B e i l e r , " E in e A b s c h r i f t von e in em S c h reib e n von D ien erversam m lun g en ge-halten in P en n sy lv a n iu m u nd O h i o . " 118. OOAlOc 1 1 9 0 T he t r e n d i s f o r p e o p l e t o move f r o m t h e s t r i c t e r to t h e more l i b e r a l c h u r c h . See K a r l B a e h r , " S e c u l a r i z a t i o n Among t h e M e n n o n i t e s o f E l k h a r t C o u n t y , I n d i a n a , " MQK«, J u l y , 1 9 4 6 , p p . 1 3 1 - 1 6 0 . There i s o n ly one c h u r c h i n c e n t r a l O h i o t h a t i s m o r e s t r i c t t h a n t h e church I have b e e n d e a l i n g w i t h . The o n l y c a s e I know o f a r e g u l a r O l d O r d e r Am ishman j o i n i n g t h i s c h u r c h . ( T h e Sam Y o d e r s ) was t o m a r r y a Sam Y o d e r g i r l . I know o f m a n y more who h a v e l e f t t h e Sam Y o d e r s f o r t h e r e g u l a r O l d O r ­ d e r A m i s h , a n d m an y i n t u r n who h a v e ' l e f t t h e O l d O r d e r Amish f o r t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e A m i s h a n d A m i s h M e n n o n i t e s . W ith t h e new i n t e r e s t i n m i s s i o n ’ a c t i v i t y , i t m ig h t p o s ­ s i b l y be a p r o b l e m . However, t h e o n l y q u e s t i o n i s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e b e e n ' b a p t i z e d o n t h e c o n f e s s i o n o f the D o rt C o n f e s s i o n o f F a i t h , an d i t i s q u i t e u n l i k e l y t h a t many M e n n o n i t e s w i l l b e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e O l d O r d e r A m i s h . There i s a g r e e m e n t t h a t a l l o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s w o u ld h a v e to r e c e i v e a c o r r e c t b a p tis m . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8 3 3 - 120 nine times, an d in the S a t u r d a y before their baptism,, Thus two weeks before thing goes well, The council mee ti ng (Gross-Gma) if e v e r y ­ th ey w i l l be baptized,, size of the gr ou p joining church m a y v a r y f r o m 121 one to about sixte'en y o u n g p e o p l e „ ble to have two groups seem to happen. join in a year, It w o u l d be p o s s i ­ but Some years no young people specific church district. it does not join in a This m a y be because no one is ready, or if there are only one or two boys or girls, they m a y r a t h e r go with a group of their friends who are joining ch ur ch in a n e i g h b o r i n g district. sidered p e r f e c t l y feasible. This is con­ A young person who Is " w o r k ­ ing out" will join church in the district where he Is working, un less he can arrange to come home every c h u r c h Sunday. In central Ohio classes u s u a l l y f o r m after the spring communion and the young people are ba pti zed at 122 the end of the summer, just before the autumn communion. 123 O c c a s i o n a l l y girls join as young as sixteen, 120. This gives the bi s h o p more time to t a l k to each one p e r s o n a l l y than he wo uld have during the church service when the wh ole c o n g rega ti on was waiting. At the meeting the complete co nfessi on of f a i t h is read to the m and have the night to med it at e about the 3tep t h e y are about to take. 121. The largest class I have h e a r d of was compose d of seventeen y ou ng people. H e r a l d , January 21, 1951, p.6. 122. See Appe nd ix VIII,Part B for chart of year of baptism s in central Ohio. showing time 123. I have come across two instances of girls w h o joined at fifteen, one wom an joined c h u r c h In 1879, H e r a l d , loc.cit. The instance was m e n t i o n e d in U m b l e , "Union)1 o p .c i t . 9 pp. 86-87 and took place even earlier. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 83V - but I have never hea rd of an y specific case whe re s u c h a young girl joined,. U s u a l l y the girls are about eighteen, occasionally they wait unt il they are twenty-one, rarely until t h ey are older. very U nt il the recent W o r l d War the boys tended to be a little older than the girls when they joined. T h e y ave rage d about n i n e t e e n or twenty years of age and I have he ar d of t he m joining as late as twentyseven. There is no u p p e r age limit, vidual gets older the pressure a l t h o u g h as an i nd i­ to join c h u r c h increases. For a while the age at w h i c h the boys join was being re124 duced by Selective Service. M a n y members of the c o m ­ munity, a n d un f o r t u n a t e l y some young m e n should have for CPS or I-W work. judges, felt that the joined church be fo re g oi ng away As boys can vol unt eer for t h e i r I-W time as yo ung as se vent een and m a n y are dr aft ed about nineteen or twenty, this means that there is a te n d e n c y 125 for them to join ch ur ch at a youn ge r age t ha n formerly. Y o u n g people who are p h y s i c a l l y or m e n t a l l y sick offer a special problem. Those who are p h y s i c a l l y too ill to atten d ch ur ch services are taught by the ministe rs in their home. The min ist ers go to the person's house 124. This is still in flux, say how the trend wi ll c o n t i n u e . it is too early to 125. This p r o b l e m is d i s c u s s e d m o r e f u l l y in Chapter VIII. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 835 126 each Sunday b e t we en c h u r c h services and instruc t h i m D They are careful to go the full nine times so there wil l 127 be no co mm u n i t y criticism,. If the person cannot even 128 go to church for part of the service on the n i n t h or baptismal time, then the Dea c o n and his wife, ters and their wives, the m i n i s ­ the bi s h o p and his wife, the family and some friends go to the p e r s o n ’s home an d he is b a p ­ tized there. The case of the m e n t a l l y 111 Individual is a little m or e difficul t. who are T h e y are cons id e r e d as children saved b y Jesus wi th ou t the rite of b a p t i s m if they are m e n t a l l y de fi cie nt. offers mor e of a problem. individual pressure). If the it U s u a l l y it is left up to the ( u n d ou bted ly w i t h v a r yi ng amo unts join ch urch he or at home. If they are ps yc hoti c individual ex pre sses of fa mi ly the desire to is i ns tr uc ted and b a pt iz ed either in ch urch If he does not express suc h a de s i r e and o b ­ viously cannot d i s t i n g u i s h g oo d from evil or make a con126. The A m i s h have c h u r c h services in eac h district only every other week. The intervening S u n d a y Is called the "between Sunday." 127. 0 0 A 2 3 . "If t h e y d i d n ’t go nine times there might be someone who w o u l d object." 128. Sometim es the f a m i l y w i t h a p h y s i c a l l y ill youth (perhaps a child who has polio or r h e u m a t i c fever) may have bapt i s m a l c h u r c h at their home so the y o u t h can get u p for that part of the service and t hen re t u r n to bed. 00A66, 00A63, ha d ch u r c h at their home for the baptismal service so their s ick niece could be bap ti ze d with the other y o u n g p e o p l e . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 836 - fession of faith, then he is not baptized. W h e n there is any do ub t the m e n t a l l y a b n orma l are b a p t i z e d 0 The first Su nd ay af ter communion the y o u n g people who w i s h to join church sit to g e t h e r n e a r the m i ni st ers where they can get out easily. for the c o u nc il m e e t i n g When the ministers leave (Abrath) the yo ung people go out with t h e m for t he ir f ir st per iod of instruction. very few have mad e up t h e i r minds to service. By the next service they w i s h to join and this time the full gro up goes instruction it is not u n u s u a l for I have join chu rc h b y this all must have d e c i d e d if with the mi ni s t e r s for i nst ructions . to drop out. Usually out Dur ing the w e e k s of some of the you ng people ta lked to three girls who d r o pp ed out and then joined the followi ng year. discovered t h e y " w e r e n ’t ready" to They said th e y 129 join. M a n y more 130 boys drop out during the in structio n pe ri od than girls. During the m e e t i n g s f o r instruction, the Bible from the Cr e a t i o n t h r o u g h the suffering is co ve re d 131 of Jesus. The youth re ceive no i n s t r u c t i o n on their own c h u r c h his- 129. 00A88, 130. 00A23. 00A2, 0 0 A 7 2 . 131. 00A1. . . h e (Jesus) c o m m a n d e d and d e ­ manded ins tru ction ... . prior to ba pti sm." ". . .for the Gospel w h i c h is taught u s p r i o r to baptism. . ." D.P., o p . c i t ., 1910, pp. 58, 453. Hans Naf zi ger, "An Amish C h u r c h D is ci pl ine of 1781, MQ.R, April, 1930, pp. 141-142. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. ~ 837 - 132 tory. The third m e e ti ng is v e r y important a n d is d i s ­ tinguished from the others h y the fact that the girls 133 in the class all w e a r b l a c k dr esses to this service, During this period the Ordnung is explain ed to them in detail. At the next session (the fourth) asked if they can follow the Ordnung. they are each Prom now on, if they continue the process of joining ch u rc h they are 134 expected to abide by all the regulations. T he y are 132. T h e y are p r ob ably fami li ar w i t h the M a rt yrer Spiegel and f r o m earliest childhood they have liste ned t o ’ the songs in the A u s b u n d , but they rec eiv e no specific instruction on their h i s t o r y and n o t hi ng ab out the A m i s h division (the separation fr om the Mennonite church). If in their homes they have been exp osed to Katechi smus fiir kleine K i n d e r . f Z u m G e b r a u c h fiir Schuler, Sonntagsschulen und Familien. Besonders be arb ei te t fiir die K l ei nk in der-Classen zur Grun dlage eines eva ng el isch en Rel igio us Unterrichts Mit einer Zugabe von etliche n G e b e tf or me n fttr Kinder, wie au ch K i n d e r l i e d e r . Ver fa ss t von etlichen Brttde rn„ Auf Anratung vieler Brttder u n d Diener der Amische n Gemeinde, zu Amisch, Johnson County, Iowa. Pri nted for L.A.Miller, Arthur, 111., 1928?) they will have learned a few Biblical references to baptism, but nothing more. 133. W h e n I as ked (00A) AM4 who had rec e nt ly left the A m i s h ch ur ch w ha t they were taught during the i n s t r u c ­ tion periods previous to joining church, she said, ’’The only one I can r e m e m b e r is the third one. That was-on the Ordnung.” 134. However, the boys do not r e a l l y start growing beards at this time a l t h o u g h t h e y are ask ed to. What they do is to let the whiskers u n d e r their chin g ro w to about a quarter or three-e ighths of an i nc h in length. After they have joined c hur ch and ha d communion, they m a y shave off even this promise. O l d e r men w h o are bache lor s keep about this amount of growth. In some churches in Iowa they no longer ask boys to g row beards before they are "published. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 838 - instructed to lead useful C hri stian lives; of communion is exp la in ed to them. confession of faith the m e a n i n g And f i n a l l y their is read and expounded. D u r i n g this whole period there is no outside p r e p a r a t i o n . Th e y are 135 not given copies of the co nfes sio n of fait h no r are they asked to mem ori ze it. However, th ey are f re quen tl y r e ­ minded to re ad the Bible d il ig en tly an d prayerfully. day before the young people ,are to be baptized, meets w i t h the minist ers for the last time. The the group As wel l as reading the confes si on of faith and d i s c u s s i n g the m e a n ­ ing of the step they are about to take, each boy agrees to accept the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of chur ch offi ci al if the lot should fall on him. Two weeks before tized, the young people are to be b a p ­ that is fo ll o w i n g the service before the baptismal service, the congregati on remains on the youn g people wh o w i s h to it is not join. In other words, just the individual's choice that he wishes to join church, nor the m in ister s app rov al that essary, but every m e m b e r of the admission. after chu rc h to vote is n e c ­ ch ur ch has a say in his If two or th r e e m e mbers of the congregat ion 135. Th e c on fessi on of faith is to be found in the Martyrer Spiegel and in the prayer book C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , op.cit. , pp. 173-202. Therefore, it is obtainabl e if any applicant wishes to read it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . think that may not. a y o u n g p e r s o n shoul d not However, it is gregation or a f e w m e m be rs unusual of the join, he for the “ “ con­ con greg at io n to prevent a you ng person f r o m joining w h o m the min ist ers approve. one of the U s u a l l y if there is somethi ng irr eg ular about class th e chu rc h m e m b e r who knows of it tells the deacon o r the m i n i s t e r and they inv est ig at e b ef o r e the church service and th en either r e c o m m e n d that person not join or t h e y p resent the case tion who decide. Sometimes if there the to the c o n g r e g a ­ is a questio n even about only one m e m b e r the who le gr o u p is held b a c k one service for another perio d of instru ction or u n t i l the matter can be set tl ed (if, for example, more in ve s t i g a t i o n 136 is needed) , At other- t i m e s only the o ff ende r m a y be 137 held back, e s p e c i a l l y if the case is clea r cut. If the applicants r e c t i f y the s i t ua ti on and still w i s h to join then the y are tak en in after communion. that they will not be able for almost W h i c h means to take t h e i r first communion six mon th s aft er th e i r baptism. The only other time that the sch edul e of joining is a l t e r e d Is w h e n a girl becomes pregnant a n d wishes to m a r r y the f a t h e r of her child. T h e n the per iod s of i n s t r uc ti on are teles- 136, In a sense the whole grou p shares the sin of the one, at least they are held b a c k w i t h him. This is completely consistant w i t h the st r o n g l y social nature of the Old Ord er A m i s h religion. Sin can be shared wit hi n the group and the group is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the actions of each member. 137, The gr ou p in w h i c h the b i s h o p ’s son was h a v ­ ing instruction was not hel d back. This serious sin i m ­ mediately r e m o v e d him f r o m the group. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 138 coped, as one m a n put it, she m a y he baptized, During this people are ture, " she is rus hed through" and m a r r i e d before four to five m o n t h period the young of their cul ­ a conscious dec ision to support are c o n s c i e n c i o u s l y trying The time the b a b y is born» learning the ve rb aliz ed aspects are m a k i n g so that it, and to live u p to t he ir d e c i s i o n . spent t o g e t h e r a n d the s h a rin g of the awareness of their ne w r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s makes for a str ong gro up feeling, dual » that m a y last th rou g h o u t the life of the indivi­ It is of te n m e n t i o n e d if a husband and wife b o t h joined ch u r c h together, statement to the effect, and in obituaries there w i l l be a "She was b a pt iz ed into the A m i s h church at the age of 15, w i t h a class of 16, and was the 139 last living o n e „" Or, he was in an ins tru ct io n class of 140 17 of w h o m five survive,, The mo rni ng of the bap ti sm al service the appli­ cants are d r e s s e d mo st st ri ct ly acc or di ng to the rules of 141 the specific ch ur ch d i stri ct in w h i c h t h e y are to be 138. 00A23. This wou ld apply to the father of the child too, if he had not joined church previous to the c o m ­ munity's know le dg e of the pregnancy. 1 3 9 o The w o m a n w as 91 years, 11 months and 3 days old when she died. Heraid, S ep tembe r 22, 1955, p. 6. 140. H e r a l d , June 21, 1951, p. 6. 1 4 1 o 00A2 says that she still has he r b a p t i s m a l halsduch because she joined in a n e i g h b o r i n g c h u r c h where they cut their h a l s d u c h slightl y d i f f e r e n t l y and so she has not w o r n It since she m o v e d f r o m that d i s t r i c t 0 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 8*fl baptized, The hoys we ar the regulat ion black shoes (formerly h i g h shoes, plain bl a c k socks, but no w l o w ones are p e r m i t t e d ) , broadfa ll pants and m a tc hing Muthze of black or a ve ry d a r k shade of grey or blue wool, white shirts w i t h n o ties and to the service they w e a r the r e ­ gulation b r o a d b r i m m e d black hat u s u a l l y m a n u f a c t u r e d by Lenoxo Their hai r must be suffi ci en tl y longo come at least to the middle of the ear shingled, and must not be but is cut straight across the b a c k c have no part at all, The girls cuban heels. It should Und e r thei r chin and perhaps ing up to the sideburns beardo It should c li m b ­ is the suspicion of a beginning wea r black, laced shoes w i t h low or Th e shoe does not n e e d to be high, may be cut low like a pximp or ball et s l i p p e r 0 but it T h e y wear cotton stockings and a bla ck dress. Fo r m e r l y the dress 142 had to be of bl a c k w o o l 0 N o w they are r a r e l y of wool, 142, I t r i e d on the bap ti sm al dress of a wom an (00A26) who was b a pti ze d eight years ago. It was made of a very g oo d quality, light weigh t wool crepe. The bodice and sleeves were lined w i t h b l a c k cotton cloth. Her mothe r had made it for her w i t h the intention that she could wear it the rest of her life (probabl y mainly to funerals). Down the middle of the back wa s a dart three inches wide, w hi c h meant that the ba c k of the bo di c e could be let out six inches. All the seams were very large, so that each could be let out two to three inches. The sleeves could be let out t h roug h the ir length and the shoulders could be e n ­ larged, The bodice ext ended at least four inches bel o w the top of the skirt so that it cou ld be lengthened. As with all their dres se s there was a waist ba n d of l \ inches joining the bodice to the skirt. The skirt was pleated across the b a c k (in one i n c h pleats) and gath er ed across the front. The placket o p e n e d about m i d w a y betw ee n the center of the front and the left side. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8b2 ~ but may not be a shiny, rayon type of f a b r i c . dress is worn a fine wh it e Over the org andy apron an d h a l s d u c h „ The apron is almost as l o n g as the skirt and is gathere d to a waist band the same w i d t h as the waist band of the dress o Onl the right side the band extends so that wrapped around and f a s t e n e d w i t h a straight left hand side of the a p r o n . it is pin at the The h a l s d u c h is tu cked into the apron waist band at the middle of the back, are brought over the shoulders, the sides 143 cro sse d over the breast and tucked into th e front waist b a n d of the a p r o n 0 The halsduch is tucked into the plain round n e c k of the d r e s s 0 On her head the candidate wears an opaque pleated, silk covering that ties u n d e r her chin„ The bapti sma l clothes are new, well made and fit beautifully,, and girls bl ac k The boys each dre ssed seve rely in black and white that contrasts w i t h th eir h i g h you thfu l coloring make an i m ­ pressive looking group. Just before ch u r c h starts the y go in and take their accus to me d places on the be nc h in front of the m i n ­ isters, the girls sitting on one side, other. The ministers come the boys on the in and the con greg ation starts 143„ Today, the h a l d u c h is usu ally brought down straight over the breast, but for b a p t i s m it is always crossed. See App end ix Fart III for a more d e t ai le d d e s ­ cription of the clothingo R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 8V3 144 singing "Das Wort der W ahrh ei t Jesu C h r i s t " . The m i n ­ isters get u p and the yo un g peop le follo w their last in­ struction period. During this struction is r e vi ew ed briefly, cou nci l their previous in­ th e y are r emi nd ed that the covenant they are about to make pledges tirety to G o d and to his church. t h e m in their e n ­ The y are r e mi nd ed how they have al re ady been b a p t i z e d w i t h i n by the Ho ly Ghost and fire. The articles of f a i t h are b r i e f l y reviewed. Then th ey are ask ed if the y desire to be b a p t i z e d or if 144. Ausbund. p. 358, No. 67. This hymn d e s ­ cribes and discusses b a p t i s m in thirteen verses. The first vers e gives an idea of the tone o f the hymn. Das Wort der Wa h r h e i t Jesu Christ, Als selbst d e r Er s t g e b r h e n Der neu e n Me n s c h e n 7 ater ist, Dast alt P l e i s c h ist verloren. Machts n e u durchs h i m m l i s c h Wasserbad, Dass inn die Sftnde gar nicht schad, Thut die von n e u e m gehShren, Im h i m m l is chen Jerusalem, E r zeu gt Gott 's K i n d e r angenehm, Thus sie d u r c h sein Geist lehren. This is listed as one of the hymns to be sung at the "Neugeburt" in R&ber's C a l e n d a r , 1954, o p . c i t . (the reg ist er that is f o l l o w e d by the Old Order A m i s h of c e ntral Ohio.) It is also li st ed as the first hymn to be sung in the N o r ­ thern Indiana Service M a n u a l (John Umble, " A m i s h Service Manuals," M Q R , op.cit. p. 29) and Yoder, B o y s , o p 0c i t » , p.7 0 lists it as the first hymn to be sung on the d a y young folks are baptized. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8M+ 145 they wi s h to build a g a i n and l a y f u r t h e r foun dat ions. The last coun cil u s u a l l y takes fair ly long, so the 146 congregation w i l l have f i n i s h e d the L o b l i e d and will be 145o This last council is nic el y e x pl ai ne d by Un - zic keri Es wi r d den T & u f l i n g e n in d e m l e t z t e n A b r a t h alles d u r c h t r i n g l i c h vorgestellt, was Sie he i r vor einen Bund machen, Gott u n d s e i n e r G e m e i n e Si ch. ganz un d ga r ergeben, wie Sie schon inw e nd ig mit d e m H e il igen Geist u n d mit F e ur er sol lt en G e t a u f t sein u n d d e r g l e i c h e n dann werden Sie gefragt ob Sie G l a u b e n dasz Sie darzu geshic kt u n d bereit wt re n u n d Ihr Be g e h r e n w&re Sie mit d e m Tauf su befftrtern, oder ob Sie noch w i e d e r b auten u n d G r u n d legen wollten ? woranif Sie dan zu a n t w o r t e n haben, Umble, "An A m i s h M i n i s t e r ’s M a n u a l , ” MQR 9 April, 1941, p e 98, The exact time at w h i c h the A m i s h receive the H o l y Ghost is not clear. T h e y believe t h a t belief comes bef ore b a p ­ tism, and that the r e b i r t h must preceed b a p t i s m therefore it is very e a s y to shift the r e c e p t i o n of the H o l y Gho s t to coincide w i t h the r e b i r t h a n d thus p r e c e e d baptism,, This is what U n z i c k e r has done. His po si tion could be supported by Acts 11:44-48, e s p e c i a l l y verse 47» ’’Can a n y ma n f o r ­ bid water, that thes e should not be baptized, w h i c h hav e received the H o l y Ghost as we ll as w e ? ” Some of the w r i t ­ ings in the Martyrs M i r r o r , 1951, could be in te rpret ed to mean that the H o l y Spirit was "pou re d out on the b e ­ lieving a n d r e g e n e r a t e d c h i l d r e n ” before they we re baptized, but after t h e y believed,, See page 805, P h i l i p (D.P., 1910, p, 22) writes, "Paul him self. „ „ was f i ll ed w i t h the Hol y Ghost (Acts 9:17-22), and h ad b e c om e a c h o s e n vessel or in ­ strument, was bap t i z e d and cal led upon the name of the Lord," He further di scusse s the H o l y G h o s t prior to b a p t i s m on page 78. M e n n o Simons clea rly gives the order, "first the birth f r o m above, by w h i c h we become chil dr en of.God (John 1:14); a n d then the water, b y w h i c h the obedience of the children of God is signified. Third, the c o m m u n i o n of the Holy Ghosto . p. 243„ Whether they bel ieve that the reception of the H o l y Ghos t preceeds or fol lows baptism, they are in a g r e e m e n t in the f i r m bel ie f that it does not coincide wi t h the pou ring of the water, "Likewise, . , who heard a n d a c cepte d the words of life, , , were bap t i z e d with the H o l y Spirit fr o m above (Acts 44), This was never performed by man, but b y the Lord Jesus Chri st himself. Outward b a p t i s m of water, , , „ is a sign or type of the spiritual b a p t i s m . . ,” p, 19, 146, p. 770, No, The s e co nd song in eve ry service, Ausbund, 131. T r a n s c r i b e d in Ap p e n d i x VIII, Part A, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 8*+5 - 147 singing ’’Christus das L a m m auf E r d e n k a m , " young people r et u r n to t h e i r p l a c e s . when the The congregation c o n ­ tinues singing un til the minist er s a r r i v e . The service continues In m u c h the same patte rn as a regul ar ch ur ch serviceo The first m i n i s t e r on the b e n c h rises the beginning. He discusses the ne w birth, and admonishes bedient to the church and the Lord. kneels in silent prayer. The the to make importance of baptism* the applicants The to be o- con gregation deacon reads the third chap148 ter of John while the con gr egat io n stands. The bisho p 149 rises to deliver the main sermon. He stresses the im­ portance of the ordinance of baptism; not only for the a p ­ plicants, but for eac h me mbe r who shoul d reme mb er the time he made his own vo w and ren ew his God. in dividu al covenant w i t h The n starting w i t h the creat ion a n d the fall of A d a m 147. Ausbund, 604, No. 108. This song is never finished for it has t h i r t y verses. It is listed in R a b e r !s Ca l e n d e r . Yoder, B o y s , o p . c i t . , gives "Mein FrShlichs Hertz,” n u m b e r 983 as the t h i r d song sung. (This is a m i s ­ print as ”M e i n F r Bh li ch s H e r t z ” is a c t u a l l y on page 783.) It does not s e e m to be sung during the Ba ptismal service in central O h i o . 148. John 3 and Ro man 6 is al way s read the s e r ­ vice before council m e e t i n g (Ordnungs G !ma) and is a c c o m ­ panied b y a sermon on the n e w b i r t h even w h e n there are no applicants to be ba pt ize d. See Iowa Service Ma nu al (Umble, ’’Service M a n u a l s , " op.cit. , p. 28), and the R&ber, Calender, o p . c i t . , 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954. 149. Today, a m o n g the ce nt ral Ohio Amish, bishop ma;y a d m i n i s t e r the rite of baptism. only a R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 8h6 ~ and Eve, the b ish op goes th ro ugh the Old T est ament d i s c u s s ­ ing the precursors of baptism., The promise of a S a v i o r «, the Ar k of N o a h w h i c h is com par ed w i t h the church of Christo The covenant of circumcision w i t h A b r a h a m an d his d e s ­ cendants o Mose s lea ding the Israelites t h r o u g h the Re d Sea an d t h e n their being fed w i t h manna (the true' b r e a d from heaven re presenti ng J e s u s ) . He describes John the B a p ­ tist and h o w he b a p ti ze d not in the name of the H o l y Ghost, but the b a p t i s m of rep ent an ce and how when he bap ti ze d Jesus and the H o l y G ho st descended. Jesus's promise to his disciples that they w o u l d be baptize d by the Ho ly Ghost is m en t i o n e d and his teach and baptize. command to go out into the w o r l d and The story of Paul's conversion and bap- tism is r e c o u n t e d and the b a p ti sm of Ly dia and her h o u s e ­ hold and Stephanas centurion. and his h ou se ho ld an d of Cornelius the 150 F i n a l l y the story of Ph ilip an d the Ethiopian, 150. The sermon was taken p r im ar ily f rom the Handbuch fiir P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t . ,-p.28-29, also f r o m the writings of D i e tr ich Philip, 1811, esp eci al ly pages 12-68, 342-346, 443-444, 519-521, and f r o m David Beiler, Wahre C h r i s t e n t h u m , primarily pages 32-86, 215-273. I quote the article from the Preachers handbook* Anweis un g die heilige W a s s e r Taufe zu bedienen, a uc h die Lehr dezu. E r s t l i c h w i r d gelehrt aus d e m alten Ge se tz von dem Fall A dam s un d d e m v e r h eisse ne n W e i b e r Samen, un d so a u c h von der Arche Noaha, u n d was sonst n oc h v o r b ildli ch war auf die Taufe u n d Wiederg ebu rt des Menschen. A u c h v o m G l a u b e n s h e l d A b r a h a m und seinem Ausgang, und so fort wie die Ki nder Israel durc h das Rote M e e r gegan gen sind, and alle u n t e r M os e getauft mit der Wolke und mit d e m Meer, gl ei c h s a m wie Paulus schreibt. Dann wird etwas angeffthrt von der Ank unst Christi, a uc h vo m V o r l S u f e r Johannes R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - is quoted. 8^7 - After this the bi sh op tells the applic ant s that 151 if they beli eve they are w o r t h y and ready for b a p t i s m they should come forward and kneel before God. In the m e a n ­ time the deacon has bro ugh t in a small tin pail filled w i t h 152 water and a tin cup, w h i c h he has place d on the end of wie er an Jordan n a c h gelehrt un d getauft hat, n o c h gar der Heiland selbst. D a n n wir d gelehrt aus d e m G e s c h i c h t b u c h (A p o s t e l g e s c h i c h t ) wie Er seinen Apo st el n die V erhei ss un g des H e i l i g e n Ge i s t e s nochmal mit Geteilt hat mit d e m Befehl dass sie sollen h i n g e h e n in alle W e l t u n d alle vBl ke r lehr en u n d taufe, usw. Au ch wie sie solches getan h a b e n n a c h d e m sie dazue begabt u n d ausgeriist w a r e n du rc h die Kraft des Heiligen Geistes. Es wird au c h gemeldet vom Paulus u n d seiner Er l e u c h t u n g u n d von Cornelius, von der Lydia, der Purpur Kramerlin; a u c h von Kerke rm ei ster seiner Bekehrung. ..Dann zuletzt wird. n o c h angeftthrt vom Philippus und d e m K&mmerer, dan wird still ge h a l t e n u m die Taufe zu bedienen. 151. "Wann sie jetzt hof fe n u n d gla ub en wttrdig u n d bereit zu sein zur Taufe, so kB nn e n sie sich in Got te s Namen auf ihre Kniee nied erlass en. " H a n d b u c h fflr Pre d ig er op.cit., p. 29. 152. The pail is u s u a l l y of one g a l l o n size. It is a nice one (not rusty), but not n e c e s s a r i l y new either. Usually the person who has churc h supplies the pail. If they do not ha pp e n to have one the right size, then they ask someone else to br i n g one. It is not a special v e s ­ sel and is not owned by the church. The cup is an ord in ar y tin drinking cup and is lent by the f a m i l y who is ha vi n g church. The Old Order Ami sh are very careful not to in ­ vest any m a t e r i a l object w i t h ritual significance. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8*+8 the nearest bench. applicants and asks, bekennen: The b i s h o p "KBnnet Ja ich g l a u b dass stands before the k n e e l i n g ihr a u c h mit d e m K & m m e r e r Jesus Christu s G o t t e s Sohn ist." Starting w i t h the b o y at the head of the line ea c h a p p l i ­ cant answers tus Gottes in succession, "Ja ich g l a u b dass Jesus Chris153 Sohn ist." "Erkennet dir es a u c h filr eine christliche Ordnung, & i r c h e u n d G e m e i n d e Go tt e s wor unt er 154 dir euch jetzt begebet?" In turn e a c h answers, "Ja." "Saget dir a u c h ab der Welt, weisenden Wesen, d e m Teufel sammt s e i n e m in- wi e auc h euren eigenen F l e i s c h u n d Blut, und begehret Jesum C h r i s t u m allein zu dienen, de r am S t a m m 155 des Kreuzes fftr euch ges torben ist?" E a c h answers, "Ja." "Versprechet ihr a u c h vor G o t t u n d seiner G e m e i n d e dass dir diese Or dnu ng wollet hel f en h a n d h a b e n mit des Herrn Hilf, der G e meind e f le is si g b e i w o h n e n u n d H e l f e n raten und arbeiten un d nicht davon abweichen, es gelt e eu c h z u m 156 157 Leben oder z u m Sterben?" E a c h answers "Ja." Then the 153. The belief in G o d is so basic it is not a s k e d about, a l t h o u g h a b e l i e f in Christ i m p l i c i t l y implies a belief in God. This is a cer emo ny th at makes an i n d i v i ­ dual a Christian. 154. This is v e r y c l e ar ly an in it i a t i o n cer emony into a c l o s e d group. The i nd ividu al chooses to adhere to the group. 155. bols of this He reje cts other s o c i e t y and accepts one. the sym­ 156. He s p e c ifi ca ll y agrees to submit to the d i s ­ cipline of the gro u p and to wo r k to support the group. 157. O p . c i t ., p p . 30-31. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 158 bishop reads a prayer f r o m the C h r i st enpli ch t applicants rem ai n knee li ng and the m e m be rs while the 159 standc A ft e r the congr ega tion is seated the bish op steps up to the first boy a n d hol din g his cupped hands over the boy's head says, "Auf deinen G l a u b e n den d u bekennt hast vor Go tt und viele Zeugen wirst du get auf t im N a m e n des Vaters, des Sohnes 160 und des H e i l i g e n G e i s t e s . Amen ," W i t h eac h name of 161 the T r i n i t y the deacon pours the w a t e r from the cup 162 into the b i s h o p ’s hands onto the he ad of the kneeling 158. p, 107. 159. To m y kno wled ge this is the only time the congregation stands d u ri ng a prayer. Probably, as at the wedding service, it is done to d i s t i n g u i s h the cen tr al figures f r o m the c o n g r e g a t i o n 0 160. H a n d b u c h fflr P r e d i g e r , o p .c i t „, p. 3 1 e The form given on page 30 differs slightly: "Auf deinen G l auben denn du bekennt hast wirst du g e t a u f t im.Namen des Vaters und des Sohnes u n d des H e i l i g e n Geistes, Amen." 161. The w a t e r can come f r o m any place, a faucet or a spring and it is no t b l e s s e d or trea ted as so met hing e s ­ pecially holy. (00A23, son of a deacon.) In the first English t r a n s l a t i o n of the Martyrs M i r r o r , o p . c i t . , 1837, the section on b a p t i s m in the 1630 conf e s s i o n of faith italicizes "common." ,l. . . is b a p t i z e d by a bla me less ordained minister, w i t h common water," Me n n o Simons writes, . . 1 r e p l y that it is not e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d d e n In the Ho l y Scriptures to bless, as they call it, h o l y water, candles, palms, goblets, and robes, to hold mass and other c e r e m o n ­ ies, yet we say r i g h t f u l l y th a t it is wrong, first bec au se people put the ir trust in these things, sec ondl y b e c au se it Is done w i t h o u t the comman dm en t of God., for He has c o m ­ manded us not a w o r d thereof, and neve r should any c o m m a n d ­ ment be obs er ve d w h i c h is not c on taine d or implied in His Holy Word, eith er in let ter or spirit." Horsch, M e n n o . Simons, o p .c i t ., p. 263. 162. P o u r i n g t h r o u g h the b i s h o p ’s hands m a y r e p r e ­ sent a fhsion of b a p t i s m b y pouring, and c o n f i rm ation by the laying of hands, the hands of the bi sh o p have become slightly displaced. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - applicant,, 850 - W h e n e a c h b o y has be e n baptized, proceeds to the girls. the bish o p He asks for one of the ladles of 163 the co ng r e g a t i o n to come forward to h e l p with the ceremony. The three of the m p r o c e e d to baptize the girls. unties the first g i r l ’s covering and removes bishop repeats the baptismal prono unc ement pours the water. The woman it whi l e the and the deacon She then replaces the covering of the first girl a n d removes th at of the girls have b e e n baptized, second. When all the the bishop returns to the first boy and e xt en ding to h i m the right hand of f e l l o w s h i p 164 tells h i m to ri se in the name of God a n d the congregation. 163. U s u a l l y It is a wo ma n wh o is sitting in such a position that she can easily come u p to the bishop. It might be the b i s h o p ’s wife or the d e a c o n ’s wife, but more often it Is someone else. However, it is alwa ys a m a r ­ ried wom an w i t h children and g e n e r a l l y an eld erly woman. 00A24 h e l p e d one time when she was perhaps forty. She felt quite d e e p l y abou t having h e l p e d but her husb and had forgott en about the incident. Apparently which woman helps is no t important. There is a strong f e e l ­ ing that w o m e n s h ou ld "keep silence in the churches" (1. Cor. 14:34) and b y . t r ea ti ng the w o ma n a s s i s t a n t .c a s ­ ually the y live u p to Paul's Injunction. A thirteen year old girl 100A28) was reciti ng her part in the T h a n k s g i v ­ ing school p l a y to me, w h e n s h e came to a place where she said, "We don't want to stay in H o l la nd w h er e our children will forget their mo th e r tongue and the ir own religion, we must go to the N e w W o r l d where we can w o r s h i p in f r e e ­ dom." She turned to me an d said, "I don't kn o w why they have me say that, one of the boys ought to." 164. "Im N a m e n des Her rn u n d er Gem ei n w i r d die Hand gebote, stehet, auf." H a n d b u c h fflr Prediger, o p . c i t . Bachman rep or ts for L an caste r county, "After the p o ur in g has taken place, the Voile DI en er extends his right hand to each of the m e n in the class in turn, a n d raises him, saying: 'Im N a m e n des Her rn und der Gemeind e, biete ich dir die Hand: Stehe auf, u n d sei ein get r e u e r Br ud e r bei der Gemeinde.'", o p .c i t ., p. 146. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 851 - 165 He wishes h i m G o d ’s blessing and gives him the H o l y k i s s 0 After each b o y has been greeted, the bi sh op greets each girl w i t h the h andsh ak e and wishes her God's blessing* then he places he r h a n d in that of the ass is ti ng lady who gives her the Holy K i s s e are no longer guests The bi sh o p tells the or strangers, class that th ey but are members of the brotherhood of saints an d f e l l o w lodgers in the house of 166 God. He n ow asks the new members to be seated and c o n ­ tinues the sermon w i t h a f e w words of admonition before 165* In the e a r l y Christi an chur ch the ne w C h r i s ­ tian was also greeted wi th a ho l y kiss. ’’The bisho p himself gave the kiss to each new Chri stian w h o m he a d ­ mitted to the order of laity by confirmation, immedi at el y after signing h i m on the for ehea d w i t h the chr is m wh i c h conveyed the gift of the Spirit * * * Until that m o ­ ment the neophyte had never b e e n p er mi tt ed to exchange the kiss of peace w i t h a n y of the faithful, because he was not yet of the Bo d y of Christ, and so ha d not yet received the Spirit, and by consequence could neit he r give nor receive the peace of Christ*" Dorn G r e g o r y Dix, The Shape of the L i t u r g y (Westminster: Dacre Press, 1945), p. 107 * The ho l y kiss is conveyed o n l y after the member receives the gift of the H o l y Spirit* The Amish believe that the rite of b a p t i s m (pouring the water) symbolizes the internal b a p t i s m that has a l r e a d y transpired* For a further d is cuss io n of the H o l y Kis s see M i n i s te rial Visiting in Chapter IV. 166. "Und dass sie nun ni c h t me hr G&ste und Fremdlinge sind, s o nde r Biirger mit den Hei li gen un d Gottes Mausgenossen," H a n d b u c h fiir P r e d i g e r , loc .cit * Th e Am i s h refer to this ce remony as "Baptism" or "Neugeburt." It represents a fus io n of two dis tinct ceremonies celebr ate d by the early church; b a p t i s m an d confirmation. Baptism incorporates a ma n into that B o d y of Chrisjfc7 f r o m theeternal point of view, but the gift of ’the S p i r i t ’ in confirmation is wh a t makes h i m a living member of -that Body within time* . * these two sac ra ments were n o r m a l l y c o n ­ ferred within five or ten minutes of e a c h other. * *" If a man we re b a p t i s e d in grave eme rgency and then died.the "baptism took its eternal effect* If he con ti nue d to live in this world he n e eded confir mat ion w i t h the gift of the Spirit, the equ ipment of the C h r i s t i a n in time * The A m i s h do not believe that a human being can c o n v e y the gift of ’the Spir it’* "The b a p t i s m of the Spirit is adm i n i s t e r e d by Christ Jesus himself. . ." D.P., op.cit *, 1910, p*18* The ce remony of confirmation is nowhere m e n t i o n e d in the Bible and so would not be obs erved b y the Amish* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 852 167 reading and c om me nt in g on t h e second scripture l e s s o n e At the end of his isters witness long sermon, (zeugni3s) three or four of the m i n ­ to its correctness, a few comments for the benefit of the e a ch a d d i n g new members,, The bishop says a few more words a n d the congregation kneels while he reads a prayer from the C h r i s t e n n f i c t . then they stand for the benediction. A f t e r they are seated, the deacon makes any a n n o u n c e m e n t s A foresinger announces 168 the closing hymn and w i t h the singing of three or four verses ’’church is out." N e w members have b e e n added to the congregation and the e a r l y 169 ion have begun. 167. Romans; p re p arations f o r commun- 6. 168. P r o b a b l y A u s b u n d , 408, No. 74. (See Rfiber!s Calender, o p . c i t ., 1954, and the n o r t h e r n Indian Service Ma nu al .) 169. I have not attended a b aptismal service, but have gone to the service previous to baptism. The m a i n sermon at that time centered on the pr op e r b e ha vi or of church members and included m u c h d i s c u s s i o n of things that were w rong s u ch as base ba ll and missionaries. Most of the material for t h i s section was g a t h e r e d f r o m one of the ministers (00A1) and his w i fe (00A2) and from the son of a deacon (OOA23) and his wife (00A24). Specific points from other informants have been noted. The best account of an A m i s h b a p t i s m a l service that I have read (the one that is m ost similar to the C e n t r a l Ohio service) is by John A. Hostetler, "An A m i s h Ba pt i s m a l Service," Gospel Herold, F ebruary 27, 1951, pp. 202-203. Other a c ­ count are; Bachman: o p .c i t ., pp. 141-150. Gingerich, I o w a , o p . c i t „, pp. Klees, o p . c i t ., pp. 39-40. Yoder, R o s a n n a , o p . c i t ., pp. 89-98. Yoder, B o y s , o p . c i t ., pp. 67-73. U mble "Un io n” , o p . c i t ., pp. 86-87. Umble "Lancaster , o p . c i t ., pp. 216-17. The written material I quoted in the text is available and still circulating among the Central Ohio Amish: Menno Simons, o p . c i t ., R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 853 The c o mm un it y is gentle Christ" a n d does not w i t h its n e w "babes in immed i at el y d e m an d the strict o b e d i ­ ence in m i n u t e detail that will be requ ir ed after m a r ­ riage o The c o m m u n i t y guides the n e w children and for a 170 period e x e rc is es a degree of pati en ce w i t h t h e m Q Ideally the n e w m e m b e r has ex pe ri e n c e d a r e g e n e r a t i o n that makes his commi tm en t to God an d the to fulfillo experience, ingness to co mm u n i t y a pleasure W h e t h e r or not he has h a d this emotional by his baptism, he has de m o n s t r a t e d his w i l l ­ submit o bediently to God and the G e m e i n d e 0 Henceforth t h e y have the right to dicta te to h i m and it 171 is his d u t y to obey. The A m i s h r ecognize the fact that o c c a s i o n a l l y an individual m a y be voluntarily b a p ­ tized into e mo ti on al ly the c h u r c h and still not be (or Dietrich Philip, o p .c i t. ,Martyrs Mirror, op.cit ., R a b e r *3 G a l ender, op .c i t ., D a v i d Beiler, o p . c i t . , Handb uc h f (ir Prediger, o p . c i t ., N a f z i g e r s letter, Unzicher's raanuscript and the S t r a s b u r g Discipline. For a g e n er al account of b a p t i s m in the Mennonite c h u r c h see "Baptism," Th e Me nn o n i t e E n c y c l o p e d i a , I y P u b l i s h e d jointly by M e n n o n i t e B re th re n P u b l i s h i n g House, H i l l s ­ boro, Kans., M e n n o n i t e P u b l i c a t i o n Office, Newton, Kans. Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g House, Scottdale, Pa., 1955, pp. 224-228. 170. This parallels the child rear in g practices, within the A m i s h f a m i l y the b a b y and y o u n g child is h a n d l e d with, what w o u l d a p p e a r to be p e r m i s s i v e n e s s when c o mp ar ed with other stages in the life of the individual. 171. There is nev e r a n y r e s e r v a t i o n that wou ld modify ones complete obedience to G o d ’s Word and the Gemeinde Gottes, Eli S. Beiler, "Was ist Siinde?" HdW June 15, 1954, p. 355. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8 5^ - sometimes even intellectually.)- committed to the T his o f c o u r s e church. d o es n o t a l l o w him any g r e a t e r d e v i a t i o n from the Ordnung that is p e r m i t t e d the devout . we n e e d rules and d i s c i p l i n e member, for those w h o come into the chu rc h u n c o n v e r t e d or who fall away f r o m t h e i r 172 former cleansingo" The Ge m e i n d e pa ti e n t l y hopes s u c h an individual w i l l gr ow in f a i t h a n d unle ss he breaks a serious rule he is n u rs ed along. An indica ti o n that the ceremony of b a p t i s m is of at least as great importance for the commu ni ty as f o r the individual, is the fact that the " N e u g e b u r t " Service is a part of the pr ep ar a t i o n for communion an d it is r e a d even though there are no membe r s time when b a p t i s m is to rhythm of the Each baptismal to join the take place by the fact that The is d e t e r m i n e d by the c o m m u n i t y and not the needs ce r e m o n y strengthens church0 173 of a n i n d i v i d u a l „ the community, it adds new members, but n ot only it also enables every m e m b e r to v i c a r i o u s l y reenact the covenant he has made w i t h G o d and his community,, 172 „ N o a h A. Keim, July 15, 1954, p. 437. "Revival or D is ci pline,"HdW, 173. See C h a p te r VIII, for a dj scussion of the re l a t i o this has to revivals. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 8 5 5 - The A m i s h t h e o l o g y devests b a p t i s m of its sacramental character, thus the personal man-God. re l a t i o n s h i p is not 174 directly intensi fi ed by the specific r i t e . Rather, baptism is a symbol been established; that this r e l a ti on sh ip has previ ou sl y the change that is effec te d by the rite is the individual's r e l at io n sh ip to the c h u r c h of G o d 0 For the A m i s h b a p t i s m is p r i m a r i l y an i n i t i a t i o n 0 174. Th e whole sequence does i ntensify i t c What I r efer to as the b a p t i s m sequence includes the instruction period. The sequence enacts lite ra ll y the Biblical teach in gs on baptism, w h i c h the A m i s h believe must be followed in the stated order "we shall first preach the Gospel, from the hearing of w h i c h comes faith (Rom. 10), and t h e n we shall baptize those who believe "Menno Slmcns, op.cit.,1956, p. 237. During their instruction period the y oung people are taught the message of Jesus, that they have come to the f a i t h is illustrated by their c on fe ss io n of the Dort confession of faith. In central Ohio they are asked if t h ey subscribe to this confession on the preceeding baptism. Then finally comes the third step, they are baptized. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 8 5 6 - E ST A B L I S H I N G THE F A M I L Y - WEDDING The f a m i l y Is the foundation of the of the church community, the u n i t 175 and the source of church growth. In the absence of a pr o selytizing program, church, the church grows primarily t h r o u g h re production of its members. Thus the procreative f u n ct io n of the f a m i l y is c on s i d e r e d second only to the religious commitment involved. However, in spite of the A m i s h emphasis on produ ct io n in its various forms, ligious the concept of marriage is p r i m a r i l y that of a r e ­ commitment and a following out of God's will. "And the same God is alone Au th o r and Institutor of this ordi176 nance of matrimony. . ." The t w e l f t h article of their Confession of F a i t h Is on matrimony. God first i ns ti t ut ed marriage, riage is voluntary, It points out h o w of m a r ri a ge and that m a r ­ yet must he e n te re d into "in the Lord." 175. D.P., op.cj-t., 1 9 1 Q 9 p. 493. E rv i n Gingerich, Ohio Ami sh D i r e c t o r y (mimeogi-apnedj, lists each church d i s ­ trict a nd the famil ie s that belong to it. He does not list the u n m a r r i e d m e m b e r s in a c h u r c h district u n l e s s t h e y have their own home. In the statistical section (found only in the 1956 edition) he lists the n u m b e r of marriages and the number of deaths but not the n u m b e r of bapt is ms . When one inquires about the size of a church district the Amishman always responds In n u m b e r of families, never in number of individuals. Each y e a r in the H e r a l d a list of the A m i s h marriages in the L a n c a s t e r county c o m m u n i t y is published. For ex. see H e r a l d , January 5, 1955. When one inquires if the c h u r c h is growing, the n u m b e r of baptisms is not m e n t i o n e d but rather the n u m b e r of we d d i n g s or new families. W i t h b a p t i s m a n individual gains admittance to the ceremonies of the church a nd is g i ve n a voice in churc h government, but he is not quite in fu l l m e m b e r s h i p u n t i l he is married. This is illustrated by the fact that single men are never p l a c ed in the lot. 176. See "Christian C o u r t ­ ship, II. Ma r r i a g e Insti tu te d b y G o d and A b u s e d by Man," H d W , March 1, 1956, p. 76. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 857 - 177 the e a r l ie r confessions of faith, r e p o r t e d in the M a r t y r s ’ Mi r ro r h ave si mi l a r sections on marria ge s as do 178 b y A m i s h minist e rs . most of the collections of writings These ministers discuss the Bib li ca l references and emphasize "marrying in the lord." stood marrying someone ous ceremony. B y this of o n e ’s own faith, In other words, to marriage is u n d e r ­ with a religi­ b o t h parties m u st have joined the O l d O r d e r A m i s h Ch ur ch before t h e y can be 179 married. "This o r d i n a n c e is a w e d d i n g or u n i t i n g t o ge th e r of two persons wh o are born pure through f a i t h in Jesus Cjxrist and holy of the F at he r (1 Tim.l: John 6: Heb.12) 177. The A m s t e r d a m C o n f e s s i o n of 1627 and the Amsterdam C o n f e s s i o n of 1630. M artyrs M i r r o r , o p . c i t ., 1951, pp. 31-32, 36. 178. Beiler, C h r i s t e n t h u m , o p . c i t ., pp. 87-114. Beiler, V e r m a h n n u n g , op.cit., p. 18. Eine B et ra c h t e n und E rk l & r u n g •fiber Bann u n d M e i d u n g u nd der G r u n d in Gottes Wort, fiber welche er soil a u s g e s p r o c h e n w e r d e n . 1948. "Geistliche Ehre," p p . 4^ 32. "Von de r A b s o n d e r u n g oder Meidung zwischen Mann u n d Weib," pp. 72-74. Mast. "Thou Shalt not Commit A d u l t e r y , " pp. 67-73. D. St u tz m a n , . Per schmale V e r l e u g n u n g s w e g . Ei n e kurze christ l ic he V e r m a h n u n g an meine K i n d e r . Die Pf or t e 1st eng, u n d d e r Weg schmal, die zum L eb en ffthret, u n d we ni g sind ihrer, die ihn finden. Matth. 7, 14. So g ehorchet mir nun, meine Kinder, und weichet nicht von der Rede meines M un d e s . Spriiche Sal. 5,7. Millersburgh, Ohio, 1917, pp. 49-106. 179. There have been Mennonite communities and at least one of A m i s h e x t r a c t i o n in w h i c h young p e o ­ ple joined the church f o l l o w i n g t heir m a r r i a g e b y the chur c h . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 858 - 180 and by the H o l y Ghost, with God, As m a r r i a g e is a convenant it can be valid only ’’bet we en two believing per181 sons whom G o d h i m s e l f joins together,, Therefore, ’’those wh o m a r r y outside of the c h u r c h shall not go u n 182 punished." ’’M a r r y i n g in the Lord" is su mm e d u p b y Dietrich P h i l l i p when he writes: . . o .matrimony is a pure, good a nd h o l y ordinance of God, a n d cannot be otherwise ent er ed upon, a c ­ ce pt ed and m a i n t a i n e d than a c c o r d i n g to the express word of Go d (Gen. 2:5; Rom. 7; Eph.5. etc.), and ac c o r d i n g to the t e s t i m o n y of the h ol y scripture, yea, according to the example p re s e n t e d b y Christ, who accepts no bride but the be li e v i n g one, f lesh of his own f l e s h a n d bone of his bone (1 Cor. 6), and who, spiritually, is of him. Thus also a b r o ­ ther m a y take to h i m s e l f no other p e rs on than one who w i t h h i m is a m em b e r of the b od y of Christ, and, as a sister, like him, accor di ng to the Spirit (Bph.5), in faith of one m i n d w i th h i m in the truth, and as he by ac c ep ta nc e of the eternal Fat he r has, in the knowledge and c o n f e s s i o n of Son Jesus Christ, b y grace becomes a son of God so he must also in the fear of G o d take to h i m s e l f a G o d - f e a r i n g sister for his w e d ­ ded wife who is a daug ht er of the a l m i g h t y h e a v e n l y Fathero This, then, is what it means to be "married in the L ord," and b esides this there is no m a t r i m o n y that is valid before God.'^®^ l80o D . P . , o p . c i t „, 1910, p. 493. 181.. I b i d . . p. 497 182. Ibid., In the previous section I m e n t i o n e d the couple (00A165, 0 0 A 1 6 4 ) who were m a r r i e d by a justiceof-the-peace and one of their atten da nt s was k i l l e d on the way h o m e . !83. Ibid., pp. 515-516. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 359 - "Marrying in the Lord" a position of companionship. her husband, thus elevates the wife to A l t h o u g h she is subject to she is also of one f l e s h w i t h h i m and owes even as he does g r e at er allegiance spouse. "Und d o c h n a c h der Lehre Mensch bereit to God than to her Jesu Christi muss der sein, urn Christi w i l l e n zu verlassen Vater, Mutter, W e i b u n d Kinder, dazu sein eigen Leben; sonst 1st 184 er seiner nich werth." Therefore, each is important as an i n di vi du al and as the s a m e commitment to a high er idea exists in bo t h of them, t h e y w o r k together as part185 ners and not m e r e l y as one s u b j u g a t e d to the other. That the individual marriage p a r t n e r owes his first a l l e ­ giance to God, is il l u s t r a t e d not his first commitment is to G o d the fact that w i t h i n marriage against the other when only b y the fact that (baptism), the ban but also by is observed by one the o c c a si on so arises. " D ar um muss der glSu bi ge M a n n n a c h d e m G e b o t G o tt e s sich entziehen von seinem a b f & l l i g e n W eib, u n d soil keine G e m e i n s c h a f t mit ihr haben gleichwie zuwor, auf dass sie beschSmt werde und diese E n t z i e h u n g oder M e i d u n g soil n u r so lange sein oder gehalten w e r d e n bis das ab ge fa ll e rn e We i b e wider zur Umkehr, 186 Reu, Leid, Busse, u n d B e ss er un g kommt." 184. Beiler, Wahre Christenthum, o p .c i t ., p. 97. 185. R o l a n d H. Bainton, The R e f o r m a t i o n of the Sixteenth C e n t u r y (Boston: Beacon Press, 1952), p p . 260-261. * Roland H. Bainton, " C h r i s t i a n i t y and Sex," Sex and Religion T o d a y , Simon D o n ig er (New York; A ss o ci at io n Press, 1955, pp. 74-89. 186. ’Obe r Bann und M e i d u n g , o p .c i t ., p. 73. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 860 - M a rr ia ge "in the Lord" taken only at God's bidding ful c o n s i d e r a t i o n . is o b vi o u s l y a step to be or at least a f t e r m u c h p r a y e r ­ At a wedding the father of her child, of a pregnant bride to one of the greatest a ccusations was that the couple was in a sense forcing the hand of God„ They were m a r r y i n g by necessity, rather than by the l e a d ­ ing of God, and perhaps Go d never had 187 miage to take place, A l t h o u g h the marriage m a y be Intended the mar- "in the L o r d ’* in that it is contracted w i t h a f e l l o w church member, It is still possible f o r a C hristian to m a r r y the w r o n g C h r i s t i a n . During one A m i s h girl's c ou r t s h i p a suitor came about 150 miles to see h e r one night. He told her t h a t he had been praying about their r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d on the night previously h ad been g r e at ly concerned,, into the orchard under an a p p l e tree. He h a d gone There, out in the summer evening, G o d h a d told him that he would someday become a minister and that he should m a r r y her. The b o y was devout and so confident of G od ' s b i d d i n g that he was not of the girl. jealous She took this as a lack of interest and in the end m a r r i e d someone else. The boy be c am e a minister, 187. There was no co mm u n i t y p ressure for the m a r ­ riage. R a t h e r the f a m i l y r e f u s e d p er mi s s i o n u n t i l a few days before the w edding. The general feeling was that it would be m u c h better for the girl to have an illegitimate child than to m a r r y the wrong man. W e d d i n g of (00A)CA3 and (00 A) C A 4 . In conne ct i on w i t h this wedding it should be m e n ­ tioned that th e girl was the oldest child in a f a m i l y w he re the mother had died leaving twelve children. She h a d to w or k very hard and her father v iolently d is ap pr ov ed of the man she married who belonged to ano th er ch ur c h and was somewhat m a l ­ formed. This was u n d o u b t e d l y the only w a y she could secure her father's permission. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - as God h a d told him; 861 - and she n o w knows, years later, that he was the man w h o m God h a d o r d ai ne d to be h e r h u s ­ band, "The reason for this ordinance (marriage) is that by the blessing and benediction of the Lord, there may be 188 growth an d i n c r e a s e I n other words, r e p r o du c ti on is an important part of marriage. but rather a tragedy, It is not c on si d e r e d a sin, 189 if a marriage is childless. The health of the future children is c o n s i d e r e d to be of i m ­ portance to the congregation. As would be expected in such an ingrown community, there is a t en de nc y f o r close re la190 tives to marry. The possible h a rm fu l effects of this are realized, couraged. 188. and marriage between first cousins is d i s ­ "Weiteres von E h e s t a n d is erkennt worden, D.P., o p .c i t ., 1910, dass p. 493. 189It is " G o d ’s will." Just as the A m i s h do not believe in c on tr ac ep t io n b y the same re as o n i n g they do not patronize i nfertility clinics. If, however, the wo m a n is known to ha v e conceived and aborted, she is pla ce d u n ­ der medical care and an effort is made to he lp her carry her pregnancies to term. 190. See A p pe nd ix VIII Part C for a chart givi ng the occurance of f a m i l y names in the community. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 862 - k e in e n&her s o l l e n h eiraten als wenn sie b e id e rs ei ts in der B lu tsw erw an d sch aft, ein G l e i d welt er G e s c h w i s t e r k i n d e r o d e r w i e man s i e sind als j e t z t n e n n t G eschw is- 191 terenkel." sidered one's to one, To have d ef ec ti ve own responsibility, child re n is not c o n ­ but what the L o r d gives Wh e n I a s k e d one w o m a n if she w a s n ’t w o r r i e d a- bout the fact that he r future husban'd had two siblings mental institutions, to have those kinds ever, she responded, of children, in "If God means for me I wi l l have them." this is not a consi st en t attitude, objected to the g i r l w i t h w h o m their How­ for one f a m i l y son was dating on the grounds that her eyesight was po o r and the c h i l d r e n might all have bad eyes. The impor ta nc e of m a r r i a g e in the life of the i n ­ dividual is i l l u s t r a t e d b y the d e t a i l e d listing in almost all obituaries of the n u m e r of years, deceased l i ve d in matri mo ny . As m o n t h s and days the it is t h o r o u g h l y believed, and explicitly stated, t h a t m a r r i a g e is the est commitment In life a n d is an ordinance is never any question of "s acrificing one’s career." for the If there Is a choice, sake of the m arriage. second g r e a t ­ of God, there one’s ma r r i a g e for the job is chang ed I k n o w m a n y instances of 191. Beiler, V e r m a h n n u n g , o p .c i t ., p. 8 and 18. "Eine Absch ri ft von e i n e m S c h r e i b e n von D i e n e r v e r s a m m u l n g gehalten in P e n n s y l v a n i e n u n d Ohio," Howev er , two I n d i ­ viduals are r e l a t e d mor e t h a n one w a y so g e n e t i c a l l y they may still be as close as first cousins. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 863 - carpenters, blacksmiths, and b r i c k y a r d workers or coal miners who s t o p p e d t he i r work (even t h o u g h the carpenters especially enjoyed woodworking) because it took t h e m away from home too m u c h and a man sh ou l d be w i t h his family,, "Shun every a pp ea r an ce of d i s l o y a l t y and u nkindness ward one another; living o n l y f o r Jesus Christ, 192 each other. . ." to­ and for The importance of b o t h a man a n d a w o m a n to the managing of a f a r m should be noted. Amish men w o u l d find unmarried. to survive This is r e a l i z e d b y the A m i s h t h e m ­ One woman told me that she wa s too yo u n g whe n she marri ed (23 years old) a n d she k n e w that young and had told her future h u s b a n d that young. e co no m ic al ly The few bache l or s usual ly have a sister to run the house for them,, selves „ it d i f f i c u l t In other words most she was too she was too "Bu t, 11 she c o n t i n u e d , " h e h a d this f a r m a n d he needed a wife here. forever.” This His sister is p r o b a b l y one of the reasons for the f r e ­ quency of remarriage. ligious practices, around the c o u l d n ’t take care o f h i m Their whole w a y of life, their economic u n d e r t a k i n g s their r e ­ are built family and when the f a m i l y is broken b y d e a t h the need to rebu il d it is s t r o n g l y felt. val of two o r three years the widow or w i d o w e r 192 „ to remarry, Mast, Aft er an i n t e r ­ co mm u n i t y expects and there L e s s m s , o p . c i t ., p. the young is u s u a l l y cons id73. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 864 - erable d is cu ss i on of it. It is frequen t ly m e n t i o n e d to 193 the person concerned as w e ll as in gen er al gossip. The f a m i l y is established, by the wedding munity that ceremony. sanctif ie d and legalized As w ould be expected in a c o m ­ is c losely knit and w h i c h takes est in the establishment of new families, so m u c h i n t e r ­ the w e d d i n g cer­ emonies are i ntegrated into the rest of the community a c ­ tivity. Cour t sh ip is expected to be long; marriage is an important commitment into. Therefore, that should not be and cannot be rushed it is not c o ns id er ed any h a r ds h ip that there is only one season of the year d uring w h i c h marriages 194 take place. In Lancaster C o u n t y this custom is adhered 195 to more strictly. There almost all the weddings occur during N o v em b er and D ecember. 193. However, in the Ohio churches 00A82. 194. This r e s t r i c t i o n is d i s r e g ar de d in the rare instance when a girl ’'falls into sin." In wh ic h case, if she decides to m a r r y the b a b y ’s father, every effort is made to have the w e d d i n g before the b i r t h of the child. I know of no instance in w h i c h the girl marr i ed the b a b y ’s father after the b a b y was born. However, I a ttended one wedding in w h i c h the bride went to the hospi t al that night and the b a b y ar ri v ed 12 hours after the service was over. 195. "Amish Marr ia ge s in L a n c a s t e r Co., Pa., For Season of 1950 (Including Leb an on District, Le b an on County) February 15, 1951. The dates for the w eddings range f r o m November 7 to D ecember 14. All of the 37 weddings m e n ­ tioned took place on T u e s d a y or Thursday. The busiest week was that of N o v e m b e r 12 w it h five weddings taking place on November 14 and five on N o v e m b e r 16. In 1955, the marriages for the above communities and St. M a r y ’s Co., Md., took place betw ee n Nove mb er 1 and D e ce mb er 8, with one late wedding D e c e m b e r 22. Ai l forty weddings took place on T h u r s d a y or Tuesday. H e r a l d , J a n u a r y 5, 1956. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 865 there is a great er latitude, - a n d a l t h o u g h most of the w e d ­ dings occur in the late fall and early w i n t e r w h e n they will not interfere w i t h the farmi ng and w h e n the harvest is in and the b utchering and the canning are done, an oc196 casional wedd in g takes place almost eve ry m o n t h of the year* It would appear that there is groY/ing li berality on this point, w i t h couples bei ng m a r r i e d later and earlier in the 197 season than previously* This sho ul d relieve the p r o b l e m of more t h a n one wedd i ng occurring Not on the same day* only is the season of the year presc ri be d b y custom, but also the day of the week* sidered the T h u r s d a y is c o n ­ ideal d a y on w h i c h to be married* in well w i t h t h e w e e k l y schedule: can get away f ai r l y easily, This fits it is a da y most people and it gives the families p r e ­ paring for the w e dd in g sufficient time* As no work can be done on Sund ay and there is a great deal of prepa ra ti on involved, Thursday seems to w o r k out the best* gives them F r i d a y to clean up, This also Saturday to f i n i s h if n e c ­ essary and to do the r e g ul ar Saturday chores, day they are again r e a d y to rest* The then b y S u n ­ second most popular 196* See Ap p e n d i x VII, Part C, for chart on m a r ­ riages for month. One woma n whose d a u g h t e r was m a r r i e d in May expla i ne d in detail to me w h y she chose Ma y instead of being m a r r i e d in a traditional month. I later r e al iz ed that she w a n t e d m e t o u n d e r s t a n d th a t her d a u g h t e r was not married at an unusu al times because she had to be. 197. This liberalization m a y be r e l a t e d to p a r t i ­ cipation in the I-W program. F o r it p a r t i a l l y frees the season of the w e d d i n g f r o m the influence of the a g r i c u l ­ tural cycle * R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . — 866 — day is Tuesday, However, this is c o ns id e r e d less c o n v e n ­ ient as it makes it very d ifficult to prepare. the food can be p r e p a re d before Sunday, not sufficient to prepare Little of and one day is the food a n d set up the house. Tuesday is u s u a l l y chosen w h e n there is to be a n o t h e r w e d ­ ding in the c h u r c h or a n ei g h b o r i n g c h u r c h in the When asked w h y there were n e v e r a n y weddings same week. on Wednesday, 1 was told that t he y d i d n ’t know, to be m arried on Wednesday, that it w o u l d be p ossible 198 but that people never were. It might be a dd ed t h a t the w o m a n guests would find W e d n e s ­ day less convenient for it is u s u a l l y a f a i r l y h e a v y c l e a n ­ 198. ^ n a recent article on 'Months and Days,’ b Edwin M 0 Fogel, there are a n u m b e r of interesting facts related c oncerning the da y s of the week. The au th or m e n ­ tions that there has been a saying current a mong the P e n n s y l ­ vania Germans w i t h reference to W e d n e s d a y : " M i t t w o c h is ken Daak” (Wednesday is no day) - hence n o t h i n g spec ia l is to be done o r begun on that day, ''Concerning Tuesday, Middle G e r m a n corruption of Ding. The popular assembly o . . E v e r y t h i n g p er ta i n i n g F o g e l says: Dingstag, in G e r m a n i c to the D in g ’D i en s ta g is a the d a y of the ' is called Ding was s a c r e d , ” **He states that Thu rs da y or D o n n e r s t a g is n amed after Donar, He writes: ’That w e d d i n g s should most p o p ­ ularly come on Thu rs da y m a y be traced back to Donar, who was especially to be p r o p i t i a t e d at a w e d d in g . . . The entire h ou se was u nder the p r o t e c t i o n of Donar, so the hearth was sacred to h i m also. . . Besides being god of the house and the hearth, he was also g o d of m a r r i a g e and w e d ­ ded life'; . , . (E. M. Fogel, 'Of Mo n t h s and Days,' P e n n s y l ­ vania Folkore Society, V : )'* as q uoted in Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , op.cit.. p. 177. A n o t h e r possible explan at io n is that in the C a t h ­ olic C hurch both W e d n e s d a y and F r i d a y were fast days. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 86 7 - 199 ing day. O c c a s i o n a l l y a couple is m a r r i e d on Sunday, b u t this is only done when (remarried) an o ld e r couple is b ei ng ma r r i e d and the m a r r i a g e t akes olace at the e n d of 200 the r e g ul ar ch u r c h service. They do not have weddi n gs on the Sundays i n t e r v e n i n g b e t w e e n services, because that would mean d oing too m u c h w or k on the L o r d ’s Day. The specific date of the wedding also is arra ng ed to fit into the ample, individual family's if the father activities. is a t ur k e y farmer, For e x ­ the w e d d i n g w ould probably be held after all the turkeys h a d been sold. father would ei t h e r m ake The every effort to s e l l t h e m ea r ly (for the Th an ks gi vi ng market) or if they w e r e kept until the Christmas and N e w Y e a r ’s market, a little later than is customary. the w e d di ng w o u l d be The f a m i l y m a y a l s o a r ­ range it so that the w e d di ng will be soon a f t e r they have 199. A l t h o u g h W e d n e s d a y (the clay u s e d for m i d w e e k cleaning) is less c onvenient than T h u r s d a y (devoted to gardening or sewing d e p e n d i n g on the season) the w o m e n could adjust their w o r k schedule as they d o to att en d the Relief Sewing w h i c h is u s u a l l y h e l d on W e d n e s d a y and oc c as io na ll y on Thursday. 200. Yoder, R o s a n n a , op. cit., p. 28 tells of an older couple b e i n g m a r r i e d i m m e d ia te ly f o ll o wi ng communion. The Amish c o m mu n it y in w h i c h they lived was so small that they did not h ave a r e s id en t bishop. When one came to help them celebrate communion, he also m a r r i e d them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 868 - 201 church. One wom an 202 was p ub l i s h e d for her marriage when c h u r c h was at her h o u s e 0 second This meant that the h o u s e was all cleaned and ready and there would not have to be a second th o r o u g h cleaning before the wedding festivities. Unt il a couple is p u bl is he d they keep their re203 lationship a great secret. On one occas io n I atten de d a Relief Sewi ng that had been changed f r o m the home 201. in 00A 202. The t e r m "publishing'' refers to the a n n o u n c e ­ ment in c hu r c h of the coming marriage. The deacon makes the announcement at the v e r y end of the c h u r c h service. Formerly, this h a d to be done a speci fi e d n u m b e r of days before the w e d d i n g could be held. Not that wedd in g licenses are required for a l l marriages, there is no legal r e q u i r e ­ ment that g o v er ns the time of announcement. However, this announcement is of such c ommunity importance that the cust om has continued. P r o b a b l y approval of the m a r r i a g e at this time (as is still the case among the Quakers who announce forthcoming weddings at two successive business meetings to obtain the consent of the meeting.) Yoder, p. 152, writes that a girl n e v e r goes to preaching on the Sunday she is published. This c u st om is not observed in Ohio. A wid ow who was b e i n g m a r r i e d ha d church at her home the day she was published. She left the l u nc h pr eparations to go in and hear the d e a c o n make the announcement. 203. If, however, q young person dies d u r i n g this period "Her be l o v e d boy f rien d" or "his beloved girl friend" is mentioned in the obituaries along w i t h his relatives as one of those w h o m o m his death. W h i l e I was in S t o ne yr u n one couple who was planning to get m a r r i e d di d not k e e p it a secret but they and the girl^s f a m i l y discu ss ed wedding plans freely. This was not c on si de re d bad, but strange by the community. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 869 - which it had origi na ll y been scheduled. The hostess was gently plied wi t h questions as to wh y the other family did not have the sewing as planned. The only answer they received was Sunday it was o b ­ " i t - d i d n ’t suit," vious for the neigh bo rs daughter was p ub li sh ed and the original hostess was having w e d d in g day period bet we en publishing church. In the ten and the wedding, there is a fever of activity* The f a m i l y who is to host for the 204 ceremony must be chosen or volunteer, their house and the brides home must be cleaned, food must be prepared, material chosen a n d bought for w e d d i n g dress and the at­ tendants dress, attendants the dresses made, chosen, guests invited, and the to men t io n only some of the tasks. The bride a n d g r o o m are atte nd e d by two couples called N a v a Huggers either close (Hackers) w h o m th e y choose. They are friends of the bride or g ro o m or relatives. They do not have to have stand-up at a wedding. heard of was a girl of joined church before th e y can The youngest a ttendant I have sixteen. U s u a l l y the attendants 204, As is evident this f a m i l y m a y k n o w about the ensiling wedding in advance, but they cannot be o b ­ vious in their preparations for wedding churc h lest someone suspect, therefore most of the w o r k Is done i n the last ten days . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 205 are nearer to the bride and groo m in age. The a t t e n ­ dants are g e n e r a l l y unmarried, b u t sometimes a young mar206 2 07 ried couple will "stand-up" w i t h the bri de and groom. If a couple is m a r r i e d th ey n e v e r as k only the h u sb an d or the wife to a t t e n d them, but always b o t h of them. When I inquired if the a t te nd in g couples were always either married or "going together," I was told not necessarily, but one man answered, "If the attend i ng couple i s n ’t go208 ing together u s u a l l y one of t h e m wishes they were." One woman said in de sc r i b i n g her re la t i o n s h i p w i t h a f o r ­ mer suitor, "He was so sure of me that he w a s n ’t even 205. A n a l y s i n g the obituaries of Old Order Amishmen that were p u b l i s h e d in the Hera l d b e t we en January 1951 and December 1953, I foun d that the average age of marriage (unrelated to g en er a ti on or place) was 24 for the m e n and 22 for the women. John A. Hostetler, "Recent Textual T r e a t ­ ments of the A m i sh ," M Q R t April, 1951, p. 13 6 reports that in a study h e mad e of m e a n age of m a r ri a ge in M i f f l i n C o u n t y Pa. the m e a n age of m a rr ia ge for girls was 22, f or boys .24.2 These figures are ve ry similar t o t ho s e that I found. He reported on a study made by Dr. Maurice M o o k In C r a wf or d County, Pa. Dr. M o o k r e p or te d the m e a n age of marriage for men as 22.9, fo r w o m e n as 20.8. H o w a r d Good, "A S t u dy in Mennonite F a m i l y T ren ds In E l k h a r t County, Indiana," P r o ­ ceedings of'the s i x t h Ann u al C o n f e r e n c e on M e n n o n i t e C u l t u r ­ al Prob le m s, N or t h Nekton, K a n s »i Bet he l College Press, 1947, p. 43 reports that for thre e generations, (starting with the oldest A m i s h women m a r r i e d at 2 0 .2 , 21.3, and 21.8 years of age; for m e n he repo rt ed 23.9, 24.1, 22.7. 206. This Is the term the A m i s h use to d e s i g n a t e the attending couples or their role. 207. In one instance two couples were m a r r i e d a week apart, e a c h s to o d - u p for the other. OOA9, 00 A 1 0 and 00A45, and 00A46 . 208. 00A1. R ep ro d u ced with perm ission o f th e copyright ow n er ■ R .rth* er reproduction prohibited without p erm ission . - 871 - 209 jealous whe n I s t oo d- up w i t h Rubin," The mo r n i n g of the w e d di ng the two couples who are going to stand up for the b r id a l couple arrive at the b r i d e ’s house, the g r o o m arrives and is up early the bride 210 and dressedo She wears a dress of an y shade of blue 211 varying f r o m a royal blue to gray. She wears a whi t e or- 212 gandy apron and h a l s d u c h and a b l a c k s i l k p l e a t e d cover213 ing. U s u a ll y the other two girls in the brid al party are dressed e x a c t l y the same as the bride. casionally the However, a t t e n d i n g girls m a y wear dresses 209. 00A2 210. 00A84. 211. F o r m e r l y t h e y were m a r r i e d color is never w o r n for w e dd in gs today. oc­ of slightly in purple, but this 212. In Ohio the A m i s h wo m e n continue to wear w h it e organdy aprons a n d h a l s d u c h to c h u rc h after the y are m a r ­ ried a n d thus the bridal set is w o r n out and not saved for a shroud as it is stated for the Pennsy lv a ni a A m i s h in Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t ., p. 176, and Klees, o p .c i t . p.54« The wedding dress is n o t p a c k e d a w a y as a keepsake, but is made w i t h big darts and tucks so that it can be let out and worn f o r years a f terwards. One A m i s h w o m a n was still wearing h e r w e d d i n g dress for a "good." fifteen years, nine children, a n d one h u n d r e d pounds later. 213. The bride changes the b l a c k silk c ov er in g for a white organdy aft er the ceremony. She w i l l n e v e r again wear a b l a c k covering. The a tt en di ng girls also put on a whi t e c o v er in g for the rest of the day. In the evening all the you ng girls we a r white coverings. On all other occasions, the l at e r adoles ce n t girls w e a r bla ck coverings. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 872 - different m at e r i a l or shade of blue. In a n y event the bride selects the m a t e r i a l herself a nd u s u a l l y buys it 214. and presents it to the girls to make up. The boys wear the same suit as they would w e a r to c h u r c h service. The groom has at least the s us pi c io n of a beard. Gen­ erally it has been g r o w i n g fr om the time he was published* so his i nt e n t i o n is clear. Al s o his hair should not be 215 too short. The boys in at te n d a n c e m a y have quite short hair and no beards if t h e y have not yet joined church. All of the boys wear whi t e shirts, b la c k b ro ad f al l trou216 sers and m u h t z e and b l a c k shoes. The b r i d a l couple and th e i r attendants leave the bride's hou se for the house in w h i c h the wedding take place is to in ple n ty of time so they can find some se­ cluded corne r in w h i c h to wait u no bs e r v e d while the guests 217 arrive. This mea ns tha t t h e y get there fair ly early as 214. F o r m a l l y the a ttendants paid f o r material, and sometimes the y s t i l l do, but it the cus to m for the bride to g i v e the m a te ri a l them to make up. The bride also gives them a as a silver spoon.. their own is beco mi ng to t h e m for keepsake, su c h 215. '“Bis ho p Samuel Y o d e r ' s daughter, Np.ncy, and Jacob K. Zook, went west on a trip prio r to their marriage. When they r e t u r n e d expecting to be m a r r i e d in a few days, the bishop k i n d l y asked the m to postpone the ma r r i a g e a few weeks until Jacob's h a i r g r e w long e n o u g h so he could marry th e m with a good co nscience." John A. Hostetler, "The Life an d Times of Samuel Yoder", MQ,R, October, 1948, p. 239. 216. any k i n d . The A m i s h men in this area n e v e r wear ties of 217. Bachman, „ the couple w i t h four attendants meet upstairs in the home where the c e r e m o n y is to be performed." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 873 - 218 the services u s u a l l y begin about 8:30 they will end by 11:30 or 1 2 : 0 0 o in a n eighbor's h ouse themo in the hopes, that The service takes place that is large e n o u g h and if it "s ui ts ” In other words if a n e i g h b or in g fam i ly has had church recently* their house would be service, in condition to hold the and t h e y would p r o ba bl y be approached. Ideally* the service is held in a house that is In w a l k i n g d i s ­ tance of the bride's house so that the guests will not have to hitch their horses twice. and sometimes This is not always possible, the two homes m a y be as far as two miles a- part* espec ia ll y if the bride's 219 of the church district. family lives on the edge At about 8:30 the b ri da l party follows the bishop* ministers and d ea c o n into the main r o o m in w h i c h the cere- 220 mony is to be held. of the ministers the bride and the T h e y sit on chairs arranged in front with the three girls facing the three boys, gr oo m being In the are arranged at right angles center. The chairs to "the ministers and the con- 218. GIngerich* I o w a , op.cit., p. 232, "Before ten o'clock the Invited guests and ministers arrive." 219. The central Ohio A m i s h have heard of weddings taking place in the bride's home* but none I talked w i t h had been to s u c h a wedding. T h e y thought it would be d i s ­ tracting to smell the fo o d during the s ervice. 220. I b i d ., "The ministers then go upstairs to the room a ssigned to them, and a f t e r planning the service, they call the w e d d i n g couple Into the room. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 874 - 221 gregation. The order of a regular chur c h service. service is similar to that of Whe n the first hymn is an- 222 nounced, the m i ni st er s and the bridal party w a l k out. They go to some small or secluded r o o m suc h as generally retire to before a c h u r c h service. wait outside and the bridal couple goes ters. the ministers The attendants in w i t h the m i n i s ­ There the bis ho p counsels t h e m on marriage. are asked whether the Lord, it is their desire, to enter into the state They w i t h the h e l p of of matrimony; w h e t h e r there is a n y h in d r a n c e of an y sort in the way; w h e t h e r 223 they have "known one another" or "fallen into sin"; 221. Ibid. "Years ago their six chairs faced eac h other, three on a side. . . T o d a y the six chairs are pl a c e d in a row, all f a c i n g the b e n c h where the ministers were to sit." 222. "Wohlauf, Wohlauf, du Gottes G'mein," A u s b u n d 508 (No. 97) Yoder, Ami sc he L i e d e r , o p . c i t ., p. 35. Wh en I tried to check t o determine if I r e p o r t e d the hymns a c ­ curately I r e c ei ve d the f o l l o w i n g answer, "I've not checked on the hymn singing in our weddings since we got your l e t ­ ter, I think its alright if y ou put it the way you wrote and surely w o u l d not be o ffending to anyone." P e r s on al correspondence, IIl/l4/45. W h e n I checked duri ng a visit I was told "That's all right." It should be remem b er ed that some variation occurs. 223. "Known one another" g e n e r a l l y means h a v i n g ha d sexual intercourse regardless of the consequences, whil e "falling into sin' implies that p r e g n a n c y follows. In either case the couple cannot be m a r r i e d u n t i l they have b e e n b a n ­ ned, made a publ ic confession, and been r ei ns ta t ed in the congregation. This m a y postpone the w e d d i n g for a couple of months. "Bena, h a d to be married. The m i n is te rs were very strict w i t h her and made her go out w i t h them m a n y times b e ­ fore she could mak e h e r confession. It was quite a while before we k n e w she was pregnant, then the ministers kept her so long that she was too bi g to have a nice wedding. Today they are not so hard and do not make them wait so long1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 875 - and whether th e y have sought the will of the Lo rd In choosing one another. read to them, The articles of fa i t h are b r i e f l y whi c h they confess. there is no divorce, consider well while They are r em i n d e d that 224 except for adultery, and they should they still have If they still w i s h to be married, the f r e e d o m of choice. the couple is couns el e d that the first three nights are to be spent in prayer, emphasizing the spiritual aspects portance of the covenant with God. of marr i ag e and the i m ­ It is only after this 225 that the man n e e d no long er withh ol d h i m se l f fro m his wife. Levitious 15 is r e f er re d to a n d - t h e man is told that he 224. A n d even In this should instance n e i t h e r party m a y r e ­ marry . 225. "Listen to what d tell y o u and I wi l l show you over whom the de v i l has power, n a m e l y over those who enter upon marriage without r es pe c t i n g G o d in their hearts, but rather follow the desire of the b o d y like the mul e and the horse who k n o w n o t h i n g else - over such the devil has power. When you take her to wife, w i t h h o l d yourself for three days. But on the first night broil the fis h over a fire, and yo u will drive the devil away. On the secon d night, y o u will be admitted into the com pa ny of the patriarch. On the third night you will receive the bl e s s i n g of G o d to be enabled to have healthy children, etc.... Arise, Sara, let us call up o n God tomorrow and the next day, for in these three nights we desire to be r e co n c i l e d w i t h God, f o r we are children of the Holy One and it is not f i t t i n g that we conduct o u r ­ selves as do the heathen." Hans Nafziger, "An A m is h C h u r c h Discipline of 1781." o p .c i t ., pp. 144, 145. Copies of this letter have been found in the libraries of the A m i s h of Central Ohio. (John Umble, "Manuscript Amish Ministers' Manuals, In the Goshen College Library". MQR Qc*.1941,p.252. In the versions of Tobi t that I have read, there is reference to starting the m ar r i a g e w i t h prayer, but no m e n t i o n of a three day period. "When they were b o t h shut in together, Tobias got u p f r o m the bed and said, "Get up, m y sister, and let us p r a y that the Lord will have m e r c y u p o n us." An d he bega n to say, "Blessed are you, God of our forefathers, and blessed be R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 876 - 226 not go Into his wife at the time of her m e n s t r u a t i o n 0 Then a mi n i s t e r fr om eac h church, ministers, if there are visiting adds a comment and p o s s i b l y the deacon says a word or t w o . As the bridal couple comes one of the a t t en di ng couples behind. out of the council room, steps In front They r e t u r n w i t h the ministers and resume the seats of t h e m and one to the m a i n r o o m they ha d previously. As they come In, your Holy and gl o r i o u s name forever. Let the heavens and all your creation 'belss you. Y o u made A d a m and gave h i m his wife Eve as a helper and support, an d f r o m t h e m came the human race. Y o u said, ’It Is not good that the man should be alone; let us ma k e h i m a h e l p e r like himself. Now Lord, it is not because of lust that I take m y sister here, hut in truth. Have m e r c y on me, and let me g r o w old with her." E d g a r J. Goodspeed, The Apocrypha, an A me r i c a n Translation. Chicago, U n i v e r s i t y of Chica g o Press, 1938, pp. 121- 1 2 2 . The bridal couple in the Ohio Old Order A m i s h Churches still adhere to the three da y period, " otherwise it wou ld be like animals", a l t h o u g h they do not consider that each dav has a special s i g n i fi ca n ce as is implied by Nafziger. The suggested three day w a i t i n g peri od is not u n iq ue to the Amish. It const an tl y reappears in various sources. Bainton quotes a twel f th century p o e t ’s praise of a co nsiderate knight, "for tw o days and nights the th i r d di d not exceed fond embrace. . . If I m a y say it w i t h meetness, he found the waiting sweetness. Bainton, " C h r i s t i a n i t y and Sex", op.cit.. p. 58. M o d er n M a r r i a g e manuals sometimes suggest a similar period. 226. I have been told that this part of the c o u n ­ seling uses only B i bl ic al t e r m i n o l o g y and quotations and that sometimes the y o u n g p eo p l e have not been properly instructed by thei r parents and do not u n d e r s t a n d what is meant. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 377 - 227 the congregation sings "So w i l l ich aber haben an." One of the mi ni s t e r s "makes the beginning." (introductory sermon) The Anfang u s u a l l y begins wi t h a description of the first m a r ri ag e - that of A d a m and Eve. hat gesprochen zu Adam: Es "Denn er 1st night gut, dass der M e n s c h aliein sei; ich will ihm ein Gehfllfin machen, die u m ihn 228 sei." In d i s c u s s i n g this marriage, the m i n i s t e r ma y point out h o w the couple were gether by God; or perhaps of one f a i t h and joined to­ in this c o n n e c t i o n he will b ri n g out that m a r r i a g e •is an ordinance of G o d estab li sh ed for the preservation of the h u m a n race. Ehestand eine Ordnung Gottes "Wir wissen, dass der 1st u n d war von Anfang, Hott zur F o r t p f l a n z u n g des m e n s c h l i c h e n Geschl ec h te s setzt und b ef o h l e n hat, mit diesen Worten: die einge- Seid fruchtbar 229 und mehret e u c h aft Erden, und machet sie euch unterthan." 227. A u s b u n d , 378 ( N . 69). Yoder, Amische L i e d e r , on.cit., p. 37. Gingerich, I o w a , o p . c i t ., p7 232, "Finally they sing n u m b e r thirty-three in their hymn al and when they r e a c h a certain verse of a certain stanza, the bride and g r o o m come down the stairway, prece de d and f ol­ lowed by their pairs of attendants." 228. Beiler, 229. Ibid., Wahre C h r i s t e n t h u m , o p .c i t ., p. 87. p. 92. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 878 - This leads to a discus si o n of Cain and Abel cription of two kinds children of men. of races, and to a d e s ­ the children of Go d an d the It is me nt i o n e d h ow the sons of God l o o k ­ ed on the daughters of men and f ou n d t h e m beautiful and married them without c onsulting God or following his ordi230 nance. Then the story of the flood Is re co u n t e d and h o w Noah and his wife and pleasure In the three sons and their wives had found eyes of the Lord and survived the flood. The congregation kneels in silent prayer, while the bri231 dal party stands.' T h e n the deacon, or another m i n i s ­ ter, reads the scripture. This is not read In its entirety, but is always Matthew 19. It only the part that deals with marriage. Af t e r the scripture reading the bish op 232 rises to deliver the ma in sermon. He begins the main 233 234 sermon w i t h the story of Isaak and R e be cc a and of Jacob and Leah and Rachet. S o l o m o n ’s d o wn fa ll is often used as another illustration of w h y a beli ev er must m a r r y a 230. ""Christian Courtship, II, op.cit. 231. This is probably the origin of the phrase "stand-up for" Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p .c i t ., p. 171 states . .a period of silent prayer, In w h i c h all kneel, incl ud ­ ing the bridal party." Yoder, R o s a n n a , o p .c i t ., p. 156, "All kneel in silent p r ay er except the bridal party who stand facing their chairs." 232. Only a b is h o p can perfo rm a marriage ceremony. 233. If the m i n i s t e r leaves out any references or does not fini sh his part of the sermon, the b i s h o p fills it in and goes on w i t h the references to marr ia ge in the rest of the Bible. 234. Beiler, Wahre, C h r i s t e n t h u m , op.cit., p. 97. Throughout the service there seems to be an intermingling of discussions of e a r t h l y marriage b e t w e e n a man and a R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 879 - fellow believer. It is pointed out that two persons c a n ­ not be mar r ie d unless they have first c o nf es se d the faith* been baptized and have b ro ke n bread together. This c o m m i t ­ ment to God comes first and above the m arriage commitment. "Denn die Ehe mit Christo tiger als die Ehe im G l a u b e n g emach im Fleisch, is viel wich- a b s o n d e r l i c h die, wo in solcher Unordnung u n d ohne Gottesfu rc h t an ge fa ng e n wird, doch nach der Lehre Jesu Christi . . .Und muss der M e n s c h bereit sein, u m Christi w i l l e n zu verlassen Vater, Mutter, Weib und Kinder, d az u sein eigen L e b e l 5 sonst ist er seiner nicht 235 wertho" The fact that our bodies are temples of the Holy woman and the spiritual m a rr ia g e bet w ee n Christ and his church or Christ and the individual c h u r c h member. One is used to illustrate and reinforce the other. For an exam­ ple of this ming li ng see C.W.Bender, "Christ the Bridegroom." HdW, February 15, 1954, p. 122. In ol de r forms of the wedding service (Nafziger, Ibid.., pp. 143-46, and U m b l e , Minister's M a n u a l , o p .cit ., pp. 100103) considerable detail was given to the role of the "schteckleiman" following the example of the servant of Abraham. Elijah’s role as schteckleiman Is not stressed very m u c h to­ day because in central Ohio it is a mere f o r ma li ty that is not always observed. In one case b o t h the boy and the g ir l went togeher to see the mi n i s t e r (instead of only t he boy going). The m i n i st er did not speak to her father u n ti l the morning of the ceremony and did n ot speak to he r mother at all as she was at home busily preparing the wedding d i n ­ ner. Today the ex am pl e of A b r ah am and Isaac is u se d to illustrate the Importance of G o d choosing the correct spouse for his child. "Christian Courtship, III. Lessons f r om the Lives of the Patriarchs," HdW, M a r c h 15, 1956, pp. 92-93. 0,2K . Beiler, Wahre Chris tenthum, op.cit., p. 97. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. — n n r\ ooO — 236 Ghost is disc u s s e d and the o b l i g a t i o n that this involves. Finally the b i s h o p turns to the Book of Tobit and recounts 237 part of the s t o r y as a valuable and instructive e x a m p l e . From this he turns to the N e w Testa me nt a n d points out how Christ rest or ed m arriage to from that was first That is, its original d i v in el y orda in e d e n c o u n t e r e d in the G ar d e n of Eden. the m a r r i a g e of one ma n to one woman, have the same faith, at the command of God. b o t h of w h o m The b is h o p points out that Christ did not sanction the M o s a i c law on divorce. 7 and Eph. Then he reads 1 Cor. 5:22 to the of the chapter. As in a regular service he reads verses at a time commenting on e a ch section. part of the sermon that he g o es into end a few It is in this practical s u g g e s ­ tions of how a h u s b an d and a wife s ho u l d treat one another. More stress is put on the husband taking good care of the w i f e a nd being c o n s i de ra te of her, than on 236. "For if a man be d e p r i v e d o f that w h i c h is his own, it is counted for violence, and is punished; how much more d e s e r v i n g of p un is hm en t is he w h o takes that f r o m the Lord Jesus w h i c h belongs to h i m and gives it to a s t r a n ­ ger, yeah, a heathen 1" D.P. o p . c i t . 9 1910, p. 502. 237. The degree of emphasis pl ac e d on Tobit varies with the bishop, as there are some bishops who feel that an apocryphal b o ok s hould not h a v e an important place in the sermon. ( B a c h m a n ’s d e s c r ip ti o n of a L a n c a s t e r C ou n t y wedding implies that there Tobit forms a m ajor part of the sermon. O p . c i t „ , p. 171-72. If the couple has "fallen in to sin' the s to r y of Tobias is not related, because the marriage obviously started w i t h lust and not w i t h prayer and thus it is not appropriate. 00A77. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 881 - 2 3 8 the w i f e ’s relation to he r husband. There able discussion of child r e a r i n g and the is c o n s i d e r ­ couple is cauti on e d to present a u n i t e d fro nt to the children and n e v e r to c r i ­ ticize or discuss d i f f e r e n c e s in front to reinforce one another. their children to support Th e y are of them,, but always also told to teach the mi ni s t e r s . reminded not to lea ve his wife alone, ing out to take her w i t h h i m "if she 239 out." The h u s b a n d is but when he is g o ­ is in shape to go Then the bans are pu bl i s h e d for the second and last time. If there is no object i on to their marriage, the bridal couple comes forward and stands be fo r e the 240 bishop while he asks them a few questions. E r k en ne t und b e k e n n e t dir es a u c h ftir eine christliche O r d n u n g dass ein M a n n und ein Weib sein soil, u n d ken n et dir auch hoffen dass dir diesen Stand so weit a ng ef an g en habt wie dir sind gelehrt worden? (Ja.) Kan n st du a u c h hoffen, Bruder, dass der H e r r dir diese u n s e r e M it -S c h w e s t e r m 8 ch te zu e i ne m Eheweib v er or dn et haben? (Ja.) 238. T h i s m a y be to counteract the rat h er o n e ­ sided Biblical account. More counsil should be g i v e n to the head of the house, the d om i n a n t one. 239. W e d d i n g of (00A)CA3 to (00A)CA4. 240. The type of ques ti on s a sk e d and the m a t e r i a l covered is the same in al l w ed d i n g s , but the exact w o r d ­ ing is not standardized. This is p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t r a ­ ditionally the m i n i s t e r s and bishops l e a rn ed the cerem on ie s by word of m o u t h and only some of them have copies of the various "Ministers' M a n u a l s . ” R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 882 - V e r s p r e c h s t du a u c h d e i n e m E h e w e i b d a s wen n s ie s o l l t e in L eibes S chw achheit, K ra n k h e it, oder e i n i g e r l e i s c c h e Z u f & l l e n kommen, d a s s d u w i l l s t f i i r s i e s o r g e n wi e e s einem c h r i s t l i c h e n E h e w e ib z u s t e h t ? ( J a . ) ^41 V e rsp re c h e t d i r auch b eid e m ite in a n d er dass d i r w o l l e t L i e b , L e id und G eduld m it e in a n d e r t r a g en , u n d n i c h t m ehr von e i n a n d e r w e i c h e n b i s e u c h d e r l i e b e G o t t w i r v o n e i n a n d e r s c h e i d e n d u r c h dem Tod"? ( J a . ) 2 4 2 The b i s h o p r e a d s Then f o l l o w i n g t h e and T o b i a s , says: a p ra y e r w hile exam ple he p l a c e s the co u p le s t a n d s . of Raguel w ith h is d a u g h te r th e b r i d e ' s hand in th e g ro o m 's and "Der G o t t A b ra h a m s , u n d d e r G o t t I s a a k s u n d der G o t t Jakobs s e i m i t e u c h , u n d h e l f e Segen r e i c h l i c h ‘t t b e r e u c h , 243 e u c h zusam m en u n d g e b e sein und das d u r c h Jesum C h r is tu m , Amen.11 T h e y s i t down w h i l e mon, o f t e n the b is h o p concludes in a s i m il a r v ein to th at h is s e r ­ o f D a n i e l E„ M a s t ' s Lessons. M a r r i a g e p a r t n e r s s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s a s o ne flesh . When o n e s u f f e r s t h e o t h e r s u f f e r s a l s o , when o n e r e j o i c e s t h e o t h e r r e j o i c e s a l s o . They m ast n ev er engage in d i s p u t e s . T h e y s h o u l d be d e ­ voted to e a c h o th e r w ith such fe rv e n t lo v e , t h a t n o t h i n g i s m o r e d e a r t o t h e m t h a n t h e i r own s p o u s e , e x c e p t God H i m s e l f who h a s r e d e e m e d t h e m t h r o u g h His S o n . 241. The q u e s t i o n i s and t h e g r o o m . The g r o o m i s bride p ro m is e s to o b e y . t h e same f o r b o t h t h e b r i d e n o t asked to c h e r is h w hile the 242. H a n d b u c h fillr P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 4 - 3 5 . T his b o o k i s s o l d b y t h e A m i s h b o o k d e a l e r t h a t s e r v e s these c h u r c h e s . 243. I b i d . , p . 3 5 . C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , op , c i t . , p . 1 2 3 , I b e l i e v e , i s t h e one r e a d . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 883 - The y o u n g man s h o u l d n e v e r f o r g e t t h e s a c r i f i c e h i s s p o u s e made t o b e c o m e h i s l i f e c o m p a n i o n . She has s a c r i f i c e d h e r p a r e n t s , h e r b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s , h e r h o m e , h e r f r i e n d s a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e s o f h e r y o u t h , 244 and h as i n v e s t e d a l l h e r c o n f i d e n c e i n him , t r u s t i n g t h a t he w i l l p r o v i d e a f o r t u n a t e f u t u r e t h a t w i l l m o r e than re p a y her f o r a l l t h i s l o s s . Sh e g a v e h i m t h e b e s t g i f t t h a t s h e h a d - a h e a r t f i l l e d w i t h p u r e l o v e S> her very l i f e w ith a l l th a t i t c o n ta in e d . Oh, d e a r y o u n g m an, a l w a y s r e m e m b e r t h a t s h e h a s s a c r i f i c e d f o r y o u , a n d make e v e r y e f f o r t , p r a y e r f u l l y a n d e a r ­ n e s tly , to exceed h e r fondest ex p ec ta tio n s of your dev o tio n to h e r . M a in ta in a pure m u tu al a f f e c t i o n . Shun e v e r y a p p e a r a n c e o f d i s l o y a l t y a n d u n k i n d n e s s t o w a r d one a n o t h e r ; l i v i n g o n l y f o r J e s u s C h r i s t , and f o r e a c h o t h e r , c o n s t a n t l y s a y i n g w i t h J o s h u a : "As f o r me a n d my h o u s e , we w i l l s e r v e t h e L o r d . " T h e n t h e L o r d who h a s s e a l e d y o u r w e d l o c k , w i l l b l e s s y o u . 24 5 At l e a s t tw o o t h e r m i n i s t e r s " w itn ess" to the cor­ rectness o f th e b i s h o p ’ s se rm o n , a d d in g a few com m ents. 246 The b i s h o p r e a d s a p r a y e r , pronouncing th e b e n e d ic tio n 247 and t h e l a s t hymn i s a n n o u n c e d . D u r i n g t h i s hymn t h e b rid a l p a r t y w a lk o u t and r e t u r n house. At t h e e n d o f f ile out and s t a r t im m ed iately to th e b r i d e 's t h e hymn t h e m i n i s t e r s tow ards th e and g u e s ts b r i d e ’s house f o r d in - 244. I n my e x p e r i e n c e i t h a s b e e n j u s t a s common f o r t h e man t o move t o t h e w i f e ' s c o m m u n i t y a s f o r h e r t o move t o h i s . I n w h i c h c a s e he w o u l d be as l i k e l y a s s h e to g i v e u p t h e s e a s p e c t s o f h i s f o r m e r l i f e . 245. M ast, L e s s o n s , o p . c i t . , ally w r itte n in G erm an). 246. pp. 72-73. (O rig in ­ C h risten p flich t. 247. " G e l o b t s e i G o t t im h B c h s t e n T h r o n . " 712 (No. 1 2 2 ) Y o d e r , A m i s c h e L l e d e r , o p . c l t . , p . 3 8 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Ausbund - 384 - 248 ner. The m a j o r p r o b l e m a t w e d d i n g s i s of g u e s t s down t o t h e p o i n t w here th e to keep th e number g ro u p c an be h a n d l e d . This g r o w s m o r e d i f f i c u l t w i t h im provem ents tion and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . A ll the young people ches a r e in v ited , t o be i n v i t e d . in v ited o n ly f o r really a f e a s t) and th o s e su p p er (the and th e both th e b r i d e how ever, expect a r e now o f t e n evening; m ea l w h ich i s evening. a n d groom a r e 250 m arried c o u s i n s as w e ll as church members a r e of b o th chur­ of n e ig h b o r in g c h u rc h e s The y o u n g p e o p l e , the i n com m unica­ The a u n t s a n d u n c l e s o f 249 in v ited next and th e u n - the n e a r n e ig h b o rs. not n e c e s s a rily A ll the i n v i t e d and o n ly th e 248. ’’H o c h z e i t s - L e h r e . ” ” Im A n f a n g s o l l t e von d e r S c h f i p f u n g Adams an g efiih rt w erden, und d ass G o tt sah d a ss e s n i c h t g u t w a r d a s s d e r M e n s c h a l i e i n s e i und. i h m e i n Weib g a b , a u c h w e i t e r w i e d i e V e r m e n g u n g d e r K i n d e r G o t t e s m i t dem " T f t c h t e r d e r M e n s c h e n g e s c h a h , u n d d a s s solches d i e H au p t U rs a c h e d e r S ii'n d flu t w a r . "Noahs u n d s e i n e r S S h n e T r e u e i n dem s i e W e i b e r n a h m e n vo n den K i n d e r n G o t t e s . D i e s kommt v o r im A n f a n g . "Dann w e i t e r d i e G e s c h i c h t e v o n I s a a k u n d R e b e c c a , u n d v o n Jakob u n d L a b a n u n d L a b a h z w e i W e i b e r u n d e tlic h e solche B eispiele. D a n n w i e . G o t t dem V o l k I s r a e l b e s o n d e r s b e f a h l s i c h , n i c h t m i t a n d e r e V B l k e r v e r m e n g e n im E h e s t a n d , u n d wie i h r U n g e h o r s a m e , u n d .b e s o n d e r s S a l o m o s v i e l W e i b e r e i dem Volk zum g r o s s e n U n s e g e n d i e n t e , i n dem d a s R e i c h I s ­ rael g e t e i l t w urde, und s p S t e r in d ie G e fa n g e n s c h a ft gefUhrt w u r d e . Dann w i r d b e i u n s d i e G e s c h i c h t e von To­ b i a s u n d d e s j u n g e n T o b i a s H o c h z e i t a n g e f i i h r t n a c h dem d i e S c h r i f t e n 1 K o r ;, u n d E p h . 5 , 22 b i s a n d E n d e g e l e s e n i s t , und d a n n w i r d d e r E h e s t a n d v o l l z o g e n . " Handbuch fU r P r e diger, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 1 - 3 2 . 249. F o rm e rly o n ly th e b r i d e ’ s a u n t s and u n c le s w ere a ll in v ite d , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y the groom ’ s . T h is change is p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l a t i v e c a s e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . Even though the wedd in g is at the b r i d e ’s house, the groom's relatives can come f ro m quite a d i s t a n c e by train or h ired car. 250. T h i s i n c l u d e s r e l a t i v e s who h a v e l e f t t h e O l d Order A m i s h ( i f t h e y a r e n o t s t i l l u n d e r t h e b a n ) a n d r e l a ­ t i v e s who h a v e n e v e r j o i n e d a nd h a v e no i n t e n t i o n o f j o i n i n g . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. r- n n - oo5 - youth may b e a s k e d w h i l e t h e i r in v itatio n . But more l i k e l y paren ts are boring m i n i s t e r s may a l s o deal of d i s c u s s i o n and t h e noon m e a l, w h ile in v ite d f o r th e in the evening m e a l. N eigh251 in v ite d . T here is a g r e a t be com m unity a f t e r "p ublished" and e v e ry o n e hopes t o be tendance a t t h e ev en in g meal i s t he c e r e m o n y a n d n o o n m e a l . cannot m i s s school to of the young p e o p le ily in th e late F o r one r e a s o n , come t o the of a p a r t y a n d l e s s if the th e m orning s e r v i c e a re w orking and can g e t observance and t h e r e f o r e th e y u s u a l l y p r e f e r a c o u p le h as been 2 52 in v ite d . The a t ­ g e n e ra lly la rg e r th an at a fte rn o o n th an f o r the e v e n in g i s m o re r e c e i v e an t h e p a r e n t s w i l l be i n v i t e d for th e a c t u a l w e d d in g s e r v i c e the y o u n g p e o p l e do n o t sch o lars and many a w ay m o r e e a s ­ whole d a y . A lso of a r e l i g i o u s t h e young p e o p le must choose t o come w h e n t h e y c a n make t h e m o s t of th e s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . The g u e s t s are i n v i t e d by p o s tc a r d mouth, b u t p r i m a r i l y b y p o s t c a r d . w r i t t e n i n p e n c i l by t h e b r i d e 251. 00A1 was the t y p i c a l p o s t c a r d . I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e in d icatio n in ad v an ce, he would h a v e p a r t o f in t h e A b r a t h , h e w a s and word o f The c a r d s a re u su ally a n d groom, p e rh a p s w i t h t h e i n v i t e d t o a n e i g h b o r i n g w e d d in g by (These i n v i t a t i o n s a re n o t answ ered. r e c i p i e n t w i l l g o .) T h e r e w a s no n o r do I t h i n k h e s u s p e c t e d t h a t the s e r v i c e . A f t e r he g o t t h e r e , a s k e d t o "m ake t h e b e g i n n i n g . " 252. Bachman, "The i n v i t e d g u e s t s g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e the e n t i r e c o n g r e g a t i o n o f w h i c h t h e b r i d e a n d g r o o m a r e members," p . 1 7 0 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. n n s’ ~ OOO - h e l p o f some o f 253 th e b r i d e ’s g i r l f r i e n d s 0 U su ally th ey a re s i g n e d w i t h t h e f i r s t name o f b o t h t h e b r i d e a n d t h e groom, b u t s o m e t i m e s t h e b r i d e ' s e n t s ' name i s name o r t h e b r id e 's par­ used. The s t y l e h a s n o t b e c o m e s t a n d a r d i z e d ; 254 i t is in fo rm a l and p e r s o n a l . The p a r e n t s g e n e r a l l y h a v e more t o do w i t h d e c i d i n g who w i l l b e in v ited than th e b r i ­ dal c o u p le . As w e l l a s the g e n e r a l g u e s t s , help w i t h c e r t a i n p arts of the or c o u s i n s may b e a s k e d t o are r e s p o n s i b l e peo p le are fe stiv itie s. be t h e fo r tak in g care h o stlers. o f the ask ed to O lder b r o th e r s That i s , horses th ey and d i r e c t ­ ing t h e g u e s t s w h e r e t o l e a v e t h e i r b u g g ie s and w here to put t h e h o r s e s . a n d some o f t h e b r i d e ' s friends a re honor t h i s G ir l cousins ask ed t o be t a b l e is a lso a lo t w a ite rs. o f work; four s e t t i n g s at a sin g le ta b le , for the g i r l s to be w a i t i n g fo od f r o m n o o n u n t i l and i t food f a l l s hut t h e g r o o m ' s m o t h e r a l s o h e l p s invited t o h e lp as ~ 253^ 0 0 A8 6 , 254. t a s k of p e r s o n a l l y cooks. 00A24, i s n o t uncommon tab les th at ev eryo n e i s a l w a y s p l e a s e d t o be a b l e task of p r e p a r i n g t h e As w e l l a s a n t h e r e may b e a s many a s on t h e ten o 'c lo c k clo se or serv in g n ig h t. the However, to h e lp . The m a j o r on t h e b r i d e ' s m o t h e r , a n d v a r i o u s women a r e T here a re o fte n au n ts o f the (00A)CA4. B a chm an s a y s , "To t h e g r o o m i s a s s i g n e d t h in v itin g a l l th e g u e s ts ." p. 170. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 837 - 255 b r i d e and g r o o m or p o ssib ly n e i g h b o r i n g women. ding and h e l p , o ld e r m a r r ie d c o u sin s and T h e y may come t h e d a y b e f o r e a n d t h e y a l w a y s come e a r l y t h e wed­ th e m orning o f th e s e r v i c e a n d w o r k s t r a i g h t t h r o u g h t h e m o r n i n g a n d i n t o the n i g h t p r e p a r i n g two h u g e f e a s t s . m o th e r s n e v e r s e e t h e i r T h is means t h a t c h i l d r e n m a r r i e d and th e the cooks too miss t h e c e r e m o n y . A w edding i s occup atio n. both a r e l i g io u s B oth a s p e c ts are serv ice im portant to and a s o c i a l the com m unity. However, t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n c o m p l e t e l y r e s o l v e d , i s some t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e m . ding i s p r i m a r i l y a s o c i a l To t h e y o u n g g u e s t s , affair; to the s e r v i c e c a u s e d t h e m t o r e - e x a m i n e and t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y involved. The m o r e in th e L ord i s th eir own m a r r i a g e relig io u s asp ects d e v o u t may c o n s i d e r su b m issio n , in c o n s is te n t w ith the r e ­ in o v e r-e a tin g T h e y f e e l t h a t mos,t o f t h e the s o c i a l a s p e c t s a wed­ o ld e r people s tre s s in g h u m ility , mainder o f t h e d a y b e i n g s p e n t ch atter. the c o n sid er th e "in te lle ctu ally " that th e m orning s e r v i c e charity, b e in g to and t h e r e and i d l e g u e s ts have come f o r and n o t t o h e a r G o d 's w ord o r t o be s t r e n g t h e n e d i n t h e i r own m a r r i a g e o r t h e i r r e l a t i o n C hrist. T herefore, be k e p t s m a l l . th ere is But t h i s is to th e f e e l i n g t h a t w eddings sh o u ld alm ost im possible to do. T here 255. A u n t s who a r e s i s t e r s o f t h e b r i d e ' s o r g r o o m p a r e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n women who h a v e m a r r i e d u n c l e s . In o th e r words a u n t s b y m a r r i a g e a r e r a r e l y a s k e d t o c o o k . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 88 8 - a re so many p e o p l e is anxious t o th at com e , "m a st” be i n v i t e d s o t o c u t down may mean h u r t f e e l i n g s w ithin th e c l o s e l y k n i t disru p tiv e in and everyone itse lf. com m unity. T his A lth o u g h the c o u l d be q u i t e problem o f the of w e d d i n g s h a s b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d b y t h e u s e size of p o stcard in v ita tio n s and h i r e d a u to m o b ile s for tran sp o rta tio n , conflict o f th e r e lig io u s so cial and th e the seem s to be an old p r o b l e m . A n d ' w h e n i t / m a r r i a g e / i s b e g u n i n t h e f e a r o f God and t h e y a r e m a r r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o d i v i n e o r d e r by a m i n i s t e r , a n d a m eal i s t o be g i v e n them, i t s h o u l d be done w i t h c a u t i o n and t h a n k f u l n e s s t o w a r d God, f o r his g i f t and n o t in such an ex ce ss as has a l ■ re a d y happened I b u t w ith a t h a n k f u l h e a r t a meal s h o u l d be g i v e n and s p i r i t u a l s o n g s s h o u l d be su n g t o h o n o r a n d p r a i s e G o d , a n d we s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t we h a v e e n t e r e d i n t o a s p i r i t u a l m a r r i a g e w i t h t h e h e a v e n l y b r i d e g r o o m J e s u s , and h a v e p ro m is e d on o u r k n e e s b e f o r e t h e a l l - k n o w i n g God t o l i v e a n d t o d i e u n to him , j u s t l i k e t h e s e young p e o p le a l s o have prom ised eac h o th e r in m a r r ia g e . B u t how do t h i n g s go a t t i m e s when i t g e t s t o o m u c h , a n d t h e s o n g s o f God w h i c h ' a r e s o s p i r i t u a l a r e s o - m u c h a b u s e d w ith la u g h in g , w ith j e s t i n g , w i t h l o u d and u n n e c ­ e s s a r y t a l k i n g , and th e y a re sung w ith a l l k in d s of i n d e c e n t t u n e s w here o n l y a n h o u r e a r l i e r t h e D i­ v i n e Word w a s h a n d l e d . 256 Whether t h e r e l i g i o u s im portance i s or refle cted the in so cial c lo th in g elem ent of th e men d r e s s a s a l w a y s f o r a c h u r c h s e r v i c e . to y s who a t t e n d t h e u su ally w ith a w h ite is o f form ost g u ests. The The a d o l e s c e n t s e r v i c e w ear t h e r e g u l a t i o n M uhtze, sh irt, and b la c k s h o e s . T h o s e who 256. H arold S. Bender (e d . and t r a n s l a t o r ) , Amish B i s h o p ' s C o n f e r e n c e E p i s t l e o f 1 8 6 5 , ,T MQR, J u l y , 1946, p . 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. "An come o n l y f o r t h e e v e n i n g may w e a r f a n c i e r perhaps no M u h t z e . church d i s t r i c t T h e women who b e l o n g t o t h e wear th e r e g u l a r Sunday o u t f i t colored d r e s s w i t h a w h i t e those f ro m n e i g h b o r i n g halsduch t h a t church d i s t r i c t s same of a p lain th e y b elo n g to wear an a p ro n and The y o u n g g i r l s th e dress same d i s t r i c t , wise t h e y w e a r m a t c h i n g a p r o n s a n d h a l s d u c h evening w h i t e coverings r a th e r table w a i te r s a l l w ear organdy a p ro n s . another c h u r c h , and organdy apron and h a ls d u c h , m atch t h e i r d r e s s . as f o r c h u r c h i f sh irts th an black o th er­ and i n t h e silk ones. I f th ey are t h e s e a p r o n s m ay b e c o l o r e d The from and a r e worn over th e m a t c h i n g a p r o n i n w h ic h c a s e t h e y do n o t w e a r an o r g a n d y h a l s d u c h . B oth th e h o u se i n w hich t h e cerem ony t o o k p l a c e and t h e b r i d e ’ s h o u s e h a v e b e e n s e t - u p f o r t h e t h e day b e f o r e . was a r r a n g e d a s The h o u s e fo r a reg u lar home i s a r r a n g e d t o t h a t most o f t h e dow nstairs, chairs and p la c e s g e s t room t h e around t h r e e the t a b l e s are cerem o n y was h e ld church s e r v ic e ; perhaps to h a s b e e n moved o u t tab les la y th e b a b ie s . are arranged of the are arranged b r id e 's T h i s means from th e o ne r o o m i n w h i c h t h e r e In a l l s e t up t o f e e d t h e g u e s t s . sides the f e e d th e num erous g u e s t s . fu rn itu re except rooms t a b l e s in w hich th e w edding room . in a n " If in a la rg e If the o t h e r In th e tw o lar­ "U" r u n n i n g th e room i s along are sm aller sid es of the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - room, a n d i f it - is very larg e, ta b le p l a c e d betw een t h e rooms t h e r e 890 is u su a lly t h e r e m ay he a n o t h e r l o n g 257 arms o f t h e " U " . In th e o t h e r one l o n g t a b l e , p laced fashion t h a t m ost p e o p le c a n be s e a t e d a t The b r i d a l sits largest ta b le p a r t y alw ays in th e b i g g e s t room . ner to t h e b r id e 's rig h t. g irl On t h e o t h e r I n f r o n t o f them i s a l a r g e c a k e made b y t h e c o r n e r of t h e The b r i d e s i t s th e groom w i t h an a t t e n d a n t and h i s g r o o m 's l e f t . one t i m e . a t the side of t h e c o r n e r , w i t h an a t t e n d i n g In su c h a sits and her sid e of the p artn er a larg e o n one p a rt­ corner to the basket o f f r u i t , b r i d e ' s m o th er o f a n g e l food o r sponge c a k e , and u s u a l l y a b o t t l e o f home-made w in e w i t h 258 six g l a s s e s . The f r u i t , t h e c a k e a n d t h e w i n e a r e f o u n d only a t t h e b r i d a l c o r n e r and a r e I n t e n d e d f o r them o n - 257. See A p p e n d ix V I I I , p a r t C, f o r of t a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t s a t t h e w e d d i n g m e a l s . chart 258. A t so m e w e d d i n g s t h e r e i s n o b o t t l e o f w i n e , but o n l y s i x s m a l l g l a s s e s t h a t w e r e f i l l e d p r e v i o u s l y to b e i n g b r o u g h t t o t h e t a b l e . D u r in g p r o h i b i t i o n wine was f o r b i d d e n ( b e f o r e t h i s t i m e i t s e e m s t h a t i t w a s served to a l l t h e g u e s t s ) and t o d a y t h e r e i s a g r o w in g fee lin g a g a i n s t any a l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e . I n some o f t h e r e c e n t w e d d i n g s i n t h i s b o r d e r c h u r c h , no w i n e h a s b e e n served to t h e b r i d a l p a r t y . D e e p e r I n t h e com m unity wine i s a l w a y s d r u n k b y t h e b r i d a l p a r t y . One woman s h o w e d me t h e w in e g l a s s e s u s e d a t h e r w e d d i n g . They were v e r y sm all a n d f i t I n a n a t t r a c t i v e r a c k . She s a i d , "T h ey d o n ’ t hold v e r y m u c h , a n d i t ’ s r i g h t t h a t y o u s h o u l d d r i n k a l i t t l e w i n e a t y o u r own w e d d i n g . " However, h e r s i s t e r a s ­ su red me t h a t a t m a n y w e d d i n g s t h e r e I s " n o w i n e a t a l l . " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 891 - 259 ly. They are not p as s e d to the guests, a l t h o u g h after the evening m e a l a piece of fruit m a y be g iv e n special relati ve or friend. Each p la c e and c u p . serves a re is s e t w ith a k n ife , The c o l d d i s h e s , alread y on t h e such as tab le, w i l l be a m i n i m u m o f p a s s i n g . on j u s t b e f o r e t h e so many g u e s t s tings, g u ests th at th ree The b r i d a l p a r t y o l d men may s t a y a t ding, th e seated . or four se ttin g s fore the g i r l s . th e o t h e r s i d e pie ( u n m a r r i e d ) sin g in g , to t h e i r a g e , w i t h t h e tab le o ld er of the sa t the "U", tw o s i d e s , in sid e facin g o l d e r m en , and a t The v c u n g n e o - those about th e first, o r d e r o f a g e down t o o f about 12. 259. See A pp en dix the c o r n e r s e t t i n g f o r t h e eat ap p ro x im ately according ones, children p r e s e n t a te w ith t h e i r o th ers c o rn er o f th e of th e b r i d e and groom e a t i n g c h ild ren se t­ At a t y p i c a l wed­ s a t a t the- f a r the u su ally the but a l l "cJ"-.:s£t o t h e r m e n . filled th ere s i n g e r s and d i s t i n g u i s h e d c en tral tab le o f the and p r e ­ are needed. during a l l t h e u n m a r r i e d men s i t t i n g At t h e p late are brought T here a re the young g i r l s . . s a t . a r o u n d . t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e "U" w i t h p ick les a r r a n g e d so t h a t e v e r y o n e may b e f e d . b r i d a l co u p le spoon, The h o t d i s h e s are the t a b l e fork, salad s, stay s a t th e ta b le and th e m i n i s t e r s , and move s o t h a t to some the o th ers paren ts age e atin g in The y o u n g e r or g ran d p aren ts. P a rt C f o r a p h o tograph of b rid a l p arty . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 892 - The women a t e i n o t h e r rooms an d o c c a s i o n a l l y the young b o y s a t e i n a n o t h e r room i f a t t h e m ain t a b l e . T here are tab le as the young p e o p le join in th e s i n g i n g . the noon m e a l , it is As t h e r e and th e s p a c e m u st be u s e d . a t th e m ain joke and o c c a s i o n a l l y a re u s u a l l y few er people som etim es p o s s i b l e e a t i n one ro o m , w i t h s e v e r a l a sile n t prayer t h e r e w e r e t o o many few er s e t t i n g s c h atte r some o f sittin g s, Each s i t t i n g for a l l for o f them to but a t n ig h t a l l sta rts and e n d s w i t h ( e x c e p t whe n a g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n or ad o les­ c en ts happen t o s i t t o g e t h e r in a room o r a lc o v e by them 260 selv es). I n t h e m ain room t h e r e j s a " k l e i n e s L i e d r b u c h ” or an A u s b u n d a t e a c h p l a c e a n d a f t e r t h e taken o f f t h e i r ing. a p p etities, The o l d m e n , others jo in in g in th ere is c a r r y most o f th e o ccasio n ally . edge has a great been d e al of s in g ­ sin g in g , w ith th e 261 A lth o u g h Yoder m entions 260. In th e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h non-m em bers i n c l u d ­ ing c a t e c h u m e n s c o u l d n o t o f f e r p r a 7/ e r . D i x , o p . c i t . , p . 4 1 . 261. " W a c h e t a u f . " ( E r s t L i e d am T i s c h . ) D . B . 2 3 8 . " F r B h l i c h p f l e ' g i c h z u s i n g e n . ” ( Z w e i t L i e d am T i s c h , 6 t . V e r s t .) D .B . 9 0. . 1 "So w i l l i c h a b e r h e b e n a n . ” (Am v i e r t e V e r s t . ) A u s b u n d 3 7 8 ( 4 ) . -B-Ieh- w i l l l i e b e n . ” ( V i e r t L i e d am T i s c h . ) D . B . 3 2 2 . " S c h i c k e t e u c h , i h r l i e b e n G & s t e . ” ( P f i n s f t L i e d am T i s c h . ) D .B . 206 ( 1 5 ) . "Nun G o t t L o b . " D i n e B f t c h l e y 1 73 ( 1 1 ) . ”0 J e s u C h r i s t , m e i n ' s L e b e n s L i c h . " D . B . 1 2 8 ( 9 ) . "Wir s i n g e n d i r , I m m a n u e l . W (Das a c h t L i e d am T i s c h ) D . B . 131 ( ). E r m u n t e r t e u c h , i h r f r o n t m e n . " ( N e u n t L i e d am T i s c h . ) D . B . 9 2 . "Gebt u n s e r m G o t t d i e E h r e . " D . B . 15 ( 1 ) . Yoder, A m i s c h e L i e d e r , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 9 - 5 1 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 893 - seven o r n in e songs as t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e in g sung a t t h e wedding t a b l e and g iv e s seem t h a t t h e sa m e p r a c t i c e there is th e o rd er of is not the i t w ould f o llo w e d in O hio, g r e a t e r freedom of c h o ic e . song a n d some o f t h e songs, old songs t h a t A n y o n e may s t a r t are never w here a sung d u r i n g a r e g u l a r s e r v i c e a n y more a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y s u n g a t wed262 dings. As a f e w o f t h e g u e s t s h a v e come f r o m q u i t e a d istan ce, com m unities, some f r o m o t h e r s t a t e s th ere i s more c h a n c e of songs w i l l be su n g t h a n in and w id ely s e p a ra te d th at a g reater v a rie ty th e u s u a l g a th e rin g s w ith in the co m m unity. A f t e r t h e n o o n m e a l some o f t h e s t a y and s i t around s i n g i n g and t a l k i n g . has a few h o u r s away f r o m t h e cu late among t h e arriv e, In the T h e new g u e s t s They g r e e t the e v e n in g m e a l . th irty , g u ests. tab le are d e p e n d i n g on t h e some d u r in g w hich t h e y c i r ­ late a f t e r n o o n more g u e s t in t h e m orn­ p r e d o m i n a t e ly young p e o ­ on e a n o t h e r a n d t a l k T h is d ep art, The b r i d a l p a r t y a nd some o f t h o s e who h a d b e e n t h e r e ing r e t u r n . ple. g uests is u su a lly sp eed of chen and t h e number o f g u e s t s . been s e t u p , th e lo n g w h ite t a b l e u n til about the six people M ore t a b l e s it is tim e f o r o r even s i x in th e k i t ­ have p ro b a b ly c lo th es have not been 262. F o r i n s t a n c e , some o f t h e s i x s o n g s " G e i s t l i c L ieder" t h a t a r e fo u n d a t th e v e r y back o f t h e A u sb u n d , pp. 8 6 8 - 8 9 8 . These a r e a c t u a l l y s t o r i e s o r h i s t o r i e s t h a t are sung. The s o n g a b o u t T o b i a s h a s s e v e n t y - f i v e v e r s e s . One o f t h e m i s c a l l e d a new s o n g " E i n s c h B n e s n e u e s g e i s t l i c h e s L i e d ' 1 a n d t h e n i t g o e s on t o s a y t h a t i t was c o m p o s e d in 1 5 4 0 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 89^ changed, stick s but th e d ish e s of sp re a d s, have p ick les been r e p le n is h e d and th e f la tw a r e , cups h a v e b e e n w a s h e d a n d r e p l a c e d . served at supper a re m eal, o t h e r s are the down, There i s n ' t ced. the bread is b u tter, an o th er th o se There is eat a h it is passed. one o r cubes Inch, i n w h ic h more f o o d c o u l d b e p l a ­ is a slice tw o k i n d s of bread a t o f m eat l o a f served in stead po tato es cheese. There i s cassero le. salad s, gen­ These a re of b e a u tif u lly d isp la y e d in c r y s ta l of tim e in la rg e q u a n t i t i e s . are u s u a l l y bow ls o f m ixed can n e d o r co lo rs are serv in g most c o l o r f u l , and m ost b e a u t i f u l l y tab le bow ls. frozen f r u i t s , p leasin g , in la r g e g l a s s the c e n t e r o f t h e a ch ick en They h a v e a g e l a t i n b a s e b e c a u s e t h e y must be p r e p a r e d a h e a d the and bro w n and r o a s t b e e f , o r f o u r o f t h e m on o n e t a b l e . and v a r i e t i e s th e ( t h i s may h a v e b e e n co ld f o r s u p p e r), of s lic e s . each p lace; grace, T h e n come t h e Sw iss arranged so t h a t When a b s o l u t e l y laden w ith fo o d . Then th e h o t d i s h e s , bow ls. th e noon of e v e ry th in g . There i s a l w a y s or c u t g l a s s and a trem endous v a r ­ or sp ag h etti a ll co lo rs p lates served at or tu rk e y r o a s t e d or i n a r i c e erally th re e celery Some o f t h e d i s h e s im m ed iately f o llo w in g th e . s i l e n t h o t a t d i n n e r and cut In to to tab le Som etim es t h e r e otherw ise, sam e a s d ifferen t. ie t y and everyone t r i e s one s i t s and There also and w e ll d is p la y e d The p r e t t i e s t d ish o f the a rra n g e d food form ing a c e n t e r p i e c e . is T his in d ish R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - alw ays h a s a h i g h b a s e the h ig h p o i n t of th e d eco ratio n , is it tab le. eaten In sp ite tow ards th e o f cake on p l a t e s W i t h the m e a l everyone is finished, lite ra lly of i ts form s fu n ctio n fo r end o f th e m e a l . se ttin g There serv in g s) is on approached, of d i f f e r e n t kinds These have a l r e a d y been c u t to o , to the pie. it (cu t in to a n d when th e e n d o f t h e the t a b l e w a i t e r s b r i n g pies. - o r s ta n d so t h a t are u s u a l l y s e v e r a l k in d s the t a b l e s 8 9 5 of about 6 or 8 p ieces one drinks water or coffee. When the re is again a silent grace a n d the f e a s t e r s le a v e th e t a b l e w hile th e t a b l e w a i t e r s r e p l e n 263 is h the f o o d . In a few m in u te s t h e t a b l e i s r e a d y f o r the second s e t t i n g and i s hungry p e o p l e . be f i n i s h e d i m m e d i a t e l y f i l l e d w i t h m o re At a b ig w edding a l l eatin g u n til about te n - th ir t y . whole p e r i o d t h e b r i d a l p a r t y r e m a i n s o l d men s i t last s ittin g party leave w hile t h e of g u ests the tab le is fin ish ed bers o f t h e b e fo re the th e b r id a l f o r a few m in u te s a n d on t h e room , it b rid a l p arty H ere t h e y a r e f l o o r by th e is The p l a t e s a larg e sit tab le. b eh in d th e The g u e s t s and e a tin g T h e s i x mem­ tab le When m o s t u ten sils tab le stacked hig h now a l m o s t 1 1 : 0 0 . o r d e r a s when t h e y w e r e e a t i n g . 263. t a b l e and th e a r e b e i n g b r o u g h t down t o in t h e s e c o n d b i g g e s t room . crowd i n t o t h e Just e atin g , an d go u p s t a i r s D uring t h i s a t the I n t h e m ain room s i n g i n g . p resen ts on t h e t a b l e t h e g u e s t s may n o t in the same of th e g u ests are not changed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 896 - have a s s e m b l e d , a ll six as f a s t a s t h e y c a n , the donor i s m a k in g t h e s t a r t u nw rapping the p re s e n ts As e a c h i s u n w r a p p e d , read alo u d . The g u e s t s p r o p e r com m ents, look at th e and th e b r id e p resen t, s in g le s out the giv er w ith h e r eyes and th a n k s to i t , th a n k you n o te s t o be w r i t t e n . th ere are no donor h a s l e f t b e f o r e h i s him# t h e name o f present b rid e o r groom rem em bers t o is T h is is a l l th ere unw rapped, th e n If is the the th a n k him n e x t tim e t h e y h a p ­ pen t o m e e t h i m . The l a r g e r p r e s e n t s , fu rn itu re are not d is p la y e d a t alread y re c e iv e d opened a t G ifts th is tim e. a ll a s some s e r v i n g d i s h e s , table c lo th e s a saw, and s u c h t h i n g s . she has o f an end p re se n ts are They c o n s i s t some as w ell w h ite damask o r l i n e n such The g r o o m t o o r e c e i v e s p r e ­ screw d riv e r s e ts , A g r e a t d e a l of I n t e r e s t i s Is a lo t atten d a n ts prac­ o f a good d e a l and l i v i n g room f u r n i t u r e an axe, the p r e s e n t s and t h e r e bride c a u tio n s th e size of very good q u a l i t y , as t a b l e a n d k e r o s e n e l a m p s . sents such as the A ll the perhaps and k i t c h e n If th e y have p ro b a b ly been up t o t i c a l and im m e d ia te ly u s e f u l . of cooking eq u ip m en t, b r i d e ’ s bedroom the w edding. such p re s e n ts , s e t u p i n h e r new h o m e . table are su ch as the buggy l i g h t s show n i n a ll o f co mm en t a b o u t t h e m . to keep the p r e s e n t s f o r s h e w i l l p r o b a b l y make a l i s t card s w ith the the fo llo w in g R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. The 897 - - 264 d a y i n h e r b r i d a l book,, or in the s c r a p book t h a t 265 school days. may h a v e b e e n k e e p i n g s i n c e h e r The young p e o p l e a r e c o n s i d e r e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of th e w edding f e s t i v i t i e s , v ited : a ll from th e many f r o m t h e she L a rg e num bers o f them a r e in ­ c h u rc h e s o f th e b r i d e a n d groom and larg er com m unity a s w e l l a s a n y y o u t h t h a t 266 may be t e m p o r a r i l y l i v i n g o r v i s i t i n g t h e a r e a . They s i t a t t h e m ain tab le serving, u n lik e church s e r v ic e s and f u n e r a ls are s e rv e d l a s t . je stin g as They e a t they e a t . an d no e f f o r t a n d some o f t h e m c a n e a t a t where s l o w l y w i t h much t a l k i n g They a r e e x p e c te d to i s made t o k e e p t h e m q u i e t d u r i n g t h e b e s t f o o d w i l l be p l a c e d a t th eir churches in t h i s is area th ere fo r th e young p e o p l e . games o r s i n g i n g s of th e ir own. ta lk in g and jo k in g . 264~j 00A26, 265. 00A10, a ll in th e to th e b a rn f o r a t the tend to d r i f t th e p e o p le do) The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e a d o lescen ts of b o t h s e x e s w h i l e t h e r e s t ~ (as th ey in fo r­ en tertain m en t In stead they ta lk fin ish ed in to a g ro u p of t h e i r age m ates of la te retire and O ften th e However, no s p e c i a l They do n o t t a b l e a n d a s one s e t t i n g i s th a t the groups tab le. they enjoy th e m se lv e s mal s i n g i n g n o r t o r u s h t h e m t h r o u g h t h e m e a l . and c o n t i n u e th e f i r s t of the are u s u a lly gu ests is composed form age groups 266, Any y o u n g p e r s o n i s w e l c o m e a t a n y w e d d i n g in th e com m unity e v en i f h e has n o t r e c e iv e d , a s p e c i f i c in v ita tio n , R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 898 - composed of one sex only. cents think that games at the weddings, Some of the parents of a d o l e s ­ should be a r r a n g e d for the y o u t h but they lament that there is no n a t ur a l leader for this gr o u p of y o u n g people and so t h e y just talk. The bride and g r o o m do not join them for they s pe n d most of the time a ft e r the service at the table, as they are expected to sit w i t h all the guests. B i s h o p Swart zendrup<267 er's comments about the singing of sacred songs to i n d e ­ cent tunes does not a p p l y t o the y o u n g people at these weddings for t h e y do not have a n y singing of their being in the r o o m wi t h the if they s i n g at all. the wedding is over. 267. older m e n t h e y m e r e l y join in Af t e r the o p en in g of the presents The y ou n g peop le m a y leave g r a d u a l l y and a bo y m a y escort his no more festiv i ti es . own and girl to her home, but there are Most of the g u es t s have left by about " T m i s h Bishop" o p .c i t . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 899 - 269 midnight. B y mid n ig ht everyone is exhausted, for m a n y of t h e m have been u p since four o ’cl oc k the previous morning. No­ thing is cleaned up, but ev er y t h i n g is left as it is while the tired p ar ti cipants go off to bed. The attendants the night at the b r i d e ’s h ou se so t he y w i l l be and early in the m or n i n g to h elp clean up. spend on h a n d bright Some of the h o s t ­ lers return and neig hb or s m a y drop in to help w a s h and move furniture. By the evening after the wedding, the house has been returned to normal and the regu la r r o u t i n e of living 269. This c onventional w r i t e - u p of a n A m i s h w e d ­ ding appeared in the Herald, D e c e m b e r 3, 1953. I could not find out w h o wrote it'. TThere d id not s e e m to be any criticism of s u c h an a r t i c l e ■a p p e a r i n g . "YODER-YODER WE D D I N G S AT MONROE A. Y O DE R HOME A simple but impressive w e d d i n g was held at the M on r o e A. Yoder home of Sugarcreek, Ohio on Nov. 1 8 t h f o r their d a u g h ­ ter, Kathryn, and Joe, son of Moses Y od er of Millersburg, 0 . Route. The ceremony was p e r f o r m e d by B i s h o p Monroe Y. M i l l e r at the Nelson D. Y o d e r home. The br id e was v er y a tt ra c t i v e in a r oyal blue crepe dress. He r attendants were M a b e l Yoder, as sister of the bride and E f f i e Schlabach, a friend of the bride. Both attendants w ore blue dresses identical to that of the bride. Attendants for the g r o o m were A n d r e w Raber, a f r i e n d of the groom, a n d Jonas Miller. The b r i d e ’s m o t h e r w a s d r e s ­ sed in light blue and the g r o o m ’s mother in n a v y blue. F ol l o w i n g the c e r e m o n y a r eception was held at the bride’s home. In the center of the b r i d e ’s table w a s a three tier cake topped w i t h white roses. On each side of the cake were triple candies w i t h a basket of fruit on each side of the candles. P r e s id in g were A m a n d a J. and Amanda U. Yoder, F annie A., E l i z a b e t h F. and Emma Yoder. At present they are staying at the h ome of the bride’s parents. T heir future h o me w i l l be w i t h the p a r ­ ents of the g r o o m where he w ill do the farming. They re­ ceived m any b e a u t i f u l gifts." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 900 270 is ready t o be taken u p again. The first night the bride an d g r o o m remain at b r i d e ’s home. longer time, is ready. the T h e y m a y stay there several days or f o r a depend in g on w h e t h e r or not their n e w home If It is ready, t h e y move their things the d a y after the wedd in g and get settled i m m e d i a t e l y to t h e i r n e w way of life. The y p r o b a b l y have m a n y visitors, dropping in to give them presents bring them to the wedding, if perhaps people t h e y didn't stopping to see their presents and to show a f r i e n d l y interest in the n e w family. In Ohio the n e w ly w e d s do not go visiting after their marriage as Is th e c u s t o m in Pennsylvania, down immediately, but th e y settle g e n e r a l l y u n d e r the w a t c h f u l eye of one of their parents and the whole community. The s li gh tl y i n ­ dulgent period that i m m e d i at el y followed b a p t i s m is and they are expected to f o l l o w the ordnung, over especially 270. For other accounts of A m i s h weddings are v e r y numerous. If an author w r it e s one thi ng about the A m i s h it is u s u a l l y a w e d d i n g description. I will list a f e w reference s : Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , op.cit., pp. 169-180. Miller Ressler"] ^An A m i s h Wedding.*' H i s t o r i c a l Papers a n d A d ­ dresses of the L a n c a s t e r Cou n ty H is t or ic al S o c i e t y XXXIX, 1935,pp.62-6 Ann Hark, Blue Hills and Shoofly Pie, (Philadelphia: Lippincott Co., 1952) pp. 119-133. Frederic Klees, o p . c i t . , 53-55. Gingerich, Iowa, o p . c i t . , pp. 229-236. Umble, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t . , pp. 218-19. "Union1 ,1 o p . c i t ., pp. 84-85. Yoder, R o s a n n a , o p .c i t ., pp. 28, 148-66. R o s a n n a 1 s Boys (Huntingdon, Pa.: Yod er Publishing Co., 19 , pp. 162-195. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ~ 901 in dress regulations, completely. The girl no l o n g e r wears brown stockings but wears b l a c k ones on all occasions. no longer braids her hair but combs it in a bun at of her neck. She wears a white ver a b la ck one. She the nape covering at all times a nd n e ­ The ma n lets his beard g ro w in earnest a l ­ though he continues to shave his u pper lip. He sells his 271 gay shirts to his yo un ge r brot h er or a friend. The young couple no longer attends the married members singings, of their in c h u r c h they sit w i t h own sex and not w i t h their f o r ­ mer friends if they are still not married. relationships, in-laws, The ne w p ersonal not only w i t h the spouse but also w i t h the often make the first year of marri ag e one of many adjustments. In addition, the wife u s u a l l y becomes pregnant almost i m m e d ia t el y and con s eo ue nt ly m a y not feel v e r y well. Everyone is w a t ch i ng her for any sign that she m i gh t be p r e g ­ nant. Some y oung couples being scrutinized. feel that ev er y move t h e y make is The comm un it y Is so anxious' that the m a r ­ riage be successful that t h e y m a y be overzealous in their g u i d ­ ance. For m a n y couples the first ye a r of m a r r i a g e is the most difficult year of their life. The b i r t h of the first uation. The child gre at ly relieves the sit­ couple has achi ev ed full m e m b e r s h i p in the c o m ­ munity and complete adulthood. The c om mu n it y w orries less about them for they k n ow that "a b ab y helps to” pass the t i m e , ” and the couple will be busy and i nt e re st ed in the role of parents. In their efforts to set a good ex- 271. On one occasion a rece n tl y m a r r i e d y o u n g man wore a shirt to a small social gathe ri n g I attended, that although It was not nea r ly as wild as m a n y of the shirts young men wear, it was not s t ri ct l y In the ordnung. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 902 - ample for the children, w h i ch is the most of the c h i l d r e n ’s education, important part they u n c o n s c i o u s l y grow into good Amish chu rc h m e mb er s . B a p t i s m initiates the individual marriage, and the b i r t h of the fir st into the community! child, m a k e s h i m a complete, ful l m e m b e r of the church. S ELECT IO N OP L E A D E R S - OR DINATION E a c h Ol d Order Am i s h church, to be complete, m u s t 272 have four leaders that have b e e n c h o s e n fr o m the c o n g r e ­ gation: the b i s ho p (called v ar i o u s l y Bischo f, Vfillige Dienst, Vollige D i e ns t zum Buch, V o l l e r Diens t) , two p re ac he r s 273 (Dienst zum Buch, D i e n s t (Armen Dienst, D i e n s t zum Wort, Prediger), zu den Armen, D i a k o n ) . associated wi t h it specific duties monies and in the community. and one d e a c o n E a c h office has i n the vari ou s c h u rc h c e r e ­ T h e leaders are not set off from the c o n g r e g a t i o n or d i f f e r e n t i a t e d among t hemselves by any distinguishing costume. 272. The t e r m "minister" will be u s e d as a c o m p r e h e n s i v e term that includes a n y or all of the c hu r c h officials. Fo r the Dienst zum B u c h or D ie n s t zum Wort I u s e the te r m "preacher." 273. At one p e r i o d there was also a V o e l l i g e r Arm en wiener or V o l l e n Di en s t zu de n Armen. A m i s h m e n w h o m I q u e s t i o n e d about this p o s i t i o n h a d not h e a r d of it. For a d e s c r i p t i o n see John Umble, "Amish Or di n a t i o n C h ar g es ," MQR, October, 1939, PP. 233-50. D e r V o i l e Di en s t zu den A r m e n is m e n t i o n e d only once at the end of the H a n d b u c h fillr P r e d i g e r , op. c i t . , pp. 38-39. It is so little k n o w n that they give the a u t h o r i t y for the ordin­ ation. "Diesen Voi le D i e n s t zu den A r m e n h at Bisch. L e v i M i l l e r von Holmes County, Ohio, a b g e s c h r i e b e n v o n C h r i s t i a n Y od e r s e m e n Schriften, 1846. See also J.C. Wenger, D e a c o n to Bishop*" Mennonite H is to ri ca l Bulletin, June, 1945. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 903 - The officials are not only the relig io us lead er s of the church hut they are also the p o l it ic a l leaders community,, As is charact e ri st ic of leaders of the in small, face-to-face groups they refl ec t an d express g r o u p opinion 274 more often then they create it 0 However, they h a v e mor e power than the average m e m b e r to influe nc e decis io ns . bishop h ol d s the h i g h e s t The office; he has b o t h the most power and the least f r e e d o m (that is, the great es t resp on 275 sibility0) The D e a c o n has ve r y m u c h less po w e r t h a n the bishop but at the same time the d e a c o n has little f r ee do m of action, because his rol e h a s be e n caref ul ly f o r m u l a t e d and regulated. individual Unde r normal ci rc um st an c es he is the only 276 in the c h u r c h who can ful fi ll it. The re are two preachers who t e c h n i c a l l y h a v e the same role. They have c on si de ra b ly greater f r e e d o m of a c t i o n t h a n does either the bishop or t h e deacon. teaching the W o r d allows sion Their r o l e of p r e a c h i n g and slightly more latitude tha n do the ceremonial deacon. or minor, of e x p r e s ­ activ it ie s of the b i s h o p and If there is d i s u n i t y in the church, one of the m i n i s t e r s either m a j o r often r ef le ct s the m i n o r i t y 274. R a l p h Linton, The Stud y of M a n ,(New York: A pp le to n- C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1936 J, pT £26. 275. M a r i o n J„ Levy, Jr., The S t ru c t u r e of Soc ie ty (Princeton, N.J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1952), pp. 353-54. 27 6 . A pr e a c h e r m a y substitute for a d e a c o n if no deacon is present. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 90*+ opinion. The office of p reacher m a y he a t e m p o r a r y one in that it is always ordained a bishop. possible that a p reacher m a y b e There is no h i g h e r office to w h i c h a bishop could be o r d a in e d and to be orda i ne d to another were sometimes Dienst - it is rare for a d e a c o n office. F o r m e r l y deacons ordained to the position (Vollen Dienst zu den Armen, to the Poor) w h i c h was of V o l l ig en A rmen Complete M i n i s t r y comparable to a v i c e - B i s h o p in that in the absence of a b i sh op the V o l l i g e n Armen Di en st could p e r f o r m all a bishop. the functions g e ne ra ll y r e s e r v e d for 277 This office has now fallen out of use. Oc­ casionally a deacon is o r d a i n e d a preacher and then he may later be ordained a bishop. At the present there are no cases of this in the central However, two of the S wa r t z e n t r u b e r deacons dained preachers and time Ohio community. have b e en o r ­ in a n o t h e r Old Order A m i s h c o m m u n ­ ity in Ohio there are two dea co ns who have become ers. In still another preach­ Ohio Old Order A m i s h commu n it y there is a bis ho p who has b ee n b o t h a d e a c o n and a p r e a c h ­ er. There are similar cases in Indiana a n d Canada. 277. Raber, C a l e n d e r , 1956, o p . c i t . , lists no O l d Order A mishman w i t h the office of V o ll i ge n A r m e n Dienst. None of the Amishmen in Ohio that I q u e s t i o n e d t h ou g h t it would be p ossible for a deacon to be o rdained a Bishop without ha v i n g first served as a preacher. Umble, p. 249 mentions an V o l l e n Dienst- zu d e n Armen who was ordained about 1936, Sam Swartz of Grabill, Ind. He is listed in the Mennonite Yearbook, 1956, o p . c i t ., p. 105, but not in R & b e r 1s Calender so 1 cannot c h e c k his ordination. Hmble mentions seven A m i s h m e n he knows of who h a ve h e l d this position h i s t o r y of the A m i s h C h u r c h in America. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 905 - From m y lim it ed knowl ed ge of the c hurch organization of the br a nc h of the Ana ba p ti st s that d e v e l o p e d into the Mennonite church, it w o u l d appear that at the beginn in g there were only two types of ministers, defined roles. w i t h at all clearly Ap pa re n t l y those were bishops and deacons, who were supported by lay m e m b e r s who taught and in some 278 instances baptized, but d i d not ordain. The Stras bu r g 279 280 Discipline of 1568 m e n t i o n s only m i n i s t e r s and 281 bishops (Diener and A e l t e s t e n ) „ The A e l t e s t e n could celebrate communion and pe rf o rm ordinations; the Di en e r was instructed to visit n ei g h b o r i n g congregations, and supply their needs, and comfort the b r e t h r e n w i t h wholesome teaching. D e p e n d i n g p r i m a r i l y on whether their needs were material or spiritual this that of deacon o f f i c i a l ’s role wo u ld approach (material needs) or preacher (spiritual needs). 278. Paul Peachy, "Anabaptism and C h u r c h O r g a n i z a t i o n , " M Q R , July, 1956, pp. 213-28 points out that the o rganization was extremely varied, wi t h i n some instances, a complete g r a d a ­ tion of r e s p o n s ib il i ty and m a n y i ndividuals f i l l i n g a large number of offices. B a s i c a l l y l ea de r sh ip was r e c o g n i t i o n b y the congregation of d i f f e r i n g gifts in the church entailing responsibilities of leadership. 279. Artikel u n d Ordn u ng en der C h r i s t l i c h e n Gemeinde in Christo J e s u , ^Baltic, Ohio, J. A. Raber, 1954, pp. 1-5 and H.S. Bender, "The D i s c i p l i n e Ado p te d by the S tr as bu rg Conference of 1568," M Q R , January, 1927, pp. 57-66. 280. See Cornelius Krahn, "The Office of Elder in Anabaptist-Mennonite Hi s t o r y , " M Q R , April, 1956, pp. 120-27. 281. See H a r o l d S. Bender, "The Office of Bi s h o p in Anabaptist-Mennonite H i s t o r y , " M Q R , April, 1956, pp. 128-32. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 906 282 An early confes si o n of faith, wri tt e n about 1600 only elders mentions (Aeltesten u n d Le hr er in de n vollen Dienst) and deacons over the poor (Diener der A r m e n ) . The elders could execute C h r i s t i a n b a p t i s m and the L o r d ' s Supper. This confession implies that b e f o r e b e in g ordained "in the full m i n i s t r y , " that an elder m a y h ave served for a 283 probationary per i od as a p reacher. The office of servant 284 to the poor is c o mp le t e l y separate. The Dort C on fe s s i o n 285 (1632) that is subscribed to by the Old Order Amish states clearly the f un ct io ns of only two offices: elders (Aeltesten) and almoners the ( D i a c o n e n - D i e n e r ). The elders were to w o r t h i l y administer the L o r d ’s ordinances baptism and communion, and to ordain others. were to provide for, have - T h e almoners the care and oversight of the poor, 282. The author was Peter Jan Twi sc k (1565-1636) a contemporary of Merino Simon's daughter. See M a r t y r s M i r ro r , op. c i t . , 1951, pp. 373-490. 283. a pious brother ma y b e c hosen by the voice of the church to p r o c l a i m the will of G-od u n t o the people, h o w ­ ever he is not c o nf ir me d b y the laying on of h an ds as is the elder. Today the A m i s h p r e a c h e r is not confo rm ed b y the laying in of hands, only the bishop. 284. The d e a c o n is ch os e n by the v o ic e of the church and "confirmed by the i m po s i t i o n of the hands of the elders." Ibid. 285. Article IX. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 907 - 286 and. to aid a n d r e l i e v e the bishops. If it were correct that at the ve r y begi nn in g of the m o v e m e n t marily two dist in ct types preaching, this m i g h t of ministry, there were p r i ­ s u p p l e m e n t e d by lay offer one e x p l a n a t i o n of the c o m p a r ­ atively l i m i t e d r o l e the p r e a c h e r s h a v e in th e specific 287 rituals of b a p t i s m and communion. A n o t h e r poss ib le explanation of the l i m i t e d ceremonial role of the p re ac he rs is that the A na ba pt is ts , in their attem p t to r e s t o r e the Apostolic church, r e t u r n e d to the earlier f o r m of church government in whi ch the b i s h o p h a d almost a l i tu rg ic al a n d sacramental m o n o p o l y and th e deaco n was o rd ai ne d as the bishop's perso na l 288 f unctions. assi st an t in his l i tu rg ic a l and pastoral 286. Women, h o n o r a b l e old widows, were also m e n t i o n e d as being chosen, in a d d i t i o n to the almoners. Their office was to visit, comfort, a n d t a k e care of the poor, the weak, the afflicted, and the needy, the widows and orphans. This office has apparently ne v e r b e e n filled b y the Amish. Dix, o p . c i t ., p. 35 m e nt io n s official widows wh o p e r f o r m e d special acts oT charity. They were a p p o i n t e d b y w o r d only and c o n t i n u e d a part of the l a i t y as they h a d no l it ur g i c a l function. In addition these we re eit h er other officials or a v a r i e t y of terms were used for the two officials w i t h cle ar l y a p p o i n t e d tasks . 287. The p la c e of lay p r e a c h i n g am o n g the A n a b a p ti st s that d eveloped into the M e n n o n i t e s is not c o mp le te ly clear. Littell, o p . c i t ., pp. 94-97 gives m a n y illustra ti on s of the laity carrying out t h e Great Commission. However, both D i e t r i c h Philip (Dirk Philips) an d M e n n o Simons stress the importance of teachers b e i n g c a l l e d b y the c h u r c h and not of themselves. (P.P., 1910, o p . c i t ., p. 179; M e n n o Simons. 1956, o p . c i t ., PP. 451, 1042) D i r k P h i l i p also writes ,. . . it is not every man's office to teac h God's w o r d ," (o p . c i t . , p. 200.) 288. Dix, op. c i t . , pp. 33-35. The presbyter, priest, preacher h a d no strictly litur gi ca l f u n c t i o n s in the early church. It was not u n t i l the m i d d l e of the thi rd century that there is explicit m e n t i o n of a p r e s b y t e r c e l e b r a t i n g apart from the bishop. A n A m i s h p r ea ch er cannot c el e b r a t e apart from a bishop. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 908 Among the Old Order A m i s h an or di n a t i o n service takes place w h e n e v e r a n e w m e m b e r of the m i n i s t r y is needed. 289 If one of the m in is te rs dies, becomes fe eb l e w i t h age or 290 moves away, a m e m b e r of the c o n g r e g a t i o n is o r da in ed to replace him. The A mi s h m i n i s t e r m u s t be a true teacher, "born of the u n b l a m a b l e was Matthias. c h u r c h of Christ,., chosen b y lot as 291 Acts 1:26." To insiire that the m i n i s t e r is born of the u n b l a m a b l e church of Christ A m i s h or dination services in central Ohio im me di at e ly f o l l o w the comm un io n 292 service . At the service p r e c e e d i n g the Ordnungs G e m e i n the 293 need for a m i n i s t e r is a n n o u n c e d to the Gemeinde. 289. As part of his o r d i n a t i o n the b i s h o p at the time of his ordination is to l d to orda i n another b i s h o p when he b e ­ comes old and weak. W h e n I c o mm en ce d this stu d y S t o n e y r u n h a d two bishops, during m y second visit to the c o m mu ni ty the old bishop died. If it is evident that one of the p r e a c h e r s is too old to prea ch r e g u l a r l y or that the d e a c o n is oft en u n a b l e to fulfill his part in the service, the b i s h o p will suggest that another b r o t h e r be orda in ed to supplement the energ y of the elderly minister. 290. M i n i s t e r s are less free to m o v e tha n m o s t Amiidi families. There is some f e e l i n g that they should stay wit h the church district that or d a i n e d t h e m (unless there is di s c o r d within the c h u r c h ) . It is a p r o b l e m for a m i n i s t e r to know where he should m o v e to, u nl e s s he is called b y a new community, for wherever h e settles he will a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e a m i n i s t e r for the local chur ch di s t r i c t and it m a y pose probl em s for a ministerto move into a churc h that a l r e a d y h a s its full quota of duly chosen ministers. M i n i s t e r s take v e r y s er i o u s l y the requ es t to move to a n e w community. Sometimes they will m a k e a t emporary move even w h e n they do not w i s h to leave their o wn home. They know that a commu ni ty cannot become e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h o u t some members of the m i n i s t r y to h e l p them. 291. M e n n o Sinrons, 1956, o p . c i t . , p. 443. 292. A p p a r e n t l y in some communities, see Umble, Lyon", o p . c i t ., pp. 239-40, and on rare occasions in other communities an o r di na ti on m a y take place at some other time . • ‘ ...wira eine V o r s t e l l u n g g e ma c ht wie no tw e n d i g es ist dass die G e m e i n d e m i t H i r t e n u n d L e h r e r vorsorgt wird." Handbuck fflr Prediger, o p . c i t . , p. 18. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 909 This gives the c on gr eg a ti on four weeks to think and pray about their choice for the position. It is also an adde d incentive to them to work out any differences that th ey might have among themselves that holding communion. could prevent them from D u r i n g this four we e k p e ri od there is a great deal of d i s c u s s i o n about w h i c h m e m be rs ity might be even to his of the c o m m u n ­ in the lot but no one is allowed to intimate, spouse, for whom he is going to vote. At the end of the Ordnungs Gemein when it has been decided that communion will b e will be ordained, ce lebrated and that a minister the me m b e r s of the c on gr eg at io n are as k e d to pray earnestly to the L o r d asking His grace and blessing so that the elected one m a y commit himself wit h body and soul 294 to the will of God. The c on gregation is r e m i n d e d that 294. An Old Order A m is hm an writes, "We must never ordain mi ni s t e r s or elders (bishops) to the service of the Lord without fasting, and praying for the Lord's b l e s s i n g of the occasion, as we also are accustomed to do, yet it can so easily become a mere traditional ceremonial rite. Each ordination service should b e such a solemn affair that we hardly think of eating and dr inking..." D.E. Mast, Lessons in the Sermon on the M o u n t , (Tr. John B. Mast,) (S c o t t d a l e ; Fa, Mennonite P u b l i s h i n g House, 1953,) p. 119. "Before a churc h ordains a minis te r the whol e c ongregation fasts and prays for a real cleansing and purifying of the church, so that the leading of the H o l y Spirit m a y not be hindered. This peri od of heart searching and cleansing, together with an u n r e s e r v e d y i e l d e d n e s s to the Lord,' is one of the most vital steps in the process of the ordination. It is one important phase of pr e p a r a t i o n that cannot be overstressed. E.H., "Christian Courtship, The Engagement," HdW. September 1, 1956, p. 268. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 910 such a m a n mu s t be sound in faith, the mast er of his home 295 (inre Hauser wohl verstehen) and hav e his own h ou s e in good order. obedient, things, This m ea n s that his wife and children m u s t be that he m u s t be f o l l o w i n g the Ordnung in all and that f i n a n c i a l l y and in other ways obvious that he ing two weeks, is an efficient manag er . it should be D u r i n g the f o l l o w ­ the m e n who suspect the;/ will be put in the lot, work wi th fear and apprehension a n d their wives also think continuously of the p os s ib il it y of the lot f a l li n g on their husband. One w om a n said, be ordained. "I k n e w b e f o r e the service, B e n wou ld It 'was whe n we still liv e d in the old h o u s e and I was out there u n d e r the b i g tree by myself, It was just as though God h a d spoken to me, be the preacher." w h e n I knew. I k n e w B e n wou ld A p p a r e n t l y from that moment on she did not think about the p os si bi li t y of the lot falling on her husband, but only about the change it would m a k e a short pause she continued, as I was (her in their lives. After "But Anna M a e was just as sure h u s b a n d was put in the lot t o o ) , only it never fell on him." B e n h a d also "known" in advan ce that the lot 296 would fall on him. Each A m i s h m a n has pr o m i s e d before he was b a p t i z e d that he ~ would serve if called b y the church a n d in the Old 2 9 5 . Handbiich fttr Prediger, p. 20. 296. One member of the Stoney r un c h u r ch district had been in the lot four times before h e was forty. It never fell on him. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Filmed as received without page(s) ill UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. There was an old doc t or in S t o n e y r u n w h o h a d r e f u s e d the lot. He told the A m is h M e n n o n i t e church, "if y o u will me away to study so that I can be a g o o d preacher, preach for you, but otherwise I will not do i t . ” not believe in an e d uc a te d m i n i s t r y and refused. from the church. I will They did He w i t h d r e w The Amis h wh o k n e w of his refu sa l b e l i e v e d that he commi tt ed a terrible sin when he r e f u s e d G o d ’s call. An ordina ti on service vice mak es a l o n g day. in addi ti on to a c om mu ni on s e r ­ The commu ni on service begi n s about eight-thirty in the morning and the b r e a d is not b r o k e n u n t i l about three o ’clo ck in the afternoon. F o l l o w i n g that is foot-washing and the p r e s e n t a t i o n of alms. the beginning of the ordination. Amish do not lig h t lante r ns unti l them.) After Then f i na l ly One m i n i s t e r ’s wife told me, "Dave was or d a i n e d by l a n t e r n light." anything without send (And the thr if t y it is too d a r k to see everyone has give n alms the ministers again announce to the c o n g r e g a t i o n that there is about to be an or d in a t i o n and caution the m e m b e r s to cast their vote seriously and pr ay e rf ul ly . At this time if any family is thin ki ng of m o v i n g this fact is m e n t i o n e d . Then two of the minis te r s place thems el ve s at two doors or two 298 windows, whil e the rest of the m i n i s t e r i a l p a r t y is in the 298. T he m i n i s t e r sits inside, whi le the lait y up outside, m e n and women in separate lines. Greater secracy is attained b y h a v i n g the m i n i s t e r s inside. They can relay the name voted for without the lai ty h e a r i n g it. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 299 room betwe en them. women another. 913 - The m e n form one line and the S l ow l y each p e r s o n goes up to a m i n i s t e r and wispers the name of the person t h e y recommend: men going to one m i n i s t e r the w o m e n to another. isters either r e c o r d the vote d i r e c t l y or more it to a d e a c o n or bishop who m a k e s a record. the These m i n ­ often pass After everyone has had his vote the m i n i s t e r s assemble and every b r o t h e r 300 who has r ec e i v e d m o r e than two votes is put in the l o t . The m e n put in the lot for prea ch er or deacon are the respected m e m b e r s of the c o mm un it y and the informal leaders. An u nm ar ri ed m a n is never put a widower r ec ommended. in the lot and ver y r a r e l y However, children m a y be nominated. is a m a r r i e d m a n without Eve r y m a l e m e m b e r of the church, 299. The r e are always visiti ng m i n i s t e r s for the communion service and these m e n help with the ordination. 300. "...that in the m o u t h of two or three w i tn e ss es every word m a y be established," Matt . 18:16. This keeps the size of the lot d o w n to a r e a s o n a b l e number and he l p s insure that only the b e s t m e n are put in the lot. It also enables the ministers to ve t o a name that has b e e n s uggested by only a few m e m b er s without the l a y m e m b e r s know in g of the veto. The veto power is pr o b a b l y r a r e l y exercised. On one occasi on I was given the slightest hint that it ma y hav e h a p p e n e d in one Stoneyrun ordination. Jose ph Yoder, Ami sh T r a d i t i o n s , (Huntingdon, Pa., Yoder P u b l i s h i n g Co., 195Q), p. 19, m en t i o n s an instance of veto in a M e n n o n i t e church. Umble, "Union," o p . c i t ., p. 87 reports instances of m e n b e i n g put in the lot when they r e ce iv e d only one vote. This does not h a p p e n in central Ohio. The reasons given for these single votes indicate w h y the system works better w h e n single votes are d isregarded. One w o m a n voted for a m a n b e c au se "he loo k ed so hone st ." another b e c a u s e "he might feel slighted if h e r e c e i v e d none. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 91*+ in good standing is eligible. Eve n if he is not present the communion service he m a y still b e named. occasionally. This happens At a S t o n e y r u n or di n at io n one m a n did not attend communion because his wife was momentarily. in His name was put expecting to be delive re d in the lot a nd so several m e m ­ bers were commissioned to drive to his far m an d get h i m while some church m e m b e r s stayed wit h his wife and children. was brought b a c k for the o r di na ti on service. He (The lot did not fall on h i m . ) Th e size of the lot varies. O c c a s i o n a l l y one m a n 301 will receive all the votes. This h a p p e n e d in the case of 302 one of the "Sleeping Preachers" who pr e a c h e d in a trance. For preachers or deaco ns the lot g e n e r a l l y varies b e t w e e n about four and fourt e en men. W h e n a bish op is to be ordained 3 u l . This was the early ideal of the church, "We understand that the bishops a n d m in i s t e r s are chos en b y the congregations (gemeynten) t h r o u g h the in s p i r a t i o n (ingeven) of God by u n a n i m i t y of voice, w h i c h occures thro ug h fasti ng and petitioning (bidden) of the Lord." q u o t ed in Peachy, "Church Organization," op. c i t ., p. 222. 302. Johannis D. K auffman, 1847-1913. Pr ed i g t e n von Johannis D. K au f f m a n A u f g e s c h r i e b e n bei Jacob G h r i s t n e r , Saint Joe, Ark.; M a r t i n Printers, 1952. It was believed that the spirits p r ea ch ed thro u gh him, es pe c i a l l y the spirit of "the Gabriel Angle." The True Life Story of G r an dm a Troyer, printed in 1955 for L o y d S w a r t z e n t r u b e r , T a m p i c o , 1 1 1 ., p. 17. Grandma Troyer m o v e d to Shelbyville, 111. so the family could hea r K a u f f m a n ’s preaching. She gives an i nt e r ­ esting description of h i m and his sermons. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 915 303 both the preachers are g e n e r a l l y put in the lot, or if there are more than two preachers the y are all put in the lot. However, at the o r di na t i o n when the present S t on ey ru n church district was formed, 304 was not put in the l o t . one of the present minis t er s After the m i n i s t e r s h a v e d e t e r m i n e d who will he in the lot they announce the names ' to the chur ch and the m e n come forward. In the m e a n t i m e the co r re s p o n d i n g n u m b e r of 305 hymn books ha ve b e e n counted out and inside the f ro n t cover of one is p la c e d a slip of paper 306 of the Bible. on w h i c h is w r i t t e n a verse 303. In the central Ohio community the d e a c o n is not put in the lot for bishop though h e m a y o c c a s i o n a l l y be put in the lot for m inister. The practice a p p a r e n t l y was different in U n i o n County, Pa., Umble, "Union," o p . c i t ., p. 73 writes, "When the b i s h o p ’s office b e c a m e vacant and a ’Voelliger D i e n e r ’ was to be elected, it w as c u s t o m a r y to include all the p r o p e r l y q u a l i f i e d ’D i e n e r ’ and the ’A r m e n d i e n e r ’ in the lot. If the lot fell on the latter, he was ordained ’Voeliger A rm en di en er . " 304. On one occasi o n I r e c i e v e d the slightest hint, that he m a y ha v e b e e n voted for, but that his name was vet oe d by one of the old deacons, a steadfast man, who felt this particular m i n i s t e r wa s too young and too liberal. 305. U s u a l l y t h e y u s e the old editions of the Ausbu n d that are fa s t e n e d closed wi t h leather and brass hooks. 306. Ei th e r Proverbs 16:33 or Acts 1:26. determine if one verse was pr ef e r r e d in Stoneyrun. I did not R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 916 The books are p l a c e d on a table a n d carried out to the waiting men. The b is h o p prays, "Herr, a l l e r H e r z e n Kttndiger, zeige an, w e l c h e n du erwShlet ha st u n t e r dies en ____________ 307 Briidern, dass einer e m p fa ng e d i e s e n ____________ A minister, u s i n g a small table each m a n in turn. One at a time and picks up a book. the lot told m e as a t r a y hold s it in front of each c an di da t e r e a ch es out One woman whose h u s b a n d had be e n in that he r h u s b a n d the book closest to him, said he h a d p l a n n e d to take but wh e n the time came h e could not, he felt h e m u s t r e a c h for anot h er book and p i c k e d u p the one he felt b i d d e n to take. After each m a n has selected a b o o k the bishop starts at the h e a d of the line and takes book from the first m a n and opens the fasten i ng s. book is emp ty h e puts book from the it b a c k on the table, second man. If the an d takes the This h e re p e a t s un t i l h e opens a book with the Bi b l e verse In it. to the effect, the Th en he says something "The lot falls on B r o t h e r ____________. May God bless y o u and m a y you consec ra t e your whole l i f e to His 308 divine service." The o r d i n a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y follows. ~ 3 o 7 . Handbuch.fflr P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t ., p. 39. The first b l a n k is f i l l e d in wi t h the nu mb e r of m e n in the lot and the second w i t h the p o s i t i o n to be filled. 308. Yoder, R o s a n n a , o p . c i t ., p. 252. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 9 -1 7 - O n l y a b i s h o p can ordain a m a n to the m i n is tr y . Deacons and preach er s are orda in e d standing, bishops are ordained on their knees w i t h the officia ti ng b i s h o p laying 309 his hands on ordinand's head. The ,exact words spoken over the m an v a r y but in essance the ordaining b i s h o p says, "im Namen des H e r r n u n d der G e m e i n wird dir der Di en st 310 a nbefohlen..." He names the office and m e n t i o n s the chief duties r e q u i r e d of that office. T h e n concludes "Dazu wolle d ic h der allmH.ch.tige Gott s tHrken m i t seinem heligen u n d g ut en Geist, u n d dass alles du rc h Jesum 311 Christum, A m e n . ” The m i n i s t e r s p resent ex t e n d the 312 Holy Kiss to the new m i n i s t e r and the service is over. An Amish o rd in a t i o n is a v er y solemn, occasion. The m e n in the lot are f e a r f u l lest tense the lot should fall u p o n them and their wives l i ke wi se are 309. T h e r e is no annointing. L a y i n g on of hands is part of the c e r e m o n y for the o rd in a t i o n of a bi s h o p but not for a p r e a ch er or a deacon. It was part of the ceremony for the V o e l l i g e r A r m e n - D i e n e r . T wo or three bishops may co-operate in the la yi ng on of hands. G in ge r ic h, Iowa, op» c i t .. p. 183, implies that all m in i s t e r s are ordained b y -Laying in of h a n d s , 310. H a n d b u c h fur P r e d i g e r , op. 311. c i t . , pp. 19,-24^25. Ibid. 312. The H o l y Kiss is not r e a l l y part of the service, but is u s u a l ly g i v e n to t h e n e w m i n i s t e r b e f o r e he leaves and the new b i s h o p on his rising. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 918 - 313 apprehensive. The p o s i t i o n of deacon, preacher or bis ho p entail a great deal of work for the person ap po i n t e d and it changes somewhat all his personal relationships. He m u s t be an example for the commu ni ty and r e f le c t the conservative opinion of the group. He is r es po ns ib l e for the church and the enforcement of the o r d n u n g . He m u s t admo ni sh and exhort members a n d must r e ad and p r e a c h in h i g h German. may m e an lear ni ng an almost n e w language. bishop he must pre ac h long sermons hour and f i f t e e n m inutes) T o d a y that As a preacher or (about one h ou r without notes. or an M a n y of these sermons consist p r i m ar il y of quotations from the bible on the subject being discussed. and give the He m u s t quote the B i b l e correctly exact r eference for each quotation. At the end of the sermon two or three other ministers will witness to the correctness Word. of his sermon and his p r e s e n t a t i o n of the If he makes mist ak es he is corrected. v;ith all commun it y business, He m u s t help give hours of his time and m u c h 314 of his energy. He recei ve s no r e m u n e r a t i o n for his service. 3 1 3 . The f e e l i n g of the burden,, but also the desire to do God's will, is re fl e c t e d in a section of an o bituary poem that tells of the son being ordained to fill his father's place. "The l o ad was h e a v y for our dear br ot he r to bear H e h a d h e l p e d so m u c h for father to care. But we be li ev e it was the Lord's will That he, his fath er 's place should fill. Herald. August 27,.1953, p. 2. 314. M e n n o Simons makes it v er y clear that true teachers "dispense, without pay, the precious W o rd of God," Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t ., 1956, p. 446. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 919 - When the bishop opens the h y m n book w i t h the lot is believed to have family, and friends spoken. The m a n called, m e m b e r s of his in the c o n g r eg at io n weep. a position of honor, in it, God A l t h o u g h it is it involves so m u c h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and work that the person choosen is g r e e te d m o r e as one in m o u r n ­ ing, than one to be congratulated, I m a d e the m i s t a k e congratulating a m a n whose bro th e r h ad the ministry, of just been ordained to I soon l earned that i n s t e a d I should have gi v en him my sympathy and v o l u n te er ed that I w o u l d offer prayers in his behalf. The community is v e r y solicitious minister. of the n e w l y orda in ed E ach member of the church district is expected to visit h i m and the m e n g a th e r to do some of his f a r mw or k for him. D e p en di n g on the time of the y e ar they will do his plowing or h a r v e s t his wheat or b r i n g in his corn. This symbolizes their support of h i m a n d also gives.: h i m m o r e time to study, time most ne w ly ordained m e n feel they sorely need. He tells them how m u c h he needs their prayers and asks them to pray for him, in church for A new m i n i s t e r does not fulfill his p o s i t i o n one or two m o n t h s after he has b e e n ordained and the first time he takes his place there is another pe r s o n present of the same p osition who can come to his assistance if he needs it. 315 315. If he finds the task be y on d his p r e p ar at io n may sit down and a fellow mini st e r will f in i s h the sermon for him. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 920 U s u a l l y the c ommunity f e e l s that the lot fell on the best ma n , 'but oc c a s i o n a l l y there m a y be some comment. In a church near St o n e y r u n there was a family that was v e r y strict in the ordnung, clothes. e sp ec ia l ly i n re l a t i o n to their The m a n was put fell on him. in the lot for p r e a c h e r and it W h e n some of the m e m b e r s home with h i m after the of the church w e nt o r d i n a t i o n service and a sk ed hi m to pray for them (this is one of the s pecific tasks a s s i g n e d to a preacher at his ordination), it was all too appa re nt that he did not k n o w his p r a y e r b o o k well. He could not choose an a pp ro p ri at e pr ay e r an d w h e n one was the suggestion of a visitor, he c ould not r e a d choosen, at it well. A l t h o u g h the c h u r c h officials have a great deal of influence in their congregation, the final de c i s i o n s rest 316 with the church that ca ll ed t h e m and r e t ai ns the power to 317 silence them. At the time of his or di na ti o n the b i s h o p who holds the m os t powerful office is I n s t r u c t e d that he should punish the disobed ie nt m i t Rat der G e m e i n and that after the erring in di viduals h a v e shown r e p e n t a n c e a nd i m p r o v e ­ ment he is to receive them b a ck into the church m i t Rat der Gemein. This powerful f u n c t i o n that c ou ld e a s i l y be m i s u s e d can only b e exercised with the counsel of the congregation. 316. P . P . , o p . c i t ., 1910, p. 383 writes that elders are ordained *'by the H o l y Ghost a nd the C h r i s t i a n Church, by the untied, c ommon v oice of the c h u r c h , . . . n 317. The o rd in a t i o n cannot be r e m o v e d b e c a u s e it is God given as well as h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n b y the church. However, the^church m a y prevent an indivi d ua l f r o m e xe rc i s i n g his role. Administer is u s u a l l y only sil en ce d w i t h the h e l p of v i s i t i n g ministers from other church districts. It is a last r es o r t and is avoided if possible. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 921 The r e li gi ou s duties enjoyed on a b i s h o p at the time of his o rd i n a t i o n are: 1) and the d e a t h of Christ, congregation, to expound the bitter 2) to celeb ra t e c o m m u n i o n w i t h the 3) to instruct those who w i s h to join the church in the C h r i s t i a n faith, 4) to bapt iz e those who have b e e n instructed, 5) w i t h the counsel disobedient, the repentant sufferings 6) w i t h the counsel individual, 8) to ordain mi ni st e r s , of th e chu rc h to p u n i s h the to the church to re-ad m it 7) to m a r r y church m e m be rs , to h e l p establish b i s h o p s in c o n g r e ­ gations where the y are needed, the ordinand to orda in a r e p l a c e m e n t whe n 318 bec om e s old and weak. 318. Three o r d i n a t i o n statements (for the offic bishop) are given in the H a n d b u c h fflr P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t ., pp. 20, 23, 25. The f o l l o w i n g quota ti on is f r o m page 20. "im Namen d e s ' H e r r n und der G e m e i n wi rd dir der VBll i ge Dienst oder B i s h o f s - A m t zum B u c h anbefohlen, dass du sollst des Herrn b i t t e r e L e i d e n u n d S t e r b e n vortragen, u n d das Brotbrechen h a l t e n n a c h C h r is ti Lehr u n d V o r b i l d m i t Brot und Wein mit der Gemein, u n d so es M e n s c h e n gibt die sich wollen zu der G e m e i n stellen, so sollst du sie den christlichen G l a u b e n l e h r e n u nd sie tauften. Auc h sollst du die A n g e h o r s a m e n strafen m i t Rat der Gemein, u n d so sich Buss und B e s s e r u n g zeigt d a n n sollst d u sie w i e d e r aufneh me n mit Rat der Gemein. U n d so sich Brilder u n d S c h w e s t e r n in der Gemein v e r h e i r a t e n w o l l e n so sollst du sie zusa mm en geben nach g B t t l i c h e n Qrdnung • u n d auc h D i e n e r ansetzen, und VBllige Dien er h e l f e n bestfltigen in den G e m e i n d e n wo es nfitig 1st und gefordert wird. U n d w e n n du alt u n d schwach wirst dann sollst du einen a n d e r n v or o rd ne n an d e i n e n Platz. Dazu wolle d i c h der He r r stdrken m i t sein e m h e i l i g e n und guten Geist, u n d dass alles durc h Jesum Christum, Amen. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 922 - The bishop has many more duties than those that are mentioned at his ordination. He is the final a u t h o r i t y in the community, the p r o te ct or of das alt Gebrauch, a m a n 319 "unblamable b o t h in d oc t r i n e and life." He is q ue st io ne d on all problems bo t h r e l i g i o u s and m at e r i a l . Some of these he answers h i m s e l f and others he prese nt s to the community. When m y h u s b a n d and I first w i s h e d to at te n d an A m i s h church service, a M e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r as k e d an Am i s h m i n i s t e r if we could visit w h e n church was at his house. The A m i s h minister in turn asked his bishop, who broug ht the m a t t e r up b e f o r e the church. be welcomed. It was d e c i d e d that we could visit and were to A woman was a s s i gn ed to care for me an d m y husband was invited to sit on the facing b e n c h with the 320 ministers. The b i s h o p could h a v e r e f u s e d the r e q u e s t w i t h ­ out bringing the m a t t e r b e fo re the church, but as our visit represented a de pa r t u r e f r o m the old ways, he fe lt he could not permit it without c o ns ul ti n g the church. Again when I wanted to work for an Amis h family, m y letter was taken to the bi sh o p who d e c i d e d that it would be all r i g h t . Had he d e c id ed agai ns t church district. community memb er s, it I could not h a v e w o r k e d in that U n l i k e the m i n i s t e r s an d m a n y of the neither the b i s h o p nor the d e a c o n welc om ed us to the community, nor di d the y even speak to us until we 319. 320. children. M e n n o S i m o n s , op. c i t . , 1956, p. 441. I merely sat with the m a r r i e d w o m e n without R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 923 - had. made several trips and h a d b e e n almost completely accepted. Reflecting the conser va ti ve opinion in the community, it was the bishop who rul ed that G e r m an R e a d i n g was hot to m e e t on Sunday and that the Bible was not to be d is c u s s e d at German Reading, When m e m b er s ha v e a qu e s t i o n about r ebuilding after their property has been d a m a g e d by f i r e or storm they go to the bi s h o p to ask his advice and they m a y ask h i m before they buy a farm or borro w money. A l t h o u g h the bishop p r o ­ nounces the b an and lifts the ban, in S t o ne yr un he does little about inquiring into cases of individuals b r ea k in g the orndung. That is larg el y the duty of the d e ac on with assistance from the preachers. Th e bish op remains a bit aloof waiting for problems to be brought to h i m rather than 321 looking around for trouble. The S t on ey ru n bishop was 322 ordained when he was only thirty-eight, he is a good leader who carefully refers questions b a c k to the church and assertains their opinion. Some Amish church districts are not so fortunate, A b i s h o p in a church in the n o r t h e r n part of the community tol d all the memb er s did not agree with h i m to leave the council meeting. of the chur ch who He 3 2 1 . This is a p p a r e n t l y not true of all bishops, some search for any deviation. However, in S t o n e y r u n the bi sh o p understands well the f u n c t i o n of ignoring although h e is c o n ­ scientious in f ul f il li ng his role whe n d e v i a t i o n is brought to his attention, 322. The average age at w h i c h b i s ho ps n o w serving in central Ohio were orda in ed was 43.5 years. Th e oldest m a n was ordained at sixty-six, the youn g es t at twenty-eight. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 924 - would not allow t h e m to partici pa te in the g ov er nm e nt of 323 the church. An A m i s h m a n in P e n n s y l v a n i a who was ordained to the r ar e l y fill ed office of V i el li g er D i en er Deacon) is r e p o r t e d to hav e said, 324 I expect to crack it, too." (Bishop- "Now I h o l d the whi p and T h e religious duties that are p r es en te d to the preacher b e i n g o r d a i n e d differ from one instance to another more than do the instruc ti o ns to a bishop. The role of the preacher is less r i g i d l y de te rm i n e d and, I believe, of m o r e 325 recent h i s t o r i c a l develo pm en t . H i s r e l i g i o u s duties, as 326 determined fro m three diffe re nt ordin at io n statements, include the following: Word of the Lord, l) p r e ac h and tea ch the peo pl e the 2) pray w i t h the congregation, 3) pray, 323. Since that time the district has d i v i d e d into two church that do not h o l d communion together. The larger community does not r ec og ni z e their lack of f ellowship. 3 2 4 , U m b l e , MU n i o n 1, op. c i t ., g,..89., •• 325. The An ab a pt is ts were among the first to ma ke the effectual carrying out of the Great C o m m i s s i o n b i n d i n g u p o n all believers. T h e prom is e to obey this command was one of the qualifications for a d m i s s i o n to the b rotherhood, and to this aav the trait is a v estigial among the Amish... B e f o r e baptism, Amish male applicants mus t p r om is e to accept the duties of Diener" (ordained person), in the event that they s h o ul d later be chosen b y "lot" for such service. This tran sf e r f r o m b a p t i s m a l applicant to the specially d e s i g n a t e d religious f u n c ti on ar i es in Mennonite practice suggests a change fro m personal to impersonal evangelism, and f r o m what was at one time a personal ethic to an institutionalized fo r m of behavior " Joh n A. Hostet le r, The Sociology of M e n n o n i t e Evangelism. (Scottdale, Pa.: H e r a l d Press, 1954, pp. 35j, 45. ' 326. H a n d b u c h fib? P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t ., pp. 19, 22. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. talk and r ea d "lain u n d her" w it h the congregation, the Ordnungs Gemein, 5) h e l p m a i n t a i n t h e di sc i p l i n e of the Lord, p u n i s h i n g the w i c k e d and p r o t e c t i n g the good, communion to preach the p a t r i a r c h sermons, to serve the wine, requested, 9) 8) give funeral serve br o t h e r s the orphans, 7) at communion orations w hen it is 10) visit the sick, the and p r a y w i t h the sick, thing that y o u r office 6) at and sisters who want to m a r r y according to the divine ordnung, widows, 4) h o l d shall require. 11) do e v e r y ­ This list is c o n s i d e r ­ ably m o re v a gu e and gen er al t h a n that for the bishop. If the three o r d i n a t i o n stateme nt s for preachers are comp a re d they are seen to dif fe r agreement are: substantially. 1) p r e a c h or teach, T h e only points of 2) p r a y with the c o n g r e ­ gation, 3) preach about the p at ri ac hs at the c om m u n i o n ser327 vice. In Stoneyrun, as in all Old Order Amish churches, the preachers m a y give either the An fa ng (beginning) or the main sermon and they m a y also read the Scripture, r e a d a prayer, or witness at a r e g u l a r ch u r c h service. At communion, 327» Im Na me n des H e r r n u n d der Ge m ei n wi r d dir anbefohlen der D i e n s t zum Buch. D ass du sollst des H e r r n Wort verkflndigen u n d vortragen, u n d sollst m i t der Ge me in h i n und her beten, r e d e n u n d lesen, u n d sollst h e l f e n das Gute beschiltzen u n d das B Ss e bu /sicy b e s t r a f e n u n d zu verhindern. Auch sollst du zur Zeit des a oe n dm ah ls von d e n A l t y S t e r n Vortragen, wie auch die O r d nu n gs G e m e i n h a l t e n w e n n es an dich gefordert wird, un d w e n n B r & d e r u n d S c h w e s t e r n sich in den E h e s t a n d b e g e b e n w o l l e n so sollst du ihnen dienen bis zur Of f eribarung. D as s w o l l e d i c h der H e r r s t S r k e n m i t sinem h e i l i g e n u n d guten Geist, u n d das d u r c h J esum Christun, Amen." H a n d b u c h fur Prediger, o p . cit., p. 22. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 926 - in Stoneyrun, there is an i n t r od uc to ry sermon the "beginning" (Anfang), on the suffering Christ. the m a i n (Vors tel lung), sermon and then the sermon B o t h the "beginning" and the m a i n sermon are on the patri ar c hs 328 and are d e l i v e r e d by preachers. At communion one or two preachers a s si st e d b y a deacon, pass the wine after the b i s h o p has se rv ed the bread. this role the prea ch er In is o b vi o u s l y a ct i n g as a substitute bishop, f o r the bi sh op has b e e n p r e a c h i n g f r o m about twelve-thirty to three o ’clock and f o l l o w i n g the sermon h e has wa l k e d among the communicants offering e a c h individual a piece of bread. very old) 329 w i ne . To re li ev e the m i n i s t e r t a k e s the b i s h o p (who is often over his role and serves the In the S t o n e y r u n church the deacon is m o r e than the m i n i s t e r s in council m e e t i n g tain discipline, role* important and in h e l p i n g to m a i n ­ a l th ou gh the m i n i s t e r s are active in this A m i n i s t e r m a y origin al ly h e a r the charges against 328. The "beginning" sermon covers the m a t e r i a l from the creati on -t o the r a i n b o w or the tower of Babel. The m a i n sermon takes up the le s s o n where the first preacher left off or covers the mater ia l f r o m A b r a h a m to the b a t t l e of Jerico. 329. Dix. L i t u r g y . o p . c i t ., p. 34, w r i t e s of the earliest l i t u r g y ...when su b- d i v i s i o n of the e ucharistic essembly be ca m e n e c e s s a r y b y g r o w t h of numbers, a presb yt er was the obvious d e l e g a t e for the b i s h o p ’s li tu rg i c a l f u n c ­ tions..." P re sb y t e r s a c q u i r e d litur gi c al func ti o ns "rather as the b i s h o p ’s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e than as his assista nt ." Traditionally the serving of the wine was a f u n c t i o n of the deacon and not the b i s h o p or a priest. Ibid., p. 35. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 927 - an individual, but h e u s u al ly reports them to the deacon or takes the d e a c on wi t h h i m to see the individual b e f o r e the case is prese nt ed to the church. made the preacher, If a public confession is r a th er t h a n the deacon, helps wit h it. The preachers deliver funeral 330 and the afflicted. sermons and visit the sick Th e preachers pra y w i t h a ny o n e who re q u e s t s it and preach and p r a y with other congregations when they travel. Technically the prea ch er s and deacons are still play the role of Schteckleimann, supposed to that is they ca r r y the p r o ­ posal from a youn g m a n to the parents of the girl he wishes to marry. However, around Ston ey ru n this custom is almost 331 dying out. W i t h i n the central Ohio community the average of a preacher at the time of his ordin at io n was 35.2 years. The oldest preacher to be ordained was 50, the youngest 23. As his name implies (Dienst zum Buch, Die n st Wort) the preach e r' s m a i n job is to preach. spend a great deal of time zum M a n y preachers studying the Bible. As they m ust preach without notes and include m a n y Bi b l i c a l quotations it is essential that they k n o w the Bib l e v e r y well. church w i t h a full c omplement of m inisters, In a the preachers 330. Pe r i o d i c a l l y di f f e r e n t m i n i s t e r s visit the state mental hospital. W h e n one make s such a visit h e contacts every Amish patient in the hospital, whether or not he knows him personally. 331. At one time the S ch te c k l e i m a n n carried the p r o ­ posal fr o m the you ng m a n to the you ng lady of his choice. Now one of the p re a c h e r s or the d e ac on is contacted so that he publish the couple in the church, but the visit to the girl or her parents is u s u a l l y dispe ns ed with. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 928 - and bishops do not ha ve to p r e ac h every service and as the services are only once every two weeks each m a n preaches only once or twice a m on t h . in advance, turn. A lt h o u g h it is not d e ci de d eac h m a n knows fairl y well w h e n it will be his It is possible that w h e n he arrives at chur ch that there will be preach, but prepare. enough v i s i t i n g m in i st er s so that he will not if it is about his turn he g e n e r a l l y has trie d to A l t ho ug h in t h e o ry the preacher does not ne e d notes because he is the vehicle of the H o l y Ghost w ho speaks t h r ou gh him, the H a n d b u c h filr Prediger cautions the m i n i s t e r s to pre332 : pare. Umb le mentions an Amis h M e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r who h a d 333 only two sermons that he alternated. One preacher I k n e w read the Bible and D i r k Philips regularly, but before a service he would skim the complete Old Testament and then read t horoughly a section of the New Testament. M a n y A m is h preachers, e s pe c ia ll y youn g ones, they m u c h preach. are very n e r v ou s before Not on l y do they prepare night after night until they fall asleep over the Bible, but t h e y r i s e ea r l y on 334 Sunday, eat l i t tl e or no break fa st and driv e off in a b u g g y 332. E s.scheint es seien Prediger die ihre Predigt nicht g e n ug d u r c h d e n k e n filir b e s o n d e r e Umstlnden, oder wenigstens vlel k u m m e r n daw eg e n wa s sie sagen w ol l e n oder sollen, nehmen dann die Versen, Matth. 10, 19, 20. . . .Solche d e n ke n ni c h dar an dass diese W o r t e Jesus, hi e r nicht p a s se n d sind. Jesus hat hier nichts vo n P r e d i g e n gesagt. Op. c i t . , p. 8-9. 333. Umble, ^Lyoh1} op. c i t . , p. 243. 334. This may b e accou nt ab le to ne r vo us ne ss or to D.E. Ma s t ’s s uggestion that it is easier to p r e a c h on an empty stomach. Op. c i t . , p. 120. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 929 - by themselves to the service. One little girl observed, "Dad talks to h i m s el f before h e ’s g oi n g to preach." T he commu ni ty r ol e of the p reacher is similar to that of the bishop, b u t at a lower level. He too is e x p ec t ed to lead a blamel es s life. M a n y p r e a c h e r s w er e m o re s trictly in the ordnung t ha n the average church m e m b e r even b efore they w e r e chosen to preach, but those who were not, g e n e r a l l y are m or e strict w i t h themselves after they h a v e b e e n o rdained even t h o u g h t h e y do not b e l i e v e in the specific r u l e t hey are carefully following. C o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s also come to the preachers with per so na l p r o bl em s b o t h spiritual and f i n a n ­ cial. The preachers m a y be mo r e a p p r o a c h a b l e t h a n the bishop, or it m a y be a p r o b l e m that does not involve the c h u r c h , b u t the individual needs the advice and gui da nc e of a m o r e e x p e r ­ ienced man. Just as the b i s h o p is e x p e c t e d to r e f l e c t the most conserva ti ve o pinion of the congregation, is also expected to so the m i n i s t e r h e l p m a i n t a i n das alt G e b r a u c h .However, he generally can r e l i e on the b is h o p to fulfill the role and the preachers m a y be less s t ea df a st t ha n the bish op s. If there is a strong m i n o r i t y opi ni on w i t h i n the c o n g r e g a t i o n it is not unusual for one of the p re a c h e r s to r e f l e c t this opinion. M o s t p re a c h e r s take their tasks very s e ri ou sl y a nd many will attempt to m o d i f y their own interests for the g o o d of the church. Thus a p r ea ch er who b e l i e v e s in m i s s i o n w o r k or Sunday school and Bible study groups m a y not p r e a c h about R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 930 - these interests for he knows that such preaching would stir up discord and trouble within the church. However, his posi­ tion is generally known by all the church members and if there are others who feel as he does they rally around him and may attempt to persuade him to use his influence. He in turn cautions those agreeing with him to have patience. The religious duties enjoined on a deacon at the time of his ordination include: 1) care of widows and orphans, 2) accepting alms and with the advice of the community distri­ buting of them, 3) assisting brothers and sisters who wish to get married, 4) assisting with the water at baptism, 5) assisting at the table at communion, scripture, 6) reading the 7) paying attention well to the instruction and sermon, whether the Lord's Word is correctly taught or falsified, 8) deciding and settling, according to the 335 Christian or d n u n g s a n y d i sp u te s arising in the community. The role of the deacon appears to be changing slightly. Now that the office of Bishop-Deacon is falling into disuse, t h e deacon is taking over some of the functions, primarily disci­ plinary ones, that formerly fell to the higher offices. 33b. One of the three ordination statements reads as follows: Im Namen des Herrn und der Gemein wird anbefohlen der Dienst zu den Armen, dass du sollst Sorg tragen ftir Witwen and Waisen, und Almosen einnehmen, und austeilen mit Rat der Gemein. Und wenn Br-fider und Schwestern in der Gemein sind die in den Ehestand traten wollen, so sollst du ihnen dienen nach christlicher Ordnung, auch solist du mit Wasser dienen bei der Taufe. Auch sollst du mit brot und Wein "fiber Tisch dienen zur Zeit des Abendmahls, und sollst den Diener die Schrift lesen, und weiter helfen raten und arbeiten in der Gemein. Dazu wolle dich der Herr stfirken und erleuchten mit seinem helligen und guten Geist, und dass starken und erleuchten mit seinem heiligen und guten Geist, und dass durch Jesum Christum, Amen." Handbuch fur Prediger, Op. C i t ., p. 24. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - The three 931 - ordin at io n statements differ in regard to the amount that is said about the deacon's role in settling disputes, examining circumstances, ing the evil. correctness and p ro te ct i ng the good and p u n i s h ­ O nly one mentions his role of p assing on the of the sermon. This too was a f u n c t i o n of the B i s h o p - D e a c o n . These appar en tl y are the new areas. T h e d e a c o n u s u a l l y reads the first of the two chapters 336 of the Scripture that are r ea d at every service. If there are v i s i t i n g preachers, a preacher m a y r e a d this chapter, but otherwise it is r e ad by a deacon. never reads the second chapter, However, the deacon for this chapter is not read, but it c om me n te d u p o n extensively. just The preacher reads one to three verses and then elaborates o n them before going on to the next verse. A deacon is not allowed to preach, he does not r ea d this chapter. so 337 Neither does he r ea d prayers. At the end of the church service the d e a c o n m a k e s any neces sa ry announcements such as where church will be held for the next 336. The d e a c o n reads the Scripture that preceeds the sermon. D i x , op. c i t . , p. 235, writes ," T he d e a c o n reads the gospel u p o n w h i c h the b i s h o p is to comment in his sermoni' 3 3 7 . "But by immemorial tradit io n they (deacons) never directly address God on behalf of the church...the deacon speaks to the church, not to G o d . ” D i x , op. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 932 - 338 service. The deacon not only announces where church will te held hut he is r e s p o ns ib le for ar ra n g i n g for the place. He is also r esponsible for seeing that the bread and wine are available for commu ni on even though the h o s t es s rat he r 339 than he h i m s el f m a y supply them. The d e a c o n cuts the bread for the bishop. In S toneyrun c hu r c h district the de ac on is very important as a g u a r d i a n of the o r d n u n g , He is the oldest of the S to n e y r u n m i n i s t e r s and is a steadfast m a n who c a r e ­ fully watches for the slightest infringement of the church rules. This has e n gi n ee re d a certain amount of h o s t i l i t y toward him, for there is pro ba bl y no fa m il y that never breaks any aspect of the ordnung. (even his own) He in turn is watched very c ar e f u l l y by the whole church for the slightest 340 evidence of devia ti on f r o m das alt Gebrauch, 338, This f u n c t i o n m a y pos si bl y be r e l a t e d to the function of the deacon in the early C h r i s t i a n church, when his part in the service was "announcing to the assembly what is to be done at each f r e s h stage of its progress," Ibid, 339, The S to n e y r u n d e a c o n does not have a vineyard, but a near neighbor m a k e s wine wh ic h he very l i k e l y buys. 340, Although t h is m a n was not ordained a d e a c o n until after his oldest son was married, and his other two boys were f i n is he d school, they show the effects of ha vi ng a strict, a u th or it ar i an father. The oldest son is un us u a l l y hard working, he has a beaut i fu l f a r m on wh ic h he has tried some new m e t h o d s (contour plowing) but he stays close to the accepted p a t t e r n of gene r al farming. He is quite inhibited but at the same time gives the impress io n of strength. The middle son was away d uring the war at C„P„S„ camp and then married a gay woman f rom a warm, affecti on at e family. He seems to have largely escaped his father's shadow. The R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 933 - He often brings d is ci p l i n a r y problems before the other m i n i s t e r s for p r e s e n t a t i o n to the church an d he is generally asked to visit an erring brother establish the guilt. (or sister) to Ordnungs Gma or council m e e t i n g is the service im me di a te ly precee d in g communion at w h i c h m a n y disciplinary problems are raised. In the spring of 1956 the de ac o n was very sick w i t h a heart condition and a 341 nervous breakdown. In spite of this he got out of be d to come to council m e e t in g even though he could not come to communion. The average age of a de ac on at the time of his ordination is 36.5 years in the central Ohio community. The oldest d eacon w a s 53 at the time of his ordination, the youngest 24. The S t o n e y r u n de ac on is by A m i s h standards a very well-to-do man. He is sometimes the comm un it y who n e e d loans being sold outside that f e w people a pproached b y m e m b e r s of or want to k e e p some land f rom the community. His p e r s o n a l i t y is such seek h i m to discuss pers on al prob le ms u nless they involve a d i s ag re em en t or m is u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i th another community m e m b e r and then it is his role, as deacon, to help work out the problem. youngest son farms the home place and is without doubt the most r e p r e s s e d adult A m i s h m a n I h a v e met. His wife comes from deep in the c o mm un it y and can barely s peak English, she is sweet bu t v e r y retir in g and apparen tl y submissive. The middle b ro t h e r says of the youngest one "Nobody ever knows what h e ’s thinking.'1 The two daughters are not m a r r i e d and although the y o u n ge r one is now of age she still works where her parents tell her she may. 341. As an indication of h o w ill a d ea c o n was it was mentioned in the H e r a l d that.he "Couldn't attend council m e e t i n g . " November 6, 1952. For a lay m em be r attending comm un i on w o u l d h av e been m e n t i o n e d instead. ‘ ■ ' R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - T he four m i n i s t e r s there is a, ch u r c h - of S to n e y r u n w o r k together f a i r l y well and in m a n y situations of in separate roles, 934 they f u n c t i o n as a u ni t ins te ad As a g r o u p they w i t h d r a w every Su n d a y service to dis cu ss any c o m m u n i t y b u s i n e s s and they often visit one another, meeting, especially b ef o r e council to s t ra ig ht e n out c ommunity p r o b l e m s » situations any or all of t h e m m a y be called i t „ ially the case in the occasional suffer a nervous breakdo wn . Sometimes immediate problem, This is e s p e c ­ instance w h e n a b r o t h e r ma y The m i n i s t e r s h a v e h i g h p r e st ig e and they u s u a l l y visit a m a n if his family managing him. In special is ha v i n g t rouble they can h e l p h i m w o r k out the other times they h e l p take h i m to the doctor or the m e n t a l h o s p i t a l if it is evident that h e needs treatment or is a danger to the community. S o ci al ly the m i n i s t e r s and their wives are somewhat set apart f r o m the community. They k n o w b o t h m o r e and less of what is a c t u a l l y g o i n g on. This is r e l a t e d to the m i n i s ­ terial role of co mm u n i t y d i s c i p l i n a r i a n and to the importance of conscious i gnoring. he must be punished. science come first If a m e m b e r is k n o w n to b e d ev i a t i n g T ho se m e m b e r s who h a v e a g u i l t y c o n ­ to one of the m i n i s t e r s and in this instance the m i n i s t e r s know of the deviati on . and their wives m a y be the first to But, if the individual weighed down by his conscience, is not the first i n d i c a t i o n of deviation m a y be g os s i p and in the early stages the gossipers R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 935 - may try to keep the i n f o r m a t i o n from the m i n i s t r y for m a n y of the church m e m b e r s m a y hope that a church issue will not be made of the deviation,, This m a y also apply to the m i n i s t e r s who attempt to overlook slight deviation. ter's w i fe can be quite hard. the church business The role of m i n i s ­ Al t h o u g h she m a y k n o w some of she m a y not discuss tribute to the general gossip. At the it and us e it to c o n ­ same time the church members m a y be careful about what they say ar o u n d her for fear that some inform at io n m a y get b a c k to her h u s b a n d that they want to k e e p a wa y from the m i n i s t e r s . This can lead a minister's w if e to feel l o n e l y and slightly exc lu de d for she cannot freely join in t he gossip of the community. The me t h o d of selec ti on of leaders that is f o l lo w ed by the A mi sh is p r ob ab l y the best possible m e t h o d for a small, closely knit, r e l i g i o u s group that is subject to internal disagreement. B y h av i n g the commu ni ty vote for the officials only the it m ea ns placed in the lot. ment that people. that This informal leaders will be is further i n s u r e d b y the r e q u i r e ­ each m a n m u s t be n a m e d b y at least two or three B ecause of the active t r a d i t i o n that n o one ma y tell anyone else w h o m h e v o t e d for, it is possible for an individual to bel ie ve that his choice was not put in the lot because he was the only one m a k i n g it. (When in r e a l i t y the mi n i s t r y m a y p o s si b ly h ave v e t o e d the choice.) This ruling that at least two p e o p l e m u s t vote for a m a n functions to keep the lot a r e a s o n a b l e size and p revents a ma n b e i n g R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 936 - selected that m a y have b e e n put in the lot through a p e r ­ sonal i diocyncracy or whim. whom an individual The pr o h i b i t i o n on discuss in g voted for also prevents the members from taking an u n o f f i c i a l vote to determine the relative popularity of the m e n in the lot. chosen by the m e t h o d of voting, If minis t er s were the commun it y could easily divide, each side following the m a n of their choice, or if as many as thirteen m e n were n o mi na te d out of a possible forty or fifty it m i gh t m e an a series of votes to determine who w o u l d receive the m a jo ri ty . This w o u l d open the w a y to campaigning and the establishment of factions w i t h in the community. After the ordination there w o u l d be no guaran te e that all the m e m b er s w o u l d support the new minister. by us in g the lot the final However, choice is b e l ie v ed to be in the hands of G od and ther ef or e the new m i n i s t e r has supernatural sanction and a church p l e dg ed to do the will of God m o r e easily follows a m a n believed to be chosen by God, It works for the u n i t y and the good of the church that G o d ’s choice is allowed to operate only among those m e n whom the community has alr ea d y i ndicated its willingness to follow; the determi n in g vote is His, Ideally the Old Order Amish ministers are true teachers w hose "calling is b y God and 342 his church." 342. D.P., op. c i t ., 1910, p. 178. E v e n t h o u g h the calling is correct they are k n o w n by their fruits w h i c h are constantly assessed. Amish m i n i s t e r s are very specifically not bel i ev ed to be infallible. Hence the n e e d for two others to witness to the correctness of every sermon preached. I h a ve R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 937 - DISCIPLINING MEMBERS - MEIDUNG The n ee d a n d the right to discipline m e m b e r s grows out of the A nabaptist concept Amish attempt to put this of the church. The Old Order concept into practice. believe the form "a visible Ch u r c h of God, They consisting of those.,, who are rig ht ly baptized, u n i t e d w i t h G o d in heaven, a n d incorporated into the communion of saints on earth. They are a holy na ti on ... a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, 343 ... the ' b r i d e 1 of C h r i s t . ” T h ey are the "congregation of the r i g h t e o u s , ” that m u st b e "kept pure -344 from such ’s p o t s ’ and ’b l e m i s h e s ’" E r r i n g m e m b e r s are d i s ­ not attended an ordination. M os t of this mat er ia l was gath er ed from a w o m a n who descr ib ed her h u s b a n d ’s ordination in detail (00A 2), a wo ma n who told m e about her h u s b a n d ’s b e in g in the lot (00A24), specific questions about details of the service were answ e re d by a m i n i s t e r (OOAl)g and a d e a c o n ’s son (00A23). I also h a d a d e t a i le d d e s c r i p t i o n of the o r d i n a t i o n of her father from an " O l d ” M e n n o n i t e girl whose b e d I shared during a visit to Go sh en College and was told something about her f a t h e r ’s o rd i na t i o n b y a w o m a n who was b o rn A m i s h but whose father became M en n on i t e . I was in the community w h e n an ordination took place in the ne ig hb o ri ng church so I h e a r d a lot of d i s c u s s i o n of it. Bor some other accounts of ordinations see: Bachman, Lancaster, op. cit., pp. 114-17. Gingerich, I o w a , op. c i t . , pp. 181-83. Umble, "Lancaster," op. c i t . , "Union," o p .c i t „, pp. 73, 71-96. (A m i s h M e n n o n i t e ) "Lyons," op. c i t ., pp. 239-40 (Mennonite of A mi sh extraction) Yoder, R o s a n n a , op. c i t . , pp. 249-61. 343. Do r t C on fe s s i o n of Faith, 344. I b i d . , A r t i c l e XVII A rticle VIII. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - ciplined for two reasons, 938 - the first that they will not d ishonor is to correct the church; t h e m so the second, is to bring the erring b r o t h e r s to a k no w l e d g e of their sins and 345 to repentance. There are f o u r d i ff er en t ceremonies p e r t a i n i n g to the correction of offenders, that involve i n c r e a s i n g l y greater 346 punishment. T h e r e h a v e b e e n r e c u r r e n t a t t em pt s to include a fifth stage but this has b e e n deplored. and in theory all the M en no ni te s, b e l i ev e All the Amish, in c o n f e s s i o n b e ­ fore the church and e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n of obstinate sinners. Among the Old Order A m i s h it is only the final punishm en t , the shunning of those who h av e b e e n excommunicated, that has caused d i s c o r d and division. T he low es t f o r m of co nf es s i o n is m a d e for sins such as h a v i n g a t t e n d e d a movie, having taken or w e a r i n g suspen d er s w i t h rubber small o n e ’s p i c t ur e in them. This con­ fession is made standing in f ront of the cong re g at io n. In such an instance the erring m e m b e r has p r e v i o u s l y g o n e to one of the m i n i s t e r s and told h i m that he w o u l d l ik e to c o n ­ fess, or a m i n i s t e r has h e a r d of the s i n and has v i s i t e d the ~ 345. IT.P. op. cit,, 1910, fession, Articles X V I and XVII. p. 521 and the D o r t C o n ­ 346. I h a v e o b se r ve d none of these ceremo ni es as only members of the church are present. I h a ve o b t a i n e d the information I h av e fr o m informants who g a ve it ra th er r e l u c ­ tantly, and not always as f ul ly as I might have wished. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 939 - - erring "brother and asked h i m to confess his error. brother has agr ee d to discuss it during m a k e the the Abrath. confession, If the the minis te rs It is d e c i d e d w h i c h m i n i s t e r will present the c o n f e s s i o n in the council m e e t i n g i m m e d i a t e l y following the c hurch service. At the end of the ch u r c h se r ­ vice, the d e a c o n announces that m e m b e r s and all the non-members only the m embers remain, case to the church. Brother confession. He should stay seated leave after the last hymn. one of the m i n i s t e r s p resents the says somet hi n g to the or Sister ____________ Then the m i n i s t e r says he does. 347 he is forgiven. effect that wishes to m a k e a d es c ri be s the the erring m e m b e r if he confesses to it. member W hen This c o n s t it u te s his sin and asks The r e p e n t a n t confe s si on and 347 o I was told that it w o u l d be too h a r d for a person to disc us s his sin b e f o r e the whole church, t h er ef or e the m inister does that f o r h i m and he only indicates that the m i n i s t e r has d e s c r i b e d it c o r r e c t l y and he wishes to confess what h e has done. P r o b a b l y it is in a q u e st io n and answer f o r m similar to that u s e d f or a hi g h e r confession. Perhaps something to the effect. ,fD o y o u r e c o g n i z e and admit that yo u should confess that yo u ____________." The pene ta n t one answering, "Yes." "Do you with all your ..heart ask God and the G e m e i n d e for f o r e b e a r a n c e ? " "Yes." "Do y ou pro mi s e that w i t h G o d ’s h e l p you will ta k e - b e t t e r care to live a c c o r d ­ ing to His commandments, to h e l p m a i n t a i n them, and to h e l p and work with the Ge m e i n d e as you p r o m i s e d at y o u r b ap t i s m . " "Yes." Umble, "Union," op. c i t . , p. 90 d e s cr ib e s a confession. "The offender rose b ef o r e the c o n g r e g a t i o n a s s e m b l e d in executive session, and, first, m a d e a h u m b l e a ck no wl e d g m e n t of wrong doing; second, p l e a d e d m e e k l y for forgiveness; and third, gave a solemn promise to walk m o r e c i r c um sp ec t ly in the futur e ." .. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 940 - For a m o r e serious sin such as h a v i n g dr i v e n a car, or having ha d p re-marital spouse, intercourse w it h o n e ’s present the confession must he m a d e on one's knees in front of the congregation. and the penetant Again the m i n i s t e r describes the sin individual indicates that the minister's presentation is correct and that he wishes to be forgiven. Sometimes a punish me nt that is not w i d e l y approved of is u s e d for individuals who will not confess their sin, or are in d i s ag re em en t with the m i n i s t r y or are stirring up trouble and discord. T h e r e ma y be an attempt made to exclude these mem be rs from council m e e t i n g and thus pr ev e nt 348 their p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the church government. To m y knowledge this ha s never b e e n done in Stoneyrun, a l t h ou g h it has h a p p e n e d in other c hurch distr ic ts - central Ohio. If any of the lesser sins are p e r s i s t e d in, or if a member refuses to m a k e a confession, serious sin he m a y be or has c om mi tt ed a m o r e "set back f r o m communion." This m e a n s that h e cannot celebrate comm un io n w ith the church, but in other ways be in full m e m b e rs hi p. study, D u r i n g the course of m y a p e r s o n could be set b a c k f r o m communion for u s i n g bottled gas for cooking, for u s i n g a m i l k i n g machi ne , heating a b r o i l e r h o u s e w ith a hot wa te r furnace. or for However, 348. "Haber wir k e i n e n Gr un d der Schrift, jemand aus d e m Rat der G emeine zu schliessen." Ar t i c l e III, Discipline of 1909. Artikel u n d O r dn un ge n der Ch r is t l i c h e n Gemeinde in Chri s to J e s u , ( B a l t i c , O h i o : J.A. Raber, 1954), P. 9. See also, D a v i d Beiler, Das Wahre C h r i s t e n t h u m , op. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. these r e gu la ti on s are in the process of chang e *a nd in 1956 a person is not set back from communion for us in g a furnace, and only a confess io n was needed to r e c t i f y the use of bottled gas. Sometimes one only needs to stop u s in g it and not even m a k e a confession. (Within a few years b o t t l ed gas will u n d o u bt ed l y be permitted.) forbidden, but m i l k coolers are allowed. A m e m b e r is M i l k i n g m a ch i ne s are r e - i n s t a t e d after he has b e e n set from communion by a c e r e m o n y in front Gemeinde. comes for wa rd to the front 'While he still of the m e m b e r s back of the of the con­ gregation they sing? Es ist auch F r e u d im Himmel B e y Gottes E n g e l n werth, Ja ■fiber einen S e n d e r , Der sich w i e d e r bekehrt, M e h r d a n n liber viel Frommen, D i e n icht d& rf e n der Buss, Dass er thut wieder kommen,. u nd f o l g e n Ghr is t i F u s s . ^ 4 9 He kneels d ow n and the bi s h o p asks, "Erkennst u n d bek en ns t du dass du diese Straf verdient hast u n d dass rechter Ordnung liber d i c h k o m m e n ist?" answers, "Ja." sie n ac h The penetant one "Sprichst du auch Gott un d die Gemein herzlich urn Geduld an?" "Ja." Ver sp ri c ht st d u auch dass du willst fernerhin mit des H er rn Hilf besser Sorg tragen, — 549. This is the t h i r t i e t h verse of h y m n No. 99 that starts on page 520 of the Ausbund, verse thirty is f o un d on Page 529. Charles Burkhart, "The Ch ur c h M u s i c of the Old Order Amish and Old C ol o ny M e n n o n i t e s , " MQR, January, 1953, pp. 3454 writes that verses 31 and 32 of this h y m n are sung wh e n a member is re-instated. Ei n R e g i s t e r , op. c i t . , u s e d in central Ohio lists the t h i r t i e t h verse. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 942 - und in seinen G e b o t e n wandeln, u n d d i e s e l b e n h e l f e n h a n d h a b e n und raten u n d arb ei ten in der Ge me i n in ali en T e i l e n wie du versprochen has t in deiner Taufe?" "Ja." und der Gem e i n wird dir die H a n d geboten, 1m n a m e n des H e r r n stehe auf," The 350 bishop offers h i m his h a n d and greets h i m with the h o l y kiss„ The co ngregation sing another hymn, per ha ps 5 D a n n Gott hat d i e s e n Garten Al le i n vor die bereit, Die h a l t e n seine Worte M i l t Fleiss zu aller Zeit, Nichts unreins will er h a b e n In diese m G a r t e n fein, Das me r k t ihr stolze Knaben, D i e ihr wolt Siinder seyn ,3 3! The final and mo st severe pu nish men t that is only used as a last reso rt is expelsion, The erring one is 352 "rebuked before all" and "purged out as a l e a v e n ," In addition the offender is "shunned and a v o i d e d b y all members of the c h u r c h . *.whether or other such like it be 353 social matt er s. are to h a v e not hin g to do wi t h him; ~ 330« the in eating or drinking, In short, so that 0 0 .'(members) oo c(they) m a y H a n d b u c h fflr P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t „, p„ 37-38, 351, Das 123 Lied, verse 21, A u s b u n d p, 723, Instead the con gregation m a y sing, 272, 520, 766, 492', 227, (These are the page n u m b e r s in the Ausbund on whi ch the ap pro pria te hymns begin. The list is gi v e n in E i n Register, op, cit, 352, D o r t Confession, A r ti cl e XVI, 353, In E n g l i s h the terms "shun" or "a voi da nce " are used, in Pe nn s y l v a n i a D u t c h the G e r m a n w o r d "Meidung" has been corrupted and sometimes the term "Mite" or "Meid" is u s e d to signify the complete withdr awa l f r o m a former m e m b e r not only in church ceremonies but in all social life. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 943 not become d e f i l e d by intercou rse w i t h him, and partakers of his sins; but that he m a y b e m a d e ashamed, b e aff ec te d in his mind, c onvin ce d in his 354 to amend h i s w a y s . ” A member is not conscience, and th ere by ind uced e x pelle d with out the council of the church, w i t hout b e i n g wa r n e d and in m os t pattern s u g g e s t e d in M a t t h e w 18:15 -1 7 exact p r o g r a m that leads u p to his the sin he committe d. instances the Bib li ca l 355 is followed. The e xco mm un ic ation varies with If he br e a k s a l a w of the l a n d b y 356 or a c r i m e - h e is ex co m m u n i c a t e d immediately. 357 Sins such as ad u l t u r y and ow ni ng a car can be f o r g i v e n only committing a felony, after a p e r i o d of shunning. Ther e f o r e it m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d that the sin has b ee n c o r r e c t l y r e p o r t e d to the church, bu t the individual c o nc erned n e e d to b e w a r n e d three times. 354. Sirt i d e 355. See Cha pte r II I Ei t h e r XVI I 356. ” ...there are some sins, as for instance murder, witchcraft, incendiarism, theft, and other like criminal deeds, which eve nt ua lly re quir e and imply pu ni sh me nt at the hands of the m a g i s t r a c y 1'* chat do not r e q ui re three admon iti ons bef o r e the sinner can be excom mun icated. M e n n o Simons, op. c i t . 5 1956, p. 1043. 357. W h e n it involves ind ivid ua ls not yet m a rrie d. This is c o n s i d e r e d di ff eren t from a pr em ar it al pr egnanc y, for in this case the couple is sin ning no m o r e (being m a r r i e d the act that was f o rm er ly f o r b i d d e n them is n o w e n j o i n e d upo n them) and their sin was not discov ere d, but was openly con fes se d from a contrite heart. ’’Las tly, I u n d e r s t a n d that they h o l d that if anyone in great we ak ne ss falls, and openly ac kn ow le dg es his fall, they should t he n con side r h i m a w o r l d l y person. This again is u n h e a r d - o f fanaticism , for if the t r a n s g r e s s i o n oc c u r r e d through we akness, t h e n let us not pl e a s e ourselves an d let us not be too severe w i t h the poor soul, lest we come to an ev en greater lapse. Not the w e ak but the corrupt m e m b e r s are cut off, lest the y corrupt the o t h e r s . ” M e n n o Simons, op. cit., 1956, p. 1044. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. the individual m u s t admi t hi s guilt to one of the mini st er s or two or three w i tn es ses m u s t committed. attest that a sin was indeed T h er e is a d a n g e r of ex c o m m u n i c a t i n g individuals without a pr op e r war ning. Thus Ma st cau tio ns m em be rs, "we are in grave d a n g e r of judging another with out g i v i n g hi m 358 opportunity to give a fa i r account of his doings ." I believe S t o n e y r u n has be e n able to a v o i d this. isters are v e r y careful to a d m on is h m e m b e r s The m i n ­ or send m e m b e r s of the church t o a d m o n i s h erri ng b r ot hers wh o are to be p l ac ed under the ban. They are not "strong for the b a n ” and try to avoid usin g i t . The steps l e a d i n g to e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n can be trated b y two specific cases. In the first il l u s ­ instance a young man had joi ned ch ur c h the pre vious year at the age of nineteen. Preceeding his i n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d he h a d d r i v e n a car, but the ministe rs o v e r l o o k e d this be cau se he d i d not drive duri ng the instruction period. his E v e n during the i n s t r u c t i o n peri od ha d not been exemplary, but the m i n i s t e r s had overlooked this too, for the b o y was f a i r l y old, and they 358. Mast, L e s s o n s , o p . c i t ., pp. 141-42, also m e n t i o n we may hold one as a tr an s g r e s s o r who is not g u i l t y . „.we are so prone to jump at conclusions, and d et er mine that a t r a n s ­ gressor mu s t be e x c o m m u n i c a t e d when his case does not merit that at all, even thou gh he does n e e d to be d i s c i p l i n e d ; ” In the N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r , 1953 issue of W i t n e s s i n g , p. 9, a letter from M at th ias Ser va es (M a r t y r s Mirror, op. c i t . , 1951, p.690) Dear brethren, I do not w r i t e y o u this as s om et hing new, but to remind y o u of the Old; for I should like to see carefulness exercised, and that one S c r i p t u r e should not be observed so strictly and r i g i d l y as t h e r e b y to vi ol ate another. For s o m e ­ times some r e so rt to avo id an ce all on a sudden, wi tho ut the least discretion, and p i t y for the fallen. H e n c e I advise carefulness." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . _ 945 - hoped that hi s attitude woul d change when h e b e came a m e m ­ ber of the church. After his baptism h e did not rema i n completely in the ordnung, but neither was he sufficiently disobedient for his de vi a t i o n to be call ed to the attention of the m i n i s t e r s . On a T h u r s d a y b e f o r e ch urc h,one of the Stoneyrun preachers was in Sto neyr un do i n g some business. As is usual all the A m i s h m e n in town exch anged com me nts and news. One m a n came u p to the preacher and told h i m that this particular you ng m a n h a d b e e n seen d r i v i n g a car. The informant also told the preacher of others who h a d seen the young m a n dr iving. depressed. The pre acher r et u r n e d home m o s t The next day he h i tc he d u p the buggy and went over to see if the d e a c o n could come with him to call young man. The d e a c o n was not in. on the Th en the pr eac her went alone to vis it the second witness who co nfirmed that the young m a n h a d b e e n driving. I was u n a b l e to d e te rm in e if the preacher tal ked to the young m a n concerned. B y Saturd ay night the preacher h a d e st ab li shed the fact that the young man had indeed driv en a car, but he h a d not b e e n able to see any of the other m i n i s t e r s about it. At church on Sund ay he presented the case to the other m i n i s t e r s du ri ng the Abrath and after the service the members of the church r e m a i n e d while the case was p re s e n t e d to the church. present in church. The young m a n was not It was d e c i d e d to place hi m under the ban until such a time as he would repent his sin. I, of course, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 946 - was outside wi th the chi ldr en so I did not he a r the ex359 communication. I do not k n o w the exact words that are 360 spoken w h e n a memb er is exc ommunicated. Umble describes an excommunication: An air of tens en ess f i l l e d the house. Sad­ faced women wept quietly; stern m e n sat with faces drawn. The b i s h o p arose; w i t h trembling voice and w i t h tears on his cheek h e announc ed that the guil ty parties h a d con fes se d their sin, that they were cast off from the f ellow sh ip of the church and com m it te d to the devil and all his angels ("dem Teufel u n d al ie n sein en Enge ln u e b e r g e b e r "). He cau tio ned all the m e m b e r s to exercise "shunning" rigorously. 361 In central Ohio the church t h e n sings a hymn. When the S tone yr un chur ch got the non-members h a d left, out, about half an ho u r after there was an air of sorrow about the gathering. The sec ond instance conc ern ed a w e l l - l i k e d fami ly in the church that was t r a n s f e r r i n g its m e m b e r s h i p to the C o n ­ servative church. This f a m i l y b e g a n g o i n g to the Co nse rvat iv e church on alternate Sundays, b e t w e e n the r e g u l a r church m e e t ­ ings. For a peri od they continu ed to atte nd their own church regularly. After they got to kno w the C o n s e rv at iv e church 359. Sometimes the c hi l d r e n l i s t e n to or hear what is going on, but in this instance we d i d not. On one occ asion when I was d i sc us si ng a case, the f o u r t e e n year old d au gh te r said,, I’ve kn ow n about it a long time. I h e a r d th e m at council meeting. " 360. U n i o n , o p . c i t . , p. 92. 361. Ein Register, op. c i t . s lists three hy m n s that can be sung at this time; hy mn s numb er 134, 135, 135 starting on pages 786, 789, 791 in Ausbund. T h e s e three h y mn s are subtitled " S c h e i d l i e d . " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 947 -• they believ ed they w o u l d l i k e to tra nsfer their membership,, Until the time they m a d e this de c i s i o n they h a d not m i s s e d any services in their h om e church„ However , as soon as they decided they w i s h e d to leave th e Old Order A m i s h t h e y told the home church. T h ey said that they b e l i e v e d that the Old Order A m i s h ch u r c h was a v e ry good and f in e church, man wa nted to go into the tur k e y pac king b u si ne ss could not do this whil e he w a s a me mb er he ne ed ed electricity, a car, a truck, but the and he of the Old Order for and a telephone. Therefore, he told the church that he and his f a m i l y w o u l d withdraw and join the C o n s e r v a t i v e be me mber s chu rch in w h i c h t h e y could in good stan ding and enjoy th es e conveniences. The couple di d not att end the next ch urch service and their case came u p in council m e e t i n g . couple who were close fr iends The church a p p o i n t e d a of the fa m i l y that was leaving) to call on t h e m and e x p l a i n to t h e m that the Old Or de r church wanted t h e m and n e e d e d them. visiting couple ta lke d u ntil This was done, the The ma n h a d a l r e a d y m a d e It was, however, all the ar ra ng em ents to have the t u r k e y p ack ing plant b u i l t a n d he w o u l d through. the small ho urs of the m o r n i n g inviting them to stay in their own church. to no avail. in fa ct see it The couple ap po i n t e d b y the ch ur ch r e p o r t e d b a ck to the congr eg at io n a n d the f a m i l y was e xc ommunica ted . However, it appears that a sl ig htl y dif fer en t form was R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 948 - 362 used. M o s t of the m i n i s t e r s and m e m b e r s of St on e y r u n church do not b e l i e v e it is C h r i s t i a n to commit who joins a sister chu rch to the Devil. put out and shunn ed for a p e r i o d of about they were not a m e mb er The couple was six m o nt hs , but committed to the Devil and his angels. There was a ve r y d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n ap par e n t l y after this council meeting. M e mbers were sor r y to loos e a pop ul ar family, but they kne w before the m e e t i n g that th ey were l e aving and mo s t of the Old Order A m i s h m e n present did not think that this step n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n t that the souls family were contrast, of the 363 co nd e m n e d to everla sti ng punish ment. In in the case of the 3-oung man, wh o was d i s o b e d ­ ient and u n i n t e r e s t e d in r e l i g i o n there was real fear for his soul. E v e n during the shunning p e r i o d the n e w C o n s e r v a ­ tive oc ca sional ly s t op pe d in to see his former frie nds for a few m i n u t e s (never eating wi t h them of course). the Old Order A m i s h m e n v i s i t e d him, turkeys to his plant. in the C o n s e r v a t i v e No n e of nor wo u l d the y send their A year and a ha lf later he was active church and he a n d his f a m i l y attended ~~ 362. One y o u n g c hu r c h m e mber 0 0A 88 said "They aren't m e m b e r s any m o r e but th e y w e r e n ' t exac tly put under the ban." However, the chur ch m e m b e r s di d not do business with them or eat w i t h them fo r at least six mo nt h s after that time. 36S. Gingerich, I o w a , op. c i t . , p. 174, m e n t i o n s seeing an A m i s h c o n g r e g a t i o n b r e a k into tears w h e n a b i sh op told the m a story c on ce r n i n g an A m i s h b o y who joined another branch of the church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 949 - social f unctio ns with th ei r former br e t h r e n and fa irly often they a t t end ed church services in their fo rm er church district. T h e y h a d to withdraw, of course, during council meeting. In their ha n d l i n g of this fam i l y that w i t h d r e w from their church, community. S t o n e y r u n is not typical of the central Ohio S t o n e y r u n always limits the length of the m e i d u n g p e r i o d for m e m b e r s who join other churches, a l tho ug h t he y do it, they are l o a t h to shun m e m b e r s who join another C h r i s t i a n church, e sp ec ially if the m e m b e r s are g r a ciou s about their withdra wal. churches in central Ohio that 363 he r e t u r n s to the fold. There are still relatives w i l l visit him, no one will anyone ac c e p t a gift f ro m him. some shun a former m e m b e r until The b a n n e d pe r s o n is an outcast. on the close, and, No old frien ds or eat w i t h h i m nor will The doors close tightly intimate life of the c om mu nity and he is left outside. T h e Old Order Amish see the p e r i o d of shunning as an act of ki n d n e s s t ow a r d an erring individual, it is an effort to b r i n g h i m b a c k to the fold, but some of the e x c o m m u n i c a t e d individuals react v i ole nt ly against consciously or unc o n s c i o u s l y , the shunning and try, to get b ac k at the church 363. J.H. Yoder, April, 1949, pp. 76-98, "Caesar and the M e i d u n g , " MQR, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 950 - that they feel has r e j e c t e d them. Ther e h a v e bee n three court cases in Ohio, bro ught b y individuals u n d e r the ba n 364 against the officials of their former church. Near Stoneyrun one former Old Order Am i s h woma n tol d the tr ua ncy officer that she h a d kept h e r chi ld re n out of school sc he would come out to see her an d she could ask h i m to m a k e the Old Order A mi s h ch i l d r e n go to school. She went on to tell the official h o w awful the Old Order Amis h were and how immoral. She to l d h i m she h a d to leave that order to be a g o o d Christian. He, church in of course, enj oyed 365 hearing h e r stories, w h i c h h e avi dl y retold to me. This reve nge re a c t i o n is no t infrequent. An A m is hm an comments to this effect in the H e r a l d w h e n he is dis cu ssi ng adverse criticism of a M e n n o n i t e colony in Mexico: Yes, it is he r e like any place else, that wh e n p erse cu ti on comes, it is u s u a l l y k i n d l e d b y some f a l l e n - a w a y or b a n n e d p e r s o n or f a c t i o n . 366 It is a common r e a c t i o n for a b a n n e d pers on to wish to m a k e it clear tc„. all that he is no longer Amish. woman where she h a d bought her knew they were h a r d to find. I asked one second w i llow rocker as I She answered, U I bought it 364. L i e c h t y vs. Ho lder man , et a l , Wil liams County, Ohio, 1878. (John H o l d e r m a n was the founder of the Chu rch of God in Christ, Me n n o n i t e . ) Gi ng e r i c h vs. S w a r t z e n t r u b e r , et al , H o l m e s County, Ohio, 1 9 1 ^ Yode r vs. Helmuth, et a l , Wayne County, Ohio, 1947. 365. 07. 366. H e r a l d , July 22, 1954, p. 2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - from 951 - , they said they didn*t want anyone seeing they had an Amish chair and getting the idea they were 367 still Amish. The members of the Old Order may in turn be quite critical of those who are under the ban. This may be a reaction to the hurt inflicted by the criticisms of the person who has left their church in favor of another. very fact that a brother chose The some other church makes the steadfast members feel rejected. One of the brethren has deserted themj someone they respected is implying that their way of life is wrong. When in addition to this the banned member is openly hostile it is difficult for the community members not to bolster up their confidence by criticising him in turn. Although this reaction might be considered un-Christian, it is very important as an isolating mechanism. It causes the steadfast members to withdraw emotionally^ as well as behaviorally, from the person who has left the church. In discussing shunning it should be made clear that every member of the Amish church understands, shunning and before each individual is baptized, he subscribes to the Dorb Confession of Faith that required shunning of excommunicated members. The members of the church honestly believe that the shunning is for the good of the individual as well as for the good of the church, ------ 3F7T— 50A4. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 952 - A n y m e m b e r s wh o do not consent to the r e m o v a l of a 368 disobedient brother, and do not observe the b a n against him are lik e wi se p l a c e d u nd e r the ban. Order A m i s h are co ngre ga ti on al all And a l t h o u g h the Old the churches that f e l l o w ­ ship toge th er observe the b a n that the h o m e chu rch dist ri ct has set, thus m o v i n g to another Ol d Order A m i s h church district or co mm u n i t y brin gs no reli e f to the sh u n n e d indiv i d u a l . W h e n a s h un ne d individual " a f f e c t i o n a t e l y receives the a d m o n i t i o n of his faithf ul brethren, is truly sorry, pr o m i s e s worthy of r e p e n t a n c e , to do bet ter , conf esses his fall, and b r i n g s f or t h f r ui ts t h e n no m a t t e r h o w he ha s t r a n s g r e s s e d (the ch ur c h mus t) r e ce iv e h i m as a returning, b e l o v e d br o t h e r 369 or sister." Ho wev er, b e f o r e he is t a k e n ba ck into the church h i s r e p e n t a n c e "must be ' e v i d e n c e d 5 by newness of 370 behaviour," T h e ce r e m o n y for r e - i n s t a t i n g the m e m b e r is similar to that u s e d fo r a m e m b e r that ha s b e e n sent b a c k from com mu nion except that in a d ditio n to the hym ns and the 371 confession L uk e e 1 5 : 1 - 2 4 is r e a d be i einem Gebann ten, 368. A m e m b e r is not e x c o m m u n i c a t e d u n le ss there is almost u n a n i m o u s a g re em ent w i t h i n the co ng reg ation. C o n f e s s i o n of 1809, A r t i c l e V. "Und wer diese M e i d u n g Tiber t r e t e n thut aus Schwachheit oder U n w i s s e n h e i t , k a n n v e r s 8hnt werd en mit Bekennen vo r der Gemeine, er h a b e gefehltj wer aber w i s s e n t l i c h aus Fre chh eit, 1st aber nicht w i d e r s p e n s t i g , w e n n er ang er ede t wird, u n d wil l gar n i ch t hBren, so soli er v o n der Gemeine abgesondert wer d e n . " Arti kel u n d O r d n u n g e n , op. c i t . , p. 9. 369. Menno S i m o n s , op . .c i t ., p. 412 370. This is in k e e p i n g wi t h the A n a b a p t i s t tradition. Harold S. Bender, "The A na ba p t i s t V i s i o n , " M Q R , April, 1944, p. 79. 371. H a n d b u c k fu r Prediger, op. cit., p. 38, Ein Register, op. cit. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 953 - The ban has caused constant trouble,, Menno S i m o n s ’ l i fe ti me it was the basis Even during of m a n y di sag re em en ts. Menno w r ote mentioned three books and three lett ers on av oi d a n c e and 372 it in m a n y other w r i t i n g s . H e was somewhat more moderate in his ideas on the en forc em en t of the b a n than was Dirk Philips. D i r k Phi li ps i ns is ted that the b a n be aoplied 373 without respect to per sons. Jacob A m m a n ’s m a j o r co nt e n t i o n 374 was that the b a n m u s t b e str ictly enforced. His followers, the Amish, subscribe cl o s e l y to Di r k P h i l i p ’s teaching s on the ban. The b a n is m e n t i o n e d in almo st eve ry church 375 376 discipline, and every c o n f e s s i o n of faith. 372. A K i n d A d m o n i t i o n on C h u r c h Di s c i p l i n e , 1541° A Clear A c c o u n t of E x c om muni ca ti on , 1550; In s t r u c t i o n on Ex co mmun i c a t i o n , 1558; I n s t r u c t i o n on D i s c i p l i n e to the C h u r c h at P ra ne ke r, 1555; In s t r u c t i o n on D i s c i p l i n e to the C h u r c h at Emden, 1556; Final I nstr uc ti on on M a r i t a l Avoida nce, 1558. These w rit in gs are f o u n d in M.S. 1956, pp. 407, 455, 960, 1043, 1050, and 1 0 6 0 f f . 373. D.P., 1910, p. 524. This was a phra se f r e q u e n t l y used by M e n n o Simons (op. c i t ., 1956, pp. 473, 1060) bu t in specific cases he was w i l l i n g to m o d i f y it. There are no w r i t ­ ings of D i r k Phil ip s a v a i l a b l e to the A m i s h in w h ic h h e m o d i ­ fies the op er a t i o n of the ban. 374. Eine Be g e b e n h e i t , die sich in der M e n n o n i t e n Gemeinde in D e u t s c h l a n d u n d in der Schw eis von 16 9 5 bis 1700 zugetragen h a t . Arthur, I I I , Amis h M e n n o n i t e Pu bl i s h i n g Association, 1936, pp. 58-85. 375. S t r a s b u r g D i s c i p l i n e of 1568, A r t i c l e 10; D i s c i p ­ line of 1809, Art icle s 1, 4, and 5; D i s c i p l i n e of 1837, Article 1 ; D i s c i p l i n e of 1917, A r t i c l e 11. 376. F o r example the T w i s c k confession, article 28 and 29, M a r t . y r s ’ M i r r o r , o p . c i t ., 1951, pp. 403-406, The Olive Branch C o n f e s s i o n of 1627, Ibid., pp. 32-33, Jan C e n t s ’ Confession of 1630, I b i d . , p. 37. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 954 - In 1956 the maj or p r o b l e m concerning the ban is the question of whet he r it is C h ri st ian to shun a m e m b e r who in g o o d faith standing in another church that confesses the same (the Dort Confession.) long standing. is This has b e e n a p r ob le m of The S tra sbourg D i s c i p l i n e of 1568 me nt io ns avoidance of "those w h o forsake the truth of the Gospel and the b r o t h e r h o o d . . . " This could b e and at times ap pa re ntly was, in te rp reted as applying to those who joined other In the D i s c i p l i n e of 1809, churches. the first a r ti cl e states; "That all those of our m e m b e r s who leave us to join other churches shall be t r ea te d as ap ostate persons according to the wo r d of the L o r d and his o r d i n a n c e , and shall be separated a n d shall be r e c o g n i z e d as subjects for the ban." 377 I do not b e li ev e the Amish ha v e ever shunned those few m e m b e r s who left the m to join stricter churches. In 19 1 7 Samuel Bitschi w r it in g in his n i n e t y - s e c o n d y ea r said; "Der ganz alt Geb ra uch war, wa n n ein G l e i d a bg egang en 1st zu htthern 378 Gemeinden da n n ist es in der B a n n ag et a n worden." In 1909 there was a letter w r i t t e n re qu es t i n g the position of the old bishops on the ban. At the D ie ne r v e r s a m m - lung the same year an answer was given r e v i e w i n g the stand 377. H.S. Bender, "Some Ear ly Am e r i c a n Am i s h M e n n o n i t e Disciplines," MQR, April, 1934, p. 92. 378. Eli S. Bitschi, Eine B e t r a c h t u n g u n d E r ki &r un g •fiber B a n n u n d M e i d u n g und der Grund in Gottes Wort, 'fiber welche er soil a u s g e s p r o c h e n s e i n ," ( K i n z e r s , P a .,) 1948, p. 17. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 955 - of various bishops in the past on the ban, 379 the former strict interpretation. and supporting 380 In 1921 the same stand was ag ain indorced. Early in the h i s t o r y of the church the q u es ti on of the observance of the ba n b e t w e e n h u s b a n d and wife cause d a great deal of dis agreement. To da y among the A m i s h there is little di scus sio n of this point. ban separating h u s b a n d and wife the Old Order A m i s h that is to the church, the The operati on of the illustrates the b e l i e f of an i n d i v i d u a l ’s first co mmitme nt second is to his spouse. Thus leaving the ch urch in w h i c h one is b a p t i z e d should be worse than leaving the person to whom one is ma rr ied . Amish h a v e no divorce, but 381 church„ However, there are m a n y who leave the the 379. ^Die F o r d e r u n g , ” " A n t w o r t , ” In Eine B e t r a c h t u n g op. c i t . , pp. 57-60. See also Yoder, T r a d i t i o n s , op. c i t ~ pp. 139-42, for an un s y m p a t h e t i c and rather inaccurate account based, I w o u l d gather, on the above pamphlet. 380. pp. 55-56. "Zur N a c h r i c h t " in Eine Betrachtung, op. cit., 381. Those who transfer their m e m b e r s h i p f r o m the Old Order Ami sh to ano ther M e n n o n i t e church w o u l d say that they are not breakin g their b apt ismal vows for in the Old Order Church they were b a p t i z e d on t h ei r conf es si on of the Dort Confession of f a i t h and this co nf essio n is also sub scr ibed to by m o s t of the other br a n c h e s of the M e n n o n i t e . Therefore they would say that t h e y t r a n s f e r r e d their m e m b e r s h i p from one branch to another but not f ro m the true church to a false church. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 956 - A r oun d S t o n e y r u n t h e churches t r y not to place the b a n so that it will come b e t w e e n h u s b a n d and wife„ know of two instances in w h i c h the b a n w o u l d no r m a l l y have been p l aced on an individual, but husband was in go od standing. it was not, because the In one instance the h u s b a n d is very well liked, b u t the chi ld re n h a v e promise. I shown littl e One dau gh te r le ft the Older Order and h a s also divorced h e r h u s b a n d not keep the ho u s e (who was not Amish,) as p l a i n and Th e m o t h e r does simple as the ordnung requires. One w o m a n told m e that the u p s t a i r s was "almost English," In ad d i t i o n to this knowing that she w o u l d b e has m i s s e d two comm uni ons set back. Aft er an individual in s u c c e s s i o n m e m b e r s ministry g e n e r a l l y visit him, missing three co mmu ni ons she r a r e l y comes to communion, for it is u n d e r s t o o d that in s uc ce ss ion m e a n s that the per so n is no lon ge r a m e m b e r of the Old Order, case her h u s b a n d att ends of the However, in this chur ch r e g u l a r l y and com municates regularly so the b e h a v i o r of his wife has bee n ove rlooked. The seco nd case is a m u c h m o r e d if fi cult one for the church. In a d i st ri ct n o r t h of Ston e y r u n there is a married w o m a n who has gone to a small n e i g h b o r i n g city, changed into w o rldly clothes and s t ayed until two or three in the m o rnin g. It is r u m o r e d that she is h a v i n g affairs or is a street walker. In all p r o b a b i l i t y she is only enjoying the sin of b e i n g alone in a city d r e s s e d in w o r l d l y clothes. She has not b e e n ve ry in te ll ig ent in h e r actions R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 957 - if she w i s h e d to k e e p t h e m secret. I ta lked to one S t one yr un Mennonite who ha d be e n w o r k i n g a late shift in this city. One evening a wo ma n called and asked if she co ul d ride back to S t o n e y r u n with the car that was br i n g i n g the m e n back f r o m work. He s ai d yes, but there were three m e n and th at ex plai ned to her that it w ou ld be v er y late. assumed she di d not k n o w w h e n the shift got o u t . He She said that was all right and a gr e e d to m e e t th em at the car. She was w a i tin g fo r them. T he y did not rec o g n i z e her, but she t ol d t h e m she li ve d r ig ht near Stoneyrun. The three men sat in the front seat and she sat in the back. they a p p r o a c h e d Sto n e y r u n the driver to her home. said he w o u l d take her (He was bei ng ge ntlemanl y, •where she lived.) but he also w o n d e r e d She t h a n k e d h i m a n d asked h i m not to t u r n into the lane b e c a u s e awaken he r family. As she did not want the h e a d l i g h t to They d r o v e to a f ar m a few m i l e s outside Stoneyrun and the dr i v e r stopped at the h e a d of the lane. You can imagine the m e n ’s surprise w h e n she got car. out of the She was not the w o m a n the y h a d met, bu t a proper A m i s h housewife d r e ssed s tri ctly in the o r d n u n g . On another oc c a s i o n she h i r e d a S t o n e y r u n M e n n o n i t e taxi dri v e r to take h e r to the ho s p i t a l to visit he r son. After vis iting he r son, but b e f o r e d i sm is si ng the taxi dri ve r 381 she changed into w o r l d l y clothes. The A m i s h I h av e h e a r d 381. Al t h o u g h I k n o w the taxi dr i v e r I was u n a b l e to check this in f o r m a t i o n and k n o w it only t h r ou gh gossip. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 958 - discuss this case firmly believe that the woman is not satisfied sexually. The y c a n think of no other r e a s o n wh y she should leave her h u s b a n d at night a n d go into town. They do not cond emn he r husband, he ca n n e ithe r but feel 382 sati sfy nor m a n a g e her. her one A m i s h m a n m u s e d sorry for h i m that W h e n talking about "I bet I cou ld kee p he r satisfied." This case puts the c h ur ch in a v e r y d elica te position. Obviously the wom an is misbe ha vi ng . for she is not She mus t be p u n i s h e d only b r e a k i n g the ordnung, bringing disg ra ce on the church. but she is also The only m e an s th e y ha v e for p unish in g he r is to put h e r und er the ban. is under the b a n he r h u s b a n d must also he is to h a v e neit he r social no r sexual for the h u s b a n d "is not his church (I Cor. shun her. While she This mea ns intercourse with he r own, but the Lord's and his 6 and 3), to wh o m he m u s t be obedient and devote and render or show m o r e love than he does to his 383 own wife." In this par ti c u l a r case it is b e l i e v e d that 3 8 2 ' One A m i s h w o m a n w o n d e r e d h o w this diviant wife could get out of the h o u s e w i t h o u t her h u s b a n d k n o w i n g about it. It never oc c u r r e d to her that her h u s b a n d m i g h t not be able to prevent h e r leaving. 383. D.P., op. c i t ., 1910, p. 525. It is c onsta nt ly repeated in the early An ab ap t i s t writ ing s that the o bliga ti on to God was above that to ones spouse. In 1516 after d e s c r i b ­ ing in deta il the tortures hi s jailors inflicte d on h i m a prisoner comforts his wife w i t h these words, "...remember how, or in what m a n n e r we r e c e i v e d each other from the h a n d of the Most High; was it n o t u n d e r the condition, that the L o r d should always be the dearest, and that we m u s t leave each other, if it be His h o l y wil l?" p. 1027. ' R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 959 - 384 excommunication wo uld onl y drive the w o m a n to greater sin. On a ceremonial level the church has ig no re d h e r transgres385 sion. Thus it can be seen that in a h e a l t h y church district the ban is not u s e d indiscrimi nat ely, but an attempt is m a de to apply the b a n in such a m a n n e r that it will aid the individual and protect the community. dependent, W i t h i n such an in te r­ clo sely knit, h i g h l y r e g i m e n t e d soc iety it is inevitable that personal guilt r e s u l t i n g for an i nt erna li za ti on 364. She has b e e n able to h e l p the ch u r c h ignor her conduct,by not attending council me eti ng. No m a t t e r how m u c h the ch urc h wis h e d to avoid p u t t i n g h e r u nd er the ban, were she to indicate that she w i s h e d to cel eb rate communion they w o u l d feel they h a d to re fuse her. 385. A l tho ug h D i r k Philip al lowe d no m o d i f i c a ­ tion in the practice of avoid anc e b e t w e e n h u s b a n d and wife, Mennon Simons in hi s "Final Instructions on M a r i t a l A v o i d ­ ance," wrote, "...in th e event that any a d u l t u r y or f o r n i ­ cation or some other evil should result from it, and he fears that h e m i g h t b y his separation and avoidance be the cause thereof, (let the m stay t o g e t h e r ) . M e n n o S i m o n s , op. c i t . , 1956, p. 1061, transla tor s brackets. This generous letter is not in the editions of M e n n o Simons works that are available to m o s t Amishmen. Some of his other letters imply that the ban m a y be m o dif ie d, b u t none state it as clearly as this one. See F r a n k C. Peters, "The B a n in the Writing of Men no Simons, "M Q R , January, 1955, pp. 16-33. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 960 - of the ideals of the churc h should he an essential factor in maintaining the o r g a n i z a t i o n „ protected from a weight However, the individual is of guilt that wou ld be too heav y to bear by the c at ha rs is of confession to the g r ou p whose rules he has broken. He and his b r e t h r e n categor386 ically b e li ev e that such a confes si on wipes away the sin and when the sin is b e l i e v e d to hav e b e e n erased the feeling of guilt vanishes. Those indivi duals who will not community and r e fu se to confess obey the their d i s o b ed ie nc e are p e r ­ manently r e mo ve d and the c o mm un it y is p ro tect ed from their 387 heresy, 386, ""The only m e t h o d that Go d accepts for g e t t i n g rid of our sins is very simple, but it is also v e r y humblin g. It is a simple, t r ust in g f a i t h in the atoning blo o d of C h r i s t s but it requires that we confess and f o rsa ke our sins to obtain mercy, ’If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us f r o m all un r ig ht eo us ness, ’ (I John 1:9)." Samuel Hartzler, "Whoso confesseth and Porsaketh, Prov. 28:13," HdW., M a r c h 1, 1956, Po 75. . 387. F o r some other accounts on d isci pl in e of members of the Old Order A m i s h church see: Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p , c i t ., pp „ 151-59, Gi ngerich, I o w a , op. c i t . , pp. 168-78. Umble, "Lancaster," op. c i t . , pp. 217-18. Umble, "Union," op. cit., pp. 88-93. (A m i s h - M e n n o n i t e ) - Umble, "Lyon, op. cit., pp. 243 (Mennonite of Ami sh extraction.) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - RESOLUTION 961 - OF D E A T H - FU N E R A L The re li g i o u s o ri en ta tion of the Old Order A m i s h m in i m i z e s the trau ma of d e a t h b o t h for the dying i n d i v i ­ dual and for the fami ly and friends that mu s t adjust to the deaths Hea ve n is felt which there is no disunity, to be an A m i s h Ge m e i n d e all one's in family and friends 388 live together in neace and w i t h o u t the n e c e s s i t y of 389 workings There is in g e n e r a l a ouiet confidence on the part of the dy i n g i nd iv id ual a n d his f a m i l y that he will go to heaven: 3 8 8 0 "Live a life to me et me y o n d e r / In a home where all Is love." / H e r a l d , J a nu ary 1 9 , 1 9 5 6 , p „ 6 0 "'When our lives here have e n d e d / This is what we long to see:/ Father, mother, s i s t e r s ,.b r o t h e r s ,/ The chain complete, for E t e r n i t y . " I b i d ., J a nu ar y 1 7 , 1 9 5 2 , p 06„ We h e a r d a sermon p r e a c h e d by a y o un g man wh o had r e ­ cently left the Old O r d e r and joined the Con se rv at iv es. He said, "I n e v e r thought m u c h about h e a v e n or bei n g there w i t h m y Savior u n t i l M o t h e r died, n o w I know I must live so our whol e f a m i l y can be there togethers I ’ve got lots of f a m i l y an d friends a l r e a d y w a iting there for me." 3 8 9 0 "Mother was ti r e d and w e a r y / We a r y wi t h toil and pai n „ 0 s B e a u t i f u l r e s t fo r the w e a r y / Well d es c r i b e d rest for the true;" Ibid o, Au gu s t 2 8 , 1 9 5 2 , p»2s W h e n asked about heaven A m i s h individuals d e s ­ cribe it in more so ph i s t i c a t e d terms, but from in ci d e n t a l comments one gathers that u s u a l l y h e a v e n Is thought of as an idealiz ed tr anspl an t of their own fa mi ly and s o ­ ciety o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 962 - In obituaries one often comes across such comments as that made about an ei gh ty- nine ye a r old woman, "for her 390 soul we have no f e a r , ” and occasionally, he "said not 391 just hope, but said he knows he is saved." Mo r e f r e ­ quently one reads he "often e x p r e s s e d a des ir e to meet 392 his 5avior," or "a fe w days before his passi ng he said there was n o t h i n g in the wor ld he w o u l d r a th er do 393 than d i e .,f He "had a great de si r e to leave this wor l d 394 as he w a s so h o m e s i c h for mother,," One is also aware of the deep sea te d f e el in g that if an in div id ua l ful to the chu rch he will go to heaven. "She is f a i t h ­ joined the Old Or d e r A m i s h C h u r c h a n d r em ai ned fai thf ul until death, to w h i c h is pr o m i s e d the crown of g l o r y and ever las ting 390. H e r a l d , Fe b r u a r y 19, 1953 9 p. 6. 391. I b i d „, N o v e m b e r 6 , 1952, p. 6 . 392. I b i d ., January 24, p. 6 . 393. Ibid., 394. I b i d . , August 1952, D e c e m b e r 6 , 1951, 9, 1951, p. p. 6 6e R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 963 - . 395 life. W h e n an A m i s h m a n becomes very 111 he m a y request the bi s h o p to anoint h i m wit h oil after the example In 396 James 5:14-15. A Men no ni te writes, "It should be admin-* istered for the healing of the body and not as a prepara-* 397 tion for d e a t h . ” However, the A m i s h r are ly req uest to be an o i n t e d until they are dying. A thi rty year old father with polio ’’r e q u e s t e d to be anointed before he left home .— —j 398 /for the hosp i t a l / as he d i d n ’t think h e ’d get w e l l . ” "She r e quest ed to be anointed, formed. end, A f t e r that she 14 hours help the just re sted an d slept un ti l the 399 afterwards." The ceremony appears to individual and his family face death. intended h i m to get well, after the anointing, die, w h i c h her home Bishop p e r ­ If God there w o u l d be a turning point if he was ordained that he was to he can die peacef ul ly knowing it was God's will. 395. Ibid o, August 27, 1953, p. 6 . Umble, p. 213 writes of the Old Order Amish, "So long as they are in good standing w i t h the con greg at ion there is a feeling of c alm composure, of f a i t h that all Is well on account of obedience to the w il l of God, as exp re ss ed in r i g h t ­ eous living." A l t h o u g h this is the gen eral reaction, It is not held univ ers al ly , especially by the group disc us se d in Chapter VIII. In this same v e i n the editor of the Har o l d der W a h rh ei t inquires, "1st es mftglich fiir ein Geide sein in der Gemeinde, u n d d o c h v erl osen s e i n ? ” HdW, September 15, 1954, pp. 529-30. 396. D.P., o p . c i t ., 1910, pp. 36-37. 397. 0. N. Johns, "Christians M a y Request to Be Anointed," GH, July 27, 1954, p. 1. 398. H e r a l d , D e c e m b e r 18, 1952, p. 6 . 399. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 964 - Anoint ing is only per formed at the request of the sick pers on and few avail themselves of this p r i v i l e g e „ In the H a n d b u c h fflr P r ed iger there is no r ef er en ce ceremony. to the The oil us ed is not bless ed and a p p a r e n t l y does not have to be a special kind. The b i s h o p a n d members of 400 the famil y are present. The bishop reads a prayer and 401 then ano in ts the ill brother. Wh e n an A m i s h m a n is dying the members of his f a m i l y gather aro und him. Ideally every adult membe r of his im402 mediate fa mi ly Is present at his death. As soon as he dies messages are sent to relatives 403 and close friends in different communities. W i t h i n the home communi ty the message Amishman m a y come is passed by wor d of mouth. Any to the funeral of a brot her or sister. In fact the num be r a tt endin g the funeral is often m e n t i o n e d as an indication of the wide circle of relativ es and friends 400. Pro b a b l y one of the prayers for sick brethren from the C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , o p . c i t . 9 pp. 127-33. 401. Few people I k n e w had ev e r been to an a n o i n t ­ ing, so I obta ined only fra gmentary descr ip ti on s of the ceremony. There was also some hes it ancy to discuss it. One liberal M e nn on ite mi n i s t e r I as ke d about it had a p p a r ­ ently n e v e r pe rf o r m e d the ceremony and gave the impress io n he hoped he never would. See H e r o l d , Apr il 16, 1953, p. 3 and January 6 , 1955, p. 3 for two com ments on -anointing. 402* Her t e n children were g a t h e r e d at'her bedside when she died." I b i d ., Febr ua ry 19, 1953, p. 6 . During one of m y early visits to Stoneyrun the E n g l i s h w o m a n next door to the home I was vis iting was dying. She was being cared for b y a m e m b e r of the Stoneyrun church. The Amish practical nurse came over and ask ed me if I did not want to see _________ , ex pl ai ning that she was dying. I had ne v e r met the woman, nor seen her before, but the A m is h nurse o b v i o u s l y wanted me to come over and wait w i t h her and the dying woman's sister, at the bedside. This I did u n t i l re l i e v e d b y my hostess. "Only those who have lost can tell, The loss of a loved one w i t h ­ out farewell. H e r a l d , April 1 2 , 1956, p. 6 . _ 403 «I was asked if I wished to be n o t i f i e d in time to come R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 965 the d e ce as ed individu al had. nearest Ami s h m a n that makes 404 W o r d is also sent to the coffins. In St on e y r u n the deacon is a cabinet m a k e r and he always has waln ut boards 405 ready for the coffin. F o r m e r l y mem be rs of the family or close friends w a s h e d and dre s se d the b o d y a n d placed it in the must be coffin. T o d a y the law req uire s that all bodies 406 embalmed. The A m i s h d islik e the law, but t h e y yield to the g ov er n m e n t au thoritie s a n d all ow their to be embalmed. underta ker However, mo st families will not remove the bo d y f r o m the home, dead let the but insist that 407 he come out to the house and e m ba lm the bod y there. The A m i s h always have some one wi t h the b o d y and if it is taken by the un de r t a k e r it means person is not alwa ys that an A m i s h in att en da nce and perhap s there be times w h e n no one w a t c h e d it. E v e r y event to the funeral of several individuals Am i s h friends. would of im portance who are m y closest 404. "nearl y 500 people at fun er al ." H e r a l d , July 24, 1952, p. 6 . "more than 800 attended. . . Re la t i v e s fr om o . I b i d ., July 30, 1953, p. 1. "There we r e 106 buggies a n d 30 cars" I b i d ., July 17, 1952, p. 1 . 405. The coffin is, I believe, unv arni sh ed . It takes several days to v a r n i s h n e w w o o d p r o p e r l y and there is no reason that a coffin needs to be varnished, its surface will not be sub j e c t e d to the years of we a r that h o u s e h o l d furnit ur e must take. The burial u s u a l l y takes place three days after the death, o c c a s iona ll y in the death of a child or some one with a communicable d i se ase such as d ip t h e r i a or polio the burial takes place the same day. Herald., ' ,, May 29, 1952, No ve mbe r 6 , 1952. 406. A n d that a funeral d i r e c t o r be pres en t at the burial. H e r a l d , I b i d ., August 9, 1951, p. 6 . 407. W h e n we took two A m i s h couples Hut ch ins on in the Yale z o o l o g y laboratory, section was b u s i l y dise c t i n g cats. One of "What's that smell? It smells just like a to visit P r o f e s s o r a c o m p a rati ve ana tomy the A m i s h w o m e n asked, funeral." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 966 In the life cycle should take place with in the A m i s h h o m e . One ar gument I have h e ard against e mbalm in g is that makes the wh o l e house smell and that the funeral. it is not very nice for R e c e n t l y I hea rd of one A m i s h fa mil y that a l ­ lowed the bo d y to be taken to the fun era l home for embalm408 Ing . The jectivity. attitude t o w a r d the b o d y is one of Thus one reads comments extreme o b ­ in obituaries, "She had that p le as ant smile a f t e r the undert ak ers h a d her r e a d y 409 for buri al. " or "His skull was ba dl y c r u s h e d but he 410 was fix ed u p ve ry n i c e l y in the casket." This does not mea n that the b o d y is u n i m p o r t a n t but that the Amish divorce the body f r o m the soul and the perso na lit y. extr em el y obj ective attitude co nt ras ts intensely pe rs onal r e l a t i o n s h i p death and in dicate s that the fact of death. regard, A n o t h e r indicat ion or at least st rongly w i t h the that was m a i n t a i n e d observer This before has a ccep te d the of the apparent d i s ­ of the ac ce pta nce of the lack of I m ­ portance of the body is sug ges ted b y a n atyp ic al obit ua ry poem W h e n the sun was shining T h e y t o o k our cherished form, T h e y laid it in the gra ve ya rd And consign it to the worm. 408. I b i d o , M a r c h 29, 1956, 409. H e r a l d , September 9, 410. Herald, October 25, p. 1 . 1954, p. 6. 1951. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 967 - Well, wh a t matter, It is only The clay dress our mo th er wore, Go d can robe h e r as an angel, She h a t h ne ed of this no more. The view ing of the body Is important more than a n ythi ng else, makes because this, the living m e mbe rs realize that the person is truly dead. Beca use of their o b j e c t i v ­ ity about the de ad bo dy t h e y are m u c h b e t t e r able to the sight of the m u t i l a t e d bo d y of a lov ed one than to a d ­ just to his d e a t h with out ever stand seeing the body. We were unabl e to view the bo d y at any time so it is very hard to rea liz e we have lost our only son and brother. 412 In Ohio a n i n e t e e n y e a r old boy was a t t a c k e d on his way from w o r k and b a d l y muti la te d n o b o d y was able t o see his body w h i c h made it, so hard. He h a d to be b u r i e d the same day. Because of his awful He could not be seen We asked to see just But n o th in g would he Except the coffin of oh, de a t h one hand show to us him.^13 D e ath and the dead are not tabooed b y the A m i s h but accepted. No effort is ma de to shield Ami sh chil dre n fr o m death. seem to accept of cousins were it and u nde rs ta nd it at a young age. playing in the lane iceman drove in and d e l i v e r e d the A group of this home when the ice. 411. I b i d ., De c e m b e r 18, 1952, 412. H e r a l d , Feb rua ry 3, 4.1 As he started to p. 5. 195 5, p. 6 . n -I b i d . , O c t o b e r 8 , 1953, They p. 6 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 968 - turn around the four year old boy was runn in g and fell under the wh e e l w h i c h went over the back of his skull. His five year old sister ru sh ed into her mother and said, 414 "Danny's dead." On another occasion a group of cousins were playing in the barn w h e n a t e n year old boy fe l l a- bout twelve feet he was swe at ed and d i rty and du st y f r o m climbinghe had a big lump on his fo r e h e a d his lips were ble eding his eye was bl a c k his cheek scratched, and he wa s knocked o u t ^ The children r u shed to their parents is n e a r l y dead." that In neit her and called, "Ivan instance did they report the child was hurt. A l t h o u g h the Amish do not consider of importance, the d e a d body they do not feel a n y re vul sion toward it nor do they have an y fea r of it. are glad to was h a n d dress M e mb ers of the family the d e ce ased member an d young couples volunte er to sit up w i t h the corpse during the night. The h an dling as we l l as the v i e w i n g m a y h e l p them to u n d e r s t a n d e m o t i o n a l l y as well as the perso n Is dead. I nt el l e c t u a l l y that T o u c h as well as sight was important in he lp ing the family to accept the dea th of a six m o n t h 414 o I b i d .9 Octo be r 15, 1953. 415. Pe r s o n a l correspondence, VIII/16/56 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 969 - old baby. In h e r c o f f i n she l a y sl e e p i n g so nice and so neat H e r sisters t h e y s t r o k e d h e r f r o m h e r h e a d to h e r feet. An d so did h e r b r o t h e r and h e r p a r en ts too B e c a u s e t h e y Just t h o u g h t it could not be t r u e . The ne e d to see the b o d y to h e l p re al ize the d e a t h is, course w i d e s p r e a d The of s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g is t hat unA dertakers and doc to rs are not mo r e aw ar e “I O of the n e e d . In c e n t r a l Ohio the f u n e r a l f o r a n adult b e g i n s at 4 1 6 . Herald, January 19, 1956, p. 4 « The same reaction is expressed in an obituary poem for an eigh­ teen year old boy. "Brothers and sisters close by did stand/ Stroking a lifeless face with their hands." Herald, August 27, 1953, p. 2 417. We ran into a similar situation with a Chinese graduate student who had not been allowed to see the body of her roommate. Because an autopsy had been performed it proved absolutely impossible to get permission for her to view the body. I was told by a Mennonite minister of a case where the army had shijjped home a casket from Korea and the family had opened it. (I do not know the religious affiliation of the family concerned.) I am sure that in both these instances the need to se'.; the body was greater than the possible shock resulting from the condition of the body. 4 1 8 . Margaret ?}ead points out that Americans do not face unpleasant situations, rush ill, old, mentally ill into institutions and out of s i ght . The Amish do not do t h i s . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . ~ 970 419 nine o ' c lo ck in the mor ning. The entire adult a u d ie nc e is d r e s s e d in b l a c k and white. ing their bap ti sm al dresses . Most of the w o m e n are wear™ U s u a l l y services are h el d both in the house and the barn, house be or if a n e i g h b o r lives in the two houses. the first very near the O c c a s i o n a l l y there in whi ch to do it. are services of ki ndness do all the work. for the on Getting all the ne ighbor s little come in mov e the fur nit ure and b r i n g the church, benches and set them up. This of course is a g e s ­ family cou ld not by themselves Incidently, it is also another means ensuring that every f a m i l y lives man got services will a great deal, of w o r k and However, and. he lp clean the house, ture Is a g r o s s d a w t y floor of the house and in the basement. ready for a f u n e r a l entails time or if there by the ordnung. for An A m i s h out a copy of C o l l i e r 1s to show me an article. His wife add r e s s e d h i m in a and disapproval, "Dave, what if we should have tone of voice that m i x e d shock I t h o u g h you'd thrown them away, a funeral and someone wou ld see 419. I have not b e e n to a n A m i s h funeral, nor has there been a fun eral in the comm un it y that was a t t e n d e d by an y of m y informants d u r i n g m y visits, therefore this account is quite ske tc hy and ma:/ be ra the r inaccurate. I have found that I get be t t e r information, if I ask for the de scrip tio n of a specific c e r em on y rather than of the c e r ­ emony in general. Thus w h e n I as k a woman, "t/hat was 7/our husband's ord in at io n like?" I receive a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p ­ tion about that particul ar event, but w h e n I asked, "What happens at an ordination?" I re ce ived very s k e t c h y a n ­ swers. I did not have a good, o p p o rt un it y to en oui re about a specific, recent funeral. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 971 •12° those magazi n e s ? The home must condition that neighbors and nothi ng found amiss 0 it could be thoroughly cleaned by o n e ’s hors also bring most of the fro.'.a near to tie T he friends and neigh--- in food for the bere aved family and food used to feed ty bring funeral always he in su c h a the funeral guests,, supply duetts covered dishes and salons along v/I th them to be served at the din ne r fol lo wi ng the serviceo The funeral service differs mor e church service seems than do the from a typical other A m i s h ceremonies 0 to be the cer emo ny that is least bound by tradition, ^ innovation and variati on it p is quite easily a c c e n t e d « •' as soon as an A m i s h m a n dies w o r d is sent to the mini sters he requested, or his family wishes, 0 onorally there are t wo ter who has the sneakers at e a c h service, service, a minis­ ths in trod uct ion and the mi n i s t e r who gives the m a i n s e r m o n « ers o to p e r f o r m the that H o w ev er there- are come times The first two are sup pos ed to give third one delivers the main ora: ion „ three m ini sters gi v i n g sermons tend three s p e a k ­ short sermons Funerals with, to bo too Icngo The /■ ‘" 7 ' ’ Ha ndb uch f’-lr Fredlger two ministe rs says that in thi o case sometimes ta lk so long that he wh o the first is to give 420. 00A2. 4 2 1 o B y com par is on w i t h w o r l d l y rates of change, the A m i s h funeral, form: is v e r y p e r s i s t e n t , hot c o m p a r e d w i t h other A m i s h c e r e m o n i e s , it is the l e a s t r-tl'h Anong the B e a c h y A m i s h it is th* only c e r e m o n y in v-hich English i s u s e d „ 422 0 2 g oc 1 ^o, p„ b 7 c R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 972 - the funeral oration has little more time than Is needed to make a closing. A funeral sermon is not supposed to last more th a n an hour and a half. Occ a s i o n a l l y the fun423 erals arou nd Stoneyru n have three ministers, but u s ­ ually there are times only t w o „ the text was E a c h m ini st er has a text. chosen b y the departe d one or his Some­ fa m­ ily, more o ft e n the m i niste r preaching the service chooses 424 an app ropriate text. W h at ev er the text the minister stresses the fact that all must die, that life Is uncer425 tain. There is occasional c ri ti ci sm that ministers sometimes overloo k the faul ts of the funeral serm on th ey are preaching. Individuals whose They g e n e r a l l y say compa rat ively little about the person being buried. The purpose of a funeral is not to learn about the deceased, rather relatives and friends are "gathered to hear the Word of G o d p r ea ch ed and take a last view of our de p a r t e d sis426 42: ster. The audience h e a r 3 a sermon and views the body. The H a n d b u c h F redige r s p e c i fi ca ll y instructs the ministers not to say too m u c h about the deceased. 423. H e r a l d , October 27, 424. See A p p e n d i x VIII, 1955. Part D for a list of texts used, 425. 426„ This is a very popular subject among the Amish, H e r a l d , Fe b r u a r y 22, 1956, p. 6 . 427. the body, which The sermons are in a different is r e c e i v e d after the sermon. r o o m from R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 973 - Das V e r s t o r b e n e n gute Ei ge n s c h a f t e n kftnnen als E x em pe l u n d Beispiel aufgestellt werden, aber das nim mt nicht viel Zeit. Der fr Smmste M e n s c h hat noch e zu viel Schwachheiten, als dass er als ein vollkommenes Exe mp el sollte aufges te llt w e r d e n s Christus all ei n 1st ein vollkommenes B e i s p i e l . 428 Following the funeral sermon the congregation files past 429 the b o d y while a dea co n reads a hymn. The two s e r ­ vices g e n e r a l l y adjourn at slightl y different all those present fall in line coffin is closed. ting. The to see the body, then but the If the cemetery is on the same fa r m burial it m a y take place are g o i n g to the times, immediately. interment coffin eat at the Otherwise those who first or second s i t ­ Is placed on a w a g o n and the procession starts to the cemetery. There are no central A m i s h ceme430 teries around Stoneyrun so v irt ua ll y all Ami shmen are buried in the f a m i l y graveyard s that are located on the 431 crests of the hills. The cemeteries are small. They are g e n e r a l l y surr o u n d e d by a split rail fence that may be whitewashed, but more often is not. In the gr av e y a r d is grass and. weeds a n d often one or two cypress trees. Gen- 428. O p . c i t ., p. 37. 4 2 9 . T h e r e i s no s i n g i n g a t a funeral. "It sad t i m e , so i t i s b e t t e r n o t t o s i n g . " is a 430. M a n y A m i s h communities, es pec ia ll y the ne w e r ones have a central graveyard. Bowling Green, Mo., V an Wert, Pa., Plain City, Ohio. In the L a n c a s t e r Coun ty area there is u s ­ ually one cemetery for a whole church district. "The Burials of those of our people living in the Gro ff dale district are, with rare exceptions, made at the Gro ff dal e burial grounds l o ­ cated on the farm owned b y Pre. John B. Lapp, a short distance north of the fa rm dwellings." H e r a l d , December 11, 1952, p.l. 431. One A m i s h couple is buried in the church yard of a community church. They did not own their farm so they had no land of their own to make into a graveyard, nor did they have any close relatives nea rb y in whose g r a v e y a r d it woul d have been appropr iat e for th e m to be buried. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 974 - erally the stones are small and m a r k e d w i t h name tials, and the age dat e of death, When the funeral horses are or ini- of the decease d. process ion arri ves at the ce m e t e r y the tied to the fence a n d the four pallbearers the coffin to th e pr ev io u s l y dug grave. to the grave and start to fill it in. Th e y lower it carr y in­ W h e n the grave is almost filled the d e a c o n or a re l a t i v e of the decea se d who is a minister reads th e final hymn. a m i n i s t e r delivers the Abschied. 433 Some ret ur n to their homes but most to the grave return to the home As the grave The is closed funeral is over. of the party that went of the d ec ea se d an d stay for supper. 432. There is an a b a nd on ed A m i s h gr av e y a r d that was deserted when the town of S to ne yr un abso rb ed the A m i s h farm of w h i c h it ha d been a part. In this g r a v e y a r d is a large h e a d s t o n e w i t h the names of the parents and all the children. About half the children had die d and were buried in the little cemetery, but the other h a l f m o v e d awa y and although th ey must cert ain ly have died m a n y years ago, they were not b u r i e d in this gr av e y a r d and the dates of death wer e n e ver filled in. The fi rs t A m i s h E n g l i s h f a rm er who n o w owns the fa r m said he was th i n k i n g abo ut mo vi ng the sto nes over to the commun ity church graveyard, but he has not got around to it. He sai d his wife is a des ce ndan t of some of the people b u r i e d there, but nei ther he nor the A m i s h take the slightest care of the plot. Weeds a n d bra mbl es grow over the stones, the barbed wire fence is p a r t i a l l y f a l ­ len dow n and the cows can w a n d e r in. Some of the sandstone slabs have fal le n ove r and are so b a d l y w e a t h e r e d that they are illegible. 433. This m a y be "Ein G-ebet bei einem L e ichen begSngniss," C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , o p .c i t ., p. 133. It is followed b y the L o r d ’s prayer. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 975 - The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y is e x t r e m e l y supportive of the family that has be en broke n b y death,, but a fam il y ma y receive letters, If the d e a t h has f o l l o w e d illness about visiting cards. maple Members are c o n s c i e n ­ a series over the period the w i f e A m i s h w i d o w or w i d o w e r the f a m i l y * ^ farm herselfo the to tide t h e m Neither the is f a c e d w i t h the prob le m of bein g in a g r o u p w h e r e all e nt ert ainm ent An A m i s h w i d o w who make is looking for a hi r e d hand and trying to learn to m a n a g e the owns a fa r m 435 is co m p o s e d of c o u p l e s 0 hires a hand and c o n t i n ­ An A m i s h widower must have a h i r e d girl, often she is his sist er or a niece. tive is avai lable of "frolics" T h e y ma y b r i n g in the corn, syrup and cut t h e wood f o r ues to f a r m i t „ or an accident the f a m i l y f r e q u e n t l y and if it is the father w h o has died t h e y often ha ve to do his work, sent several h u n d r e d sympat hy cards and money m a y be e n c l o s e d in the tious No flo wers are However, if no rela- 436 he m a y have a series of hir ed g i r l s , More often a w i d o w or a w i d o w e r remarries, expects this and talks about it freely, The co mmu nity among themselves, 4 3 4 o H e r a l d , F e b r u a r y 5, 1953, 435 , Land and b a n k account s are su p p o s e d to be held jointly. The A m i s h h e a r t i l y d i s a p p r o v e d of m y hus band and I having separate che cking account s, 436, It was said of one wid ower in the c o m m u n i t 7y that he was not v e r y nice to w o r k for, because he made passes at his h i r e d girls. An illicit affair would be highly un li kel y. The young girl w o u l d hav e nothing to gain b y it as she u n d o u b t e d l y is i nter es te d in friends of her own age. It is g e ne ra lly a s s u m e d that girls are not i n te re st ed in me n who are mu c h o l d e r than they, even when the m e n are f a i r l y w e l l - t o - d o bachelors. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 976 - and to the people involved. That f u n e r a l of a child is u s u a l l y "smaller and ler. If it is an only child or an older child, is simi lar to that al is h e l d simp- the funeral of an adult , otherwise a c h i l d ’s funer- in the afterno on at 1;00 or 2:00. One w o m a n wrote Y e s t e r d a y w e buried R o sanna Hostetler, J o h n ’s 23 d a y old ba by . . . she surely was a b e a u t i f u l baby it se em ed yo u had to see wings on her wh e n she lay there so peace ful ly all dres se d in w h i t e . 437 Only one m i n i s t e r delivers or an infant, the sermon. e sp ec ia lly If the mother For a stillborn is in bed, there are u s u a l l y o n l y graves ide services w i t h a min i s t e r r e a d ­ ing a hymn or a psalm. Wh e n a •child die d of di pt h e r i a in 1952 h e was b u r i e d the same day. passages on the Two ministers p o r c h of the house, read short but did not go In or to the grave. Aft e r the quaran ti ne was li ft ed a regular 438 funeral was held. There Is no c u s t o m among visiting the graves Armenians. that the A m i s h that parallels is ob served by some If the gr av e y a r d is on the farm, Catholics and they wi l l g e n ­ erally keep it neat, as t h e y keep ev ery t h i n g u n d e r their care in good order. If it is not never visit the grave. on their farm, they may On one occasion a woman w a n t e d to 437. P e rson al correspondence, XIl/l8/53. 438. Services are read only If the stillborn fant is w e l l e n o u g h d eve l o p e d to look like a baby. In­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 977 - take her children to see the grave of their aunt whose 439 funeral t h e y could not attend. Probably for several reasons. of a v e r y steadfast to k n o w about me, Her h u s b a n d said no. The grave was on the farm fami ly and he m a y not have wa nt e d them he k n e w his wife wo u l d get upset and cry, and we were rather in a hur ry to hav e dinner w i t h another Amish f a m i l y so we just drove past the grav eyard that wa s much to o far from the ro a d to see any thing but the cypress. Usually the Amish bury h u s b a n d and wife together, but I do not k n o w of a n y instances where Old Or d e r A m i s h m e n had 44 0 bodies moved. Ev en t h o u g h they bel ie ve in the bodi ly 441 resurrection at judgment, they have almost no concern for the body once it is buried. r e t u r n e t h , " disposes 442 care . "Dust thou art to dust of the b o d y and the M a n y Old Order A m i s h min iste rs soul is in C h r i s t -s in central Ohio will preach at a funeral w i t h m in i s t e r s f r o m other Ami sh M e n n o ­ nite churches. der A m i s h parent This hap pe ns mos t f re qu en tl y when an Old O r ­ is living w i t h a son or d aug ht er who b e ­ longs to another church. the Conservative The funeral ma y then be held in c h u r c h w i t h bo t h C o n s e rv at ive preachers 439. She was w o r r i e d that h a v i n g m i s s e d the funeral, the children would not u n d e r s t a n d that their aunt was really dead. 440. A baby m a y be m o v e d so that funeral and burial are in another community. 441. D. Stutzman, De r schmale V e r l e u g n u n g s w e g pillersburg, Ohio, 1917), pp. 19-21. — -— — 442. There is no clear statement as to whet her the soul goes immediately to h e a v e n or waits around until Judgment Day. The general bel ie f appears to be that after d e a t h the soul goes d i r e c t l y to heaven. "Hea ve n r e t a i n e t h no w our treasure. — ---------------- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 978 - and Old Order preachers participa tin g. This is app ar ently in tacit r e c o g n i t i o n of the fact that the funeral is a c e r ­ emony tooth for the living and the d e a d but primari ly the living. In this instance, the Old order preaching the de c e a s e d person and m e m b e r s of his vative p re ac hi ng is for members longer Old Order. church, is for the C o n s e r ­ of the f a mi ly w h o are no The degree of cooper ation possible indicated by an anno un ceme nt is in one obituary. Services were conduct ed by Bish op R om a n Miller (Conservative) in English. B i sh op Set h Byler of the home chur ch / K i n g / and Abe Y o d e r (Old Order) of G e a u g a Co. 0 . 4 4 3 The Old Ord er A m i s h believe time of need. in helping anyone If a m e mbe r asked an Old Order Am i s h p r e a ­ cher to p r e a c h the service for a n e a r relative, he was not Old Order, comply. Sometimes separate services, another service in even thoug h the A m i s h pre ach er would pro babl y the que st io n is set t le d by h a vin g two an Old Order service in the home and in the church house. The funera l service seems more liable to m o d i f i c a ­ tion than other services. In some Old Order communities one o c c a s io nally hea rs of a funeral of an Old Order A m is h_ I) E a r t h the lonely casket keeps. p. 6 . H e r a l d , M a y 3, 1956, 4 4 3 „ H e r a l d , July 26, 1951. The d e c e a s e d i n d i ­ vidual be l o n g e d to the Ki n g church. This cooperative p r e a c h ­ ing ignores a statement of the Discipline of 1809. "Per­ mission shall be given to admonish at a funeral in our b r o ­ therhood, but not otherwise." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 979 - man in w h i c h a visi tin g mi n i s t e r preaches In the list of hymns one of the hymns read at funerals is in English,, 445 in English,, it w ill be n o t e d that A few of the hymns r ead were f r o m the A u s b u n d and Liedersammlung; „ could not locate Others I in these hymnals, and I suspect t h e y m a y 4^6 be la te r h y m n s . 444 The B e a c h y A m i s h have services other Su n d a y and their r e g u l a r services but their funerals are in English. are in German, The fun er al believ ed to be n e c e s s a r y for the soul every is not of the dead. It is a cere mo ny to care fo r the b od y of the d e c e a s e d and to help the f a m i l y and c o mmun it y adjust to the death. The family has gr eate r influenc e ove r the service t ha n in a n y ceremony. T he y invite the mi nis ters t h e y w i s h to preach. T he y m a y choose 1951, 444o Ind., 445. the scripture to r e a d and the hymns H e r a l d , Oklahoma, D e c e m b e r 6 , 1951, Sep temb er 22, 1955, Pa. p . 6 . See A p p e n d i x VIII, to be June 21, Part D. 446. it is possible that t he y are s e le ct ed v e r ­ ses f r o m hymns in the t r a d i t i o n a l hymn books and that I do not r e cogn iz e them. 447 „ At a w e d d i n g the hom e ministers are always invited an d other min i s t e r s m a y be, th en the ministers, not the bride and groom, decide who will p r e a c h the different parts of the service. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - read. 980 - This leads to much greater variety than is pos­ sible in the mor e co n gr eg at ional ceremonies of baptism, communion and we dd ing s. D e a t h creates a dif ficult p r o b l e m for the A m i s h who are v e r y d ep e n d e n t on personal rel atio ns hips. an event of such m a gn it ud e (other than obvious G o d ’s will. of kil l in g that,re ga rd le ss suicide), 449 It is of the evidence it is b e l i e v e d to be Just as they cannot accept the re s p o n s i b i l i t y in battle, spon sib ility for causing a n y death. sidered a punish me nt of this an Individual been a dir ec t they are unab le f r o m God the r e ­ A death ma y be conliving. 450 In spite could not bear the b u r d e n of hav ing instrument the report of deaths of the to accept of death. This is apparent in that o b j e c tivel y were avoidable? A group of b r ot he rs were p l ay in g tog eth er in the barn with 448. He chose B i shop Fel ty S. Y o d e r and. Pre. David K, Bon tra ge r to p r e a c h the funeral sermon. He chose the funeral texts: St. John 5:24 -3 0 and Thes. 4:13 to the end. Herald, January 29, 1953. Jonathan B. F i s h e r aut hor of Around the Word by W a t e r and Facts G l e a n e d on the 'Jay, 1937, chose the hymn "Spar deine buse nicht" and the p r e ­ achers quoted poe ms found in his books. 449. It is wrong to take a human life under any circumstances at any time. This applie s to ones own life as we l l as others. The A m i s h believe that a p e r s o n who commits suicide goes to hell. I tried to get various Amishmen to a d m i t that this was not n e c e s s a r i l y so, by arguing with th em that a m e n t a l l y ill person was like a child in that he was not a c c o u ntab le for his sins. This is gen eral ly believed. ("Jesus said, ’Let the c hi ld re n come un to Me, for such is the K i n g d o m of h e a v e n . ’ His mind was m u c h like a young child." H e r a l d , Ju ly 3, 1952.) However, even wi t h this build up, every on e we discussed it w i t h said a person who commits suicide goes to hell. Suicide among the Am i s h Is very rare but it has happened. A m e n t a l l y 111 m e m b e r who threatens suicide is sent to the hospital. 450. Death Is n o t co nsidered a p u n i s h m e n t for the one who dies. If he has l i ved a true Chr ist ian life, death greatly improves his lot. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. their f a t h e r s hilled h u n t i n g g u n when i t a s e v e n y e a r old. bo;/„ L o r d kne w b e s t w h e n t o call -he . . accidently w e n t fam ily w rites . / h im 7 h o n e ." o f f and th a t "the The-/ s t a t e further s ifut we believe it was a loud call for ail of us 0 Right in that b l oo ming youth, Aesus called him out of this sinful w o r l d „ Oh yes, chiiaren, a gun is dangerous, but we believe the go o d Lord meant it all for our good, and we want to say,"The Lord, has given, the Lord ha? taken. B l essed be the r: -me of the Lord," H I C'iiui u Ui cili - j. o She was left on thr cour/-, for cnly a few m i n ­ utes and either crawled up the end of it to the m e d ­ icine cabinet and got a a c t t i e of p i l l s o r t h e n t h e pills fell out of the cabinet before and s h e s - a ] low an u n d e t ermin ed number of them, there being a small amount of strychnine i n e a c h tablet which m o v e d f a ­ tal „ O , Clod was very merciful in letting us keen her even that long as the many blessings and joys e x p e r ­ ienced by havi ng her in our home will ne ve r be f o r ­ gotten, he hu mb ly submit to the will of Bod who neve r makes an y mistakes and doet h all things well. The Lord has given and the Lord hag taken away. Ble ss ed be the name of the Lord</i0B f)ocasionally Lord may have in an obi tuary a parent will mention called the ch i l d home In family closer to H i m , o n l y bout was there an;/ hint 451o H e ra ld , that January one that the in order to d r a w the death that I was told a- it may have been meant as a 1 OPJ 4 5 2 o H e r a l d , Augus t 14, 1G52, p. 2. This child had five older bro thers the youngest of w h o m w a s 11 years o l d » There are m a n y similar c a s e s . An Am i i h coy (not Old Order) was driving the tra ctor and his v/o-and-a -half year old bro ther was ridi ng w i t h him. The small child foil off and wan killed. Again there is no bis- e and when one discusses sue cases it is impossible to elicit any suggestion that a memb of the f a m i l y might ha ve prevented the death, V.'hon death strikes, "Thy will be done," R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 982 - warning and a punishment. A young A m i s h couple d e c i d e d that t hey did not want an A m i s h wedding . a blue taffeta dress,a nd their witnesses. The bride bought they chose other young people as Then the g r o u p of young people lone, without any m emb ers of their families, of-peace, and he m a r r i e d them. ding went a- to a justice- On the wa y ho me f rom the w e d ­ the car in wh ich the witnesses were riding was wrecked, and one of th e boys was killed. The couple was di sob eying 453 God's will for t h e y were not m a r r y i n g in the Lord. T o d a y one sometimes hears a success ful business man c o m m e n t ,"When m y time comes I want to go suddenly." mish w o u l d not u nd ersta nd such a n attitude, pray wit h the Anglica ns Lord de li v e r us." their d e a t h to The A~ rather they could . . from . . .sudden death, The A m i s h want sufficient good pr emonition of enable them to say f a re we ll to their f am i l y and to make their peace w i t h God. rhythmic and orderly. Their wh ol e life has been A l t h o u g h the passage to a n e w stage may have appeared sudden and qui ckl y executed, followed a quiet, careful build-up. The cer em on y that celebrates Death it has always should be the same. this las t r it e- de -pas sa ge does not d i f f e r sub st an tial ly f r o m those that initiated the in d i ­ vidual into adultho od and ce le b r a t e d the founding of a n e w 453. ^Ma tr im on y is a joining together, by God. . .They must come toge th er in Parachise, that is, in the congre gat ion of the Lord...", D.P., o p .c i t ., 1910, p. 327. This couple has been plagued w i t h trouble. Their first child is m e n t a l l y retarded, their third child was born w i t h a mi ss h a p e n skull that has been operated on three times. The last operation was not successful. He was in cri tic al conditi on for a while R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 983 family. 454 COMMUNION The import ance of comm un ion for the in tegra ti on of the c o m m u n i t y cann ot be ove rem phasized . of comm un ity life, climax 455 the symbol of d e d i c a t i o n and unit y. preparation for c om muni on takes church services and the last four weeks and includes i nter ve ni ng Sunday. wi th the ba p t i s m of n e w members eration and the It is the The two It starts or w i t h a service on r e g e n ­ new b i r t h . E a c h m e m b e r is r e m i n d e d and n o w cannot lift his head nor eat properly. Between these two c hi l d r e n the g r o o m ’s "home place" caught fire and his father and three brothers we re b u r n e d alive. All these mishaps are not co ns i d e r e d as pu nishment for the one wrong act. The couple was pun is hed fo r that act by the church, as well as 0-od, and the m isfor tu ne that has a f ­ flicted t h e m since their confes si on would be felt as too severe a puni sh me nt and as un ju s t i f i e d , for the confession, if it was made properly, wip e d aw a y the sin. 454 For other accounts of A m i s h funera ls Bachman, L a n c a s t e r , o p . c i t ., pp. 181-188. Umble,, Lancaster, * o p . c i t ., pp. 219-220. U m b l e , "Union," o p . c i t ., pp. 35-86. Gingerich, I o w a , o p . c i t ., 248-49. see: 455. D.p., o p .c i t ., 1910, pp. 37-88. "The Supper whi ch is a sign of divine and b r o t h e r l y love a n d unit y." Mar_Jbyrs M i r r o r , o p . c i t . , p. 319, ". . .be b ou n d u n t o t h e i r neighbor in b r o t h e r l y love, w i t h w h o m they sh ou l d live and walk in the unit;y of the Spirit. 456, R a b e r 's C a l e n d e r , o p .c i t ., 1954, p. 13, 23. "In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the b a p t i s m a l service or at other times also, ea ch time bef or e the council mee ting, one likes to speak of the Ne w b i r t h a n d reads John 3 an d Roma ns 6." Iowa service manual q u o t e d in Umble, "Service Manual s," o p . c i t ., p. 28. In the Raber C a l e n d e r , 193 9 (as qu ot ed by U m b l e ) the sprin g sermon is referred to as "Neugeb urt ode r aufschriften and the aut umn p r e - o r d n u n g services as "Neugeburt." pp. 31-32. 00A2 in g i v i n g a d e t a ' l e d account of a specific communion service said that the I n t r o d u c t i o n (Vorste\lunq| was quite short as "everyone w h o had joined ch ur ch knows it and It was gone o v e r in'council." Im p l y i n g the three services have a c e rtai n unity. Yoder, A m i sc he L i e d e r , o p . c i t ., p. xii do not title the sermons except for the L i e b e s m a h l , but he lists t h three scripture re adings in the order used for one ch ur c h on r e ­ generation, one on ordnung, then the Lords Supper. Eeiler, V e r ~ m a h n u n g , o p . c i t ., p. 23. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 984 - 45 7 is a r e g e n er at ed pers on and a m e m b e r of the 458 body of Christ. His vows of obe di ence and ded ic at ion that he are vi car iou sly re -enacted. tension moun ts must be b r ought in the who le F o l l o w i n g this church ser vi ce co mmu ni ty for all disag ree ments into the open and solve d by the end of the next c h u r c h service (Council Church) to cel eb rate communion. own tr an sgres si on s if he if the com m u n i t y is E a c h individ ual must settle his 459 is to be r e a d y for Commun ion 457. Men no Simon.., o p . c i t ., 1871, I, p. 44, "For all who w o u l d w o r t h i l y eat this bread, and d r i n k * o f this cup, must be changed in the inner man, and c o nv er te d and r e new ed in their minds, t h r o u g h the power of the divine wo r d and the o pe ratio n of faith; beco me n e w creatures b o r n of God, and transl a t e d f r o m Ad a m into Christ; be of a Christian dispos-i-'ion, long suffering, peaceable, mer cif ul, affectionate, truly' humble, and obedient to the word of the Lord." Menno Simon , op.c i t ., 1871, II, p. 66, ". . .before him avail, alone, a n e w creature, a converted, c h a n g e d and broken heart a sincere fear a n d love of God, u n f e i g n e d love of o n e ’s n e i g h ­ bor, a sober, humble, pea ce ab le and con ve rte d life accord ing to the w o r d and exam ple of the Lord." 458. D.P., o p . c i t ., p . 88. "For w h o e v e r faith in Jesus Christ, who is not a m e m b e r of Christ, who wi ll not die and live w i t h Christ, a genuine love for Christ an d his fellow-man, ly o b se rv e the supper. » I b i d . , p. 79. has not true the body of who has not can never r i g h t ­ 459. Ibid., p. 90. No one is to observe the S u p ­ per "unless he is c i r c u m c i s e d in heart and is a c count ed and found in the f e l l o w s h i p of the covenant of Christ and all the saints." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - and the 985 - communi ty as a whole must be of oneness united by a sense and be at peace. The essentials for the right obs erv at io n of the 461 H oly Sup p e r as su mme d up b y Philip are fol lo we d e x ­ p l i c i t l y by the Am is h of today. First, the Supper can be ob ser ved o nly in a Ch ri s t i a n cong regation. can be partaken that is true of only by those who Christians Secondly, are friends it of God, who have accepted the Gospel, a- mendeci their lives, and u r o n con fe ss io n of faith been p r o ­ perly baptized. who are It can be observed only w i t h the saints in the body of Chrisb and w i t h no others. It must be observe d con cordantly by all believers, Thirdly, that is by as m a n y as are g a t he re d together and not by one alone. The br ea d must be b r o k e n and e ac h Individual must not eat his own bread. fore he Finally, eac h man must examine h i m s e l f b e ­ eats of that bread and drin ks of that cup. For he can r i g h t l y observe the Sup per only If he has a genuine 460. I b i d . p. 90. No one Is to observe the Supper "unless he is circumc ise d in heart an d is acc ounted and found In the fellow ship of the covenenant of Chr ist and all the saints." *+6l. Martyrs Mirror, op. c i t . . 1951, P P « 1017-18, "We beli e v e in a h o l y C h u r c h in w h i c h are those who in b el i e v e in Jesus Chr ist. ..D . P., op. c i t . . 1910, p .80 "...who by one Sp ir it are bapt ized into one body..." R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 986 - love for Christ and his fellov/.-men. One of the letters in.- the Martyrs Mirror explains that we observe "with a blameless dispenser, in a blameless fear Cod, with brea d and wine, of the Lord and His apostles, the apostles did." is to be 462 the H ol y Supper church w h o ac co rdi ng to the practice in the houses, Menno Simons writes: observed in b ot h kinds as Christ and "It (The Supper) . . , to the remembran ce of the Lord's death and as a renewal and evidence of bro,,463 therly love." ihus it can be seen the social or c o m ­ m u n i t y aspects of Communion are stressed. It is a social ritual for the integra tion of the ind iv id ual into the c o m ­ munity a n d is a collect ive ra t h e r than an individual exper464 ience w ith Christ. For the individ ual can commune wit h Christ only w i t h i n the community as Christ is not 465 oread and wine, but in the congregation. in the In order to thoro ug hl y un derstand what communio n of Christ with believers and of' believe rs with Christ is, it may be ob se rve d that Christ accepts the b e ­ lievers, unites w i t h them in such a manner that he ^gg is the Head and the believers are his bo d y (Eph. 5:23) When therefore Ch ri st ia ns w o r t h i l y observe the S u p ­ per w i t h pure heart and in true faith their souls will be refreshe d by Jesus Christ, who accord ing to his promise (Matt^„18:20) is in the midst of such an assembly. . . io7 462. Martyrs M i r r o r , op. cit., 1951, p. 1016. 463. Horsch, Men no S imon s , o p . c i t ., p. 270. 464. Dix, o p . c i t . , p. 5S, says o f the eucharist as Jesus In sti tute d it, It was "someth ing w h i c h only the church. could do. . This is co mp le t e l y true of the A m i s h communion. 465. Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t ., 1871, I, p. 45. This of course d.ods not pro elude private prayers. 466. D.P., o p . c i t ., 1910, p. 78. 467. I b i d ., p. 91. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Four weeks is to achieve all There will not that - really a ra th e r short time in w h i c h these requirem ent s for the c e l e b r a t i o n of the L o r d ’s Supper. •worry. 987 It Is a period of m u c h stress and is a tremendous fear that "be able c ommu ni ty to r e a c h the h i g h plane r e q u i r e d and they w i l l have guilt w i t h their the to suff er t h r o u g h a long period of tensions un rel ieved. In spite of the sermon on r e g e n e r a t i o n that reminds the m e mb ers of their good qualities and new life, there is a great fear of the explosion of petty feelings might prevent is the ing, time the r e i n te gr egati on they are but unt il an d small bicke ri ng s of Council Chu rch there forgiving love, leasing his pent up feelings ministers an attempt This instead is little everyone is r e ­ about f e llow mem bers The are bus y hearing complaints a n d m a k i n g calls to see the worst offenders before This m a y take quite junction, community. suppose d to show love and u n d e r s t a n d ­ the end evidence of this of the that a while for f o llowi ng a m i n i s t e r or the deacon then two of them go together. The L o r d ’s Supper Council Church. the B i b l i c a l calls alone first that it 468. Umble* In­ and 469 is to be a d m i n is te red among the believers b y an ord ained and blameless min ist er. is no thought In 470 Ther e ever mig ht be a d m i n i s t e r e d b y an ’’L y o n s , ” o p . c i t . 469. Math. 18:15-17. Sometimes instead of the m i n ­ isters going, the chu rch assigns In div idu als to visit cer­ tain members who are no t follo wi ng the ordnung. 470. M a rt yrs M i r r o r , o p .c i t ., 1837, p. 319. Menno Simons, o p . c i t ., 1871, p. 45. ’’The Hol y Sup pe r of Christ is not to be di sp e r s e d b y a d e c e i v e r . ” R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 988 - unordained person, t e r w i l l n o t be true if two y e a r s is to is especially S t o n e y r u n n o c o m m u n i o n wa s h e l d The e x c u s e f o r n o t h o l d i n g it In a for in the was t h a t the son a man w i t h a t r a c t o r t o work p a r t 471 l a n d t h a t h e was r e n t i n g f r o m h i s f a t h e r . In S t o n e y r u n one o f t h e m i n i s t e r s on a s h a r e basis neighbors) who w o r k e d i t prevent the to s t o p th e church having as C h r i s t is and I d o l a t r y farm ( h e h a d no c l o s e A m i s h communion, the of h i s of one but This d id not i t was n e c e s s a r y c r o p wa s h a r v e s t e d . 472 S u p p e r c a n o n l y be o b s e r v e d i n a b l a m e 473 Is in a C h r is tia n c o n g re g a tio n . For In th e to out p a rt w ith a t r a c to r . arrangem ent a f t e r church t h a t let to an E nglishm an The L o r d ' s pie This d i s a g r e e m e n t a mong t h e m i n i s t r y . o f one m i n i s t e r h i r e d less a good c h a n c e t h e m i n i s ­ b e c a u s e two f a c t i o n s were r e p r e s e n t e d m inistry,, the there considered b lam ele sse th ere is church a d ja ce n t but congregation, celebrate in which C h r i s t is It i s mockery, blasphem y the Supper w ith a group of peo474 not p r e s e n t. There i s a l s o th e 471. M artyrs M i r r o r , op. c m i n i s t e r s m u s t be b l a m e l e s s . . . own h o u s e , a n d h a v e h i s c h i l d r e n w ife must be f a i t h f u l in a l l t h i i t . , 1951, p . 1015, "The he m u s t r u l e w e l l h i s i n s u b j e c t i o n , and h i s ngs00A5. 4 7 2 . A y e a r l a t e r t h i s s t i l l r a t h e r a n n o y e d 0 0 A1 , b u t r a t h e r t h a n c a u s e a n y f r i c t i o n t h e b o t t o m l a n d was n o t farm ed. This i n c i d e n t is d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r d e t a i l In C hapter I I I . 4 7 3 . H o r s c h , Me nno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . , p . seek and d e s i r e t h a t su p p e r which C h r i s t J e s u s i n s t i t u t e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d , ■t o be o b s e r v e d i n Is o u tw a rd ly w ith o u t spot or blem ish , t h a t i s , known t r a n s g r e s s i o n a n d w i c k e d n e s s . . . " 270. We t e a c h , Him self has a church which w ithout any 4 7 4 . Menno S i mo n , o p . c i t . , 1 8 7 1 , I , p . 4 5 , " B u t w h e r e t h e p u r e k n o w l e d g e o f C h r i s t ' s l i v i n g f a i t h , t h e ne w l i f e , R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - fear 989 - t h a t b y c o mmu n i n g t o g e t h e r t h e p e o p l e become members o f one b o d y and t h u s a re r e s p o n s ib le fo r the sin s o f the 475 o t h e r members of t h e b o d y . T h ere fo re to keep the ch u rch b l a m e l e s s and a c o n g r e g a t i o n o f s a i n t s , n o t w o r t h y must be e x c l u d e d . p u t away f r o m t h e righteousness. faith, are by no mea ns of th e In t h e i r lives err In d octrine carnal and blam able, to be p e r m i t t e d , c o mmu n i o n o f t h e the a command o f God t o „ As l o n g a s t h e y w ith the 477 Holy S u p p e r ; " s e lv e s from every b ro th e r after is c h u r c h w i c k e d men a n d t h o s e who d o u n ­ it 476 and a r e "It a l l t h o s e who a r e that plus, some t r a n s g r e s s i o n s " I f anyone It to p a rta k e w alketh d iso rd e rly , create and n o t (2 T h e s s . a blam eless may be o v e r l o o k e d . d o e s n o t know a b o u t t h e m , they "Withdraw y o u r ­ t r a d i t i o n which he r e c e iv e d from us I n t h e human a t t e m p t t o and 3:6)" church, But I f t h e church c a n n o t be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e . has a good a p p e a r a n c e b e f o r e men, a n d is In­ C h r i s t l a n l o v e , p e a c e and harm ony do n o t e x i s t , t h e r e i s not th e L o r d 's Supper, b u t a d i s p i s i n g and mocking o f th e b lo o d and d e a t h o f C h r i s t , a c o n s o l a t i o n o f t h e i m p e n i t e n t , a s e d u c i n g h y p o c r i s y , a n d open b l a s p h e m y and i d o l a t r y . . . 4 7 5 . Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . , 1 8 7 1 , I I , _ p . 8 4 , n . . . T h e r e f o r e we a b s t a i n f r o m t h e i r / t h e W o r l d ' s / s u p p e r ; f o r t h e s i n c e r e f e a r i n o u r h e a r t s , c a u s e d b y t h e w o r d o f Go d , p r e v e n t s us from p a r t a k i n g o f I t w i t h such d i s p e n s e r s and p a r t a k e r s , l e s t we a l s o p a r t a k e o f t h e i r d e c e i v i n g a c t i o n s a n d a b o m i n a b l e altouse, a n d a t t h e d a y o f C h r i s t r e c e i v e t h e same r e w a r d w i t h t h e m . " D .P., o p . c i t . , 1 9 1 0 , p . 2 3 3 , "The c h u r c h may n o t b e c o m e a p a r t a k e r o f t h e s t r a n g e s i n s , t h a t a l i t t l e l e a v e n l e a v e n e t h n o t t h e whole lump. B e il e r , Vermahnung, o p . c i t . , p . 16. 476. D .P ., 477. o p . c i t ., 1910, p. Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . , 478. D .P., o p . c i t ., 1910, 523. 1871, pp. p. 46. 520-21. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - w a r d l y proud., avaricious., 990 - c a r n a l and w ith o u t th e Spirit o f God, he i s n o t ju d g e d o f t h e c h u r c h , b u t o f t h e Lord 479 him self. . . " " . . . f o r the chu rch judges t h a t of which i t has knowledge but apparent to th e Church such as th e t h a t God i s portant it in means Therefore to judge. . c a n be t o l e r a t e d . fort to keep certain on a p p e a r a n c e s . The f i r s t is to e x c lu d e of th e The d i s r u p t i v e b a la n c e d by t h e r e q u i r e m e n t las in a sense hurt it." or unknown d e v i a ­ T his sometimes r e s u l t s out erf v e r y im­ of t h e community, f o r issues not Judas, concept is a c e r t a i n amount o f s e c r e c y , ine h im s e lf of c h u r c h d o e s n o t know w i l l n o t tion phasis betraying This the f u n c t i o n i n g '’w h a t t h e inward w ickedness w hich i s church, in th e e f ­ a n d a n em­ tendency is counter­ i n d i v i d u a l m u s t exam48 1 w e l l as b e i n g exam ined by t h e c h u r c h . ) task in the t h o s e who a r e cond task tian congregation, t h a t the creation of a b la m e le s s known t o b e b l a m a b l e . i s mor e d i f f i c u l t , that is for a C hristian to re-create congregation is church Th e s e ­ a C hris­ "as the n a t u r a l body . . . i n h a r m o n y a n d p e a c e w i t h a l l i t s memt>4 8 2 bers. E a c h me mbe r n a t u r a l l y d i s c h a r g e s h i s d u t y t o 4 7 9 . Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . , 1871, I, 4 8 0 . H o r s c h , Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t . , p. p. 47. 270. 481. I b i d . 482.D .P., o p . c i t . 9 1910, p. 80. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 991 - p rom ote th e good o f t h e whole body; th e c o n g r e g a t i o n becomes a t r u e body of C h r i s t . one s o u l ; being true not cruel or rancorous, long s u f f e r i n g , C h r i s t ia n love possible; - of a n d l i v i n g member o f t h e one h e a r t , one m i n d and n o t q u a r r e l s o m e and u n p e a c e a b l e , n o t and e n v i o u s , stinate They a r e t h u s e a c h member o f to and h a t e f u l , spiteful not m alicious, not ob­ one t o w a r d s a n o t h e r , but friendly, ever ready serve by e x h o r t a t i o n ; peaceable, this neighbor in by r e p r o o f , in a l l all things in things by c o m f o r t i n g , by assisting, by c o u n s e l i n g w i t h d e e d and w i t h p o s s e s s i o n s , 485 y e a , w i t h b i t t e r and h a r d l a b o r , w i t h body a nd l i f e . 484 For t h e community t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r i s a symbol o f p e a c e and c o m p le te u n i t y . state of oneness The s u r p r i s i n g church as a unit individual w ithin ing th e L o r d 's b u t he must and d r i n k s 483. is that such a c a n u s u a l l y be r e a c h e d t w i c e e a c h y e a r . Not o n l y m ust th e the thing church le a d e r s be b l a m e l e s s the Supper. and a t church should He i s n o t be b l a m e l e s s and peace, but each be w o r t h y of c e l e b r a t ­ o n ly judged by the church, examine h i m s e l f b e f o r e he e a t s o f th e b r e a d 485 of the wine. It is firm ly believed th a t the Ibid. 484. B e i l e r , Vermahnung, o p . c i t . , p. 28, a u f d i e s e m F r i e n e s s c h i u s s . 0 0 tr ". . . und 485. M a rty rs M i r r o r , o p . c i t ., 1837, p. 320, "E v ery one s h a l l e x a m i n e h i m s e l f i n f u n d a m e n t a l m e d i t a t i o n on t h e b ro k e n body and sh e d b lo o d o f t h e Lord J e s u s . " ^ R ep ro d u c ed with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 992 - u n r i g h t e o u s p e r s o n who t a k e s communi on e a t s a n d d r i n k s 486 damnation to h im s e lf . In e x a m in in g o n e s e l f one n o t only examines w h eth er o r n o t he has f o llo w e d cific church r u l e s , tionships hut t o be s u r e he t h i n k s o v e r h i s t h a t he i s at all the spe­ personal r e l a ­ peace w ith a l l his neighbors. " I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t we may p r e s e n t c u r b o d i e s as a l i v i n g s a c r i f i c e h o l y a n d a c c e p t a b l e u n t o God, w h i l e we a r e f u l l y a w a r e t h a t we h a v e d o n e a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t a b r o t h e r i n any way, even i f i t were o n l y a few re m a rk s t h a t we made t o s t a i n h i s g o o d n a m e . . . In th is c o n d itio n , y o u c a n n o t be i n f u l l f e l l o w s h i p w i t h y o u r S a v i o u r J e s u s C h r i s t , or r e c e i v e h is v i c a r i o u s s a c r i f i c e . " 487 " . . . none can r i g h t l y p a r t a k e o f t h i s S u p p e r . . ( e x c e p t h e ) who w a l k s i n u n i t y , l o v e and p e a c e w i t h h i s b r e t h r e n , a n d who l e a d s a p i o u s u n b l a m a b l e l i f e i n C h r i s t J e s u s , a c c o rd in g to th e S c r i p t u r e s ." 4 8 3 Following baptism al letter ings w riting that church there to s tr a ig h te n may h a v e a r i s e n . are n o t im p o rta n t this These a p p ly enough t o m e r i t time t o stop some v i s i t i n g and even out personal m isunderstand­ c a n b e s o l v e d on a n i n d i v i d u a l made a t is . to Incidents church a tt e n t i o n , level. D ecisions "pushing th e b o u n d aries that but are also of th e 4 8 6 . Menno S i m o n s , o p . c i t ., 1 8 7 1 , I 46; D.P. , o p . c i t ., p. 73; Horsch, Me nno S i m o n s , o p . c i t ., p. 2 7 0 . Martyrs Mirror, o p . c i t ., 1 8 3 7 , p . 3 2 0 . "Wherefore, w h o s o e v e r shall eat of this bread and d r i n k this cup of the L or d unworth ily, shall be g ui l t y of the b o d y a n d blood of the Lord." D .P., o p . c i t ., 1 9 1 0 , p. 17, "The h ypocr it es by mi s u s e of the L o r d ’s Supper become guilty of the b od y a n d blo od of the Lord. . ." 1910, 4 8 7 . Mast, L e s s o n s . o p . c i t ., p. 488. Menno S i m o n s , op.cit., 1871, 63. II, p. 2 7 0 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission - church," that 993 - is to give u p c o n v e ni en ce s that a fam i l y may have b e e n using, hut are not a p p r o v e d of b y the church, even tho ugh t hey ma y not be s p e c i f i c a l l y forbidding. ther than run the Ra­ risk of being told at cou ncil me eti ng that they m a y not take communion, the fam ily m a y skip council me et ing and communion and continue u s i n g the c o n ­ venience. This wa y it is not brought to an issue. The family has not been f o r b i d d e n the use of the appliance and they have a n o th er six mo nt hs in w h i c h to m a k e u p their minds or to hope that the about the u s e of that c o n g r e g a t i o n m a y become more lax part ic ul ar go t o the cou ncil mee ti ng object. told they m a y not take communion while t he y still have s u c h a convenience, they must eit her get rid of it du ring skip co mm u n i o n and are However, if t he y the next two weeks, or (which is g e n e r a l l y done) but get rid of it in the nea r future, 490 for everyone when t he y w i l l follow the church's do not ob ey$ they are is wat ch ing instruction. liable to be pl ac ed under to see If they the ban. An individua l m a y not skip com mun ion more than three times in s u c c e s s i o n and still r e m a i n Amish. There­ fore, m e m be rs usua l l y only skip it once of their own choicej 490. At this season one can scan the small a d v e r ­ tisements in the H e r a l d for such items as "a b o t t l e d gas stove, u s e d o n l y thr ee mon th s, " by ch ec king the nam e and address of the owner one can e s t a b l i s h who he is and the fact that he belongs to a c h u r c h that does not yet a l l o w bot tled gas. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 994 - for there is always the possibility that the next time they go t h e y w i l l be set b a c k f r o m C o m m u n i o n 9and they do not want to ri s k this causing t h e m to miss f o r the third time. If they miss thr ee times banned, they are not a u t o m a t i c a l l y but the m ini st er s call on th em and find out what is the matter. not come O c c a s i o n a l l y there are cases of people w h o do 491 to communi on regu l a r l y that are overlooked. W h e n an indi vi du al is too 111 or to o old to attend communion c h u r c h 5he m a y ask to have it in his home. days after the c h u r c h has communion, A few a g r o u p gathers his home, and they celebrate it together. in T h e the oldest living man in St one yrun and one of the f ore singers in the uj o-S Stoneyrun church, f i n a l l y too we ak to atten d communion church, so the ministry, neighbors, b r othe rs and sisters g a th er ed at the home of his son Christ, whe r e he had his home and gave him the Lor d's supper, w h i c h he enjoyed. 492 To be a true c o m m u n i o n there must gregation, for Christ and not In the is in the midst elements. always be a c o n ­ of the cong re ga ti on Thos e g at he red re present the con- ,. 495 gregation. 491. This m a y be done when one of the f a m i l y is d e ­ vout and well liked and it is obvious that the Chr isti an member w o u l d be hurt more than the pers on shun ned w o u l d be helped. (00A6O) See the earli er section on d i s c i plini ng member s. 492. H e r a l d , De c e m b e r 3, 1956, p. 6. 493. Sometim es comm u n i o n and anoi nt ing one f oll ow in g the other if the person is v e r y April 9, 1953, p. 3. Communi on is only g i v e n cently been c e l e b r a t e d In the home c h urch and is anxious to have i t . ar e celebr ate d ill. Ibid.. , if it has r e ­ if the invalid R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 995 - The id entifica tio n of the individual w i t h the g r o u p is fu rth er illustrated by the fact that com m un io n is only served to an invalid soon a ft er the Ge im e i n d e has c e l e ­ brated. He is still a me mbe r of the B o d y of Christ must fit into the r h y t h m of the larger en ti ty regardless of the state of his pe rs on al^ phy sical Communion relates the and or spiritu al health. individual to his fellow m e n as well as to his Savior. Ev ery one is always i nte rested in who m i s s e d C o u n ­ cil church, for except in the case of extreme old age or illness a person who was not at cou ncil ch u rc h m a y not take communion. Y o u n g people wh o work around the la rg er corn- m u n i t y try to re turn for these two services. portanc e of attending b o t h meetings fact that when a m i n i s t e r ’s wife wit h her husband, she does not not b ee n examined by that 494 The i m ­ is il l u s t r a t e d b y the visits a n e i g h b o r i n g church take conraunion,for she had church. Du r i n g the co mmu nion season one of the first questio ns a s k e d of a fri e n d or r e ­ lative in another ch ur ch district cil ch urch y e t ? ” nion'?" Fo l l o w e d by, is, "Have you had c o u n ­ "When will you have c o m m u ­ A nd if the que st io ne r knows the person well, "Did 494 o 00A88 always came "home" for council meeting and communion even t h o u g h her services were q ui te b a d l y ne e d e d at a sister or a brother's h ome in an other church district. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. _ 996 - 495 yo u go to council church?" There is a fe el in g of r e ­ lief on the part of the asker if the person answers ’’Ye s," If he says, "No," he is not questioned, why, but he g e n e r ­ all y v ol unt e e r s some sort of a n excuse. A further indicat ion of the tr emen dou s placed on the communion sequence' is shown b y the f act that members of a family w o u l d not miss tend a family we dding. importance council m e e t i n g to a t ­ A girl f r o m an Old O r d e r A m i s h S t o n e y ­ run family was m a r r i e d on the af ternoon of council meeting . None of he r m a r ri ed aunts and u ncles who be l o n g e d to S t o n e y ­ run ch urch distric t who also went to came to her wedding, council chu r c h instead. nor did h e r fa th er The onl y member of her fam i l y who was w i l li ng to miss council chu r c h to 496 come to the wed di ng was a young u n m a r r i e d aunt. The belief that communion must be o b s erve d concor497 dantly b y all believers and represents a spirit of o n e ­ ness and peace, attends. p ar ti ally "Some of the been enjoying explains this a n x i et y about who older sisters the best of health, 495. I h e a r d this questio n visits in 1952 and 1953. . . . who have not we are glad to say, we re asked m a n y times during 496. The fa ct that the u n ma rr ie d fa mily m e m b e r w o u l d miss such an important service is fu rt he r in dicati on that baptism confers official membership, but mar ria ge and p a r ­ enthood f u l l y commits the individual to the community. 497. D.P., o p . c i t ., 1910, p. 88. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 997 - 498 able to a t t e n d . ” the last time Ev e r y o n e knows who m i s s e d and these people communion are w a t c h e d e s p e c i a l l y closely. One f a m i l y m i s s e d it twice ”w i t h such a weak 499 excuse.” There was quite a bit of comment ab ou t them. However, t h e y went the third time and no more was said. A t e r m sometimes u s e d for Co mmun ion c h u r c h is "GrossG e m e i n , ” or large congregation, implying that all are present. A person m a y miss Comm union becau se to a t t e n d by the church. he is fo rbidde n Or he ma y miss C omm un io n b e ­ cause he do e s no t t h i n k that he is w o r t h y or re ad y to cel, o ebrate the Lord's Supper. 500 There is also a t hi rd r e a ­ son for m i s s i n g C o m m u n i o n , a n d that dual feels that some are not wor thy. ing the sin of the of those who some people do not take indivi­ people w ho are ta k i n g Communion W h e n I as ked about u n d e r s t a n d what I meant. 498. is b e c a u s e the the concept of sh a r ­ p a r t o o k of c o m m u n i o n , t h e y di d However, not it was e x p l a i n e d that c o mm un io n b e c ause they t h i n k other H e r a l d , M a y 1, 1952, p. 3. 499. The excuse was that the g i r l w h o m t h e y h a d asked to come to care for the c h i l d r e n could, not come. E v e r y o n e k n e w t h e y c o ul d have left their c h il dr en w i t h a n e i g h b o r who h a d girls of twelve and thirt een who could have c a r e d for them. 500. In one instance even t h o u g h a f a m i l y was told by one of the m i n i s t e r s that t h e i r d e v i a t i o n should not keep t h e m f r o m communion, they did not lea rn it soon enough. Th ere fore they did not go to council m e e t i n g or observe the fast day, so they could not get rea dy in time. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 998 people are In the wrong, - "The p r e a c h e r s them that they sh ou ld not miss erely, or that communion, someone should be ried about this or vocal, the whole The preac he rs pun is he d more sev­ If this chu rc h m a y have to seem to be e sp ec ia lly w o r ­ type of objection w h i c h may enable to k e e p the chu rc h to the strictest possible and thus force some of the more leave the if for e x ­ another p e r s o n s h o u l d not be a l l o w e d to take miss communion. tion, an issue, they ma y refuse to take It w i t h them. group Is large, tell co mmu nion for this reason." If some m e mb ers feel strongly about ample t h e y feel that always a few Interpreta­ lib era l m e mb er s to church. C o u n c i l C h u r c h or " O rdn un gs -G emein de " service that is similar is a long to the c om m u n i o n service in that three mi ni s t e r s part ic i p a t e ; t h e r e bei ng an introduction, a b eg in ni ng (Anfang) and the re gular is the pre aching u n u s u a l l y long, stay out in council (Abrath) but sermon. the m in is te rs often for a long time,and after the r e gu la r service all the church members disputes. T h erefo re Not only stay to settle an y children are r a r e l y t a k e n to this service and n o n - m e mb er s do not attend. Occasionally very 501. This fee li ng wo u l d be an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e tion of the b e li ef that al l are memb ers of one body. The individual can n ot (and dare not) be of one spirit w i t h wrong doers. 00A2. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. exten- - children are taken, of this. 502 but 999 there If t he y are - is us ua ll y some c ritic is m of school age or older, they are not taken bec ause t he y might u nde rstand what was going on. Ge n e r a l l y the co ngrega tio n is made up of adult mem bers and babies under a year. The service starts While this is being with the singing of a hymn. sung,the While they are talking, 503 ministers retire to the "Abrath" the congregation sings the L o b li ed and then p r ob ab ly the hymn on page 666 of the Ausbund. 504 W hen the mi ni ste rs return,one of them rises to give the introduction (Vorstellung). This is v e r y bri ef in that it should last only about fifteen minutes. It starts w ith 505 the creation, mentions Noah, the tower of Babel, A b r a ­ ham's call to leave his fatherland, the command t ha t he offered his son as a sacrifice, fact that his d e s c e n ­ dants would have the to serve In a strange land fo r four h u n ­ dred years... th e m i s e r y of the Israelites In the land of Egypt and how after cr:/ing to the Lord they were led f or th by Moses, the pascal having b ee n protected f r o m d e a t h by the blood of lam.., how they cress the Re d Sea, and h o w the Lord ordered them to observe the passov er annually. 502. 00A 115 were criticized for this. ered too l o n g a day for little children. The It is c o n s i d ­ 503. Hymn 683 or 481 in the A u s b u n d , Ein R e g i s t e r , o p .c i t ., or Hymn 310, Raber's Calender. 504. Rab er's Calender, Ei n Register, op.cit. hymns 770, in an alternative, 505. In the St one yrun church this sermon begins with the Creation. In the Handbftch fiir Prediger, p. 11, the in­ troduction is given as starting with Abraham. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 1000 - institution of the Last Supper "by Jesus is b r i e f l y m e n ­ tioned and how it shall be 506 r eme mbranc e of Him, observed by His church in the The Anfang and the first part of the main sermon cover the Old Test a m e n t emphasizin g two themes: relations w ith brothers, brothers’ and the co nseq ue nc es of not lowing the L o r d ’s instructions. fol­ The p r ea cher who is to 506, "Es wird angefa nge n bei der Beru fu ng Abrahams a us zu ge hen von s ei ne m Vaterland, und von dem Segen der ihm verhei sse n war, und a u c h wie er ein Z e i ch en forderte, u n d ihm ein Opfer abgeford ert war, A u c h dass ihm dabei gesagt wurde dass sein Same Fre mdling e mfissen sein im fremde Lande u n d zu Di ene n g ez wung en und be la den wilirden sein v ie r hundert Jahre. Und dan n wie dies in Erflillung ging n a c h d e m Jakob mit seiner gro sse n Familie n a c h E g y p t e n kam, u n d sie en dlic h in solche bedrlickte Lage ka me n dass sie zu m Her rn schrieen, un d du rc h Mose ausgeffthrt wurden, n a c h d e m sie das O s t e r l a m m ge schlac hte t und das Blut des Zeichen gewo rden war d u r c h wel ches sie vo m Tode erlBset, u n d von ihrer Feinde Hand errettet wurden, und aus de m Lande der Bedrftckung geffihrt wurden, Wie sie d u r c h das Rote M e e r geftthrt und von ihren F e i n de n ge sc hi e d e n wurden, und als das Jahr u m war auf des Herrn Befehl das M a h l wi ed er zu ha lten ha tte n un d d a r n a c h jRhrlich. D a n n wie Jesus es a u c h ge halten hat mit seinen Jftnger, das letzte mal am A bend voi seinem Leiden, u n d dann mit Brot und d e m K e l c h es ne u eingesetzt hat als A bb il dung seies bitteres Leidens und Sterbens als er sein F l e i s c h u n d Blut gab zur Er lBs ung fiir die Mensch he it von de r Siinde, und dem Fl uc h der S{3nde zu erlBsen. A u c h gab Er Be se hl dass seine Aposteln und folgends seine Gemeinde solches Mahl ha lt en soo zu seinem G e d & c h t n i s ,” Handbiich fiir P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t . , pp. 10-11, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1001 - make the An fang talks for about thirty minutes. He too starts w i t h the Creatio n and. the bitter consequ enc es of Adam, an d Eve not fo llowin g God's command. and jealousy b e t w e e n Cain and Abel. his God's pu ni sh m e n t 507 children f r o m m i x i n g with the world.'" the res cue of obedient N o a h and his The T h e n the h a t r e d congreg ati on kneels while the in silent deacon reads Ma t h e w 18. of And. f i n a l l y fa mil y f r o m the flood. prayer, 50: the n stands The m a i n sermon is g i v ­ en by a diffe ren t preacher, He picks u p the the me whe re 5 09 the previous p r e ac he r left off. Starting w i t h the curse on H i m for his u n s e e m l y conduct on the occasio n of his f a ­ ther's dr unkenne ss, he goes on to m e n ti on w i t h N o a h symboliz ed by the rainbow. T hen the s t o r y of A b r a ha m is r e l a t e d in co nsi derabl e detail. his name, the covenant H o w he cha nged and his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i th Lot as an exa mp le of brothe rly love, an d also 510 of ones' ass ociates. as an example o f the im por t a n c e Abraham' s f i d e l i t y a n d devotion 507. "the sons of God saw the daughte rs of m e n that they w er e fair; and they took them wi ve s of al l w h i c h t h e y chose." Gen. 6:2. 508. "Im A n f a n g sollt die gro sse We i s h e i t und A l i ­ ma cht Got te s bei der Schflpfung vorg eh oben werden, un d seine G e b ot en die er A d a m gab; die u b e r t r e t u n g von Go tt es Ge bot und seine bittere Folgen; von K ai n und Ab el u m zu zeigen was Hass und Neid u n t e r Brttder tun kann; die w u n d e r b a r e Strafe Gottes iiber die V e r m e n g u n g die K i n d e r Go t t e s mit der Welt. Noahs O eh or sa me mit der A r c h e R a u und bis zu se ine m E i n g a n g in di e Arche u n d sein E r r e t t u n g von der Silndflut." Handblich fftr Prediger, op.cit. , 509. If the man who made the B e g i n n i n g does not get as far along as he sh ou ld in his a l l o t t e d time^the second man starts where the first left off. However, he g e n e r a l l y reaches the p r e d e t e r m i n e d part of the Bible. 510. Lot chose the r ic h va l l e y even t h o u g h wicked people live d j.n it, ins tead of w i t h d r a w i n g f r o m t he re R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1002 - as illustrated Then Esau and birthright, journey gifts of to his to his brothers. the crossing of of his for not the rock.,, generously told, high position the him. The early hatred in E g y p t a nd of M o s e s is his the golden calf,,,the tablets of Sabbath... the kinsman, Aaron.., h o w properly humble serpents they spoke against thousand Israelites that d e a t h of Moses is entered Jordan*,»the the fate death when the of of capture bit the four from idollaw.„the being to be water f rom and Is­ of twenty council. The before land.,, "the c r o s s i n g of t h e to after God of episode hundred jea­ punished children Balaam's of promised Jericho of Ai for obtained coming as Promised fall he was Lord„..tlie followed recounted, the Moses who related of K o r a h story care death? t he with of his to M o s e s ' the his he r e t u r n e d Sea of his then Red fiery finally forgave and of t h e the and blessing story B a l a a m and River from the people selling L e b e n 's a n d h o w w h e n Eala a n d the Esau's Esau Isaac. the being when sacrifice relationship? Esau is to Then worship breaking rael Nncle life his lous Jacob's f r o m Esau, brothers willingness J a c o b ’s t a k i n g Joseph's trous by his the the army theft of the Lord.,,, of A c h a n had 5 H been punished. This into t h e less f e r t i l e choice are stressed. part land.. of The the sermon takes consequences of about this poor 511. "In der H a u p t l e h e r e w i r d d a n n e r e w S h n t d e r F l u c h d e r f o l g t e a u f H a m s Silnde g e g e n s e i n e n V a t e r , i n d e m er s e i n e n u n z i e m l i c h e n Z u s t a n d s e i n e m R r u d e r d r a u s s e n es ansagte. her Bund Gottes dem N o a h gegeben. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - three h o u r s ® a n h o u r and 1003 a h a l f to cover the m a t e r i a l Creation to t h e P l i g h t f r o m F g y p t , go o v e r t h e rest Then the of M a t t h e w . He support it tion h o w loves. same may with minister stress congregation, cut o f f a h a n d , to l i v e m a i m e d enlarges foot or that it drowned well whole as may and He cast God, into church, he must church.— each individual being subject to the finding the astray lost should the f o l d . sinners sheep be people, and for t h e lost should b e as sought However, sheep r e p r e s e n t is d i s c u s s e d it only these s h eep. in a n is b e l i e v e d a few, Christ The The five 55» "Yea, all books leaves first that attempt congrega­ rejoices over who have gone to b r i n g t h e m b a c k into few those really deal If this t he book subject one to nine he searches with trespassers does and and righteous Father while to obedient, C h r i s t ’s even the ninety w i t h his of M o s e s o f y o u be effort to from the 55 h o w m u c h He f o r the y are on an indi v i d u a l basis. 52. and whom God is b e t t e r The cast other. a n i l l u s t r a t i o n that after f o r it be congrega­ one i f a m e m b e r is n o t on the and is w a r n e d hell. reflects save the offend individual, offend child reminds t h a n to the is G o d ' s w i l l eighteenth chapter t he l i t t l e or if h e coming to badly of references. eye that t h a n to b e reminded as a h a l f to 52 u p o n the the humility be b e t t e r to be from the and another hour and "Altvclter L e h r . " other Biblical it w o u l d The tion is of the - not work, then one of Joshua. another . . ."I 5:5. i ! R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Peter - or tv/o m o r e should go to not l i s t e n to these, and if he d o e s not However, three sins. these They than to apply listen servant, we r a t h e r to sions t h a t all the be judged n e i g h b o r as is n o t h i n g b ut are necessary not of the but Q debt is Christ as w e really but naughtiness a n y t h i n g that oneself. have, This is ones never o we that w i t h the 54 various To re­ transgres­ For example, frivolity; even with untruths neighbor's, should help obligated and must As it w i t h and we tremendous are mentioned. filling rather debt others. are, or deadly being for­ is so judge expelled. brother, servant that church, for gross f o r g i v e n b y God. they with a poor, be does one sinner who forget to must the and not realize pray great for goodness f o r g i v i n g God. The Christ t h e n he must probably made parents to t h e church, for us, by be t o l d If h e compared w i t h the great in debt coveting should parable is brother. of b r o t h e r a g a i n s t Sabbath properly, any s t r e n g t h h e m i g h t of his sins of t h e m have or fal s e w i t n e s s ; that he the be p a i d how much disappointing one's loving o n e ' s fault The sacrifice will not k e e p i n g God. - offending admonitions possibly mind the p e o p l e to by the m a s t e r God f o r C h r i s t ' s it c o u l d n o t the then his sins against given h i s d e b t s ee 1004 congregation that is represented Old A d a m within..,*. Adam a re m e n t i o n e d , reminded their regen e r a t i o n and However, for there 54» J u d g e n o t t h a t among t h e A m i s h . Mast, of t h e i r b a p t i s m by the instances are o f t he the survival few really worthy ye' b e n o t j u d g e d , L e s s o n s , op. cit. death blood of o f the. of this old or r i g h t e o u s is a f r e q u e n t maxim R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - people w h o have peace l o v i n g , pure but hearts. tend to ences b e t w e e n b r o t h e r s . b r o t h e r is t h e fully t h e of l o v e spirit same preacher laid d o w n h i s life ourselves of t h e under t h e cross Finally, we all o u r soul that to brethren reminded as to b e guilty out that that should he gossip of should Christ, friendship of and to l o v e o u r mind, and sufficiently to and angry j u d g i n g him . differ­ with a Sorrow­ is m e a g e r e v i d e n c e no peace. and to o u r G-od w i t h replace a greater love l i f e .for h i s our life love be disunity earnestly praying remember and all that remember that old A d a m and w i t h no t often there lay d o w n his bring are r a t h e r t han to m i n i m i z e are among the brethren, hath a n y m a n t h a n - They points They The exaggerate thing of o n e n e s s . 1005 friend. So w e Christ should purge soul humbly bow G-od f o r s t r e n g t h . all our heart our n e i g h b o r as and ourself. 56 Then the minister reads I Corinthians 5 enlarging on it verse by verse. This passage supports to e x p e l t h e w r o n g d o e r , f o r ^ a lump." witness. At the end T hen the the s e r m o n r e a d s of t h i s excommunications, little long leaven leaveneth s e r m o n two congregation kneels a prayer is p r o n o u n c e d , and a h y m n but a l l r e m a i n f o r t h e 56 f r o m the is sung. w a r n i n g the or three while the church whole other ministers the m i n i s t e r w h o preached C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t . The b e n e d i c t i o n However, church is not "out," council meeting. 55. Adapted primarily from Beiler's Wahre Christenthum, op. cit.. pp. 180-214 and some discussion with 00A1 previous to the Ordnungs gemein in his church. i 56. Ein Register, op. cit. lists 666, 770, 510 and 254; Rdber’s \ Calender lists 666, 310, 453? 254 verse 11, 706. a R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Before the church, discussing the one ministers of the hold especially if should not jump to municated, when his case really be sure that they are c a u t i o n e d is of time." the less Is h e as - that may remind their to of his doings, importance than penitent, may the and not be on gossip. milder give brought before b r e t h r e n that a brother merits they be the judgment c o n c l u s i o n that truly are a transgr e s s o r who are b a s i n g a fair account has d o n e " sent to one problems sh o u l d n o t to g i v e some 1006 they guilty, Members should be excom­ discipline. They brother an opportunity to reme m b e r that "what he is d o i n g at or is he u n m o v e d "what the in his he pre­ sin? And finally, they are reminded that "it is a tragedy to participate in a c o u n c i l which determines to excommunicate a member, w h e n we are involved in similar transgressions." 67 Then the problems of h o w l o n g t h e Order A m i s h to the b a n a b o y Some sins. If ban will join the who or will member will The c o n f e s s o r presented. be placed sisters small signifies asked that may include It m a y has questions left the Old mean placing under car. may have requested to transgression against explain what be These on a member who Conservatives. driven a is a v e r y of t h e m i n i s t e r s then t h e has brothers it are i f it it the brother or confess the ordnung, s i s t e r did, has been explained has, a n d then he is minor one and ' correctly. forgiven. If it 5 7 o " (Th i s d o e s n o t m e a n h o w e v e r , t h a t w e m a y n o t sit i n council, if w e h a v e c o m m i t t e d s i m i l a r s i n s i n t h e p a s t , b u t h a v e repen t e d a n d r e m o v e d t h e b e a m f r o m o u r o w n e y e . ) It r a t h e r m e a n s if we a r e l i v i n g i n s u c h g r o s s s i n s n o w . " M a s t , L e s s o n s , o p . c i t . c p. 142. P r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h a d a p t e d f r o m p. 1 4 2 - 4 2 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - is a m o r e important not a g a i n s t of t h e God the On h i s knees nifies t h a t spoken t o sion n o w l i s tened too The now each and the and he time. to The asks to bring be asked against who joresents makes 58. F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d disciplining members. the his the to ordnung, not require be 58 above, 59 the m i n i s t e r i f it has individual sig- individuals involved, may have their transgres­ sa y as u s i n g anything the w o m a n said If a n i n d i v i d u a l is n o t the use God. Some are and f o r g i v e n by the individual then individual mention people of the the repentant), forgiven. doctor. ment o r b e h a v i o r g o e s case is congregation time does congregation, If two case the congregation may the is n o t in a d v a n c e % others In a of t h e sin that if he w i s h e s confesses. closely a - sin against congregation, wish, first is t h e words, God and wishes. anot h e r m e m b e r ordnung, the ministers f o r the still a individual correctly, is h i s the it h e to before birth c o n t r o l , about the case been e x p l a i n e d but (in o t h e r ban unless explains sin, 1007 sh e h a d feels living according to that the it up. to d e c i d e w h e t h e r church stand o r not . clear, discussion see and the certain Usually most the of the earlier equip­ minister time, section in on 59. I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e it is u s u a l l y t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e element t h a t d e c i d e s , f o r it t a k e s o n l y tw o o r t h r e e w i t n e s s e s to prevent i n n o v a t i o n . T h e m i n i s t e r s , t h o u g h s e e m i n g to be l e a d e r s , are in t h e d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n o f a t t e m p t i n g to r e f l e c t a n d v e r b a l i z e the g r o u p f e e l i n g . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - healthy churches, erally t h e alwayso Then, As while the ministers congregation the congregation walk a m o n g t h e standing if he to t a k e is r e a d y has s i g n i f i e d that been s p o k e n to, asks i f a n y o n e and he - present supports in all decisions, 1 0 0 8 a united the minister, the s i ngs, the communion. preachers, ready, t he w h o l e When the he sits has b e e n missed. If no that final bishop e a c h one gen­ say.^ and deacon individually brother or sister dow n . congregation so b ut b y no m e a n s congregation has the congregation asking is front, is o ne h a s When everyone se a t e d , has a preacher been missed, and all 60o Possibly Ausbund 453. This hymn is listed in Ruber's Calender and the Indiana Service Manual (Umble, "Amish Service Manuals," op. cit.) However, it is not listed in Ein Register. op.cit., It concerns the command to love G-od and one's neighbor, as symbolized by communion "love" is the greatest command; it produces peace and outdoes the devil, sin, death and hell. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - the p r o b l e m s h a v e tion, the been settled Deacon announces will be hel d . The There is a great where, in t h e i r b r o t h e r l y love that n o w as - s a t i s f a c t i o n of the a n d whe n , announce verse feeling able to r e a c h a d e g r e e sion a n d to t h e foresingers singing o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d 1009 the 60 the long last service of r e l i e f that of u n i t y and peace, during the period one body, communion the that congrega- services hymn^and is concluded. church has they were to been sustained of d i s a g r e e m e n t they w i l l be able w i t h the and ten­ celebrate com­ munion together. With the finished, b ut end of the individual preparation intense l e v e l . The church is a C a s t thing f r o m t he council Sunday between day. time he rises u ntil A u s b u n d , ■254, verse may 11. be the community p r e p a r a t i o n is continues, council On this day 60. C o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e s imately t w o w e e k s h e n c e . 61. church, though on a less c h u r c h and communion no h e a l t h y m e m b e r swallows noo n . On on any day Raber's such a fast of the day we e k , any­ in one approx­ Calender. 62. U m b l e r e p o r t s " A l l w h o w e r e a b l e w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e g i n the d ay w i t h f a s t i n g , e a t i n g no b r e a k f a s t o n t h e S u n d a y m o r n i n g of 'G-ross Gma. ' " U m b l e , " U n i o n , " op. cit., p. 93. Prey reports that t h e M e n n o n i t e f a s t d a y is t h e S a t u r d a y b e f o r e c o m m u n i o n S u n d a y . John 'William Pre y , T h e G e r m a n D i a l e c t o f E a s t e r n Y o r k C o u n t y . P e n n s y l v a n i a (U r b a n s g 1 1 1 . : U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , 1 9 4 1 ) . Mast, L e s s o n s , o p . c i t ., p. 120, q u o t e s a b i s h o p , " . . .it w a s o u r m i d d l e Sunday, a n d we a t e n o b r e a k f a s t , p r e p a r a t o r y to o u r o w n c o m m u n i o n on S u n d a y f o l l o w i n g . " 6 3 o In one f a m i l y the mother, who w as pregnant, ate less t h a n usual, b u t d i d eat. U m b l e 's m o t h e r w h o w a s s u b j e c t to m i g r a n e h e a d ­ aches, a l s o a t e o n f a s t d a y s . i R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 1010 - family w e g o t ate a p i c k u p up later than usual, breakfast having a r e g u l a r m e a l of c o l d at the other r o o m p r e p a r i n g t h e sang h y m n s 64 and the about cereal table father in the while n o o n meal. seven the The kitchen instead parents sat T h e n the read the o'clock. The of i n the m o t h e r and New Testament. children children children f i looked t h r o u g h At n o o n t h e a book fast d i nner we w e n t was called to v i s i t day whole in visiting, was b r o k e n ) came up that we w e n t visiting not h a v e guests another and should be any Reading b r o k e n by a l a r g e on a f a s t d ay Bible it that at devoted after in and family,, was felt least to f o r the delicious The that the morning instead Circle. dinner. wrong to After spend (until the This was the be u s u a l t he fast reason of f o r dinner, for dinner as would R que s t i o n of v i s i t i n g it w a s religion.^ dinner Family and for the did between church S u n d a y . The self though a n council examination individual may church, that he is n ot he m a y really 64 ° M a n y of t h e all "fast t u n e s . " continues signify after that rarely decide worthy hymns he council is during ready the church for and even c o m m u n i o n at ensuing two weeks o f it. were in E n g l i s h and the G-errnan o n e s w e r e 65 . T h i s b o o k w a s 'written i n q u e s t i o n a n d a n s w e r f o r m o n t h e history a n d g e o g r a p h y o f t h e B i b l e l a n d s a s w e l l a s o n t h e B i b l i c a l stories. T h e r e w a s n o d a t e of p u b l i c a t i o n , b u t t h e e n g r a v i n g w e r e all c o p y r i g h t 188 8 . 66. H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a l m o s t on o t h e r b e t w e e n S u n d a y s . as m u c h v i s i t i n g on fast days R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. as - 1011 - As a symbol is a g r e a t season, deal The of peace within of v i s i t i n g service is the l a r g e r A m i s h of the ministers often held community, d u r i n g the o n a w e e k day, so there communion that m o r e vis- fc\'1 iting c l e r g y asked to preach. conducted s ervice can be by t he there The c o m m u n i o n present, This means clergy were that o f the twenty-two service cipating m i n i s t e r s , deacons, xi.s m a n y v i s i t o r s or a t o t a l has home communion become at one is are rarely communion another nineteen. e l a b o r a t e d to two preachers, six m inisters possible service d i s t r i c t A t ministers, Generally of the as include many two bishops are n e eded f or the 69 parti­ and two service. Although t e c h n i c a l l y e a c h A m i s h c h u r c h d i s t r i c t h a s a c o m p l e t e c o n ­ tingent o f m i n i s t e r s , and is completely self-contained, communion s e r v i c e r e q u i r e s t h e h e l p o f v i s i t o r s . area, two bishops the e l e m e n t s 70 may s u b s t i t u t e and are considered necessary two deacons for one deacon. to assist In the for preaching them, if the u s u a l Stoneyrun and necessary serving a minister 71 6 7 o See A p p e n d i x VIII, P art E f o r a chart s h o w i n g w h e n s p r i n g communion was held in the v a r i o u s church distr i c t s in central Ohio in l955o 68. churches service, 69. See A p p e n d i x VIII, P a r t E f o r a chart of t h e m i n i s t e r s t h a t t o o k p a r t inthe O c t o b e r 27, 19 5 2 . Pier a i d , M a y 19, 1 9 5 5 , p= s h o w i n g the h o m e Stoneyrun communion 6, 70. O n e b i s h o p p r e a c h e s t h e V o r s t e l l u n g ( i n t r o d u c t i o n ) different b i s h o p p r e a c h e s Das L e i d e n C h r i s t i (the s u f f e r i n g The b i s h o p t h a t p r e a c h e d o n t h e s u f f e r i n g C h r i s t s e r v e s t h e the one w h o p r e a c h e d t h e V o r s t e l l u n g s e r v e s t h e w i n e . and a Christ). bread, 71. T h e d e a c o n w h o r e a d t h e S c r i p t u r e g e n e r a l l y b r i n g s i n t h e bread a n d w i n e a n d c u t s t h e b r e a d , t h e n h e l p s t h e b i s h o p to s e r v e the- wine; if t h e r e i s n o t a s e c o n d d e a c o n p r e s e n t , a m i n i s t e r m a y s ubstitute i n t n i s role. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1012 - This elaboration has probably developed as an emphasis of communion whi c h is the supreme ceremony, b ut it to the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . into d i s t r i c t s , t h i s m u n i t y was, strongly was in effect, a device one congregational, cates a d e g r e e true b ut form). this interdependence The communion is no c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t , not f i n i s h u n t i l starts w i t h council part take quite congregation had in c o u n c i l . starts in of a hymn, As there a while time the to When they they are people communion community five return, it is not service feels t he eight-thirty. decide who There are service will usual, the m i n i s t e r s that ceremony. for the long As and acts surprising at evening. indi­ ordnung uni­ church about com- remain in t heir leave the service for their will deliver which often many visiting ministers, to decide. sing related the w h ole districts ( a t t e m p t i n g to k e e p during which service. The the even no babies, five singing (Abrath) of t h e this m a y the about that reflected and 72 elaborated oriented service I believe, as t h e c h u r c h g r e w a n d d i v i d e d church. of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e For a religiously also, f o r i n d i c a t i n g that the upon o n a s o c i o l o g i c a l l e v e l is At a typical hymns while one of the service, the ministers bishops, who the were is n o w 72. T h e f e e l i n g o f t h e c o m m u n i t y b e i n g o n e i s i n d i c a t e d c e r e ­ m o n i a l l y b y t h e e f f o r t t h e y m a k e to k e e p t o g e t h e r i n t h e r h y t h m o f their c e r e m o n i a l c e l e b r a t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the time c o m ­ m u n i o n is c e l e b r a t e d v a r i e s m o r e f r o m o n e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i s o l a t e d c o m m u n i t y t o a n o t h e r t h a n it d o e s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . The Penn­ sylvania a n d O h i o c o m m u n i t i e s m a y be a l m o s t a m o n t h a p a r t i n t h e i r celebration of communion. T h e u n i t y of t h e w h o l e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n ­ tiguous c o m m u n i t y is i n d i c a t e d by s u c h s t a t e m e n t s a s t h a t a p p e a r i n g in the H e r o l d d e r W a h r h e i t , M a y 1, 1 9 5 3 » p. 294, " A u s g e n o m m e n e i n District h a b e n a l l e 2 8 G e m e i n d e n i n L a n c a s t e r Co., d a s L i e b e s m a h l g e h a l t e n v o n d e m 18. z u m 25. A p r i l . " 73. (See next page). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1013 - sitting at the head of the first bench, gives the 'idea' or 'outline' 74 of the following service (the Vorstellung). creation He starts with the 7R and briefly mentions (in ten or fifteen minutes) what will be covered by the following sermons. Then a minister stands to preach the short sermon, or the Anfang. He covers the Bible from V c5 7V the creation to the rainbow or to the tower of Babel. Occasionally he does not get as far as he should, and then the next minister starts where he left off. The anfang is followed by the congrega70 tion kneeling in silent prayer. Then the next preacher stands to give the main sermon. 79 The 73* ( f r o m p r e v . p a g e ) A s c o m m u n i o n is c l o s e d , I h a v e o f c o u r s e not a t t e n d e d a c o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e . The day f o l l o w i n g the S t o n eyrun c o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e , t h e w i f e o f o n e of t h e S t o n e y r u n m i n i s t e r s r e ­ ported i n d e t a i l e x a c t l y w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d d u r i n g t h e s e r v i c e . This is one o f t h e o n l y t i m e s t h a t I t o o k n o t e s , b u t a s t h e r e w a s n o o n e else i n t h e h o u s e , a n d sh e w a s s u r e w e w o u l d n o t b e d i s t u r b e d , she did n o t m i n d . S o m e o f t h e d e t a i l s sh e g a v e m e I c o u l d n o t h a v e observed h a d I b e e n there? of c o u r s e , t h e r e a re m a n y o t h e r s that I missed b y n o t b e i n g a b l e to a t t e n d . Lat e r I filled in points I was not s u r e o f b y a s k i n g s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s of v a r i o u s p e o p l e , p a r t i ­ cularly 0 0 A 1 a n d 0 0 A 3 • P r o m h e r r e p o r t , it a p p e a r e d t h a t it -was a typical c o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e . 74. 0 0 A 2 3 * Vorstellung. The Bishop remains seated while delivering the 75. 00A1, 0 0 A 2 3 . "It is m o s t l y a b o u t t h e c r e a t i o n o f man. It is q u i t e s h o r t a s e v e r y o n e w h o h a s j o i n e d c h u r c h k n o w s it. ( R e f e r r ­ ing to t h e b a p t i s m a l s e r m o n ) " a n d it h a s g o n e o v e r i n c o u n c i l c h u r c h . " OOA2. I was told that this s e r m o n was always g i v e n by a bishop. "Obige V o r s t e l l u n g w i r d j e t z t v o n v i e l e d e r j u n g e r e B i s h c h O f e b e i d e r S c h O p f u n g a n g e f a n g e n , a b e r d i e a l i e n h a b e n i m m e r mi t A b r a h a m a n g e fangen, u n d d a s i s t n o c h a m s c h i c k l i c h s t e n , u n d e r s p a r t k d s t l i c h e Zeit." H a n d b u c h ftlr P r e d i g e r , op. c i t . , p. 11. 76. 00A23. 77. 0 0A2. H a n d b u c h f d r P r e d i g e r , op. c i t ., p. 1 4 g i v e s t h e Anfang a s c o v e r i n g t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n t o t h e ark . "Die Stinde, d e r P a l l di e M e n s c h e n , u. d i e V e r h e i s s u n g v o n e i n e m K o p f z e r treter w i r d v o r g e h o b e n . N o a h a l s e i n T r d s t e r i n d e r Hiihe u n d A r b e i t die u n t e r d e m F l u c h w a r e n , a l s V o r b i l d de s Ileilandes. D u r c h seine Ireue w a r d d i e A r c h e z u m Ileil fiir i h n u n d s e i n H a u s g e b a u e t . " 78 a n d 79. (See n e x t page) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1014 - on whole congregation o th e r m i n i s t e r s stands sit for the down, the first few sentences. c o n g r e g a t i o n is seated, c o n t i n u e s g>reaching. He starts with Abraham and "Altvater Geschichte" up to battle When the and goes the minister t h r o u g h the 0*1 stresses the parallels tioning e v e r y t h i n g of C h r i s t . 82 This the between in the sermon Old Although about the eleven-thirty with the older women, out in a p p r o x i m a t e do not l e a v e categories the s e r v i c e . as q u i c k l y they go order The men eat as p o s s i b l e '73. 0 0 A 2 says 79° T h e f i r s t is e v e n l o n g e r . there o ut and no b r e a k going they are out a sit back women to the as so t h a t time y o u the the men­ coming eleven-thirty service, f o r lunch. tim e . at sermon Testament, in the The at Beginning m e n go oldest, but they strictly by age two t a b l e s the sermon^for New points starting with one, hurry that a b e n c h at There "During this main is ( n o r do at the This finished between start of age women). and Testament people b e n c h by b e n c h as the the Old is u s u a l l y and t w e l v e - t h i r t y o of J e r i c o . set u p another. they will say the sermon on away from They eat not m i s s too L o r d ’s p r a y e r . " t he suffering Christ 80. I n m o s t s e r v i c e s t h e p r a y e r is f o l l o w e d b y S c r i p t u r e r e a d ­ ing d u r i n g w h i c h t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t a n d s . It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y a r e used to t h e p a t t e r n of s i t t i n g , k n e e l i n g , s t a n d i n g a n d t e n d to follow it e v e n w h e n it d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h a s p e c i f i c p a r t o f t h e service. 81. 0 0 A 1 , 0 0 A 2 3 ° H a n d b u c h fiir P r e d i g e r . o p . c i t . , p. 1 4 - 1 5 gives t h e s e c t i o n c o v e r e d as f r o m A b r a h a m t o M o s e s ’ l a s t b l e s s i n g and p r e d i c t i o n . 82. Ibi d . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - much o f t h e s e r v i c e , v i c e s on t h e - a n d so t h e o t h e r s c a n e a t . ^ "A ltv& ter G e sc h ic h te " th is th e B ishop, 1015 F ollow ing th e a m in is te r reads the s c r ip tu r e . who w i l l b r e a k t h e b r e a d , S u fferin g C h rist rises (L eiden C h r i s t i ) . 84 F ollow ing to g ive th e ser­ T his c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y o f r e c i t i n g a n d r e a d i n g many B i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s p e r t a i n i n g to C h r i s t . S t a r t i n g w i t h t h o s e t h a t p r o p h e s y h i s com ing, describing h is b i r th mankind. 85 The b i s h o p i l l u s t r a t e s to t h e p e o p l e . slig h t op. A typical 84. L u k e c i t ., a n d and th e n h i s d e a th , to save th ese p o in ts w ith a n a lo g ie s clo se T h r e e d a y s b e f o r e o n e c o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e t h e r e was a snow s t o r m . 85. and h i s l i f e , those A l l t h e l e a v e s were s t i l l church lunch is on th e t r e e s , and t h e y served. 1 : 2 2 - 5 3 a n d I Cor. 10 to v e r s e B i n R e g i s t e r , op. c i t . 25. R&bers Calender, 85. H a n d b u c h f d r P r e d i g e r , o p . c i t . pp. 1 6 - 1 7 g i v e s t h e f o l l o w ­ ing s u g g e s t i o n s f o r " D a s L e i d e n C h r i s t . " "Es w i r d e t w a s d e r R i c h t e r Zeit v o r g e b r a c h t u n d v o n d e n K d n i g e n b i s 'zu d e r Z e i t d a s z I s r a e l weit v o n G o t t a b g e k o m m e n ist, u n d d i e P r o p h e t e n a n f i n g e n v o n i h r e m Untergang, u n d v o n d e m M e s s i a s v e i s s a g e n , b e s o n d e r s v o n d e r P r o p h e z e i g u n g I e s a i a s i m e r s t e n u n d z w e i t e n E a p i t a l , d a n n a u c h i m 7. 9 u n d 11 K a p i t e l u n d b e s o n d e r s i m 5 3 t e n , u n d a u c h a u s M a l e a c h i 4 , 5 , 6 . Dies sollte n i c h t m e h r a l s 20 b i s 25 M i n u t e n a u f n e h m e n . Dann im Neuen kflnnen e t l i c h e - V e r s a u s 1 J o h 1 u n d Joh. 1 angefiihrt w e r d e n , d a n n a n f a n g e n b e i L u c a s I u n d 2 b i s V e r s 40. D a n n M a t t h . 1 v o n V e r s 18 an u n d w e i t e r d u r c h M a t t h . 2, d a n n L u c a s 2 V e r s 4 1 b i s a n s En d e . Dann w i r d d a s E v a n g e l i u m M a t t h . g e n o m m e n v o n K a p . 3 u n d w e i t e r u m das Y/irken u n d L e b e n J e s u z u verkiindigen. Etliche Punkten werden aus d e n a n d e r n E v a n g e l i e n g e n o m m e n , b i s m a n d u r c h M a t t h . 25 1 s t u n d bei M a t t h . 2 6 a n f a n g e n w i l l s o l l t e m a n n o c h d i e h & l f t e s e i n e r Z e i t (von 3 S t u n d e n ) h a b e n filr d a s L e i d e n C h r i s t i v o n d o r t a n z u v e r k findigen. U m C h r i s t i L e i d e n r e c h t V o r z u b r i n g e n miissen d i e v i e r Evangelien gebra c h t werden, und dann n o c h in der Apostel Geschichte j Kap. 1 u n d 2, d a n n w e r d e n d i e S c h r i f t e n v e l e s e n I K o r . 11, V e r s 2 \ und V e r s 1 7 b i s z u m E n d e , u n d d a n n Joh. 6, V e r s 4 7 b i s a n s E n d e . " R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - were in bright autumn and e v e n t h o u g h on t he g r o u n d , aga i n s t there was t he sun the yellow, very b lue sky. but ready o r not. at at so bishop concludes the the L o r d with a s c r i p t u r e was all Just trees, shone the times, part reading. deacon the b r e a d t he w i n e , ^ piece o f w h i t e cloth. or if The making The A little the on the reading by a p r e acher) of bread deacon unties and snow stood against out fact that sparkle a each person his time come w h e t h e r y o u are before sermon loaf trees out, the white the will came w h e n During this sun was one w i l l k n o w w h e n h o u r it of the n ot that illustrate f o r no snow come. by a v i s i t i n g and to s t o r m the r e m a i n o n t he green leaves appointed may snow to brightly, used as the - During the enough red and This must b e p r e p a r e d will come, colors. 1016 leaves three were on the o ’c l o c k , the Suffering Christ the goes deacon out is t i r e d (assisted to b r i n g in in a nice the b read and cuts it 86, D u r i n g t h i s p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i o n s e r v i c e , t h e A m i s h approach the p r a c t i c e s of t h e e arly C h r i s t i a n church. There, as among t h e A m i s h , t h e d e a c o n s b r i n g i n t h e o b l a t i o n . The offertorv, the p r a y e r a n d c o m m u n i o n a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d i n a s i n g l e c o n t i n ­ uous a c t i o n . J u d g e d w i t h i n t h e A m i s h f r a m e w o r k , w h e r e t h e r e is a n obvious t e n d e n c y t o s e p a r a t e p a r t s o f a c e r e m o n i a l ,•t h e o f f e r t o r y the p r a y e r a n d c o m m u n i o n a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d i n a s i n g l e c o n t i n ­ uous a c t i p n . D i x , op. c i t ., p„ 110. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - into certical the b r e a d . a black cloth. looking o r d i n a r y The 89 The sticks, is i n a b r o w n g a l l o n jug tin how t h e g r a i n s w e r e made. 88 The crushed congregation have It is n o w a b o u t three lost bishop to m a k e tells how to their identity, The With it in is a n i c e the g r a i n was grown, o ne l o a f the bread was of b r e a d and become congregation over is w r a p p e d the f l o u r and h o w is c o m p a r e d o'clock. cloth hack j ug t h a t is n e v e r u n w r a p p e d . cup. the i n d i v i d u a l s - Or? t h e n he f o lds the standing The wine 1017 in which o ne i n C h r i s t . stands and the bishop p r a y s , 87o It is a l o a f o f l e a v e n b r e a d , u s u a l l y b a k e d b y t he d e a c o n ’s wife o r t h e w o m a n of t h e h o u s e w h e r e c o m m u n i o n i s to b e he l d , u s i n g one of h e r r e g u l a r recipes. In f r o n t o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n t h e deacon c u t s t h e b r e a d i n t o s l i c e s a c r o s s t h e loa f , a n d t h e n i n t o slices l e n g t h w i s e , but he d o e s not t u r n d o w n t he s l i c e s . Thus the broken l o a f is c o m p o s e d o f m a n y " s t i c k s , " o f b r e a d s t a n d i n g t o ­ gether f o r m i n g o n e loaf. It is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s m o d e of c u t t i n g r epresents t h e c h u r c h , w h i c h is o n e b r e a d a nd o n e b o d y i n C h r i s t . (D. P., op. c i t , 191 0 , p. 80.) T h e e a r l y A n a b a p t i s t s f e l t t h a t t h e Catholic c h u r c h ' s u s e o f w a f e r s f o r c o m m u n i o n i n s t e a d of a l o a f w a s wrong. "the b r e a d m u s t b e b r o k e n . . .and n o t e a c h o n e eat h i s o w n bread by h i m s e l f , as, s a d to say, it is d o n e i n t h e w o r l d ; f o r w h o ­ ever d o e s thi s , s h o w s t h a t h e is e a t i n g h i s o w n s u p p e r , a n d n o t t h e Supper o f t h e L o r d . " " T h e p r i e s t b r e a k no b r e a d , b ut g i v e u n b r o k e n wafers." M a r t y r s M i r r o r , 1951, op. c i t . , p. 1 0 1 6 . (D.P. op. c i t ., 1910, p. 8 8 . ) The e a r l y A n a b a p t i s t s u s e d t h e s y m b o l o f t h e l o a f t o r e p r e s e n t o ne body a n d o n e c h u r c h . T h e A m i s h s t i l l u s e it i n t h e i r c o m m u n i o n s e r ­ vice, " F o r a s t h e b r e a d is m a d e of m a n y g r a i n s b r o k e n a n d g r o u n d t o ­ gether, a n d o u t of m a n y g r a i n s h a s c o m e a l o a f of b r e a d e v e r y l i t t l e kernel h a s l o s t i t s i n d i v i d u a l b o d y a n d form. . .so a l s o m u s t a l l Christians b e u n i t e d w i t h C h r i s t a n d w i t h one a n o t h e r . . ." (D.P. op. c i t .. 1 9 1 0 , p. 7 9 8 0 ) . Almost t hese exact w ords were repea t e d to me a s p a r t o f t h e s e r v i c e over. The E a s t e r n c h u r c h u s e d a 'holy lo a f ' at t h e p e r i o d t h e W e s t e r n one u s e d w a f e r s . Dix, op. c i t ., p. 121. 88. T h e w i n e is h o m e m a d e b y s o m e o n e i n t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n a neighboring congregation. It is p a r t o f t h a t m a d e f o r h o m e tion. W h e n I asked what was done w i t h the wine that was left son of a d e a c o n s a i d w i t h a s m ile, "Dad u s e d to b r i n g it h o m e children w o u l d d r i n k it u p . " 0 0 A 2 3 T h e A m i s h do n o t m i x t h e with w a t e r a s w a s t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h . o.P. c i t . , p. 111. 89. T h i s is a p p a r e n t l y Didache ( 2 n d c e n t u r y ) . a very old analogy, (it is u s e d R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. or in consump­ ov e r , a and we wine Dix, in the - 1018 - Wir finden dass der Apostel sagt dass der H er r Jesu in der Eacht da Er ver ra te n war, nahm Er das Brot, dankte, brach es und sprach: Nahrnet, esset, das 1st mein Leib der fdr euch gebrochen -wird, solches tut zu meinem Geddchtnis. So Glauben wir auch dass sein Leib welcher uns durch dies Brot abgebildet ist, das rechte Verdhnungs Opfer gew or de n ist ftlr unsere Stlnden am Stamme des Kreuzes, V/ir hoffen und glauben auch E r wird uns aus lauter Gnade und seiner gro ss en Barmherzigkeit am jdngstern Tag wieder auferwecken und fdr seine H i n d e r ansprechen und mit Ihm fdren in sein ewiges Reich, so wir anders der Anfang der angenommene Wahrheit bis an das Ende fest behalten. Und ftlr diese seine vdterliche Wohltat sei Ihm herzlich und k i n dl is h gedankto Wir ho f f e n und g lauben auch es soil Ihm fdrohin gedanket werden v o n uns and unsere Nachkommenden ewiglich, Amen. Und wer mit mir in dieser Hoffnung steht der mache sich herzu und esse v o n diesern Brot, wo ich jetzt ein Anfang machen w i l l . 90 Then the bishop breaks part of a German stick of bread and puts it into his mouth. As it reaches his mouth the congregation genuflects. Then he passes it to the bishop who gave the introduction (Vorstel­ lung), then to the minister who made the beginning (Anfang) then to the one who had the first main sermon, present, then to the preachers. then to any other bishops After the preachers have b e en served the bishop goes into the standing congregation offering each person a piece of bread. ■ 3,"L He starts with the older men, taking a stick 90. "Danksagung bei dern Bro tb re c he n, " Handbuch ftlr P r e d i g e r , p p . 2 4 - 2 5 , a slightly different formula appears on pages 17-18. This prayer is not read, but recited and there is some slight variati o n- in wording. op. c i t ., 91. "It appears to have been the universal tradition in the pre-Nicene church that all should receive communion standing." Dix, op. c i t .. p. 81. (I am mentioning some parallels. The Anabaptists were trying to restore the spostolic church. How m uch of their practices were survivals of an old tradition, conscious application of scholarship or convergence of practice, I am not in a position to s a y . ) R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1019 - from the loaf, brea ki ng it, and han di ng it to the c o m m u n i c a n t , then the younger; w h e n the me n have been served he goes to the older women, then the y ou n g e r women. down. As each person is served he sits As the bishop is ta ki n g the bread around, ious appropriate Scripture verses, from various hymns. he may recite v a r ­ or perhaps he will recite verses The older bishops usually recite as they serve, the younger ones often do not. When everyone has b e e n served, bishop asks if he has missed anyone. Then he says, that we broke the bread let us give thanks." 92 "therefore The congregation 93 stands while he reads a prayer from the C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t . ^ says a little about the wine. the Then he If he has not mentioned it in his sermon, he tells how the grapes are grown, h o w the berries are 94 picked and each one is crushed to contribute to the wine. Then he r e p e a t s the the words same p r a y e r he u s e d w i t h the b r e a d s u b s t i t u t i n cup a n d b l o o d f o r b r e a d and b o d y . ^ 92. As quoted by 00A2 after the service. 93. "Danksagung b e i m B r o t b r e c h e n , " o p . c i t ., p. 121. 9'4. "the little individual grapes, by changing t h e i r form become a common wine and pleasant drink, so also must all Christians be united with Christ and with one another. . ." D.P. o p .c i t . «, 1910, p. 88. Martyrs M i r r o r , op. c i t ., 1951, p. 298. 00A2 said describing the O c t o be r 27 communion service, "The bishop forgot to say how the wine was m a d e e But he is very old. He told us that he might miss some, but that 'you Bible readers should be able to fill i n . ’" 95. Han db uc h ftir P r e d i g e r . o p . c i t ., p. 18. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1020 - He takes the cup into which the dea co n has poured wine 96 and d r i n k s . Then he hands it to the p erson who will serve the wine, he takes a 97 swallow, the deacon refills the cup and the second mini st er ' serves the wine in the same manner as the first had served the b r e a d . The deacon fills the cup, hands it to the bishop, it to the communicant, bishop. the bishop hands who takes a swallow and hands it back to the As each receives t h e cup he sits down. After everyone has been served, the room and reads ano th er prayer. 99 98 he returns to the front of Then the congregation is seated while the m i n i s t e r who took around the wine preaches for-a few more minutes. D uring this time he reminds the congregation that there are still two more things to do, that there is foot-washing and alms giving. ‘When he finishes he asks two or three others to witness. Usually he asks the home bishop first and t h e n a bishop who p ar t i c i ­ pated in the ceremony and one other minister. Following the witnessing;, 96. The second deacon present carries the wine bottle around. If there is only one deacon, then a pre a ch er may substitute and carry the wine. 97. A different pe r s o n always takes the wine around. The bishop v;ho served the bread n ever takes the wine around. Usually the wine is served by the min is te r who gave the m a in sermon (Altv&ter) imme­ diately p re ce e d i n g the sermon on the Suffering Christ. It may be a preacher or a bishop. 98. "Sometimes he recites scripture v erses or hymns as he takes 00A2 reporting the wine around but ________ d i d n ’t as he is young." on the O ctober 27 communion. 99. C h r i s t e n p f l i c h t , op. c i t ., p. 122, Austeilung des' T r i n k b e c k e r s . " "Danksagung bei R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 1021 the b i s h o p w h o d i s t r i b u t e d the b r e a d re a d s a n o t h e r p r a y e r f r o m the Ohristenf1 i c h t ^ w h i 1 e the c o n g r e g a t i o n stands, is seated a n d it is a n n o u n c e d w h e r e The congregation c h u r c h wil l be h e l d the nex t tirne0 Y/hile the c o n g r e g a t i o n is s i n g i n g in four b u c k e t s w i t h w a r m the d e a c o n s go wut.or a n d tcwels, 101 ^ two are p l a c e d on men?s side of the r o o m 5 an 1 t •••?o o n the vro.cen’s* men and c i d e r v/crnen go who sat ne x t to to the b u c k e t s and w a s h t h e m d u r i n g tno his p a r t n e r 5s feet, t h e y arise, service, out a n d b r i n g 102 In p a i r s the four of the the o l d e r the per: .after four, ans cache.; 10 "3 shake hands' and "‘ ( ' / i kigs one a no the?-; iOGo "G-e'bot Sclhrend dcs /focndinals" or more fully "hurse Form des einmtitigen lebetc, a-j die. versa,melten Gcllubigen ■ welche das heilige ITachtmahl dcs ilerrn halt on, bitten und mit und^chtigem Herzen sprochen ridgon. " „ ot :'. c i t . , p. 120, At the O c t o b e r 27 communion the old Bishop was so tired that he asked the young p roach ex- who took i,he wine around to read the prayer, 101 o These arc ordinary oink or' galvanized b u e in.,t of the ty_.e used for sc:rubl;i,:a; o c ;■ .rryn, : water to the live stock. They are clear, end e h i n e y , tut ,-u.t necessarily new. Y/i th them are regular clean towels. If the hoot for' the service does not have four buckets in good condition, ho acts none neighbors to bring extra ones. The hostess supplies the towels* 102, It is considered very important that one be willing to wash anyone e l s e ’s feet, home of the more conscientious make a point of sitting with people who arc not relatives or especially close friends at this time to illustr. i.te the u ni versality of their service. If there happens to be .an uneve n number of people, one person will wash twice, "I often do 11 twice, " a m i n i •;t e r 's wifc reported, 103* This is the hand of fellowship, I do not know the origin cf this, but it is closely associated with the kiss of peo.ee, and in all instances immediately proceeds it, (Baptism, r e i n s t a t e m e n t , ordination, g r ee ti n g ministers and communion), 104* The holy kiss is exchanged after communion rather than before, as was the case in the Catholic church. In the Catholic rites, it was a symbol of unity as it is among the Amish, and was in some instances considered as preparatory for communion, (fix, PP. ci t, , 1 0 5 - 1 0 ) , This may suggest that the location of the cere­ mony of f ootwa^ning has been misplaced. It was not observed by the early Swiss Brethren and was one of the innovations made by Jacob Amman at the time he lead the separation from the fiennonite church. (cont;d next p a g e )* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1022 - Then they go together to the deacon and place some money in his hand. He puts it immediately into his shirt pocket. It is considered very important that no one knows h ow much a n o t he r gives. alms are used w i t h i n the church, 105 These generally for relief purposes. During the foot wash in g the congregation sings specified verses of a certain hymn. The place of communion in the Ami sh community can be discussed on two different levels: religious or sociological. It is an act essential for the ideological integration of the community for the production of a spiritual oneness. be analyzed functionally, The role of communion can also assessing the factors that contribute to the performance of this rite and the result fro m its proper execution. 104. (from prev. page) It had been practiced by the Dut ch Mennonites since the beginning, although I do not kn o w in what context. The only references to it that I have found in Menno Simons does not relate it to the communion service. Dietrich Philip mentions it as an ordinance of the church of God, but does not dwell on it. He does not mention it as associated wit h communion. The Martyrs M i r r o r „ o p . cit. (1951 pp. 31, 36, 42, 399) ho not describe this act as part of the service of the L o r d ’s Supper. Only one (pp. 399) mentions it is recommended for v i s it in g brothers. Wenger, Franconia, op. c i t . describes the Mennonites of that conference as having thei r prepa ra ­ tory service on Saturday and fo otwashing celebrated as a part of the preparation for communion. The n the holy kiss would preceed the communion service-. The posi ti on of footwashing in the communion sequence would depend largely u p o n the i nt e rpretation of communion. The Amish are celebrating "in remembrance," if it is in remembrance of the last supper, then foot w a s h i n g should follow the eating, if it is in remembrance of the passion, then foot w a s h i n g should preceed communion. The po s i t i o n of the ritual of w a s hi ng the saints feet, and terms that the Amis h use for the complete ceremony, "Abendmahl" (and Nachtmal") and their belief that Christ is in their midst, all lead to the interpretation of the ceremony as a remembrance of the Last Supper, whic h foretold the coming crucifixion. On the other hand, the last sermon is called the Suffering Christ, and the bread is broken at the hour that Christ was supposed to have died, and the bread has b e e n identified with the church and the body of Christ, and as the church dies with Christ, so too it rises with Him. Both the last supper and the death are commemorated and identified with. In attitude, though not in rite, the Agapa has not been separated from the eucharist in the A mi s h celebration. 105, 106. (See next page). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1023 - The sociological factors are a great deal easier to discuss and assess t h a n the religious meaning. But the sociological analysis is distorted if the pers on al joy of the celebrant and the collective joy of the community does not shine through the analysis. When the system functions smoothly it offers the individuals within the community a n opportunity to release the i r pent up aggres­ sive feelings, to get rid of thei r guilt and to start afresh. "Perfect fraternity demands submission to the need of the community.*1' ^ "Don’t find fault. Say noth in g if y o u c a n ’t say anyt hi n g good. Christian does not criticize. "Judge not that ye be not A 108 Silence is bet te r t h a n criticism." judged." 109 These, and similar warnings constantly circulate and are often repeated w i t h i n the community. One must submit, without criticism of o n e ’s brothers, ministers, church or one should not think evil of anot he r and dare not judge, lest he be judged. Individuals who obey these admonitions build up a considerable amount of repressed hostility. Those that do not abide by them build u p feelings of guilt. Then comes the begin n in g of the communion sequence. must be pure and the individual must be pure, The church so that c ommunion can 105o (from prevl toage) 00A2. "Take Heed That Ye Do Not Y o u r Alms Before Men," in Mast, Lessons, op. cit., pp. 88-92. 106. No commu ni on m e m be r ever fails to give alms and each individual gives fro m his own money. 107. Martyrs M i r r o r , op. c i t ., 1837 either page 67 or XIV. 108. H. 0. "Can Love Criticize? W i t n e s s i n g , January, 109. Matt. 7:1. 1956, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. p. 5. - 1024 be celebrated in a spotless church. if he has a n y t hi ng against a brother. - ho one may celebrate c o m mu ni o n N o r dare the indivi d ua l to celebrate commu ni on w i t h an 'unworthy brother. Prom the end of the service on, rege ne r at io n until the end of the council church, many of the s t a n d a r d .warnings on judging and criticising are removed. For two weeks, each i ndividual judges h i m se lf and casts an a p pr ai si n g eye on each of his brothers and sisters, whole. and on his church as a Individuals settle small differences among themselves, or suddenly decide that the differences were not really very important after all. The A m i s h have b e e n thoroughly socialized, in a well i ntegrated community, aggressive f e e l i n g s . B u t so generally, the feeling of guilt outweighs the those who do feel aggressive, n o w have a socially sanctioned means for expressing th ei r aggression. they go directly to the i ndividual involved, but if the individual has b ro k e n the ordnung, Ideally and discuss the trouble, the one with the aggressive feelings ma y go directly to one of the ministers. The minister sometimes suggests that the mat t er be overlooked and other times he goes to see the erring one. called aggressive, The individual w ho m I have w ould not accept the a p p l i ca ti o n of the t er m to him, nor in many cases would the rest of the church. he was a ct in g as a good community m e m b e r should. They w o u l d say This is true in that he is ac t i n g in a socially acceptable manner, but this does not 110. The individuals are not so repressed that they have not yielded to some criticizing during the interum period, and have perhaps b r o k e n some rules w h i c h give t he m rea so n for feelings of guilt. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 1025 - - mean he is not releasing aggressive feelings, no ma t t e r how correctly, or even h o w gently he does it. These two weeks are ones of considerable anxiety. is searching himself, Each p er so n some try in g to persuade themselves that it is all right to celebrate communion without confessing some deviation. Others have decided that they w i l l confess and dread the moment. There is earnest d i sc us s i o n (which were it engaged in on a slightly i different level would be called gossip) about any community prob3ems<> Perhaps a me m be r purchased a house and still has not removed the electric wiring. Should he be allowed to commun io n or not? member may have attended a Bible study group, Ano th er should he confess that he was w rong before b ei ng allowed communion? Many matters large and small come into focus and are discussed and considered. The ministers are kept b usy vi s i t i n g brothers, certainly they may communicate, assuring some that wa rn in g others that they will have to give up a certain activity if they wish to communion, izing that a confession w il l be neces sa ry for another. duals w orry about their o wn unworthiness, church that appears torn w i t h strife, not doing as they should, not true Christians. and emphas­ The indivi­ they wo rr y about their and the many members who are and they worry lest others think they are The anxiety mounts, it seems that communion will be impossible and it is nee d ed so badly. Finally council church comes. with a relative and the members fearfully, for a long day. The children are safely stowed of the church go off, perhaps rather Sometimes council meeting may go easily R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1026 - and smoothly, other times it is long and trying. to be celebrated, If communion is all differences must .be ironed out. must be of one mind, among themselves. The church the members must be in perfect harmony, At the beginning of council meeting, united such a n achieve­ ment may seem distant. Among the early Christians the need to come together to cele­ brate communion was so great that many died for the privilege. The Amish too are motivated by a desparate desire to celebrate their communion. They work patiently with one another and g e n e r ­ ally by the end of council mee ti ng they are of one mind. who are not, m a y not celebrate. groups, Those few If the church is divided into two even th ou gh the size of the groups be v ery different, church will not have communion. the This is a v er y un ha pp y decision for it means that complete release f ro m guilt has not b e e n obtained, and the individual is deprived of an expression of oneness w it h the group that would counteract the fear of exclusion that seems to run deep. When council church has b e en successful and communion will be celebrated, the anxiety is relieved. The individual spends the next two weeks preparing himself for the service and rejoicing that it is possible. This rejoicing is muted if there are some in the church who may not partake, of the whole church. 111. Dix, op. 112 for it should be a celebration Sympathy is felt for the individual who is c i t o . p„ 152. 112. The w o m a n whom I was closest to felt sad that I could not share the joy of communion w i th them. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1027 - deprived. The communion sequence not only allows disputes, both large and petty to be settled, but it also functions as a door on gossip. an individual has confessed, given his sin, he is forgiven. it must be forgotten. Once If he has b ee n for­ A n individual does not celebrate communion w ith anyone against w hom he harbors malice, he "eats and drinks damnation on himself." Therefore, dual has celebrated communion w it h a nother individual, for if he does if a n indivi­ he dare not gossip about anything that was done previous to communion. For if he does, it indicates that he harbored malice against his fellow commun­ icant which was not forgiven and so the gossiper condemns himself. Thus communion functions effectively to put a time limit on gossip. It can never stretch back farther than the last communion. When I have been told of errors or sins that were committed previous to the last time, the one in error celebrated communion, the me n ti on has always been accompanied with a statement about the i n d i v i d u a l ’s true repentance. I have n e ve r heard such behavior gossiped about. This is the ideal pattern, and it seems to function surprising­ ly well, and surprisingly often. that are unable to achieve unity. in Union County Pennsylvania. However, there are communities Umble describes such a situation The community finally died out. In Un io n County some church members learned to use this service, not as a means of prepara ti o n for the communion service, but as an opportunity for retalia­ tion for real or fancied wrongs. It became all too common for members to refuse to consent to the holding of the communion service unless certain others were denied the privilege of participation. Hence, as the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1028 years pa ss ed and cases for offense multiplied, the prepar at or y service degenerated into a f a u lt -f in di ng session w it h charges and counter charges often of a ridiculously p et ty nature. The . . .Committees of m inisters were called in from other counties from time to time and severe pen­ alties imposed u p o n those accused of di st ur b i n g the peace of the congregation. But such a committee would scarcely leave the scene before trouble had b ro k e n out afresh. Most of the d ifficulty was in the ministry, but the lack of harmony and u n i t y among the mini st er s spread to the laity. Long before the next p reparatory service it w o u l d a ga in become evident that h ostilities b e t w e e n factions would be renewed. Floods of tears were shed by pious fathers and mothers, but matters seem to have come to such a pass that no permanent peace could be established. F r o m 1873 to 1880, the c o n gr e ga ti on succeeded in ho ld i n g only one of its semi-annual communion s e r v i c e s *113 There is another dan ge r inherent in the system and that is that the repressed a g g r e s s i o n will not be expressed in g u i l t - pr od uc i ng (but not disruptive) gossip, or du ri ng the commu n io n sequence, that instead it wi l l be further repressed. happen, This, of course, but does but the co n tr ol le d expression of a g g r e s s i o n du ri n g the com­ munion sequence does a great deal to overcome this danger. Social control on b ot h a formal (forbidding communion) and informal level revolves around communion. The comm un i on service is the basis of the A m i s h community. It is the ritual expre ss io n of the corporate entity the church is b e ­ lieved to be. It is the rite that enables the indivi du al to lose himself as he identifies completely w i t h his brother and the G-emeinde. 1 1 3 o P. 91o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1029 With characteristic understatement, - one A m i s h m a n writ es simply Commu ni on were quite w e l l attended. m embers were present and took part. to he there Nearly all It was nice 114. H e r a l d . May 6, 1954, p. 1. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. CHAPTER X V I E W S OP THE C O M M U N I T Y The A m i s h c om m u n i t y can be looked at f r o m m a n y points of view. It can be s e e n as a church, f ig ur a t i o n that compares group, to the p a t t e r n i n g of a primitive or it can be conce iv ed as a n example p ersistence tribute in a contact situation. to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the of the community. be as a co n ­ The firs t of cultural All three views con­ strength and structure section of this chapter is a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of the Ami sh c o n ce pt of the church, indi­ cating b r i e f l y in what ways it is intermediate b e t w e e n the Catho l ic and A m e r i c a n P r o t e s t a n t conceptions church and different f r o m both. of the The s e c o n d section is a comparison b e t w e e n the A m i s h c o m m u n i t y and the f o l k cu l­ ture cons tr uc t as d e v e l o p e d b y Redfield.-*" tion is a d i s c u s s i o n of the aspects of that have persisted, and w h a t The third sec­ the A m i s h culture h o w they have m a n a g e d to p e r s i s t the threats are to contin ue d p ersistence. the co mm u n i t y can be d es cr ib ed in religious, Thus anthropol­ ogical and sociolo gi ca l terms. 1. Redfield, o£. c i t ., pp. 293-308. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1031 - A CHURCH The local A m i s h in microcosm. true church, power, congregation is the church universal F u n c t i o n a l l y e a c h Am i s h gemeinde is the outside of w h i c h there no hope of salvation. ual Amishman, his is no h i e r a r c h y of In the life of the church dist r ic t is supreme, not b e yo nd him or above him. but it is He is in fact almost as essential for it as it is for him. It is the b o d y of Christ and he is a m e m be r of that body; the other members indi v id ­ if he suffers, suffer w i t h h i m and b e a r his burdens. For they are one in unity and peace. F r o m among themselves the co ngregation calls its own m i ni st e rs and the m i n i s t e r s serve their b r e t h r e n w i t h ­ out p a y and w i t h o u t any d i s t i nc ti on of dress. Neither the m in i s t e r s nor the congregation can observe the s a c r a ­ ments witho ut the presence of the other. E v e r y member, and on l y members celebrate the (and v i s i t i n g ministers) Lord's Supper together as they act out r i t u a l l y their oneness, w i t h e a c h m emb er subser vi en t to every other mem be r and all formi n g the bod y of Christ. W i t h o u t being aware is quite h i g h l y developed. of it, the A m i s h church ritual All the elements of the r i t ­ ual can sponta ne o us ly be supplied b y the congregation. Thus it is p r i m a r i l y a ri tu a l of w o r d s and patterns of R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - action. tion, 1032 - Sacred objects that w o u l d demand care and p r o t e c ­ that w o u l d pass a w a y as do all things of this w o r l d 3 have no place. Therefore the o n l y visual elements of the ritual are p a t t e r ni ng s of the congregation. works of art to help e l e v a t e the m u s ic al instruments, gregation, The soul, nor can there be candles and incense. the b o d y of Christ, sacraments There are no Only the con­ is essential. in themselves have no special power. They are expressions of relationships. Bap ti sm symbolizes the trans fo rm a ti on of the sinner into a new creature who joins the b o d y of Christ and dedicates h i m se lf to a life of d i s c i p l e s h i p . The Lord's Supper symbolizes the unity of the c o n g re ga ti on and their r e l a t i o n to Christ. are no other is sacraments, but mar ri ag e celebrated b y a church service. There is in the L o r d and O r d i n a t i o n is c losely associated w i t h the s a cr am en t of baptism. In cer ta in i n ­ stances the b a n f u n c t i o n a l l y replaces penance. A n d the seriously ill m e m b e r can r e q u e s t to be anointed. The A mi sh observe a ye ar ly cycle of services that are r e l a t ed to the seasons b u t only loosely tied to calendar. W i t h i n the la rg e r framework, gation d etermines the be celebrated. the local co n g r e ­ specific day on w h i c h an event w i l l This is m o s t conspicuous at the time of the s pr i n g C o m m u n i o n w h i c h is the may be the community Easter, b u t celebrated a m o n t h later than the date on w h i c h Easter actually falls. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Filmed as received without page(s) IG 3 5 UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow n er. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm issio n . - The A m i s h 10 3 4 - concept of the church is not o n l y d i f f e r ­ ent f r o m that of the C a th ol i cs and the ican Protes ta nt s, b u t is i nt ermediate The local c o n g r e g a t i o n is more c o n t e m p o r a r y Amerbetwe en the two. p i m po rt an t to the A m i s h than to either the C at ho li cs or the P r o t e s t a n t s because of the b e l i e f s the Amish share onl y w i t h the Catholics and o n l y w i t h the Pr ot e s t a n t s . Thus, w i t h the Pr otestants, the A m i s h r ep u d i a t e a superst ru ct ur e of h i e r a r c h i c a l power, and w i t h the Catholics, possible they believe th at s a l v a t i o n is only w i t h i n the true church. This m e a n s there is no r e c ou rs e for the indiv i du al A m i s h m a n outside his local congregation. lieve in a visible in the church. W i t h the Catholics, the A m i s h b e ­ chu rc h led b y Christ living w i t h m a n The A m i s h share w i t h the Pr o t e s t a n t s a ppositionof C h r i s t i a n i t y and the secu l ar order. the Cathol i cs believe consider society to be under God, the While the Amis h that onl y the chu rc h is under God. R i t u a l l y the A m i s h are interm e di at e b e t w e e n the Catholics and m o s t P r o t e s t a n t churches, their calendar is r e d u c e d by c o m p a r i s o n to the Catholic l it ur gi ca l church, is th at of the and a l t h o u g h it is m u c h more h i g h l y d e ve lo p ed typical P r o t e s t a n t than church. 2. It is di ff i c u l t to generalize about the P r o t e s ­ tants fo r t h e y r e p r e s e n t such divers i ti es of opinions. In general I am ignoring the extremes and c o n s i d e r i n g as P r o t e s t a n t belie fs h e l d b y at leas t several of the churches. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 10 3 5 The p la c e of the sacraments also intermediate. - in the A m i s h church is Both the A m i s h and the P rotestants admit of o n l y two sacraments, b a p t i s m and communion. These are d i v e s t e d of s u p e r na t ur al p o w e r and transubstantiation has b e e n repudiated. An elem en t of the Catholic sacramental syst em persists in the ceremony of anointing w it h o il that closely p a r a l l e l s extreme unction. ban be r e g a r d e d as equivalent ence of m a r r i a g e seven Catholic to penance, If the and the e x i s t ­ and o r d i n a t i o n be borne in mind, sacraments are represented, save all the confirm­ ation, w h i c h has no independent place in an A n a b a p t i s t church» The w a y s in w h i c h the A mi s h concept of the church differ f r o m that held by either Catholics or Prote st an ts are p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e d congregation. to the supreme p o s i t i o n of the local D i s t i n c t i o n betw ee n cler gy a n d laity is very p r o n o u n c e d in the Catholic church, and occurs in varying degrees in the diffe re nt P r o t e s t a n t churches. This d i s t i n c t i o n is expres se d in dress and also b y the congregation p a y i n g the m i n i s t e r or p r i e s t for his ces. This p a y m e n t for services r en d e r e d can be servi­ seen as indicating a s e c u l a r i z a t i o n of religion. A m i s h m in is t er s have no d is ti nc t iv e garb and are unpaid. P r i e s t s are a p ­ pointed to local p a r i s h e s most P r o t e s t a n t churches in the Catholic church. In the co ngregation selects a m i n ­ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1036 - ister f r o m a series o f outsiders that have b e e n invited to the local church or are sent b y the church o r g a n i z a t i o n that has d ev e l o p e d as a superstructure gregation. above the local c o n ­ The A m i s h c ongregation selects its own leaders from among its members. The Cath ol ic church illustrates a we ll devel o pe d hierarchy. D if f e r e n t P ro t es ta nt churches ha v e various church or ganizations that f u n c t i o n to coordinate the congregations. These organizations in that the memb e rs are are chosen by vote local largely secular to serve limited terms, or are hir ed and fired for specific positions. Amish have no superstructure. Ami sh m i n i s t e r s vi s i t stantly among the congregation, and mi ni s t e r s gather frequently to discuss problems. B ut these meetings not bind i ng on the loca l congregation. bring bac k ideas and suggestions gregation, who makes con­ in ­ are The m in is t er s to put before the final decision. The the c o n ­ Ideally, uni t y is not achieved b y o rg a n i z a t i o n bu t b y deep p a r t i c i p a t i o n in Christ. THE AMI SH COMMU NI T Y AND THE P O L K The dimensions SOCIETY and ch a ra ct er is ti c s of the O l d Order Amish community can be p o in t ed up by compa ri ng it to the conceptual model of the isolated, se lf-contained community R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1 0 3 7 that R e d f i e l d d i a g r a m m e d in his ciety. - construct of the f o l k so- I am not c o m pa ri ng the A m i s h to a f o l k society, nor claiming that they are a f o l k society, that it is h e l p f u l to but I feel show the areas of s i m i l a r i t y and d ifference be t w e e n R e d f i e l d ’s c onceptual m o d e l and this real community, loc at ed w i t h the f r a m e w o r k of, tially integrated with, c om pa ri so n wil l p l ac e and p a r ­ a m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l nation. the elements we h a v e The ob s e r v e d in a different light. The fol k society is ch ar a c t e r i z e d by R e d f i e l d as "small, isolated, nonliterate, strong sense of group and homogeneous, solidarity^ with a The A m i s h churc h district is small;, there are no more p e op le in it than can come to kn o w e a c h other well. comes larger than this, churches. However, In fact, w h e n it b e ­ the district divides, f o r m i n g two the whole Ami s h co mm u n i t y comp os e d of n eighboring c h u r c h districts may be quite l a r g e .^ 3. Redfield, o£. 4. I b i d ., p. 297. c i t ., pp. "The 293-308. 5. U s i n g M o o k ’s m e t h o d for ca l c u l a t i n g size of Ami sh population, the central Ohio community has a p o p u ­ lation of over 11,000. Maurice A. Mook, "The N u m b e r of Ami sh in P e n n s y l v a n i a , " M ennonite H is to r i c a l B u l l e t i n , January, 1955, p. 3. G i v e n the A m i s h m e t h o d s of socia l control, social structure and systems of communication, this is p r o b a b l y larger tha n is ideal. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - fo l k imposed b y but o utsid er s are growing, communication. the i s o l a t i o n is self- A l t h o u g h their books contacts w i t h there is an effort to avo i d i n t i ­ The A m i s h commun it y has a very h i g h degree of l i t e r a c y that m a y h i n d e r c om m u n i c a t i o n that helps munity. The Old Order the members of the c om mu ni t y and maintained, often, w i t h g re a t effort. tates - society is an i s o la t ed s o c i e t y ." A m i s h commun it y is isolated, mate 1 0 3 8 isolation, integrate the but f a c i l i ­ larger c o m ­ I s o l a t i o n is attemp t ed by l im it in g the type of available. ’’The peo pl e who make up a fol k s o c ie t y are m u c h rj alike." The A m i s h c o m m u n i t y is s t a r t li ng ly homogeneous, g e n e t i c a l l y as we ll as cultura ll y. There are onl y forty- six f a m i l y names f o u n d among the more than f i f t e e n h u n ­ dred f a m i l i e s in the central Ohio Community. throughout N o r t h A m e r i c a f o r m an endog en ou s The A m i s h community. K nowledge and bel ie f s are shared to a grea te r e x t e n t than is the case is a large in m o s t c om mu n i t i e s in this country. There area of overlap b e t w e e n w h a t one A m i s h m a n knows and belie ve s and wh a t all A m i s h m e n know and believe. W i t h i n the community, habits are the e s p e c i a l l y among the women, same as customs. many On a h o r i z o n t a l plane, 6. Redfield, F o l k S o c i e t y , p. 7. Ibid., p. 297. 296. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - the A m i s h communities show 1 0 3 9 - considerable homogeneity. Wheth­ er or not they show the same degree of h o m o g e n e i t y on a vertical plane, stretc hi ng into the past, depe nd s on o n e ’s d e f i n i t i o n of h o m o g e n i t y and change. terns have p e r s i s t e d almost unchanged, somewhat Basic p a t ­ but details have been c o n s t a n t l y modified. ’’The m e m b e r s of the folk s o ci et y h a v e a strong sense of b e l o n g i n g t o g e t h e r , ”® and they "value themselves pared w i t h o t h e r s . ” A m i s h community. This would c e rt ai n ly a p p l y to the Not o n l y is the unity ex tr e m e l y strong, and as com ­ sense of community and b ut they consider themselves saints, the salt of the earth. E c o n o m i c a l l y the A m i s h c ommunity diverges ably f r o m the model. The Am i s h m a k e f u l l use of co n s i d e r ­ secondary and t er ti ar y tools alth ou gh they themselves do not m a n u f a c ­ ture them, an d they make Amish home s use w i n d p o w e r the kitchen. some use of natu ra l power. and gr a v i t y to lift the water to They are part of the they sell their surplus prod u ce from the larger culture. Most larger society in that to it and buy necessities However, even in this area, they are c on s id er ab ly less dependent o n the econ om ic s y s t e m of the larger culture than are m o s t farmers. division of labor, the A m i s h community r es e m b l e s 8. In the area of the model Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - of a f o l k society for here knowing that knowledge 1 0 4 0 too, - as w o u l d be e x p ec te d f ro m is shared, there is little div is io n of labor other t h an the u n iv er s al divi si on b y sexes. In the A m i s h community, as in the f o l k society, conventional beha vi ou r is st r o n g l y patterned. meet recur re n t problems of life and the various Members in conventionalized w ays activities of life are integrated into one large activity. This is in sharp contrast to the urban n ei g hb or s of the A m i s h w h o s e economic pursuits, for example, m a y be largely unre la te d to their other activities. "What is done in the ideal folk s oc i e t y is done not be ca us e somebody or some p eople decided, that it s ho u l d be done, ly' but because at once, it seems ’n e c e s s a r i ­ to f l ow f r om the very na t u r e of things. moreover, There no d i s p o s i t i o n to refl ec t upon t r a d it io na l acts and con si de r t he m o b j e c t iv e ly and critically. behavior is, in the folk society is traditional, and uncr it ic a l. "® Un l ik e have a self-conscious the f o lk culture, In short spontaneous, the A m i s h awareness of their culture. though m u c h of their b e ha v i o u r is traditional, Al­ c e r ta i n aspects are r ef le c te d upon and the m em b e r s make decisions about these 9. aspects. Ibid., pp. Thus their b e ha vi ou r is not com- 299-300. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - pletely spontaneous However, the because decisions sary o u t c o m e of it i s the honxogeniety of to certainly As w i t h i n a fol k society, is chiefly a matter of sex, of the group, to b e many the of neces­ events. the in d ividual's p o s i t i o n age-group and occupation. In the folk society, codification of laws. has the uncritical. o c c u p a t i o n is g en e r a l l y less than is sex and age. however, not the p a r t i c i p a n t s th e p r e c i p i t a t i n g Among the Amish, - and appear of 1 0 4 1 The Amish have important there is no the o r d n u n g which, as m u c h to d o w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g the is ol a t i o n community as w i t h i n t e r pr es on a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h ­ in the community. One area, independent of another. of course, is n ot e n t i r e l y In neither the f o l k s o c ie t y nor the A m i s h comm un it y is there any h a b it u al exercise for the sake of intellectual ends eve n though there is c o n ­ siderable pract ic al knowledge. "Wit hi n the limits set by custom there is i n v i t a ­ tion to excel in p e r f o r m a n c e ."1® among the Amish. ordnung, This W h e n a new mac hi ne is p e r m i t t e d by the the e xt ra o r d i n a r i l y inventive it to are surprising. is very evident uses they can put W i t h i n the f r am ew or k of their cul­ ture they show imagination. 10. I b i d . , p. 300. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - The A m i s h community, 104 2 as w e l l as the f o l k society, may be thou gh t of as b e i n g c o m p o s e d of famil ie s r a t h e r than of individuals. S mi t h and Dale-*--*- describe a cla n in terms that could a l m o s t be a p pl ie d to the Am i s h church. "The clan is a n a t u r a l m u t u a l aid s o c i e t y belongs the to the clan, he is no t his own;". church share one a n o t he r' s burdens. ... A m e m b e r The m e mb e rs of The i n d i v i d u a l is n o t his own, but belongs to the church as the Body of Christ. A H p er so na l r el at i o n s h i p s grow out fr om the f a m ­ ily and are fa m i l i a l in both the ideal f o l k society and the Ami sh community. calling all m e m be rs The A m i s h have fo rm a l i z e d this by of the c h ur c h b ro t h e r s and sisters. R e d f i e l d says of the congruence of all parts ideal f o l k society, "...the of c on ve nt i on al behavior and so­ cial i n s t i t u ti on s w i t h each other contributes to the sense of r i g h t n e s s w h i c h the m e m b e r s of the f o l k society feels to inhere furthermore, in his tradi ti o na l wa y s of a c t i o n the folk wa ys tend to be also mores ... - ways of d oi n g or t hi n k i n g to w h i c h at ta c h notions of mo r a l w ort h ... it is a sacred society." community p h r a s e s 1P The A m i s h sacred the fact it is no n - s e c u l a r in very dif- 11. E d w i n S m it h and A. M. Dale, The I l a - S p e a k i n g Peoples of N o r t h e r n R h o d e s i a , as quoted b y Redfield, o p . c i t ., p . 302. 12. Ojo. c i t . , p. 303. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - ferent terms. 1 0 4 3 - R e d f i e l d continues that there tious fe a r of c h a n g e . ” In a culture that is 1^ S up er st it i ou s Is "supersti- Is a h a r s h word. in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the outside, world, w i t h e a c h aspect c o n t r i b u t i n g to another aspect, an y change will p r o v e disruptive. • It is safer to w a t c h it and in t r o ­ duce it onl y if n e c e s s a r y to prese rv e equilibrium, and then as slowly as p ossible. Unlike the f o l k society, the te n d e n c y to r e g a r d objects sider p a t t e r n s of behaviour the Navaho, ag riculture the A m i s h fight against as sacred, sacred. but they do c o n ­ For the Amish, is a h o l y occupation. as f o r Neit he r agriculture nor any other a c t i v i t y is solely a mean s to an immediate p r a c t i c a l end, b u t eac h Is expre ss iv e of the ultimate values of the society. Re d f i e l d quotes Boaz'^^ as saying that p r i m i t i v e m a n a ssociates every a c ti o n ’’w i t h other ideas, nature. ofte n of a r e l i g i o u s or at least a symbolic Thus he gives to the m a hig he r they seem to us to d e s e r v e . ” significance than W h e t h e r or not e v e r y action of the A m i s h w o u l d f a l l into this ca t e g o r y is doubtful, but it certainly is true gious nature. This that the A m i s h lead that m o s t actions are of a r e l i ­ is p h r a s e d t he o l o g i c a l l y by stating a life of d i s c i p l e s h i p . 13 • Ibid. 14. F r a n z Boaz, M i n d of P r im it iv e M a n , p. 226. Ibid. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 1044 - In spite of the economic importance of the market, the Am is h min im i ze the Maori, "the the mo t iv e of commercial gain. c ompulsion to work, As w ith to save and to ex pe nd is g i v e n not so m u c h by a r a t i o n a l apprecia t io n of the j/ ma te r ia l7 benefits to be r e a c h e d as by the desire for cial recognition, through s uc h b e h a v i o r . must have mo ne y to buy farms the land. so ­ The A m i s h to keep their chil dr en on M o n e y is v al ue d as it can be eq ua te d to land, and so w i t h good parenthood. A l t h o u g h there are m a n y areas of similarity between the A m is h community and the m o d e l of a folk society, d ifferences are more significant. the The A m i s h community is a p ar t society that is not completely self contained. The isolation of the A m i s h co mm u n i t y is based p r i m a r i l y on a b e l i e f s ys te m and only secondarily on p h y si c al e n v i r ­ onment. (Their be li e f system forbids resi de nc e in cities.) It is p r i m a r i l y because of this isolation that the other similarities between the folk culture and the A m i s h c o m ­ m u n i t y have deve lo pe d or b ee n maintained. Rel at e d to the fact that the i solation is consciously produced, behaviour the A mish is not completely spontaneous nor uncritical, albeit it is traditional. 15. Maori, p. 484, Because the isolation is not Pirth, Primit iv e Economics of the New as quoted in Redfield, o£. 'c i t ., p. 306. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Zealand - p u r e l y physical, 1045 - g e o g r a p h i c a l l y re mo t e settlements can be included in one commu ni t y held together by methods m u n i c a t i o n unavailable to the f o l k society. w i t h i n these boundaries, w h i c h are of the model, societies. there However, so diffe re nt f r o m those is great si milarity be t w e e n the two This has l e d me to postulate that the Am i s h could be consi de re d a contrived, tained, of c o m ­ fo lk society. or a c onsciously m a i n ­ The v e r y essence of the two are different althou gh the final products ha ve m a n y c h a r a c t e r ­ istics in common. CULT U RA L PE R SI S T E N C E The Old Order A m i s h are famous for the cultural persi st en ce they have shown. are like an a r ch e o l o g i c a l find Nimkoff^® says, ... the d e s c r i p t i o n of the A m i s h is a striking stud y in arrested He is speaking of the fam il y w h e r e if it were social c h a n g e . ” this is more true applied to the total A m i s h culture. details of their culture, and even in the than In the there have been ma n y changes, symbols of their distinctness, been changes. However, "The Amish there have it wou ld appear that the basic patterns by w h i c h these various detai ls are ordered have 16. Meyer F. Nimkoff, Marriage and the F a m i l y (New York; Ho u g h t o n M i f f l i n C o ~ 1947). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - shown re markable p er si st e nc e. p at te rn s m i g h t be mentioned. p o s i t i o n of religion. their religious 104 6 - Five po s s i b l e in t errelated The fi r s t is the All their central values are codified in sys te m w h i c h has b e e n the m o s t import an t single de t e r m i n a n t throu gh ou t their history. F r o m one p e r i o d to another, there has f r o m one p la c e to another, b e e n v ar ia ti on in the degree of f o r m a l i s m or i ns p ir a t i o n that existed, but in m o s t instances the le g a l i s m of the A m i s h r e l i g i o n was h u m a n i z e d b y love. selfless love the m e m b e r s h o p e f u l l y e x t en d but the ver y h u m a n love brothers Not always by the and sisters. gious principles, that exists An a t te mp t ev e n if quite p r o b l e m that arises to one in a large f a m i l y of is made to apply r e l i ­ indirectly, to ever y and to ev e r y aspect of behaviour. second p e r s i s t e n t p a t t e r n has b e e n the strong local g r e g a t i o n that is f o u n d w h e r e v e r A m i s h churches The c o n g r e g a t i o n is an intimate, is somewhat independent of all other groups. A change that the Amis h p e r ce iv e A con­ survive. f a c e - t o- fa ce group that It is w i t h ­ in the congre ga ti o n that all i mp or t an t d ec is io n s made. another, are (and there are some w h o are sc r u p u l o u s l y wa t c h i n g for any h i n t of change) is not admit te d w i t h o u t the gregation. consent of the F o r the in t r o d u c t i o n of something new, consent must be almost, u n a n i m o u s . tions do m a y have What other some influence but no one con­ the congrega­ else nor any R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 104 7 - other group m a k es the decisi on s for the local c o n g r e g a t i o n A n e x c e p t i o n to this is the n a t i o n a l state that legally requ ir es new p a t t e r n s of b e h a v i o u r of the l o c a l c o n g r e g a ­ tion. In this event, the local- c o n g r e g a t i o n decides in wh at manner they shall adapt to the r e q ui re d change. In a group in w h i c h two or three i nd iv i d u a l s m a y preve nt change, f o rm e r p a t te rn s w i l l p e r s i s t individual m em b e r or the cisions alone. The longer than if the individual fami l y m a ke s independence of the local c o n g r eg a ti on and its autonomy w h i c h t h e o r e t i c a l l y results g r e g a t i o n be i n g somewhat such d e ­ isolated, helps bers to u nd er st a nd bo t h that they have in each c o n ­ enable the m e m ­ a strong group b e ­ h i n d th em and that they are isolated f r o m all other groups This i so la ti on is mos t p r o n o u n c e d in r e l a t i o n to the w o r l d that is n o n - A m i s h society,, The time o r i e n t a t i o n of the Amis h is toward the past, the p a s t is norma ti ve and the ideal to be restored. S o m e h o w the age of the b a p t i s m have apostles and s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Ana- almost be co m e fused. In m o s t instances, wh at was done a g e n e r a t i o n ago was better than wh a t done now, and w h a t w a s p r a c t i c e d two g e n e r at i on s ago is still better. of ’’p r o g r e s s . ” gers is They do not believe in the A m e r i c a n ideal N o r are they future oriented. and pilgrims, As s t r a n ­ they feel little r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to af­ fect the course of events, b u t settle n a t u r a l l y into the R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1 0 4 8 - cycle of seasons w h i c h they in no w a y try to change or ignore. This leads to a fo ur th pattern, their p e r i o d i c i ­ ty. The A m i s h culture appears to be made up of m a n y cy ­ cles and rhythms that a r e ' i n t e g r a t e d :into a larger rhythm. The A m i s h are an a g r i c ul tu ra l people whose w o r k is related to the seasons of the year. They have fo r b i d d e n e l e c t r i ­ city,' and this prohibition_he.lps them to r e m a i n closely a ss oc i a t e d w i t h the diurnal rhythm. to the urban f a c t o r y w o r k e r w h o s e seasons job is u n af f ec te d by the and for w h o m the d iurnal r h y t h m may be almost lost as he takes his turn at the various culture rest. This is in contrast shifts. The A mi s h is c ha r ac t e r i z e d by an a lt er na t io n of w o r k and M or e specifically, to a peak, the w o r k or a ctivity bu i l d s up a climax is reached, and ac t i v i t y ceases. Ev­ ery w e e k this p a t t e r n is r e pe at ed in e v e r y A m i s h home. S a t u r d a y starts lows the early w i t h the w e e k l y baking, then f o l ­ thor ou gh h o u s e c l e a n i n g as everyt hi ng is p o l i s h e d and scrubbed. The a c t iv it y increases as all the join in the cleaning and everyone works rapidly. s uddenly the house is clean. children Then One b y one the m e m b e r s of the f a m i l y bathe and r e s tf ul r e l a x e d S u n d a y has f u n c t i o n ­ ally begun. The long, activity, climax, slow beginning, f o l l o w e d by increasing and r est could p e r h a p s be comp ar ed w i t h R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - the b i r t h sequence. 1 0 4 9 - C e rt ai nl y the p a t te rn of bi r th is one of the most basic of universal, n at u r a l rhythms. A m i s h have not suffered f r o m either cipation" The the p r u d e r y of " eman­ that has at times devalued birth. To them, b i r t h is an important aspect of life that is h i g h l y v a l ­ ued. It has p la ye d an important role ment. F or in a culture that elevates in m a rr ia ge a d j u s t ­ the male as "the head of the w if e , " this is an area in w h i c h the w om a n can k now that she is con tr ib ut i ng to the family. b ir th is valued, and, her h u s b a n d appreciates her contribution, r e s p o n d i n g to his secure. Because appreciation, the w i f e becomes more R e q ui r ed ho s p i t a l deliveries ened m a t e r n i t y wa r ds have in r at he r u n e n l i g h t ­ somewhat d isrupted the f ormer development of the husband -w if e relationship. The e m p h a ­ sis and enjoy me nt of b i r t h has p r o b a b l y b e e n one of the factors that has r e i n f o r c e d the religious teachings against b i r t h control. Two further cultural pa t t e r n s that appear mo s t clearly to refl ec t the b i rt h sequence differ c o n si de r­ ably f r o m one another. The one is the celebra ti on of co m ­ m u n i o n and the other is courtship. starts w i t h the r e b i r t h The comm u ni on sequence service and builds up through council m e e t i n g to c om mu ni o n w h e n each m e m b e r is in a sense reborn. crecy, The long courtship is c a r r ie d on in se­ then the f or th - c o m i n g marr ia ge is p u b l i s h e d in R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - church, - and there f o l l o w f f en z ie d w e d d i n g preparations.*,, and f i n a l l y the marriage. of 1 0 5 0 To a lesser degree, joining c hu r c h is similar. The the pattern slow beginning,' w i t h the y o u n g p e o p l e r e t ir in g each w e e k w i t h the ministers, the extra m e e t i n g the d a y before baptism, ly the great event. a n d then f i n a l ­ Not o n l y do these events have a r h y ­ thm of their own, but they are r e l a t e d to the r h y t h m of the community, w h i c h in t u r n is r e l a te d to the seasonal fl uc tu at io ns of the year. A f i f t h p a t t e r n that is not of the same dimensions as the p r e v i o u s four has, nevertheless, played, I believe, an important part in the c ultural p e r s i s t e n c e of the Amish. This is their ability to ignore, ability to inhibit ge neralization. coupled w i t h an These two c h a r a c t e r ­ istics m a y be re la t ed but they are not identical. scious i gnoring of o f f i c i a l l y condemned b e h av io ur adds a little give to a f a i r l y ri gi d i ndividual to have self. system, and enables the sufficient f r e e do m to read ju st h i m ­ Cons ci ou s or s em i- c onscious o v e r l o ok in g keeps u n ­ important d ev i a t i o n f r o m b e in g disruptive. culture Con­ The A m i s h is composed of m an y p a t t e r n e d p i e c e s that fit to­ gether into a b a l a nc ed design.. As in .the quilt, shape of e a c h piece the: is p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y the shape of the other pieces, bu t a v a r i e t y of colors, pr in ts or cloth can be used w i t h equal success for any given patch. So R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - it is w i t h the Amish. be r e g u l a t i o n s is impossible be. 1 0 5 1 It can be p r e d i c t e d that there w i l l about dress and house furnishings, b u t it to p r e d i c t e x a c t l y w h a t the regulations w i l l E v e n if an in dividual knows own church, - all the ordnung of his there w i l l be min or details another c h u r c h he m u s t learn, of the o r d n u n g of and were an i nvestigator to know all the re gulations p e r t a i n i n g to m e n ' s clothing, he could not f r o m them p r e d i c t the specific r e g u l a t i o n s p e r ­ taining to house decorationo fields. This is c a r r i e d .into other The Ami sh w i l l rea d p r a y e r s w r i t t e n by m e n w i t h ver y d if f e r e n t beliefs f r o m the p r a y e r f r o m their own and not generalize to the rest of their l i f e . ^ The b a s i c p at te rn s of the A m i s h culture off f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g society, set t h e m and in an effor t to mak e this d i s t i n c t i o n more vivid, the A m i s h have bols of their se parateness. The n e e d for s u c h symbols seems to be country, growing. selected s y m ­ D u r i n g the e a r l y p e r i o d in this the A m i s h communities o n th<% f r o n t i e r h ad r e l a ­ tively little contact w i t h their E n g l i s h neighbors. as i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the out-group increases and f r i e n d l y contacts d e v e l o p w h e n p e r s e c u t i o n dies, i dentify the in-group But are elaborated. the symbols that Thus the A mi s h of 17. This m a y also be r e l a t e d to verb al e l a b o r a ­ tion of t he i r ritualj the w o r ds are important, but the m e a ni ng is n o t always followed. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 1 05 2 - 1956 are in some w a y s more A m i s h tha n they were o ne-hundred or o n e - h u n d r e d and f i f t y years ago. are more detailed, and house fu rnishings those of their E n g l i s h neighbors times. C l o t h i n g regulations differ more from than they have In the area of church discipline, at previous a stricter in ­ t er pr et at io n of the b a n was r e so r te d to w h e n the A m i s h came into close contact wi t h oth er churches and be g a n loosing m e m b e r s to W i t h i n the Three ge nerations them. community, details of the culture ago an A m i s h m a n r e f u s e d to drive pas t a farm that h a d a windm il l . ’'I’ll not hav e anything to do w i t h a m a n who makes God pump his wate r for him," fast old A m i s h m a n was r e p o r t e d to have Amis hm an w ho told me and t h o u g h t change. the s t e a d ­ explained. The about it had a w i n d m i l l of his own the inci de n t made a good story. Gaso li ne e n ­ gines have bee n in tr od u c e d and put to a v a r i e t y of uses, crops and metho d s of c ul ti va ti ng them hav e the p l o w w i t h w h i c h they are cultivated. all speci fi c d e ta il s changed as has But these are that if intro du ce d slowly can be e ff ec ti ve ly assimilated. The A m i s h are caught in the control and influence. spread of governm en ta l Social Security, ice and c o m p u l s o r y h i g h school attendance community. It takes H i g h school attendance Selective th r e a t e n the is the m o s t the A m i s h child at a susceptible Serv­ crucial. age and e x p o s e s R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1053 - h i m to a steady stream of ideas that are antagonistic to those learned in his home and community. a secular environ me nt that undermines his religion. The school works The school is the ce ntrality of toward unifor m it y t h r o u g h ­ out the whole n a t i o n wh i c h mu s t n e c e s s a r i l y contradict the belief in a strong, that keeps its m e m b e r s independent, separate fr om the world. school teaches a belief in progress opposes loc al congregation The that d ia me tr i ca ll y the A m i s h view of h i s t o r y and their orient at i on to the past. The school tries to instill an interest in purely intellectual cial level, pursuits and, on p e rh ap s deplores any ki nd of ignorance. a superfi­ Although I-W service is not as gre at a threat as h i g h school a t ­ tendance, for the two e x periences can be effective the in tr o d u c t i o n of new ideas into the community, especially disruptive religious ideas. | channels These two exper- iences may d i r e c t l y m o d i f y the role of the adolescent, and the ideas they introduce m a y indire ct ly m o d i f y it. The basi c p a tt er n s of the A m i s h culture to be isolated f r o m the su rrounding culture, cause it and this isolation is itself a p r o t e c t i o n for these patterns. Homogeneity w i t h i n the sion of deviants, isolate is assured by the e x c l u ­ In the U n i t e d States complete h i e r a r c h y of Mennonite easy for the deviant today there is churches that make it to wi t h d r a w fr om the Old Order R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1 0 5 4 - C om m u n i t y and join a ch u rc h that req ui re s little change on his part and enables h i m to h av e the added conveniences or f r e e d o m that he desires. This ease of w it hd r a w a l ac­ companied b y shunning that limits in his f o r m e r the apostate's influence church has b e e n an important factor taining the church w i t h little change. in m a i n ­ It is less d i f f i ­ cult for the d is s a t i s f i e d indivi du al to leave the c h u r c h than to r e m a i n w i t h its framework and attempt to change it.18 Therefore, for the continu at io n of t h e church, the A mi sh b i r t h rate m u s t be h i g h enough to offset b o th the losses by de a th and apostasy. gree of a p o s t a s y are interrelated and are in turn related to the a va il a b i l i t y of land. h i gh and there The b i r t h rate and the d e ­ Thus if the birth r ate is little f a r m land available, is the degree of a postasy will be p r o p o r t i o n a l l y higher than it w ou ld 18. W h e n one couple left the S toneyrun ch ur c h to join the Conservatives, the couple who were a p po in t ed to visit them said, ”We need people like y o u in our church, stay w i t h us and help the rest of us to make things b e t ­ ter.” (In this instance one of the questions was r e l a x a ­ tion of certain aspects of the ordnung.) But the couple did not stay, and the r e m a i n i n g mem be rs who were in favor of change were depr iv ed of v aluable support. John A. Hostetler, ”01d W o r l d E x t i n c t i o n and N e w Wo rl d S u r v iv al of the A m i s h , ” R u r a l S o c i o l o g y , September, 1955, pp. 21219, points out this hi er a r c h y f ou nd in A m e r i c a but not in Europe w a s an important factor in the survival of the American A m i s h in contrast to the f u s i o n of the E u r o p e a n Amish w i t h other Mennonite groups. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 105 5 - be if either the b i r t h rate w e r e lower or there wer e land. A va i l a b i l i t y of land is of course only one f a c t o r in cau s­ ing individuals to leave the church. the conservative core continues Is even this w i t h the larger Of e a c h g e n e r a t i o n as O l d Order. core of believers p r e d e s t i n e d to fuse society? I think not. C e r t a i n l y their culture will change as it has always b e e n changing. They w ill u n d o u b t ed ly become ever more c l o se ly integ ra t ed into the domin a nt culture. ness m a y be lost. mains M a n y of However, their symbols of s e p a r a t e ­ as long as the c o m m u n i t y r e ­ suffic ie n tl y stron g to enable the A mi s h to re s p o n d to the dominant culture as a group r a t h e r than as an a g ­ gregate of individuals, the Ami sh w i l l persist. will be i n c r e a s i n g l y force d to accomodate the culture but this is not the same They themse lv es to as f u s i n g w i t h it. If they continue to dr a w their own b o u n d a r i e s to their community, worship and w i t h i n these boundaries marry, and satisfy m o s t of their social needs, they w i l l still be Ami s h even if t h e y b u t t o n their coats. And the larger this Dove soc ie ty w i l l be the ri c h e r h a v i n g at the window. Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission BIBLIOGRAPHY A B C B u c h s t a b i r - u n d L e s e b u c h e z u m G e b r a u c h fflr d e u t s c h e Schu l e r in der V e r e m i g t e n s t a a t e n e Harrisburg, P a c % Evangelical Publishing House. /No date/ "Abendgebet am Sonntag," Herold der Wahrheit XL I V ( J a n u a r y 1 5, 1 9 5 5 ) ? P* 24. Adair, John and Vogt, Evon. "Navaho and Zuni Veteranss A S t u d y of C o n t r a s t i n g M o d e s of C u l t u r e C h ange," A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . L I ( O c t o b e r - D e c e m b e r , 19*+9) » P P » "A g r i c u l t u r a l A l m a n a c . 1 9 5 2 , 1 9 5 3 » 195*+= John B a e r ’s Sons o A l b e r t , E t h e l M. "The C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of V a l u e s , " A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . L V I I I ( A p r i l , 1956)*, p p . 221-48. Albrecht, Paul. "Civilian Public Service evaluated by Civilian Public Service men." 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" S e c u l a r i z a t i o n A m o n g t h e M e n n o n i t e s of Elkhart County, Indiana," Mennonite Quarterly Revi e w . X V I (July, 1 9 ^ 2 ) , PP . 131-6(3: ~ B a l t , I s a a c M. "Why the Mennonite Church should Enter Jewish Evangelism," Gospel H e r a l d , X LVIII (December 6, 1 9 5 5 ) * P. 1 1 6 8 . B a i n t o n , R o l a n d H. "Christianity and Sex," in Sex and Religion T o d a y . ed. S i m o n D o n i g e r , N e w Y o r k A s s o c i a t i o n Press, 1953° o The R e f o r m a t i o n of the S i x t e e n t h C e n t u r y . Boston. B e a c o n Press, 1952. "Baptism," T h e M e n n o n i t e E n c y c l o p e d i a . I. S c o t t d a l e , Pa.; M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1955*. P» 2 2 4 - 2 8 . Barnett, H,G. I n n o v a t i o n , the Basis of C u l t u r a l C h a n g e . M c G r a w - H i l l Series in S o c i o l o g y and A n t hropology. New York. M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Co. 1 9 5 3 = Barnes, J.A. "Class and C o mmittees in a N o r w e g i a n Island Parish," H u m a n R e l a t i o n s . V I I ( F e b r u a r y , 195*+)# PP ° 3 9 - 5 8 ® Bateson, Gregory. " C u l t u r e C o n t a c t a n d S c h i s m o g e n e s i s ." M a n ( 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 179-83. o Naven. A Suive.v of the P r o b l e m s s u g g e s t e d b y a C o m p o s i t e P i c t u r e of the C u l t u r e of a N e w G u i n e a Tribe d ra w n from T h r e e Points of V i e w . . Camb r i d g e /England/. At the U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1936. Beachy, Alma. "Have Yo u a Christian M o t h e r ? ” Herold der W a h r h e i t . X L I V ( M a y 1, 1 9 5 5 ) » PP® 138-39. B e a c h y , A l v i n J, "The A m i s h S e t t l e m e n t in S o m e r s e t County, Pennsylvania,” Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . XXVIII ( O c t o b e r , 194-5)-, pp . 2 6 3 - 9 2 . . "Beachy Amish Churches," Mennonite Historical B u l l e t i n . X V I ( J a n u a r y 19.55). . "The R i s e a n d D e v e l o p m e n t of the B e a c h y A m i s h M e n n o n i t e Churches," M e n n o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . X X I X (April, 1 955)»=:B?* H 8 - 1 4 Q B e a c h y „ A l v i n R. "The Perils 'of (November, 1955), p. 5. Revival, ’ W i t n e s s i n g , III R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1058 Beals 9 Ralphe "Notes on A c c u l t u r a t i o n , " H e r i t a g e o f C o n q u e s t ., edo S o l T a x , Glencoe, IlloS Free Press, 1952o Beautiful Girlhood0 /TJnable to o b t a i n f u l l b i b l i o g r a p h i c reference/ B e c k e r , H o w a r d a n d M y e r s , R 0C 0 "Sacred and Secular Aspects of H u m a n S o c i a t i o n , " S o c i o m e t r v . V (August, 19^2) (November, 19L-2),pp. 3 5 5 . ff. Eine Begebenheit. die s i c h in der M e n n o n i t e n - G e m e i n d e in D e u t s c h ­ land und in der Schw ei z von 1699 bis 1700 z ugetragen hat Arthur, 111.! A m i s h Menn o ni te P ub li sh in g Association, 1936. Beiler, D a v i d „ "Eine A b s c h r i f t vo n einem S c h r e i b e n von D i e n e r v e r s a m m l u n g e n g e h a l t e n in P e n n s y l v a n i e n u n d Ohio," Eine Ve r ma h n u n g oder A n d e n k e n . / N o place, no publisher, no dat§£ o Eine V er ma h n u n g oder A n d e n k e n 0 / l o place, no publisher, no datej£ o Das Wahr e C h r i s t e n t h u m . ' Lancaster, P a 0i Johann Bdr's Sdnen, 18 8 8 0 Das W a h r e Ch r i s t e n t h u m 0 . S c o t t d a l e , P a 0 s Mennonitische V e r l a g s h a u s , 1951° Beiler9 Edna0 "My P e o p l e a r e D e s t r o y e d for l a c k of K n o w l e d g e , " Amish Mission E n d e a v o r . T V 0 ( S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r , 195^» P P . 5 - 6 , ^ T a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1955» pp . 2 - 3 , 6)„ Beiler, Elio "Von der Dankbarkeit," Herold der Wahrheito XL 11 (November 1 5* 1953)? pPe 675-76e ____ o "Was ist Sunde?" H e r o l d der W a h r h e i t . XLII I (June 1 5, 195^)* p. 3 5 5 o Bell, Earl Ho Culture of a Contemporary Rural Community., Sublette. KansasB Ru r a l L j f e Studies 2. Washington,, (United States D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e ; » B e n d e r , C 0W 0 "Christ the B r i d e - g r o o m , " H e r o l d der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I ( F e b r u a r y 16, 1 9 5 L - ) „ p » 1 2 2 „ B e n d e r , H a r o l d S» ( e d c F r a n s " A n Amish Bishop's Conference E p i s t l e o f 1 8 6 5 ?" M e n n o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w 6 XX,.(July, XS46), pp„ 22CK o "An A m i s h C h u rc h D i s c i p l i n e of 1781," M en n o n i t e Quarterly R e v i e w . IV (April, 1930), pp. 140-48. o "Amish C h u r c h D i s c i p l i n e of 1779?" Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . XI (April 19, 1937)* pp. 163-68. o "The A n a b a p t i s t V i si on , " M e n no ni t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . XVIII (April, 1 9 h L-) , pp. 67-88. ,o "The B l o o d y Tneater or Martyrs' M i rr o r, " M en n o n i t e Q uarterly R e v i e w ., X X I V (October, 1950), pp. 366-67. o "Conrad Grebel Quart er ly Review, X V as a Zwinglian, (April, 1522-= 1 523 *" Mennonite 1 9 ^ 1 )9 pp. 67-82. o "The D i s c i p l i n e A d o p t e d b y the S t r a s b u r g C o n f e r e n c e of 1588," Mennonite Qua r t e r l y R e v i e w . I (January, 1 9 2 7 ) * P P » 57-66. .... o "Editorial," Me nn o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . XI (October, "The F i r s t Edit io n of the A us bu nd ," Mennon it e Quarterly R e v i e w , IV . (April, 1929)* pp. 147-50* "Mennonite C o n c e p t i o n of the Chur ch and its relati on to C o m m u n i t y b u i l d i n g , " Mennonite (Apr il, 1 9 ^ 5 ) » PP . 9 0 - 1 0 0 . Quarterly R e v i e w . XIX R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 1937). - 1059 - B e n d e r , H a r o l d S. M e n n o n i t e o r i g i n s i n E u r o p e . . .("Mennonites a n d T h e i r Heritage,*' N o . 1 ) . A k r o n Pa„ : Mennonite Central C o m m i t t e e , 19^2. . M e n n o S i m o n s 1 Life and Writings, A Q u a d ri ce nt e nn ia l T r i b u t e 1 5 3 6 - 1 9 3 6 . ___ W r i t i n g s S e l e c t e d a n d . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the D u t c h by J o h n Horsch. Scottdale, Mennonite Publishing H o u s e , 1 9*+*+ o o. " T h e M i n u t e s o f t he A m i s h C o n f e r e n c e of 1 8 0 9 p r o b a b l y h eld in Lancaster County, P e nnsylvania," Mennonite Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . X X (July, I9lt-6),pp. 241-2. o "The O f f i c e of B i s h o p in A n a b a p t i s t - M e n n o n i t e H i s t o r y , " M e n n o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w , X X X (April, 1956), pp. 128-32. "Outside Influences on M e n n o n i t e Thought," Proceedings of the N i n t h C o n f e r e n c e on M e n n o n i t e E d u c a t i o n s a n d C u l t u r a l Problems! North. N e w t o n , K a n s , s 1 9 ^ 3 e PP» 33-41. _o "Some early A m e r i c a n A m i s h M en no ni te d i s c i p l i n e s , ” M e n n o n i t e Q ua r t e r l y R e v i e w . VIII (April, 1 9 3 ^ ) » P P o 90-98. . T w o Ce n t u r i e s of A m e r i c a n M e n n o n i t e L i t e r a t u r e 1 7 2 7 “-1^928 . G o s h e n , Ind.: M e n n o n i t e Historical. S o c i e t y , . "Some e a r l y A m e r i c a n A m i s h M e n n o n i t e D i s c i p l i n e s ,“ M e nn on it e Qu ar t e r l y R e v i e w . VIII (April, i 93^)* 1929o PP° 90-98. Bender. H a r v e y . "I-W Service," W i t n e s s i n g , I V ( J a n u a r y , 1956)*. P» Bender, Wilbur Joseph. " P a c i f i s m A m o n g the M e n n o n i t e s , A m i s h M e n n o n i t e s a n d S c h w e n k f e l d e r s o f P e n n s y l v a n i a to 1 7 8 3 ? " M e n n o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . I (July, Benedict, Ruth. Patterns A m e r i c a n L i b r a r y , 195 1 * of C u l t u r e . 1927)* New PP° 21-48. fork. New Bennett, John W. and Tumin, Mel vi n M Social L i f e ; S tr u c t u r e and Function. An Int ro du c to ry Gene r al S o c i o l o g y . New York. Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. Benson. Clarence H. "Menace of Bibleless Schools," Mennonite Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . VIII (April, 1 9 3 ’+).* PP° 51-57. B ericht der V e r h a n d l u n g e n der Ja hr li c h e n Z us am m e r k u n f t der A m i s c h e n M e n n o n i t e n Di e n e r und Bruderschaft. 1 8 6 2 - 1 8 7 8 . P r i n t e d a n n u a l l y as f o l l o w s : LancasterPa.: 1862, 1863, 186^-, l 8 6 5 s 1868; C h i c a g o , 111.: 1866;E l k h a r t , Ind.: 1867 \ 1 8 6 9 s 1870 , 1 8 7 1 , 1872 , 1 8 7 3 , 187M-, 1 8 7 5 ? 1876 , 18780 Berkey, Andrew. "New Year's Eve," P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h m a n . IV ( J a n u a r y 1, 1 9 5 3 ) * P» 3 0 Billington, R a y Allen. T h e P r o t e s t a n t C r u s a d e . 18 0 0 - 1 8 8 0 . New York. M a c m i l l a n , 19 3 8 . B i t s c h i , E l i S. e t al. E i n e B e t r a c h t u n g u n d E r k l M r u n g -fiber Bann u nd Meidung und der Grund in Gottes Wort, uber welche et s o i l a u s g e s n r o c h e n w e r d e n P / K i n z e r s , PaTjT B o a s , Franz. Mind of Primitive M a n . N e w York. M a c m i l l a n , 1938. B o i s e n , A n t o n T. R e l i g i o n in Crisis and C u s t o m . N e w York. H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1955° B ontrager, Levi. "What is on your Rea di ng Table?" Herald. ( N o v e m b e r 19> 1 9 5 3 ) - t P « 2. Bontreger, Daniel. " C l e a r i n g the W a y for M i s s i o n s in the Home Church," W i t n e s s i n g . Ill (October, 1955)-*P« 8 . Bontreger, Eli J. "Introduction" to The S t or v o f .the A m i s h R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. I - 1060 - In C i v i l i a n P u b l i c Service.. ed. D a v i d W a g b e r a n d R o m a n Raber0 Boonsboro, M d e t C.P.S. C a m p N o 0 2*+, U n i t I I I 0 N o p u b l i s h e r , 19*+5o Bontreger, Eli J e " F u r t h e r N o t e s on O r d i n a t i o n s , " Mennonite H i s t o r i c a l B u l l e t i n . V I I I ( M a r c h , 1 9 l+ 6 ) c . "Twilight Meditation," Herold der W a h r h e i t . X L V (April 1 1 9 5 6 ) * p. 1 2 6 . The B o o k of d i s c i p l i n e of the R eligious S o c i e t y of F r i e n d s . P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pa»s Philadelphia Yearly.Meeting, Fifteenth a n d R a c e S t r e e t s , 1927* B o r n e m a n , H e n r y S. Pennsylvania German Illuminated Manuscripts. A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of F r a k t u r - S c h r i f t e n and A n I n q u i r y into their H i s t o r y and Art. Camden, N . J . ; Pennsylvania German S o c i e t y , 1937° BorntrSger, Hansi C Q "Christus das H a u p t der G e m e i n d e Gottes," H e r o l d d e r W a h r h e i t , X L I I I ( M a y 1, 195*+)* PP» 2 6 6 - 6 7 . B o u l e n g e r , E.G. Wi l d Life the World O v e r . N e w York. Wise and Co. 1950. van Brac h t /Braght7, T i e l e m a n / T h i e l e m a n / Jan, The B l o o d y T h e a t e r , o r. M a r t y r s 0 M i r r o r , o f t h e D e f e n c e l e s s C h r i s t i a n s . w h o s u f f e r e d a n d w e r e p u t to d e a t h f r o m t h e t i m e o f C h r i s t until AoDo 1 6 6 0 . Translated by I Daniel Rupp. Lancaster, Pa. s David Miller, 1 8 3 7 o o T h e B l o o d y T h e a t e r or M a r t y r s M i r r o r o f t h e D e f e n c e l e s s Christians W h o B a p t i z e d Only U p o n C o n f e s s i o n of F a i t h and W ho S u f f e r e d and D i e d for the T e s t i m o n y of Jesus. T h e i r Saviour, F r o m t h e T i m e o f C h r i s t t o t h e Y e a r A . D , 1 6 6 0 .. Scottdale, M e n n o n i t e P u b l i s h i n g Ho u s e , 1951° o D e r Bl u t i g e Schau-Platz. oder Martv r e r S piegel der T a u f f s - G e s i n n t e n . oder w e h r l o s e n Christen. D i e u m des Zeugnisses Jesu, Ihres S e l i g m a c h e r s . willen, gelitten h a b e n , u n d getffdtet w o r d e n s i n d . v o n C h r i s t i Z e i t an. auf das J a h r 1 6 6 0 . L a n c a s t e r , J o s e p h E h r e n f r i e d , 1 8 1Wo B r i n t o n , H o w a r d . , " S t a g e s i n S p i r i t u a l D e v e l o p m e n t as R e c o r d e d i n H o n o r o f R u f u s M. J o n e s , i n Q u a k e r J o u r n a l s , " Children o f L i g h t , ed. H 0H 0 Brinton,, N e w York. M a c m i l l a n , 1938. A Brother. "Adultery," H e r o l d d e r W a h r h e i t . X L I ( J u n e 1, 1952)>P«> A Brother, " R e m a r k on R o m a n s 12," Herold der W a h r h e i t , X L I I I ( M a r c h 15, 1 9 5 l+ ) » P P ° 1 8 2 - 8 4 . A Brother, "Who w i l l b e R e s p o n s i b l e for the Sins of Our Y o u n g People," H e r a l d « S e p t e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 5 2 * p. 6. A Brother. "A Y o u n g M a n ' s C o n f e s s i o n , " W i t n e s s i n g , IV (July, 1 9 5 6 ) 9 P P° 1 - 2 . A Brother, Oklahoma. " W h a t is a M i s s i o n a r y , " Herold der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I ( J u n e 1, 1 9 5 ^ ) * P- 3 3 9 . A Brother from Pennsylvania. "Ungodly Practice," Amish M i s s i o n E n d e a v o r . I V (J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 5 5 ) » P P ° 6 - 7 „ ein B r u d e r , N a p p a n e e , Ind.; " G e b e t flir h a u s l i c h e A n d a c h t . Morgenbet an Sonntag," erwfihlt. Herold der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I ( D e c e m b e r 1 5? 1 9 5 ^ ) ® p p . 6 2 8 - 2 9 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1061 - ein Brudero "Weisheit un d E r k e n n t n i s ," H e ro l d der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I (September 1 5? 195*+)? pp. 530-52. ein Bruder<, "Ein Zuspru ch ," H e ro ld der W a h r h e i t . XLI (October 15, 1952)* pp. 616-17. Brunk, George Ro Musical Instruments. N i c ho la s S t o l t z f u s , Piketon, Joe, Ark.: c Q 1953° o Ready Scriptural Ohio; Reasons0 Published Scottdale, Herald Bull et in of the U n i t e d States G eological S u r v e y . No. W a shington, D.C.: D e p a r t m e n t of the I n t e r i o r . A Burdened (October Sister. "Unity” Herold 15$ 1 9 5 2 ) , pp. 6 3 2 - 4 . by M a r t i n Printers, Saint Press, 195*+° 58 (1890), der W a h r h e i t . XLI Burgess, Ernest W. and Locke, Harvey J. The Family from Institution to Companionship. New York. American Book Co. 195^0 Brukhart, Charles. "The C h u r c h m u s i c of the Old Order A m i s h and Old C o l o n y M e n n o n i t e s , " M en n o n i t e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . X X V I I (January, 1953)* pp. 34-54. Butterfield, Roger. L i f e . X XXVII (April "The Prodi g i o u s 26 , 1 9 5 * 0 ° Life of George Eastman," Cassel, D a n i e l K. H i s t o r y of the Mennonites. Historically and B i o g r a p h i c a l l y A r r a n g e d from the time of the R e f o r m a t i o n ; m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y fr o m the time of their e mi gr a t i o n to America. C o n t a i n i n g sketches of the oldest m e e t i n g houses and p r o m i n e n t mi ni s t e r s . Also, their c o n f e s s i o n of f a i t h . A d o pt ed at D or tr e c h t , in 1 6 3 2 . Philadelphia. Daniel K. Cassel, 1888. Chalkley, Thomas. A .journal or. H i s t o r i c a l A c co un t of the L i f e . Travels, and C h r i s t i a n Experiences, of that Antient, F a i th fu l S e r va nt of Jesus Christ. Thomas Chalkley; W h o depart e d this Life in the Island of TORTOLA, the four th D a y of the N i n t h Month. 17^-1 . Philade lp hi a . R e pr i n t e d and sold by James Chattin, 175**-° o The Journal of T h o m a s Chalkley. N e w York. Samuel W o o d , 1810. The C h i l d 8s P a p e r . Boston. American Tract Society, 1852. Chiniqui ^/Chiniquy, 1809-9.27 Father Z c °P “T^/j Ex-Priest. The Priest, the W o m a n and the C o n f e s s i o n a l . 3 7 t h Edition. Toledo, Ohio. B o o k and Bi b l e House, 19^7° C hrist ia n Living, a M a g a z i n e for Home and C o m m u n i t y . Scottdale, Pa.: The C h r i s t i a n S c h o o l . Scottdale, Pa.: Chruchman, John. A n Account of the Gospel labours, and Christian experiences of a faithful minister of C h r i s t . John Churchman. Late of N ot ti ng h am , in P e n n s y l v a n i a . deceased. London. James Phillips, reprinted. Colson, Elizabeth and Gluckman, Max. Seven Tribes of British Central A f r i c a . London. Oxford University Press, 1951° A Concerned Amish Youth. Amish Mission Endeavor, " A n x i e t y over Our Y o u n g People," I I I ( J a n u a r y - F e b r u a r y , 195*+)° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 1062 A concerned brother from Florida, "Holy Spirit Like Electricity," Amish Mission Endeavor, (mimeographed), March-April=»May= June, 1955? p. 5. Confession of Faith and Ministers Manual Containing the Confession of Faith Adopted at Dortrecht in 16^2. The Shorter Catechism - Forms for Baptism, the Lord8s Supper, Marriage. Ordination of Bishops and Ministers - general Lessons, Texts. etc. Elkhard, Ind0: Mennonite Publishing C o Q 1890. Conrad, Geo: Lo Gebetbtlchlein ftlr die Kleinen. . Columbus, OhiOo Lutheran Book Concern, 1909° Correl, Ernest H 0 "Value of Hymns for Mennonite History," Mennonite Quarterly Review. IV (July, 1 930)P pp„ 215-2190 Coutis, Alfredo Hans Penck. 1M-95-1527. Edinburgh, Macmillan and Wallace, 1927» Cox, WoWo History of Seward County. Nebraska, and Reminiscences of Territorial History. University Place, Nebraska. /No p u b lis h e d 1 90^ . The Crusade Staff. Crusade for Christ. Orville, Ohio. Christian Laymen's Tent Evangelism, Inc. /195J2/ Cunz, Dieter. The Maryland Germans. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19'+$° Darling, F. Fraser. Bird Flocks *and the Breeding Cycle. A Contribution to the Study of Avian Sociology 0 Cambridge /England/ Cambridge University Press: 1 938 ° . West Highland Survey. An Essav in Human Ecology. London. Oxford University Press, 1955° Davis, Allison W. and Dollard, John. Children of Bondage. The Personality Development of Negro Youths in the Urban South. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 19^0. Davis, Allison W. Gardner, B.B. and Gardner, M.H. Deep South. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 195-1. A Declaration from the harmless and innocent people of God, called, Quakers, against all sedition plotters and fighters in the world.... Present unto the KING upon the 21st day of the 1 1 th month, 1 6 6 0 , reprinted 1 6 8 0 . Deets, Emerson. The Hutterites: A Study in Social Cohesion. Gettysburg, Pa.s Times and News Publishing Co. 1939° Dickinson, James. Friends Library. Comprising Journals, Doctrinal Treatises, and other writings of members of the Religious Society of Friends, William Evans and Thomas Evans, Ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: the Editors, 185-8, Vols XII. Dickinson, R.L. Human Sex A n a t o m y . . Baltimore. Williams and Wilkins C o G 1933° Doniger, Simon, ed. Sex and Religion Today. New York. Associated Press, 1953° Dortrecht (Dordrecht, Dort). Confession of F a i t h . /See any standard work on Mennonites7 Doten. The Art of Bu n d l i n g . /No place/. Countryman Press and Farrar and Reinehart, 1938. du B o i s , Cora. "The Dominant Value Profile of the American Culture," American Anthropologist. LVII (December, 1955) ? FP° 1232-39 Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Book I Translated by George Simpson. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 195-7° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1063 - Durkheim, Emile., The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, a Study in Religious Sociology. Translated by Joseph Ward Swain. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 195lfo E., J.S.G. "Die Hauptbedeckung des Weibes," Herold der Wahrher t , November 1 and 1 5> 19 5 2 9 pp. 653-54, and pp. 684-86. Easy Wessons for The Little Ones at Home. Boston, Mass.: American Tract Society, £c. 183.57 Eaton, Joseph A. "Controlled Acculturation. A Survival Technique of the Hutterites," American Sociological Review. XVII (June, 1952), pp. 331-40. Eaton, Joseph W . , Weil, Robert J . , and Kaplan, Bert. "The Hutterite Mental Health Study." Reprint from "Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w ." January, 1951, Issue. Egermeier, Elsie E. Bible Story Book. A Complete Narration from Genesis to Revelation for Young and O l d . Eighteenth Printing, Anderson, Ind.: Warner Press, 1938. Ely, Ralph. "A History of the Amish People of East Union Township, Wayne County, Ohio; with Special Emphasis on Educational Problems," Unpublished M aster's Thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1 9*+2 . Engle, T.L. "An Analysis of Themes on the Subject of War as written by A m ish and non-Amish Children," Journal of Educational Psychology, XXXV (May, 1 9 ^ ) , pp. 267-73. English-German Primer, adapted from Sanders 8 Pictorial Pri m e r . Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, ,/No date7. Erb, Paul. "Religious Basis of the Mennonite Community." Mennonite Quarterly Review. XIX (April, 19l+5), pp. 79-85. . What it means to be a Mennonite. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 19^7«. ~ Die Ernsthafte Christennflicht. Darinnen schdne geistreiche gebater. Womit sich Fromme Christen-Herzen zu alien Zeiten und in alien N 8 then trflsten kbnnen. Ephrata, Johannes B a u m a n n , 1 8 6 8 . Die ernsthafte Christennflicht enthaltend Schbne geistreiche Gebete. womit sich fromme Christenherzen zu alien Zeiten und in alien Ntiten trbsten kbnnen Nebst einem Anhange. enthaltend eine Kurze Darstellung des Glaubens und das Glaubens-Bekenntniss der wehrund rachlosen Christen. Revidierte und vermehrte Ausgabe. Menn.onitische Verlagshandlung, Scottdale, 19^5. Erstes Deutsches Lesebuch fflr amerikanische Schulen. Revidirt ftlr Hansunterrocht und Privat-schulen. Baltock, Ohio. J.A. Raber, /(no date7. Esch, C.D. ” Christian standards of Social Purity. Scottdale, Herald Press'] 1 9^9° " Eshleman, H. Frank. Historic Background and Annals of the Swiss and German Pioneer Settlers of Southeastern Pennsylvania, and of Their Remote Ancestors. From the Middle of the Dark Ages. Down to the Time of the Revolutionary W a r . Lanc a s t e r , P a . : 1 917. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 106*+ - Evangelinm Nicodemi. oder historischer Bericht von dem Leben Jesu Christie welches Nicodemus. ein Rabbi und Oberster der Juden beschrieben. vie er solches selbst gesehen und erfahren. weil er ein Nachfolfer und heimlicher Jilnger Christi gewesen war: nebst vielen schttnen Geschichten. welche die Evangelisten nicht beschrieben haben. und elner Historie von einem Rabbi und Obersten der JudenT welcher Qffentlich bekannte: dass Christus Gottes Sohn sei. aus des Herrn Philippi Kegelii Anhang zum geistichen Wegweiser nach dem himmlischen Vaterland usv. genommen. /fto place, n o .publisher, no date? Evans-Pritchard, E.'E. "Religion," The institutions of Primitive Society. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Pres.*, 1956<> Eyman, R.M. Instructions to Superintendents. Officers and Other School Authorities for the Issuance of Age and Schooling Certificates and Other Types of Dismissals or Excuses from School Attendance, 19500 Columbus,Ohio. State of Ohio Department of Education, 1950. Faith and Practice,, of the Religious Society of Friends of Philadelphia and vicinity, a book of Christian discipline. Philadelphia, Pa»s The Representative Meeting, 302 Arch Street, 19*+3» Family A l m a n a c « ed„ Ellrose D. Zook, Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1952, 1953, 1953, 195*+, 1955* Fehrle, Eugene. Deutsche Feste und JahresbrMuche. Berlin. Bo Go Teubner, 193&° Firth, Raymond. Elements of Social Organization. Johnson’s Court, Fleet Street, London, E.G.1*-. Watts & Co. 1951® Firth, Raymond William. "Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori," New York. E.P. Dutton, 1929° Fisher, Jonathan B 0, Around the World by Water and Facts Gleaned on the W a y . A "Peep" into Foreign Lands and Observations, Narratives and General Notes of Travel as Viewed and Given by a Former Pennsylvania Farmer, Later Known as the "New Holland Cheese Man." Also a Collection of Numerous Interesting Facts Relative to the places and Countries Visited, and Beauty of their Scenery Vividly Penned. ,/No place, no publisher 7 , 1937» Fleming, Sandfard. Children and Pur i t a n i s m . New Haven. Yale University Press, 1 933*> Fletcher, L.R. "The Amish People of Holmes County, Ohio. A Study in Human Geography," Unpublished Master's Thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1932 . Fly, Mary. "Neglected Ordinance," Gospel Herald. XLVIII (August 16, 19 5 5 ) P» 776. Fogel, Edwin Miller. Beliefs and Superstitions of the Pennsylvanian G e r mans. Philadelphia. American Germanica Press, 1 915Forbush, W.B. ed. Fox's Book of M a r t y r s . Ford, Ira. et al. History of Northeastern Indiana. La Grange. Steuben. Noble, and DeKalb Counties. Chicago, 111.: 1920. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Fortune, R.F. Manus ReligionPhilosophical Society, 1935° 10 6 5 - Philadelphia, Pa.s American Foster, C h a r l e s . Firs t Steps for Little Feet in Gospel P a t h s . Fox, G e o r g e o A C o l l e c t i o n of m a n y select and C h r i s t i a n e p i s t l e s . letters and testimonies, w r i t t e n on s u n dr y occasions! by that ancient, emine nt faith fu l Friend and m i n i s t e r of J e s u s . George F o x c (London., To Sowle, 1698), II o A Journal of historical account of the life* travels. sufferings. Christian experiences and labour of love in the work of the ministry of that ancient, eminent and faithful servant of Jesus Christ. George F o x ; who departed this life in great peace with the Lord, the 13th of the 1 1 th month, 1 6 9 O 0 London. Thomas Northcott, 169*+, 1° Francis, E.K. "The M e n n o n i t e School P r o b l e m in Manitoba, 187^-1919 ?" Mennonite Quarterly Review. .XXVII (July, 1 953 )9 pp» 204-C » "Tradition and Progress Among the Mdnnonites of Manitoba," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XX5V (October, 1950). Franz, Glinther, et al. Woedertaugerakten 1 527-1626. (Urlrundliche Quellen zur hessischen Reformations geschichte, Bd, IVo ) Marburg ,/ijermany7° N.G. E l w e r t sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1951° Frazer, J.G. Taboo and Perils of the Soulo ("The Golden Bough," Vol: II.) New York. Macmillan C o D 1953° Fretz, J. Winfield. "Factors Contributing to Success and Failure in Mennonite Colonization," Mennonite Quarterly review. XXIV (April, 1950), pp. 130-35„ o "The Growth and Use of Tobacco among Mennonites," Proceedings of the seventh Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems. (19^9 )9 pp. 87-100. "Mennonite Colonization in Mexico - An Introduction." Akron. The Mennonite Central Committee. 19^5° o "Mennonite Colonization. Lessons from The Past for the Future. Akron, Pa.s Mennonite Central Committee, 19*+^° Frey, J. William. "Amish 'Triple-Talk ” " 5 American Speech. XX (April, 195*+) 9 pp. 85-98. o The German Dialect of Eastern York County. Pennsylvania. An abstract of a Ph.D., Thesis, University of Illinios, 19^+1° Urbana, 111.: 1 9*+1 . University of Illinois Press. . A Simple G r a m m a r of P e n n s y l v a n i a D u t c h . Clinton, SoC.s Published by J. William Frey, 19^2. Friedmann, Robert. Mennonite Piety Through the Centuries. Goshen, Ind.: Mennonite Historical Society, 19^9° G„, S.D. "Pflicht der Dankbarkeit," Herold der Wahrheit. XLII (November 1 5 ? 1953) p. 681. Gascho, Milton. "The Amish Division of 1693~1697 in Switzerland and Alsace," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XI (October, 1937)? pp° 235-266. Geistliches L u s t - G S r l e i n frommer S e e l e n ("Heilsame An we i s u n g un d R e g e l n eines g o t t s e l i g e n Lebens"). R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1066 - "Geschichtliche BeitrSge aus den Mennonitengemeinden," Christlicher Gemeinde Kalendar. (Kaiserlautern, Germany), III (1908), IV (1909), VII(1915). Getz, Jane C. "The Economic Organization and Practice of the Old Order Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XX (January, 19!+6), (April, 19^-6). Gillin, John, The Wavs of Men, A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1 9^8 . N e w Y o r k and London,, Gingerich, Ervin. Ohio Amish Directory, . Millershurg, Ohio; 1953? 199+, 1955 and 1956; (2 v o l s :) 2Mimeographed7 Gingerich, Melvin0 "Amish Aid Plans," The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Io Scottdale, Pa,: Mennonite Publishing House, 1955° o The Mennonites in Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa, State H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y of Iowa, 193*9° o Service for Peace, Akron, Pa.s Mennonite Central Committee, 19*+9 • Glass, Ester Eby. When You D a t e , Scottdale, Pa.s Herald Press , 1953• Glaubensbekenntnis des wehr-und rauchlosen Christenturns, Arthur, 111,: L.A. Miller, /no date7° Glick, Nettie, Historical Sketch of Walnut Creek, Ohio. Amish Mennonite Church, Sugarcreek, Ohio; printed by Mennonite Publishing House, 1933° Gluckman, Max, "The Lozi of Barotseland in North-Western Rhodesia," in Seven Tribes of British Central Africaa ed„ E l i z a b e t h Co ls o n and M a x Gluckman, U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1951. London; Oxford Goldschmidt, Walter, As You Sow, New York, Harcourt, Brace, 19*+7° A Good Church Member, "A Good Church Member," Mission Endeavor Bulletin, II, (October, 1953)° Good, Howard, "A Study of Mennonite Family Trends in Elkhart County, Indiana," Proceedings of the sixth Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems, North Newton, Kans, B e t h e l College, 19^+7? PP» 41-46. Goodspeed, Edgar J. The Apocrypha, an American Translation, Chicago, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1938° Gorer, Geoffrey. The American People. New York, Norton, 19^+8, Goshen College Review Supplement. (January, 1926). Gospel Herald. Scottdale, Pa.: Goulder, Grace. "Amish Schools," (in Ohio Scenes and Citizens,") Cleveland Plain Dealer Pictorial Magazine. April 29, 1951° G/rabez7 9 H/arvex/o "The Amish Church in the Old Testament, Jer. 36?" Witnessing . IVo (May, 1956). ___ . Can Love Criticize?"0 Witnessing« IV, (January, 1956), p. . "The Gadfly," Witnessing. III. (December, 1955)? p. 4. . "Modern Jonahs Going to Tarshish," Witnessing. IV. (March, 1956), p. 4. , "Our Youth Problem," Witnessing, IV. (July, 1956), pp. 4- R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 1067 - G/raber7? H^arvey7° "Plain Thinking for Plain People through the Publication Program," Witnessing. II. (SeptemberOctober, 195*0 PP» 10-11 • . "Why not Enter the Field," Witnessing. III0 (October, 19 5 5 ) p. 10. Graham, James R. Strangers and Pilgrims. Scottdale. Herald Press, 1951 o Gratz, uelbert L. Bernese Anabaptists and Their American Descendants. Scottdale. Herald Press, 19.53» Gross, Neal. "Sociological Variation In Contemporary Rural Life," Rural Sociology.XII (September, 19^8)<* PP® 256 Guengerich, S.D. "The History of The Amish Settlement in Johnson County. Iowa," Mennonite Quarterly Review. III. (October, 1 9 2 9 ) 9 PP« 245-*48. Gtlngerich, J.D. "Mission," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (May 1, 195*0, P P . 269-70. Gtingerich, J.K. "Mission," Herold der Wahrheit, XLIII. (May 1 s 195*+) , pp. 269-2.7H|_ sacje. article repr.inted in English Herold der Wahrheit. XLIV. (February, 1955)? pp"« 44-45. Gttngerich, S.P. "Auf den Danksagungstag," Herold der Wahrheit, XLI. (November 15, 1952)9 p. 673. Gutkind, Peter C.W. "Secularization versus the Christian Community." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Chicago, 1952. Habermann, Johann. Doctor Johann Habermann's christliches Gebat-Buchlein enthaltend Morgen und Abendsegen auf alle Tage in der Woche. Lancaster, Pa.: J. Baer, 1 8 3 8 . Handbook of the Mennonite Central Committee. (n-th edition), Akron, Pa.: Mennonite Central Committee, 195*+° Handbuch ftlr Prediger. Arthur, 111.: L.A. Miller, 1950° Hark, Ann. Blue Hills and Shooflv Pie. Philadelphia, Pa.s Lippincott Cos 1952. Harper, Francis. Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Old World. Special Publication of the American Committee on International Wildlife Protection, No. 12, 19*+5. Hartzler, J.S. Mennonites in the World War or Nonresistance Under Test. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1922. Heatwole, Daniel R. "The Ephrata Martyrs Mirror," Mennonite Community. III. ..(October, 19*+9)<b P« 13« Heibert, P.C. Life and service in the Kingdom of God. ("Mennonites and Their Heritage," No. 6.) Akron, Pa.: Mennonitp Central Committee, 19J+2, Henry, Ruth. "Old-time Cures and Beliefs," Pennsylvania Dutchman, IV. (September, 1952),, p. 4. Herald (Stonevrun). /Fictitious name7. See text Chapters I and IV. Harold der Wahrheit. Arthur, 111. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission H£ershberger7 9 E^rvir£7. "Christian C o u r t s h i p Herold der Wahrheit. I. "Its Purpose and Participants," (February 15, 195^X "Marriage Instituted by God and Abused byM a n 5" arch 1 , 1956)., III. "Lessons from the Lives of the atriarchs," (March 15, 1956)> IV. "Personal Responsibility in Finding G o d ’s Choice for a Companion," (April 15, 1956)> V® "Basic Mediums Through Which the Lord Leads," (May 15, 195^o VI® "The Role of Circumstances," (July 1, 195°)* VII® "When," (July 15, 1956)= VIIIo "Where," ^ugust 1, 1956), IX. "How," (August 15, 1956)t. X 0 "The Engagement," (September 1 , 1 956)® XI. "Those Who Never Marry," (September 15, 1956^ pp. 285-86. . "Gathering with Jesus," Herold der Wahrheit® XLIV (March 15, 1955)<* pp. 89-90.. o "The Youth's Christian Fellowship Meeting," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIV (June 15, 1955)<* p® 192. o "Who is Responsible for the Draft?" Witnessing. III0 (December, 1955), pp. 1-2. o Devotional Covering and Immoral Courtship: printed by John W. Martin. Est. Manuel Tamps 5 Mexico, 1956. f Hershberger, Guy F. C h r i s t i a n relationships to state and community. ("Mennonites and Their Heritage," No. 5)° Akron, Pa.: Mennonite Central Committee, 19*t-2. o "False Patriotism," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . I. (January, 1927 - April, 192771 pp. 29-45. o The Mennonite Church in the Second World W a r . Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1951. . "The Pennsylvania Quaker Experiment in Politics » 1682-1756," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . X ((October, 1936} 5 ppJ.87-2 . War, Peace and Nonresistance. Scottdale, Pa.: The H erald Press, T 9 T C ----------------Herskovits, Melville J. Acculturation, the Study of Culture C o nt a c t . New York. J„J. Augustin, 1938. . Man and His Works: The Science of Cultural Anthropology. New York. Alfred A. Knopf, 19*+8. — ■ Hertzler, Silas M„ "Early Mennonite Sunday Schools,” Mennonite Quarterly Review. II. (April, 1928). (July, 1928}, pp. 205 o "Mennonite Elementary Schools," Mennonite Quarterly Review, XXIII (April, 19*+9)»PP« 108-113. Hochstetler, D.E. "Our Mission Project," Witnessing. II (January-February, 195*0* p. 9. Hochstetler, David J. "Der rechte Gebrauch des Sabbats," Herold der Wahrheit. XLII (October 1, 1953)* PP® 585-86. Hochstetler, Elam S. "Discipleship in the Home," Witnessing«, III, (October, 1955)* pp. 5-6. . "The Red Lake Indian Project," Witnessing. IV. (July, 1 9 5 6 ) 9 p. 2. Hochstetler, Eli. T. Eine wichtige Erfahrung. Mesopotamia, Ohio? /to publisher, no date7. Hochstetler, William F. Descendants of Barbara Hockstedler and Christian Stutzman. Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 193&« R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 1069 - Hockstetler, Joh. D. (trans.) Ein alter Brief (Elkhart, Ind.: Mennonitische Verlagshandlung, 1916)0 Hoghin, Ho Ian. Law and Order in Polynesiaa A Study of Primitive Legal Institutions« New York0 Harcourt Brace and Co. 193V„ Horsch, John. " “Half-•Anabaptis.td' of Switzerland," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XIV. (January, 19^0)^ pp. 57-59= o "An Historical Survey of the Position of the Mennonite Church in Non-Resistance," Mennonite Quarterly Review, I. (July, 1927)« pp. 6-22. . "An Inquiry into the Truth of Accusations of Fanaticism and Crime Against the Early Swiss Brethren," Mennonite Quarterly Review, VIII. (January, 193*+)® PP° 18-31; (April, 1 931+)iP pp. 73-89 • o The Hutterian Brethren? 1528-1931? a Story of Martyrdom and Loyalty. Goshen, Ind.: Mennonite Historical Society, 1931° o Mennonites in Europe. Scottdale, Mennonite Publishing Hous e , 1 9*+2 o o Menno Simons. His Life. Labors and Teachings. Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 1916. _0 "Menno Simons 5 Attitude Toward the Anabaptists of Muenster," Mennonite Quarterly Review. X. (January, 1936) 0 pp. 55-72. . The Principle of Non-Resistance as Held by The Mennonite Church: An Historical Survey. 2nd edition. Scottdale, P s .% Mennonite Publishing House, 1939= o "Rise and Early History of the Swiss Brethren Church," pp.227-^4-9 Mennonite Quarterly Review., VI. (July and October, 1932)0 pp. 169-91 "Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists of Muenster," pp.92-103 Mennonite Quarterly Review. IX. (April and July, 1935) °pp.pp.129-143 . "Rise of Mennonites in the Netherlands," Mennonite Quarterly Review, VIII. (October, 193'+)® pp. 1^7-65 = . "The Struggle Between Zwingli and the Swiss Brethren in Zurich," Mennonite Quarterly Review. VII. (July, 1933)®PP»1^2-6 . Wordlv Conformity in Dress. Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 1926. . "Writings," Menno Simons 8 Life and Writings. Scottdale, Fh.: Mennonite Publishing House, 19^+» Hostetler, David A. "Life in Colorado," Herald. (June 16, 23, 30, and July 7, 1^-, 1955)® P- 8. Hostetler, Harvey. Descendants of Barbara Hochstedler and Christian Stutzman. Scottdale, Mennonite Publishing House, 1938® Hostetler, John A. ffThe Amish and the Public School Christian Living. III. (September, 1956). pp. ^-6,S1-L3. o "An Amish Baptismal Service," Gospel Herald. XLIV. ("February 27? 1951)® pp. 202-203. . Amish Life. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1953® . "Amish problems at Diener Versammlungen," Mennonite Life. IV. (October, 19*+9)® pp. 3^-8. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1070 Hostetler, John A. Annotated Bibliography on the Amish. Scottdale, P a . : Mennonite Publishing House, 1951o o "Evidence of C u l tu ra l Change Among the Amish," Proceedings of the eighth Conference on Mennonite Educational and Cultural Problems0 Newton, Kans: Herald Book and Printing C o 0 1951= PP* 87-96. ° "God Visits the -Amish," Christian Living, I. (March, 195*+)° p. 6. . "If War Comes," A Condensation of the book, "Must Christians Fight?" Scottdale, Herald Press, 194-9. o "The Life and Times of Samuel Yoder," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXII. (October, 194-8). pp. 226-241. . Mennonite Life. Scottdale, Pa.s Herald Press, 195*+° o "Old World Extinction and New World Survival of the Amish: A Study of Group Maintenance and Dissolution," Rural Sociology. XX. (September, 1955)°P* 212-19* o "Recent Textual Treatments of the Amish," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXV. (April, 1951 )«PP* 133-36, ,° The Sociology of Mennonite Evangelism. Scottdale, Herald Pres^, 195*+° " Hsu, Francis L.K. ed. Aspects of Culture and Personality. New York. Abelard-Schuman, 195*+° Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman. Hurlbut8s Story of the Bible for Young and Old. Philadelphia, Pa.s J.C. Winston, cl 190*4-. Hutchinson, G.E. The Itinerant Ivory Tower. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1953° Am Important Dream. Tamps., Mexico. Est. Manuel. Martin Printers, <£c.19557° Ingraham, J.H. The Prince of the House ofDavids or. Three Years in the Holy City. New Yorks Grosset and Dunlap, £ho date7. Jackson, George Pullen. "The Strange music of the Old Order Amish," Music Quarterly. XXXI. (July, 19*+5)°pp. 275-88. James, H e n r y F. "The Kis ha co qu il l as Valley," B u ll et i n of the G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c ie ty of Philadelphia. P e n n s y l v a n i a . X X V I I I . ( O c t o b e r , 1930^p. 2 2 3 - 3 9 * ' Janzen, J.H. "The Literature of the Russo-Canadian Mennonites," Mennonite Life. I. (January, 19*+6)<p * 22. Johns, O.N. "Christians May Request to Be Anointed," Gospel • 'H e r a l d . XLVII. (July 27, 195*+)° P* 1* Jones, M.A. "Reading Among the Amish," Wilson Library Bulletin. XXII. (February, 19*+8).pp. 450-51* Jones, Mary Alice. Pravers for Little Children, and suggestions to fathers and mothers for teaching their children to pravl Chicago, 111. : Rand, McNally, </T93JZ7° Jones, Rebecca. Memorials of Rebecca Jones, compiled, William J. Allensin. Philadelphia, Pa.s Henry Lonstreth, 184-9. Jones, R.L. "The Dairy Industry in Ohio Prior to the Civil War," Ohio State Archaeological Quarterly. LVI. (19*+7)°PP° 46-69* Jutzi, George. Ermahnung von George Jutze an seine Hinterbliebenen. nebst einem Anhange liber die Entstehung der Amischen Gemeinde von Sam. Zook. Somerset, Pa.: Published by Alexander Stutzman, 1853° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. - 1071 Kaplan, Bert and Plaut, Thomas F.A. An Analysis of the Mental Health of the Hutterites. (Mimeographed). Karch, A. P. "The Amish of Holmes County, Ohio,” The Standard Atlas of Holmes County. Ohio, ed» A.J. Stiffer, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1907. Katechismns fhr Kleine Kinder. Zum Gebrauch filr Schulen, Sonntagsschulen und Familien. Besonders bearbeitet fiir die Kleinkinder-Classen zur Grundlage eines evangelischen Religions - Unterrichts mit einer Zugabe von ettichen Gebetform filr kinder, wie, auch Kiuderlieder. Verfasst vonBrtldern. Auf Anratung vieler Briider und Diener der Amischen Gemeinde, zu Amisch, Johnson County, Iowa. Arthur, 111."; Printed for L.A. Miller, 1928. Kauffman, Daniel. God's Plan of Salvation. A Brief Discussion of Nine Cardinal Points on this Subject. Scottdale, Pennsylvania. Mennonite Publishing House. . The Wav of Salvations Including Thoughts on What To Do after We are Saved. Scottdale, Pennsylvania. Mennonite Publishing House, 1930. Kauffman, Daniel and Hartzler, J.S. Mennonite Church History Scottdale, P a . ; Mennonite Publishing House, 1905° Kaufman, Edmund G. The Development of the Missionary and Philanthropic Interest Among the Mennonites of North America. With an introduction by Archibald G. Baker. Berne, Ind.; Mennonite Book Concern, 1 931« . Our mission as a church of Christ. ("Mennonites and Their Heritage," No. ^f). Akron, Pa.; Mennonite Central Committee, 19^2. Kauffman, Henry J. "The Summer House,” Pennsylvania \OLUUIUcJ. , 1958). I ePP* 2-7. I9 Dutchman. VIII. (Summer, Kauffman, Nelson. "Ont. Go? "Out r.nnfHr*.t Conflict with with t.hP the Wnrlrt." Worl (October 19? 1 9 5 ^ ) ° PP. 9 8 5 - 8 6 . Herald. XLVII. Culture Changes An Analysis and ~thropological Sources to 1952. Standord University Press, 1953® 9 U C U a J. JL U . V V^X U V j -** -t ^ I / o "Some Notes on A c c u l t u r a t i o n S t u d y , ” Proceedings of m e oj-xth Pacific Science C o n g r e s s . IV. Berkeley, Calif. ; U n i v e r s i t y of C al if o r n i a Press, 194-0. pp. 59-63. jim, o a h A. "Revival Herold der W a h r h e i t . am, N woan a. "Kevivai or D i sc ipline," (July 15, 195^). ^36-37XLIII. 195^)0 pp. k - .. Witnessing. . "Self-Righteousness," II " S e l f - R i g h t e o u s n e s s ," Witne; February, 195^)°p. 3* Herold . "What are We Offering to Our Children? 61 - 6 2 . der Wahrheit. XLIV. (February 15, 1 9 5 5 ) « p p iiscj,, Alfred, co .J.. Human Female. nsey, et O al. Sexual Behavior ^ in ^ Philadelphia, Pa.; Saunders, 1953„ Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Philadelphia, Pa« W.B. Saunders , 19*+&. Klaeui, P. "Hans Landis of Zurich (161*0. Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXII. (October, 19^+8). pp. 203-11. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1072 Klees, Frederic. The Pennsylvania D u t c h . New York; Macmillan Co, 1951. Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Kelly, William H. "The Concept of Culture," The Science of Man in the World Crises. ed„ Ralph Linton. New York; Columbia University Press, 19^5° p p. 7 8 - 1 0 6 Kluckhohn, Clyde and Others. "Values and ValueOOrientations in the Theory of Action: An Exploration in Definition and Classification." In Toward a General Theory of Actiona eds. To Parsons and E. S h i l s 0 Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952. pp. 388-433. Kluckhohn, Florence. "Dominant and Substitute Profiles of Cultural Orientations: Their Significance for the Analysis of Social Stratification," Social F o r c e s . XXVIII. (May, 1950). pp. 376-93Kollmorgan, Walter M. The Old Order Amish of Lancaster County. Pennsylvania. Culture of a Contemporary Rural Communityo Rural Life S t u diesib United States Department of Agriculture, September, 19^2. o Culture of a Contemporary Rural Community: The Old Order Amish of Lancaster County. Pennsylvania. Rural Life Studies: V . U n i t e d States Department of Agriculture, September, 19^2. Krahn, Cornelius. "Conversion of Menno Simons," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . X. (January, 1936). pp. 46-53« . "The Office of Elder In Anabaptist-Mennonite History," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w , XVX. (April, 1956). pp. 1 2 0 - 2 7 . Kroeber, A lf r e d Louis. Anthropology. N e w York; Harcourt, Brace and Co. 19^+8. . "Caste," Encyclopaedia of the Social S c i ences., II. New York; Macmillan Co. 1930. pp. 254-56. Kuhn, Manford H, "Factors in Personality: Social cultural determinants as seen through the Amish" in Aspects of Culture and Personality, ed. Francis L.K. Hsu. New York; Abelard-Schuman, 195^® pp. 57-8. Landis, Ira D. "Amish Aid Society," The Mennonite Encyclopedia. I. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1955° pp. 8 9 - 9 0 . o "Ordination Among Mennonites," Mennonite Historical B u l l e t i n . V. (December 19*+*+ and March, 19*+5)« Leeper, V.L. "The History, Customs and Social Life of the Amish of Ohio With Special Reference to Holmes County." Unpublished M a s t e r ’s Thesis, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio. 1936. Leh, Leonard L. "Shooting in the New Year," Pennsylvania D u t c h m a n . IV. (January 1 , 1953)* p. 3Lehman, J. Irvin. "God and W a r ." Scottdale, Pennsylvania. Mennonite Publishing House, 19*+5° Lehman, M.C. The History and Principles of Mennonite Relief Work. Akron, Pa.: Mennonite Central Committee, 19^5* The Letters of the Amish D i v i s i o n . Translated by John B. Mast. Scottdale, Pa.: Christian J. Schlabach, 1950° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1073 - L e v y , Marion Jo J r Q The Structure of Societvo Princeton, NoJc s Princeton University Press, 1 9 5 2 0 Lewis, Oscaro Life in a Mexican Villages Tenoztlan Restudied.., University of Illinois Press in Urbana, 1951° Lichten, F r a n c e s e Folk Art of Rural Pennsylvania„ New York* Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1 9*+6 0 Lind, Millardo "What's a Community," Christian Li v i n g a I 0 (March, 1 9 5 V ) 0 p. 3. Linton, R a l p h 0 The C u l tu r al B ac kg r o u n d of P e r s o n a l i t y ., New York; Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc 6 19^+5° ° edo Most of the Worlds The Peonies of A f r i c a « Latin America., and the East T o d a y o New York; Columbia University Press, 19^-9° o The Science of Man in the World Crisis«, New Yorks Morningside Heightso Columbia University Press, 1950° o The St u dy of M a n s A n I n t r o d u c t i o n 0 N e w Yorks Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1936o Littell, Franklin H a m l i n „ "Anabaptist Doctrine of the Restitution of the True Church," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w Q XXIVo (January, 1950)° pp. 33-53,0 The Anabaptist View of the C h u r c h o , American.Society of Church History, 1952o Lloyd, W o A o , Falconer, J oI 0 , and Thorne, C 0 E 0 The Agriculture of Q h i O o Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 326 ^Wooster, Ohio, 19187o Loomis, Charles P., and Beegle, Jo Allan., Rural Social S y s t e m s 0 New Yorks Prentice-Hall, 195 0 o "A Loving Appeal From God's Wordo" Witnessing a I V 0 1956>° lo Purpose of this appeal, January, pp. 1 - 3 .2The Plan of Salvation, February^pp.1-3-3 Assurance of Salvation, Marche pp. 1 - 2 Vo ^he Duties Involved in the Possession of the Holy Spirit, Aprilop. 1 - 2 . 5 -Practical Implications of Mission Work, M a y 0 pp.l~ 2 . Lynd, Robert Staughton and Helen Merrello Midd l e t o w n 0 New York? Harcourt, Brace and Co» 1929= McCammon, Dorothy S. We Tried to S t a y ., Scottdale, P a Qs Herald Press, 1953° M alinow sk i, B r o n i s l a w 0 Crime and C u s t o m in Savage S o c i e t v 0 N e w Y o r k and Londons H arcourt, Brace and C o 0 19261 o The Dynamics of Culture Changes An Inquiry into Race Relations in Africao N e w Haven, C o n n 0 i Yale University Prsss ^ i 9^*9® o The Father In P r i m i t i v e P s y c h o l o g y „ N e w York; W 0W 0 Norton & C o 0 I n c Q 1927° o Magic. Science and R e l i g i o n ., N e w York? Doubleday Anchor Books, 1 9 5 2 0 Maniaci, R c "Editorial," Amish Mission E n d e a v o r . I V C (July-August-September-October, 1955)°p- 11. Martin, Johann W D Ninive0 Eine Stadt G o t t e s . Und Ihre Z erstreuungQ Martin Printers, Saint Joe, Ark„s 7 p 0 19527° o Gottes Bild und E h r e » Saint Joe, A r k „ % £No publisher, no dat§7° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 107^ - Martin, John W. Abomination of Desolation. St. Joe, Ark.; Martin P r i n t e r s , £ lo dat§7 Mason, Leonardo "The Characyerization of American Culture in Studies of A c c u l t u r a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t . LVII. (December, 1955)«P° 1 2 7 2 . Mast, Daniel E. Anweisung zur Seligkeit. Baltic, Ohio; JoAo Raber. Z^9307. p. 5 1 2 . o " F a m il y W o rs h i p , " HdW, XLIIIo John B e Mast, o Lessons in the Sermon on the Mount. /From Anweisungen zur Seligkeito7 Translated by John Bo Mast= Scottdale, Pa.s M e n n o n i t e P ub li s h i n g House, 1953» "Das Licht u n t e r d e m S ch e ff el ," He r o l d der W a h r h e i t « XLIII. (July 1 , 195^)o pp. 397-99. o "Das Licht unter dem Scheffel," H erold der W a h r h e i t . XLIII. (July. 1 , and 1 195*+)opp. 397-99, *+19-21. o "The Love of M o n e y " (Tr, J o h n B« Mast), Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLIII. (July 1 , 195^+). pp* *+0 7 6 - 0 8 . Mast, J o h n B e ed. Eine E rk la r un g iiber B a n n u n d M e i d u n g s B e s c h r i e b e n zur Zeit der A m i s c h Snalt von 1 6 9 3 - 1 7 1 1 . ^Weatherford, Oklahoma^. 19*+9* ____» Facts C on ce r n i n g the B e a c h y A.Mo Di v i s i o n of 1 9 2 7 . Myersdale, Pa.s Published by Menno J. Yoder, 1950. o T he Letters of the A m i s h D i v i s i o n of 1 6 9 3 - 1 7 1 1 . Or e go n City, Oregon, p ub li s he d b y C h ri st ia n J. Sehlabach, p r i nt ed b y the M e n n o n i t e Pu bl is h i n g House, 1950. Mead, Margaret. And Keen Your Powder D r y a An A n t h r o p o l o g i s t Looks at America" H e w York; W i l l i a m M o r r o w and C o 0 1942. o ed. Cultural Patterns and Technical Change. Printed in Holland. IJnesco SS.5^-. V«3a. o M a l e and F e m a l e . A St ud y of the Sexes in a Changing W o r l d . New Yorks William Morrow, 19*+9° . N e w Lives for O l d . Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928=1953® Hew York; William Morrow, 1956. o S o v i e t Attitudes Toward Authority; An I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y Approach to Problems of Soviet Character. New York, Toronto, London. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. 1951° First Edition. Mennonite B o d i e s . ("Census of Religious Bodies, 1936$" Bulletin No. 17), Washington, D.C.s Government Printing Office, 19^0. Mennonite Church P o l i t y . A Statement of Practices in Church Government together with Mennonite Confession of Faith, C h r i s t i a n F u nd am en t al s, C o n s t i t u t i o n of the M e n n o n i t e General C onference, The Go s p e l S t a n d a r d M in i st er 's M an u a l Compiled b y the C h u r c h P o l i t y Commi tt ee of the M e n n o n i t e General Conference. Scottdale. The M e n n o n i t e Publi sh in g House, 1 9 ^ o M en n o n i t e H i s t o r i c a l B u l l e t i n . Scottdale, Pa.s Me nn o n i t e L i f e . N o r t h Newton, K a n s . s M e nn on it e Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w . Goshen, Ind.s Mennonite Yearbook and D i r e c t o r y , ed. Ellrose D. Zook, Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 1930-1956. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1075 M i l l e r s Amos S. "An Apology," Amish Mission Endeavor Bulletin /Rimeographed7l. (October, 1952)= M/Ille/7, A/ndrev/ A e "The Christian Life and Walk, Our C a res / 1 Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLII„ (October 1 , 1953). pp.' 596-597. o "Christian Walk and Life, Watchfulness," Herold der Wahrheit, XLII0 (October 15* 1953)= pp. 6 2 9 - 3 0 . o "Neuigkeiten und Begebenhoiten," Herold der W a h rheita XLIo (June 1 , 1 9 5 2 ) . p. 3 2 3 . o "Sin," Herold der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I 0 (April 1 , 1 95*+) <pp.2 1 1 - 1 2 . "Spurious Conversions," Gospel H e r a l d , XLVIII. (May 3, 1955)o pp. i n 2-42?. Miller, C.S. History of Bishop Moses J. Miller of Holmes Countyo / N o place, no publisher, c 0 195/7° ””” o "Weisheit," Herold der W a h rheit. XLIIo (September 1 9 1953)o Miller, D. Paulo Amish Acculturation 0 Unpublished Master 3s Thesiso University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, 19^9 = Miller, Danielo "D iscipleship in the Face of Milit ar is m, " W i t n e s s i n g . Ill, (October, 1955)° pp. 9-10. Miller, David L c "Remembrances From Conference," WitnessingQ I. (September-October, 1 9 5 3 ) = PP° 2 - 7 . Miller, E m a n u e l J. D a n i e l Schlab a ch F a m i l y H i s t o r V o Descendants of Daniel Schlabach and Sally Kaufman. Wilmot, Ohio. Printed at Sugar creek, Ohio, /l9/2/= Miller, Evan J. "Courtesy," Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLIo (September 15? 1952)o Miller, Ernest E. "More Religious Instruction for Our Youth," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e v . III. (July, 1929)® pp. 190-96. Miller, Evan J. "Modernism," Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLIII. (February 1 5? 1 95*+) o p p . .112-13 . o "Strangers and Pilgrims," Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLIII. (September 1 5 j 195*+)= PP« 537-38. . "A V i r g i n . . .with Child.," Herold der W a h r h e i t . XLI. (December 15? 1952). p. 75^» _ Miller, J. History of Bishop M o s e r . ./Ho place, no d a t e ? . Miller, Jacob A. Vermahnungs-Schreiben An seine K i n d e r . H ol me sv il le , Ohio’s A.A. Miller, 19^9 = Miller, Paul D. "The Amish in Kansas," Mennonite L i f e , VI. (April, 1 9 5 1 ) o pp. 20-23. Millers, S.H. "The Amish in Holmes County, Ohio," Mennonite. Yearbook and D i r e c t o r y . Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 1919 = pp. 31-32. Miller, Sophia. "Bishop Moses J. Miller (1 811-1 897)/' Gospel H e r a l d . XXVII. (November 22, 193*+)° p. 735« Mininger, Paul. "The Religious, Educational and Social Program of the Mennonite Community of Tomorrow," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . XIX. (April, 19^5) = pp. 1 5 6 -1 7 0 . Mintz, Sidney W. "The Folk-Urban Continuum and the Rural P r o l e t a r i a n Commun it y ," A m e r i c a n Journal of S o c i o l o g y LIX. (September, 1953)= pp. 136-15^= R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1076 - M o m b e r t , Paulo "Class," E n c y cl op ae di a of the Social S c i e n c e s a II. N e w Yorks M a c m i l l a n ■C o 0 1 9 3 0 o pp. 531-536= Monl$ Mariao Awful Disclosures of the Hotel Dieu Nunnery of Mont r e a l o Originally published in January 1 8 3 6 0 o Maria Monk, or Secrets of the Black Nunnery in M o n t r e a l » Canada, R e v e a l e d , A Great Book of F a c t s 0 19M-8 Series, Tract NOo 27° Book and Bible H o u s e ? T o l e d o s 0 h i o o Mook,Maurice A e "The Number of Amish in Pennsylvania•" Mennonite Historical Bul l e t i n. X V I 0 (January, 1955)0 p= 3 . o "Pennsylvania Amish Communities that Failed," The Morning Call (Allentown, P a 0 s), “S Pennsylvaanish Deitsch Eck, August 21 , 1 95*+° M o o r / W i l b e r t Eo and Tumin, Melvin M c "Some Social Functions pp. 7 8 7 of Ignorance," American Sociological R e v i e w . (Decembers 19*+9). Moser, J ohannes„ "Eine Verantwortung gegen Daniel Musser's Meidungs E r k i r u n g , welche er gemacht hat in seinem Buch, betitelt," Reformirte MennoniteB Lancaster, P a cs J 0E 0 Barr and C o D 1 8 6 9 . Mumaw, John R u d y 0 "Current Forces Adversely Affecting the Life of the Mennonite Community," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w Q XIXo (April, 19^5)o pp. 101-16. o Living H a p p i l y M a r r i e d 0 Scottdale, Her al d Press, 1952o o Nonresistance and P a cifismQ Scottdale, P a 0s Mennonite Publishing House, 19^+° Murdock, George Petero "Feasibility and Implementation of Comparative Community Research," American Sociological Review, XV 0 (December, 1950)= pp. 713-20= __ _<> Social Struc t u r e ., New York; Macmillan C o 0 19*+9° Murphy, T 0 F 0 Mennonite B o d i e s a .("Census of Religious Bodies 1936" )o Washington, D 0 C 0 s Bureau of the Census, 19*+0o Murray, Alfred L 0 Youth°s Courtship Problems„ Grand Rapids, Micho% Zondervan Publishing House, 19*+0o Muste, A.Jo Of Holy Disobedience., .Wallingford, P a 0s Pendle Hill, Pamphlet No„ 6b ^no date7° Myrdal, Gunnar, An American D ilemma 0 New Yo rk o Harper and Brothers, 1 9 ^ » Nafziger, H a n s 0 "An Amish Church Discipline of 1 7 8 1 ," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . I V 0 (April, 1 930)o p p o 1 ^ 0 - 1 P 8 = Das Neue S pe l li ng B u c h zum Ge b r a u c h der Jagend in dir Amische und Mennonite Schulen0 S t 0 Joe, Arkos Mar ti n Printers, Zp o1 9 527 News Notes of the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectorso 2oo6 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, P a 0s Newswanger, Kiehl and Christian,, Amishland, New York; Hastings House, 197+° "New Year's Day" (reprint from the Lebanon Daily T i m e s . January 1, 1 8 8 1 ), Pennsylvania D u t c h m a n . IV 0 (January 1, 1953)<£>« "New Year's Wish," . Reprinted from the Reformed Church R e c o r d , January 1 , 1891 in Pennsylvania Dutchman. V 0 (January 1 , 197+)° ° pp= 3-13. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1077 - Nimkoff, Meyer F. Marriage and the Family 0 New York; Houghton Mifflin C o l 19^7 « Nisly, Samuelo "Our Individual Responsibilities to God," Witnessing. II. (July-August, 195*+) .pp. 10-11. The I-W Mirroro Reflections for and about Mennonite and Brethren in Christ I - W ’s (Akron, Pa.s Mennonite Central Committee). July 28, 195*+° Qrdnung of a Christian Churcho.. Piketon, Ohio, 1950. Ordnung R e a s o n s . No place, no date / d r a w n u p at Piketown, Ohio:; Co 195Q/» Ein O r d u ng sb ri ef der be s c h l o s s e n w or d e n ist in Holmes C o u n t y . Ohio, den 26ten O k t o b e n 1917. /Baltic , Ohio; Rdber , 1 9 5}±/ ° " Origin of A l t e rn at i ve Service," The Re p o r t e r i’or C o n s c i e n c e 8 S a k e ." Vo March, 19^7° Pannabecker, SoFo "Anabaptist Conception of the Church in the American Mennonite Environment." Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXV (January, 1951)° PP« 3 ^ - ^ • Parker, John and Smith, Charles. Modern Turkey 0 London. George Routledge and Sons, Ltd. 19^+0. Parsch, Pius. The Liturgy of the Mas s 0 St. Louis, Mo.s Herder Book Co. 1937° Translated by Frederic Echkhoff. Parsons, Elsie Clews. Mitla. Town of the Souls. ChicagOo University of Chicago Press, 1936. Parsons, Talcott, and Bales, Robert F. In collaboration with James Olds, Morris Zelditch, J , and Philip E. Slater. Family. S o c i a l i z a t i o n and Interaction P r o c e s s . The Free Press, 1955° Glencoe, Ill.i Parsons, Talcott. The Structure of Social Actions A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of Recent European Writers. New York McGraw-Hill Book Co. 1937° . "The Theoretical Development of the Sociology of pp. 176-190. Religion," Journal of the History of Ideas. V. (April, 19*+*+)° Parsons, Talcott and Shils, Edward C. Toward a General Theory of Action. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951° Peace is the Will of Gpd. A. statement prepared by the Historic Peace Churches and the I nt er n a t i o n a l F e l l o w s h i p of R e c o n ­ ciliation, 1953° Peachey, Samuel M. A Memorial History of Peter Bitsche. and a Complete Family Register of his Lined Descendants and those Related to Him bv Intermarriage, from the Year 1767-1 &9~2~I Second Edition, Allensville, Mifflin County, P s .: Privately printed, 1 9 5 3 ° Peachey, Samuel W. Amish of Kishacoauillas Valley. Scottdale, Mennonite Publishing House, 1930° o Last writings of Samuel W„ Peachey. Belleville, Pa.s Samuel H. Peachey, 19^+1 ° Peachy, Ezra. "The Sin of Earth Dwelling," Witnessing. III. (October, 1955)° P» 8 . Peachy, Paul. "Anabaptism and Church Organization," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXX. (July, 1956). PP° 2 1 3 - 2 8 . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 1078 Peachy, Paulo "Decisive Moments in Our Past," The Christian S c h o o l . II.. (May, 195l+)° PP- 76 -78. Pearson, B 0H 0 The Monk who Lived Againo The Pennsylvania Dutchman« Lancaster, P a 0s Peters, Frank C« "The Ban in the Writings of Menno Simons," Mennonite Quarterly R e v i e w . XXIX (January, 1955)° PP° 16-33° o "Non-combatant Service Then and Now," Mennonite L i f e . X (January, 1955)°p p ° 31-35.? Philip /Philips/, Dietrich /Dirk / 0 Enchiridion, oder Handbuchlein. von der Christlichen Lehre und Religion 0 Lancaster, Joseph Ehrenfried, 1811 « o E n c h i r i d i o n or Ha n d B o o k of the C h r i s t i a n D o c t r i n e and Religion, compi le d (by the Grace of God) fro m the H o l y Scrip tu re s for the b e n ef it of all lovers of the T r u t h o T r a n s l a t e d b y A ° B 0 Kolbo Elkhart, I n d c s Mennonite Publishing C o 0 1910. Phillips , Catherine,, Memoirs of the Life of Catherine Phillips? to which are added some of her epistles 0 London„ James Phillips, 1797° RMber, J o h a n n A. Der N e u e A m e r i k a n i s c h e C a l e n d e r . Baltic, OhiOo JoAo R & b e r , 1951 , 1952, 1953 , 195 ^ 9 1 9 5 5 s 1956o o Ein Register von Schriften und Liedern dis in den Amishen Gemeinden gebraucht werdenc Baltic, 0hioo Johann R&ber, /no date/. Raber, Jo h n A„ F a m i l y Reco rd s of J a c o b Ra b e r from G e r m a n y and Hi s L i ne a l D e s c e n d a n t s . Baltic, Ohio,, P r i n t e d at S u ga rc re ek , Ohio, / n o date/° Radcli f f e - B r o w n , A,R, "Foreword," to Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South I n d i a , by M 0N 0 Srinivaso Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1952o. Ramaker, A 0J 0 "Hymns and Hymn Writers Among the Anabaptists of the Sixteenth Century," Mennonite Quarterly Reviewa III. (April, 1929)o pp. 93-131° Redfield, Robert. "Culture Changes in Yucatan." American Anthropologist» XXXVI (January-March, 193*+)oPP° 57-59. o The Folk Culture of Yucatan., Chicago„ University of Chicago Press, 19^+1 » o . "The Folk Society," American Journal of S o c i o l o g y . LII (January, 19^7)° pp. 2 9 2 -3 0 8 . o The Little Communityo Viewpoints for the Study of a Human Whole 0 Chicago,.. 111. s University of Chicago Press, 1955o ' o Peasant Society and Cultures An Anthropological Approach to Civilization 0 Chicago, Ill.s University of Chicago Press, 195'6o o Tepoztlans A Mexican V i l l a g e . ChicagOo University of Chicago Press, 1930. o A Village that Chose Progress? Chan Koni R e v i s l t e d o ChicagOo University of Chicago Press, 1950o Reed, Steven W 0 The Making of Modern New Guineao Philadelphia, P a Ds Philosophical Society, 19*+3o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1079 Register von Schrlften und Liedern 0 Johann RSber, Baltic, 0hioo Register von Schriften und Liedern die in den Amischen"Gemeinden Gebrauch Werden„ Scottdale, Pa.s Mennonite Publishing House, 1933° Reichman, F e l i x 0 "An E a r l y E d i t i o n of Thomas von Imbroeck," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XVIo (April, 19^2)0 o p s 99-107. The Reporter for Conscience1* S a k e ., Washington, D 0 (20 s National Service Board for Religious Objectors* Rice, Charles S Q and Shenk, John B c Meet the Amish % A Pictorial Study of the Amish PeopleNew Brunswick, N oJ 0 s Rutgers University Press, 19^7° Roth, Paul Mo "Christians Greet in Love," Gospel H e r a l d a XLVII (August 3, l95H-)opp„ 7 2 1 - 7 2 2 . Runciman, S t e v e n 0 The M e d i e v a l M a n i c h e e o U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9^7° " Cambridge, Mass,s Rushmore, Jane Po The testimony and practice of the Society of Friendso Philadelphia, P a a% Friends General Conference, 1 51 5 Cherry Street, 1936o Ryder, H 0 C 0 "The Problem of the Amish as Related to School A tt en da nc e, " S chool and S o c i e t y « X X I I I (January 2, 1 9 2 6 ) 0 p. 1 7 „ S 0B 0F 0 "Modern B a u e r g e r M t e ," He ro ld der W a h r h e i t . X L I I I (February 1, 195*+)° p. 79. So, J 0F 0 "Unsere K inder in den Z w a n g s c h u l e n , " He r o l d der W a h r h e i t , XLI, (June 1, 1 9 5 2 ) ° pp. 331-32. Schabalie, Johann Philip 0 Die Wandlende Seel. Das ists GesprMch der Wandlenden Seelen mit Adam. Noah und Simon Cleophass verfasset die Geschichten von Erschaffung der Welt an, biss zu erschen. wie eine Monarchie und Kdnigrelch auf die andere gefolget, wie diese angefangen. .Iene aber vergangen. und auch der ausfiihrliche Verlauff der Zerstoehrung Jerusalem 0 Germantown, P a c1 Christroph Saar, 1771° Schlabach, C/hristian/ J° Ancient and Modern Idolatrv 0 /.No place, no publisher, no date/o _ o Bann and Shunning 0 /Hubbard, Ore.: no date/ 0 o B a n n i n g and S h u n n i n g . Revisedo / H ub b ar d, Ore.s n o date/. o "The Letters of the Amish Division of 1 6 9 3 - 1 7 1 1 0" Scottdale, M e n n o n i t e Publis hi ng House, Schlabach, R 0L 0 "Neujafre Gedauken," XLIV (January 1, 1955)° p. 3 . „ "Das W or t du P r e d i g t , " (January, 1955)° pp. 18-19. Schlabach, R o y 0 "Evangelism," D ecember, 1951)°p. 2 . 1950. Herold der Wahrheit, H er o l d der W a h r h e i t « X L I V W i t n e s s i n g . II (November- Schlabach, S Q "Die Welt in ihrem Zustand," Herold_der Wahrheit. XLI1 (November 15 ? 1953)° pp. 6 8 6 -8 7 . Der Sc hm al e W e g c P r o d u c e d and printed by John W B Martin, f o r m e r l y of S a in t Joe, Arkansas, n o w of Est„ Manuel, Tamps, M e x i c o 0 Schnell, KempeSo "John F c F u n k ”s Land Inspec ti on Trips as Recorded in His Diaries, 1 8 7 2 and 1873?" Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXIV. (October, 1950)opp. 295-331. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1080 - Schornbaum, Karlo ed. Quellen zur Geschichte der Wiedertaufers Markgrafturn Brandenburgl Leipzig, M. Heinsius Nachf, 1 93*+® Schrag, Noah T. Eine herzliche Vermahnung an alle Liebhaber der Wahreheit. Phoenix, Arizona, 1 911 <> Schreiber, W.I. " A Day with the Amish of Wayne County, Ohio," American-German Review. XII. (February, 194 -6 ). pp. 12-13. o "The Swixx Brethren in Ohio," American-German Review. XII. (June, 19*+6).pp. 22-24. Schreibles tibel ftlr den Unterrocht der. Elementarklassen. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, /no date/. Schrock, Alta. "Amish Americans: Frontiersmen," Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine. XXVI. (March-June"^ 19*+3)o PP•i+7 Schwarzendruber, C.I. "Mehr iiber die deutsche Schulsache," Herold der Wahrheit. XLI. (June 1 5» 1952). PP» 361-62. Schwarzendruber, F.J. "Die Roheiten der Jugend und ein Heilmittel dagegen," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (October 1 , 1 95*+) o PP. 551 -52. Ein Schwester. "Etwas mehr fiber Autos," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (March 1, 195I0 ® p. 138. Scott, Job. A Journal of the Life. Travels, and Gospel Labours, of that faithful Servant and minister of Christ. Job Scott. London. James Phillips and Son, 1797® Sears, Paul B. This is Our World. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937® P« 24. Shank, Mrs. Charles L. Daily Prayer Guide. Sheldon, Charles M. In His Steps: "What would Jesus do?" New York. Grosset and Dunlap, /19 _ / ® Shetler, Malva. "Whose Children before Conversion?", Witnessing. III. (March-April, 1955)°p. 6 . Shetler, Sandford G. Progress. /No place, no publisher, no date/ Shoemaker, Alfred J. "Easter Lore," Pennsylvania Dutchman. IV (Easter, 1953)® pp. 3,5,11. Shoemaker, Alfred L. "Good Friday Lore," Pennsylvania Dutchman, IV. (Easter, 1953)® p. 2 . . "Whit-Monday...Dutch Fouth /Fourth/ of July," Pennsylvania Dutchman. V, (May, 1953)® pp. 5 - 1 2 . Shryock, n enry S. Jr., "Wartime Shifts of the Civilian Population," Postwar Problems of Migration. New York. Millbank Memorial Fund, 19^7® Sibley, Mulford Q. and Jacob, Phillip E. Conscription of Conscience. Ithaca, New York. Cornell University Press, 1952. Simons Menno. The Complete Works of Menno Simons. Elkhart, Ind.: John F. Funk and Bro. 1 8 7 1 . . The Cross of Christ. Scottdale, Mennonite Publishing Hous e , /no date/. o Die VollstSndigen Werke. Rclber Ausgabe; Baltic, Ohio. J.A. Raber, 1926. . The Complete Writings of Menno Simons. Translated by Leonard Verduin, ed. J.C. Wenger. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1956. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission . - 1081 - Simpson, George Eaton, and Yinger, J. Milton. Racial and Cultural Minorities: An Analysis of Prejudice and Dis­ crimination . New Yorko Harper & Brothers , 1 9 53 ° Skenk, Stanley C. "The Ordinance of Annointing," Gospel Herald, XLIX. (September U-, 1956)« P P . 8^4, 859Smith Co Henry« "The Pmish in Illinois," Mennonite Yearbook and Directory* Scottdale. Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1907° pp. 18-2^. o Mennonite Immigration into Pennsylvania in the Eigh­ teenth Century» Norristown, Pa.: Pennsylvania German Society. IV a ^929. o The Mennonites: A Brief History of Their Origin and Later Development in Both Europe and % e r i c a . Berne, Ind.: Mennonite Book Concern, 1920. o Mennonites in America. ("Mennonites and Their Heritage," No. 2.1 Akron, Mennonite Central Committee, 1 9 ^ « o The Story of the Mennonites. Berne, Ind.: Mennonite Book Concern, 19*+1 <» Smith, Edwin and Dale, Andrew Murray. The Tla Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia. London. Macmillan, 1920. Smith To Lynn. The Sociology of Rural Life0 New York. Harper and Brothers , 1 9*+7 ° Smith, William C. "The Mennonite of Yamhill County, Oregon," Research Studies. State College of Washington., VIII. 1 9^0. pp.33-38 . Smithson, R .J0 The Anabaptists. Their Contribution to our Protestant Heritage. London» James Clarke. 1935° Soil Survey. Series 1938, No. 32, December, 195*+o United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1953° "Sowing Wild Oats," Mission Endeavor Bulletin. Ill (January-February, 195^+71 Spicer, Edward H. Human Problems in Technological Changes A Casebook. New York. Russell Sage Foundation, 1952. . Pascua. A Yaaui Village in Arizona. Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 19*+0. Srinivas, M.N. Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India. Oxford. _Clarendon Press,1952. Stauffer, Anna Belle. "Report of a German Bible School, Millersburg, Indiana," Witnessing. II. (SeptemberOctober, 195^)<>p. 8. Steinfeldt, Berenice. The Amish of Lancaster County. Lancaster County, Pa.: Arthur G. Steinfeldt, 1937= Stiles, Henry R. Bundling, its Origin. Progress and Decline In America. Harrisburg, Pa.: Aurand Press, 1928. /Reprint from 1871 edition/. Stirredge, Elizabeth. Strength in Weakness Manifest in the Life. Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that Faith­ ful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord. Elizabeth Stirredge. Who Departed this Life, at her House at Hempstead in Hertfordshire, in 72nd year of her age. Londo n . ^ - a r y Hinde, 1772, 3rd edition. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 1082 - Stoltzfus, Grant M. "Cooperation B-uilds a Barn in a Day," American-German Review, XVI (August, 1950). P P ° 18-19= Stoltzfus, N/icholas/. An Answer to C.J. Schlabach regarding Shunning. Tractors. Autos, and Electricity. M a r t i n Printers, Saint Joe, A r k . : 1951 « o Discipline. 2^° place, no publisher, c. 1951/° . "Der heilige Russ," Herold der Wahrheit, X L I I I (March 1 5 ? 195*+)® pp. 166-168. o "Matthaus 24: 14." Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (November 1 , 195!+)<»pp. 579-81. o "Der Traktor," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (January 1 , 1954). pp. 5 - 7 . o The Two Testaments." Saint Joe, Arko: Martin Printers, 1953® e "Unser eigene Schuler," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (November 1 5» 195*+)® pp. 597-98. o "Warum haben wir nicht die Autos?" Herold der W a h r h e i t , XLII (December 15> 1953)® P P « 742-44. . "Was ist Schmuck?" Herold der Wahrheit. XLT (October 15, 1952). pp. 614-16. "Wein," Herold der Wahrheit. XLII (October 1, 1953)®pp.58l o "Die Wissenschaft," Herold der Wahrheita XLIII (April 15, 1954). pp. 230-32. Stone, William L. Maria Monk and the Nunnery of the Hotel Dieus Being an Account of a Visit to the Convents of Montreal, and Refutation of the "Awful Disclosures." New Y o r k , 18 3 6 0 Story, Thomaso A Journal of the life of Thomas Story2 containing, an account of his remarkable convincement o f . and embracing the principles of Truth, as held bv the people called Quakers; and also, of his travels and labours in the service of the Gospels with many other occurrences and observationso New Castle upon Tyne. Isaac Thompson and Co. 17V7® Stoudt, John. Joseph. Consider The Lilies How They Grow 0 An Interpretation of the Symbolism of Pennsylvania German A r t . ("The Pennsylvania German Folklore Society," Vol. 2 ) 0 Allentown, Pa.: Schlechter’s , 1937® Stucky, Joseph. Eine Begebenheit. die sich in der MennonitenGemeinde in Deutscheland und in der Schweiz von 1693 bis 1700 zugetraten h a t . Elkhart, Ind.: L.A. Miller, 1936. Studer, Gerald C. "A History of the Martyrs” Mirror," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XXII (July, 1948). pp. 163-179. Studerman, Jacob. "The Origin of Mennonite State Service in Russia 1870-1880," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XVII (January, 1943® pp. 23-46. Stutzman Barbara. Die Offenbarung der verstorbenen Barbara Stutzman an alle Menschen. Saint Joe, A r k .% Martin Printers, Zc. 1952/. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1083 Stutzman« D.J. A Call to Repentance. Millersburg, 0hioo /No publisher/. 1955. _. Memoriam. Millersburg, Ohio. /No publisher, no date7. o Der schmale Verleugnungsweg Einge kurze christliche Vermahnung an Meine Kinder. Millersnurg, Ohio. /No publisher/, 1917° 0 The Second Coming, Millersburg, Ohio. /No publisher, no date/. ___ . The Song of Death. ^Hiersburg, Ohio. /No publisher, no date/. Why I Want to Go to Heaven. Millersburg, Ohio. /No publisher, no date/. The Sun-Beam: Boonsboro, Md.: . (Extinct Civilian Public Service Publication of Unit 3 oL Camp No. 2*+, Hagerstown, Md.s) Swartzendruber, Henry. The Tale of Doris Dean. Est. Manuel, Tamps, Mexico. Printed by John W. Martin; /c~. 19527/ / b i t t e n in Millersburg, 0hio7. Tatum, Lyle. ed. Handbook for Conscientious Ob.lectors. Philadelphia, P a . : Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, 1952. Tax, Sol. Heritage of Conquestg The Ethnology of Middle America. Glencoe, Illinois. The Free Press Publishers, 1952 Thomas, Norman. The Conscientious Objector in America. New York. B.W. Huebsch, Inc. 1923. .. Is Conscience a Crime? New York. Vanguard Press, 1927 Toennies, Ferdinand. Fundamental Concents of Sociology (Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft). Translated by C.P. Loomis. New York. American Book Company, 19^+0. Toews, A.A. Mennonitlsche Martvrer. Treyer, David A. Hinterlassene Schriften von David A. Trever von Holmes County. Ohio. Arthur, 111.: L.A. Miller, 1925° Troyer, G.L. et al. Mennonite Church History of Howard and Miami Counties. Indiana. Kokomo, Ind.: Young People's Christian Association Historical Committee, 1916. /Troyer, Grandms^/. The True Life Story of Grandma Trover. Tampico, 111.: Printed for Lloyd C« Swartzentruber, 1955° Troyer, H.N. Ohio Amish Directory. Millersburg, Ohio, 19*+0. /Mimeographed/. Tschantz, S. "Amish Demonstrate Co-operation, Build Barn in Day," Wooster Daily Record , (August 8 , 19*+9)° p. 1 6 . Twisck, Peter Jans. Bekenntnisz des Glaubens nach Gottes Heilige Wort der Wehrlosen Christen. In 33 Artikln vorgestellt Mit einen Schriftstellen Register. Saint Joe, Ark.: Martin Printers, 195^° The K i n g d o m of C h r is t on E a r t h or an E x p l o s i o n of the 20t h C h a p t e r of the B o o k of R e v e l a t i o n s . Print ed for Peter Yod e r and D a v i d L. W a g l e r by M a r t i n P rinters, Sain t Joe, A r k . : 1951° _. Das Friedensreich Christi oder Auslegung des 2 0 . Cauitels in Offenbarun St. Johannes. Arthur, 111.: L.A. Miller, 19^5° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 108^ - Umble, John S, "Mennonites in Lyon County, Kansas: 1880-90, pp.23 A Memoir," Mennonite Quarterly Review,, X X V I „ (July, 1952). . Ohio Mennonite Sunday Schools. Goshen, Ind.; Mennonite Historical Society, 1 9*+1 ° . "The Amish Mennonites of Union County, Pennsylvania," pp.71Mennonite Quarterly Review., VII. (April and July, 1933). pp. 1 6 2 ___ . "An Amish Minister’s Manual," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XV. (April, 19^+1 ).PP» 95-118.' o "Amish Ordination Charge." Mennonite Quarterly Review. XIII; (October, 19395. PP* 233-50. o "Amish Service Manuals," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XV. (April, 19^-1). pp. 9 5 -1 1 7 . ___ . "Catalog of an Amish Bishop"s Library," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XX(July, 19^6). pp. 230-39. "Extinct Mennonite Churches in Ohio, V, The Churches in Ashland County," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XIX. (January, 19*+5)®PP° ^1-58. o "Factors Explaining the Disintegration of Mennonite Communities," Proceedings of the seventh Annual Conference on Mennonite Cultural Problems North Newton. Kans.: The Mennonite Press, 1 9*+9« p . 1 2 8 . ___ . '"The Old Order Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. A Review and Discussion of The Book of C.J. Bachman." Mennonite Quarterly Review, XVII. (October, 19 ^ » pp. 207-36. ___. "Research on the Amish and Source Materials for the Study of the Amish," Mennonite Quarterly Review, XXV, (April, 1951 )opp. 1 2 8 -3 2 . "Seventy Years of Progress in Sunday School Work Among the Mennonites of the Middle West," Mennonite Quarterly Review. VIII (October, 193*+)° pp. 166-79. Eine Uncartelische Lieder-Sammlung zum Gebrauch beim Oeffentlichen Gottesdienst und der hMuslichen Erbanung /BS.r/. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonitischen Verlagshaus, 195*+. Unruh, John D. In the Name of Christ: A History of the Mennonite Central Committee and Its Service 1920-1951. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1952. "Unser Leben," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (January 15> 195^)«p "Der Ursprung des Tabakgebrauchen," Herold der Wahrheit, XLIII.(June 1, 195*+)° PP° 329-30. "The Use of Tobacco in Soul Winning," Witnessing. IV. (January, 1958).pp. 3-^° Vision and Prophecy. Baltic, Ohio; J.A. Raber, ^no date7» Vogt, Evon Z. Modern Homesteaders? The Life of a TwentiethCentury Frontier Community. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1955° o "Social Stratification in the Rural Middlewest: A pp. 3 7 2 Structural Analysis," Rural Sociology. XII, (December, 19*+7)<> Wagler, David and Raber, Rom, ed. The Storv of The Amish in Civilian Public Service. Boonsboro, Md. : 1 9^+5° R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1 085 Wagler, David and Raber, Roman, ed0 The Storv of the Amish in Civilian Public Service. Boonsboro, Md.: C.P.S. Camp Noo 2 V S Unit III: No Publisher, 191+-5° Wagler, David. What About Images? Saint Joe, Ark.: Martin Printers, Z e d 952/o ^Written at Piketown, Ohio/, Wagler, Raymond. Comment on "Die Gemeinde Gottes" in "Was ist Sunde?" by Eli S. Beiler, Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (June 15, 195^)o P° 355. o "1st es mdglich fiir ein Gleid sein in der Gemeinde, und doch verlosen sein?" Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (September 15? 195*+). p. 529. "The Loblied," Herold der Wahrheit. XXXXL, (July 15, 1952)o p« 435, "Was ist die Gemeinde?" Herold der Wahrheit, XLIV. (May 15j 1955)o pp. 145-46. o "Zweifel," Herold der Wahrheit, X L I I * (August 15? 1953)o pp. 481-83. Waltner, Erland. "Anabaptist Conception of the Church," Mennonite Quarterly Review^ XXV. (January, 1951)° PP» 5-16. . "Anabaptist Concept. of the Church," Mennonite Lifea V* (October, 1950). pp. 40-43. "Was lesen unsere Kinder?" Herold der Wahrheit. XLII. (September 1, 1953)° p. 5 2 7 . Weaver, Sara0 Green Pastures0 Sugarcreek, Ohio. Budget Printing Office, 1951® Weber, Harry F 0 Centennial History of the Mennonites of Illinois. 1829°1929. Goshen, Ind.s Mennonite Historical Society, 1931° W eber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Translated by Talcott Parsons. New Yorks Charles Scribner's Sons, 1930o Weigel, Gustave, S.J. "Catholic and Protestant Theologies in Outline," American Scholar. XXV, (Summer, 1956). pp. 3 0 7 -1 6 . Wenger, John Christian. Christianity and Dress. Scottdale, Herald Press, 1 9 ^ 0 o Clear Thinking About Courtship. Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, 1952. __ . "Deacon to Bishop," Mennonite Historical Bulletin. VI TJune , 1 9^+5) ° o The Doctrines of the Mennonites. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1952. . Historical and Biblical Position of the Mennonite Ohurch on Attire. Scottdale, P a . : Herald Press, 1 9 ^ ° o History of the Franconia Conference. Telford, Pa.: Franconia Mennonite Historical Society, 1937® . Separated unto God: K Plea for Christian Simplicity of Life and for a Scriptural Nonconformity to the World. Scottdale, Pa.: Mennonite Publishing House, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 1086 - Wentmore, J.W. "A Proposed Program of Education for the Amish People of Middlefield Township, Geauga County , Ohio" (Unpublished Master's Thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 5 1938)° Whiting, John W.M. Child Training and Personality; A CrossCultural Study. New "Haven,Conn0; Yale University Press, 1953° "Whit-Monday in Hamburg" (reprinted from Reading Gazette. May 22, 1896), Pennsylvania Dutchman-V. (May, 1953)° P° ^° Eine Wichtige Erfahrung 0 Mesopotamia, Ohio. /No publisher, no date/. Ein Wichtiger Traum, Saint Joe, Ark.; Martin Printers, Zc° 195£/o Wick, Barthinius o The Amish Mennonites. A Sketch of Their Origin, and of their Settlement in Iowa, with their Creed in an Appendix 0 Iowa City, Iowas State Historical Society, 1 6 9 *+° W/ickey/ R.C. The Dark Tribulation and Falling Awavc Saint Joe, Ark.; Martin Printers /c. 1953./° . "The Contented Farmer and the Horse; The Discontented Farmer and the Tractor," in Nineveh. City of God is Dashed in Pieces. Martin Printers, Saint Joe, A r k o : 1953° _. Nineveh. City of God is Dashed in Pieces0 Martin Printers, Saint Joe, Ark.;1953° Wilkening, Eugene A e "Social Isolation and response of Farmers to Agricultural Programs," American Sociological Review. X V I C (December, 1951)°PP° 836-37° Williams, Bertrand. Christian Girls 8 Problems. Manners and Morals for Christian Girls. Grand Rapids, Mich.s Zondervan Publishing House, /no date7. Wiswedel, W. Bilder und Ftihrerges talten aus dem Taufertum, I. Kassel /Germany/. J.G. Oncken Nachfolger, 1929* Witnessing. Goshen, Ind.; Witter “s Deutsche^Englisc-her Schreibund Lese Fibel und Neues Erstes Lesebucher fiir Amerokanisches Frerschulen. St. Louis, Mo.; /No publisher/. 1917° Wolf, Eric R. "Types of Latin American Peasantry; A Preliminary Discussion," American Anthropologist. L V I I . (June, 1955)° p p .^5 Woman's Veiling. Scottdale, Penn.s Herald Press , /no date/. Won't God Like Me? A Timely Warning Against a Trend that is a Menace to Scriptural Modesty and Attire. Martin Printers, St. Joe, Ark.: L.B. Tract Service, Atmore, Ala.; /c. 1952/° Woolhouse, W.S.B. "Calendar," Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed0 ), IV. pp. 589-605° Wright, Edward Needles. Conscientious Objectors in the Civil W a r . Philadelphia Press, 1931° Wynantz, Wilhelm. Predigten ueber h8chst wichtige GegenstSnde des Chris tenthums Vorbericht by £>avid Zug, Mifflin County, December, 1829° Scottdale, Pa.; Mennonite Publishing House, /no date7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 108? Y „ 5 A„ "Was ist ein Greue.L vor Gott?" Herold der Wahrheit. XLIV. (November 15? 1953)® PP° 681-682. Yoder, Amos J 8 "Objectors," Herold der Wahrheit, XLV(March 1, 1956)* p. 7 7 . Yoder, Don,, "Plain Dutch and Gay Dutch," The Pennsylvania Dutchman, VIII.. (Summer 1956). p. 5^4-. Yoder, Edward,, "Need for Nonconformity Today," Mennonite Quarterly Review. XI. (April, 1937)® pp. 131-151° o "The Obligation of the Christian to the State and Community - "Render to Caesar,“n Mennonite Quarterly Review, XIII. (April, 1939)® o Our Mennonite Heritage ("Mennonites and Their Heritage," No. III)o Akron, P a D1 Mennonite Central Committe, 195^0 o "Study of the Pennsylvania»German Dialect,*' Mennonite Quarterly Review. VI„ (January, 1932). pp. 5 9 - 6 2 . . ..® "Teaching Nonresistance," Gospel Herald. XXXIII.. " ~ (April 18, 19^0)o p . 78 . Yoder, Elmer0 "A Great need = a great challenge," Herold der Wahrheit. X L I 0 (September 15? 1952)° pp. 5 6 6 - 6 7 ° Yoder, John Howard. "Caesar and the Meidung," Mennonite Quarterly Reviewa XXIII. (January, 19*+9)® PP° 76-98. Yoder, Joseph W Q Amische Lieder. Huntingdon, Yoder Publishing Co. 19^+2. .. Amish Traditions. Huntingdon, P a 8s Yoder Publishing C o 0 1950 o o Rosanna of the Amish0 Huntingdon, Yoder Publishing Co. 1950o o Rosanna’s Boys. Huntingdon, P a . ; Yoder Publishing Coo 1 9 ^ Y£oder7, P^eteZo "Der Ausgang von der Welt," Herold der Wahrheita XLI, (July 1 , 1952)„_pp. 389-91. "Kbnnen wir die weltliche Uemter Helfen bestimmen?" Herold der Wahrheita XLIII (January 15? 195*0<£>p. 38-390 "Das Pfingstfest zu Jerusalem," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (June 1 5, 195*+)® pp. 356-57° „ "Pflicht der Eltern," Herold der Wahrheit.XLII. (September 15? 1953)® pp. 5 5 0 - 5 2 . <, "Der Trunkenbold hat keine Verheissung," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (August 1, 195^+)«3p. ^51-52. 0 "Unser Wandel ist in Himmel," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (December 13? 1953)® op. ^40-^2. o "Ein wenig von der Sabbattag,” Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII. (August 15? 195^)0 pp. 8 7 - 8 9 . 6 "Die Erntezeit," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIIo (July 15? 1955-)® pp. L25-26. ___ „ "Segnungen fiir das Neujahr," Herold der Wahrheit. XLIII (January 1, 195^)®pp. 3-^. __ 8 "Ein wenig von der Gemeinde Gottes0" Herold der Wahrheit, XLIII. (September 15? 195^+)® pp. 533-35. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 1088 - Yoder, S/andford/, C/alvin/* Poetry of the Old Testament, Scottdale, Pa.,: Mennonite Publishing House, /no date/® ® For conscience1 sake: A Study of Mennonite Migrations Resulting From the World W a r . Scottdale, P a . : Herald Press, 19*+5° Young, Charlotte M. Aunt Charlotte8s Stories of Bible History. The Youths Christian Companion. Scottdale, Pa®. Ziegler, Andreas; Kolb, Isaac; Fund, Christian® "A Letter from Pennsylvania Mennonites to Holland in 1773?" Mennonite Quarterly Review, III® (October, 1929)o pp. 225-31*'. Zoar. An Ohio Experiment in Communalism0 Columbus, Ohio. State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1952. Zook, Ellrose, D® "Family Almanac" 1952, 1953? 195^? 1955® Scottdale, Pa®: Mennonite Publishing House® ® Mennonite Yearbook and Directory. 1956® Scottdale, Pa® Mennonite Publishing House, 1956® "Zum Danktag," Herold der Wahrheit, X L I . (November 15? 1952) pp. 680-81. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. DOVE AT THE WINDOW A STUDY 01 AN OLD ORDER AMISH COMMUNITY IN OHIO APPENDIXES Abbie Gertrude Enders Huntington R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. PLEASE NOTE: Generally poor copy. as received. Filmed UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . INC. CONTENTS Page APPENDIX I Par t A. Old Orde r Am i s h Menno n it es in the U n i t e d S t a t e s ................................ 1 D e s c r i p t i o n of the C e n t r a l Ohio A m i s h C o m m u n i t y .............................. 6 Part C. St on e y r u n Chu rc h D i s t r i c t ................... 17 Part D. Description of S weetwater T o w n s h i p ........ 20 P ar t E. Description of S t o n e y r u n V i l l a g e .......... 34 P a r t F. Description of A m i s h F a r m s ................. 37 A m i s h F a r m E q u i p m e n t ....................... 66 A m i s h L i t u r g i c a l Y e a r ................................. 69 P a r t B. Part G. A P P E N D I X II A P P E N D I X III P art A. Ordnungen . . . . .......................... 71 P a r t B. Some Aspects of the S t o n e y r u n Ordnung, 1 9 5 5 ........................................... 79 V a r i a t i o n in the O r d n u n g of Co mm u n i n g Ohio Churches, 1 9 5 5 ......................... 107 P a r t D; D es c r i p t i o n s of Ami sh C l o t h i n g ........... 108 Part E. Am i s h C h i l d r e n ’s Drawings 118 P a r t F. E n f o r c e m e n t of the O r d n u n g ................ 123 P a r t A. D e g r e e s of I n t e r a c t i o n ................. , ... 126 P a r t B. I n t e r a c t i o n A m o n g the Ol d Order A m i s h . ... 128 Part A. M a ri a Mo n k T r a c t ............. * .............. 135 P art B. Possible Influence of Ma i l Order C a t a l o g s ...................................... 136 Results 137 P a r t C. of P e o p l e ...... A P P E N D I X IV APPENDIX V Part C. of the 1952 E l e c t i o n s ............. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. CONTENTS APPENDIX VI Data Pertaining to Amish Schooling.................. 136 APPENDIX VII Data Pertaining to Amish Involvement In War Programs............... 148 APPENDIX VIII Part A. Church Service..................... 152 Part B. Baptism...................................... 156 Part C. Wedding...................................... 157 Part D. Funeral.......... 163 Part E. Communion.................................... 166 Part A. Amish Children............................... 168 Part B. Amish Children Working and Playing......... 174 Courtship Behavior.................................... 181 APPENDIX IX APPENDIX X f R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . 1 - L.ocittov\ of Old Order Amish N/lcnnomte CommuoitiftS - *o5 i Jo TJ — d -a < R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 2 - OLD ORDER AMISH MENNONITES BY STATES 1954 «» Consvre^atlons State Sembershlo ■ : Total 205 Ohlor; 60 15,695 y. ■5,085';^(';3)®' ’’' 3,937 (1)* *. . P enrisyivanla 46 Indiana \ .I;-. ••V.. 3,154 .47 I ov/a .’ n Gi7 Illinois 9 705 Kansas 6 586 Delaware7 4 210 Virginia .2 204 Maryland 3 Michigan 4 166 Oklahoma . 3 153 Mi ssourl 3 Wisconsin; . 2 Oregon' 1 'o': ':■' W ■■ 0 : (2)** { m m •131 ’ <2>* 35 15 Arkansas'' N orth Dakota .1 New York:; ; 1 (o)#* (I)1* Tennessee; ' • 2 (0)** <2>* 5 3 Actual Total i-.:■ •: • . , • •; 260 15,522 ' ' " •' „•» ' -• ^/.Kunber In parenthehlis indicates number of churches not orpins membership. *^iunber in parenthesis represents number of congresstions r^b^tbd:In the Yearbook. i$|iroia: g^p&nlte Year-booik: 1954> pp. 87-93. Pgr Neue AmerlXarilache Calendar. 1954. -pp. 34,37* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. 4 1600 (200 t IO00 600 400 1930 19 06 1916 (926 Growth of the Old Order Amish Mennonites in the United States p Mennonite Yearbook x Oensus of Religions Bodies fhe Amish care litte about cooperating with any religious census so these figures are inaccurate. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 4 - I u? < o w a) o CK • r4 a; w T7 i-4 U CN u O' c «> o oo Oj /-» uO <U NO Z o o •a oo v/> > a x oo oi ao . — -r 0» |-4 ? d;w Lu r o O-i £ vn -M O Q> OJ VOjO 0/ fc- at v/) c o o .c oo JZ * — < °. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Tb& Origin at Monnomt© Division© in Aasrioa froa c* Henry Smith# T'ha K©nnonit©s» p* 242* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. / - 6 - C*fumb*s• Location of the Central Ohio Amiah Community R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 7 - 32 \ 31 26 30 28 27 18 17 23 16 20 10 15 14 13 11 Location of Stoneyrun Church District in relation to the Central Ohio Amish Community 1955 Churoh district numbers given. Church 11 and 12 share a bishop Church Lines ~ State Koa&s z^ s County Lines Map modified from mineographed map made by 00A93. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. (100); 548 V 2Q Q 150 889 100 250 Population of Towns In the central Ohio Amish Community 1955 -— — Church Lines State Roads County Lines Population figures from: Rand Moffally Commerolal Atlas Jl§EE R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. r^lon.tV\l«j Mean. Tfi m p e r a T u re 80 lO Cdo} ■ i j i' fear l 'O-nnaa t n' 4 a n 1*Cm^era.tt4re h i5"/.f so t ____ L WloaU 'r'\ M }uoU MA^Cll APA.IL 5o\vti \\n C cVioVoS t h e Y»v eoLK\ y e a r, luwf JUIM- .AUft o c r. 2.*^ fov 'e a t K Vno**th ©F V W e «xt ^AoL^TecL f- H iU trsV o u rg , O K ie . C\l VnaTeloaK al Oato. for YVc U.*S. fc>>r s ecT,-w ls<v/oV.rxia v, n Q \3.\c\47 pp So-S 3. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 10 - Preci p l t a t i o n - 14 12 ------ in c h e s 10 m ---------------- p r e c ip it a t io n 8 ------------------------------- 6 SEA SO m o n th ly DW I N & k 4 “* “ ““ ---------------- ----- ---- - _ 3 jo U \R _ tO E A I L Z ------- --- ..... fmm - _ ---------------- _ “ J a N- FEB. MARCH lin e m ean y e a r, fo * e a c h m o n t h o f T h e a t D e n w s o n , O h io . rotTi: O h io th e . MAY S o lid F Show s A PR IL 3g -^ e o r JUN E J uly A U fr 5EPT OCT. NOV. OEC. D o t t e d \»nes sh ow t h e m a M m u t n and rrvinimum vnonThixj p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f r e c o r d a t anvj s t a t i o n m t h e county. i d a t e r R e s o u r c e s iSotjr<A 15u . \ \el«\ > p \ *3 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 11 • *.* • • *. *1» ZZd Growth of the Central Ohio Amish Community, 1956-1954 1936s 13 church districts one daughter church, bishop from A serving L districts and K© share a bishop 1955s 33 ohuroh districts districts 11 and 12 share a hishop Area covered by central Ohio Amish community 1936 ® Area covered by central Ohio -Amish community 1954 q Church Lines State Roads County Lines 1936 map modified from: Leeper, "Amish of Ohio"* pp. 28t29 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 12 - GROWTH OF THE C2HTRAL OHIO AMISH COMMUNITY 1936-1954 1936 1954 13 33 1776 3090 135 107 A & L K1 & K2 11 & 12 Bishops 12 29 Deacons 8 29 26 65 No. of congregations Total no. members Av. members per district Cong, sharing bish. Ministers ......... ... ................. Hennonlte Yearbook 1936, 1954 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 35 V.o 50 Chu-rc.U # I Z 3 H 5 b 7 8 af 10 13 II U II 15 U •7 it 19 10 21 22 23 21 15 n 27 38 2? 30 31 31 33 died out GROv/TH OF THE OLD ORDER. ALiliH OF CENTRAL OHIO 1930-1955 OKoRSll JI3: .IXJ- j .j it*r**■>•."c ts indicate oharch districts farmed by recent division. * ror.i 12 o f 'the oh treh distriata i/i 1930, 33 oh irch districts had been formed by 1955. Compiled from: Mennonite Yearbook Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 14 - - 40 30 20 1330 35 40 45 50 Orowth of the Central Ohio Amish Community 1 93 0- 15 55 Sumter of Church Officials Bishop Deacon + Minister o R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 195 - 15 - ------ t“ / 45 / 85 39 x 95 105 / 140 40 * 57 85 67 130 -D 64 75 /<57 142 135 110 80 65 ,136 59 128 54 105 54 140 31 80 59 105 51 48 105 Church District Size By number of families And number of members, 1954 Families Members Largest Smallest Average Me An Total 47 24 1566 67 47.48 106.55 105 3090 155 (70) — - Church Lines State Roads :x:rai County Lines R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. ->/r>Ar? Approximate Location of the Sam Yoder Amlsh Church Lines ~ State Roads County Lines R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 17 - 0 o Stoneyrun Churoh Liatri ot (Ola Order Amiah Mennonlte) 1953 Land owned fcy Amlsh E3 Ami ah Tenant Oomplled from: County Surveyor's map, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. E3 - 18 - CD Stoneyrun Churoh District (Old Order Amish Mennonite) Looation of Clergy 1953 Bishop Preachers Deacon Compiled from: County Surveyors map, 1952. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ► ’•7 • / << # • •V * • 4#V •V v^TyrTYnry 32 >«**»,» 11* #,, General 3peei:.llze I Hi re dhand 3 • ••••. *»*••* • » #•** •• • •» .• ••*#, <5 Brickyard Coal mine C ar pe nt ry K e t ir ed farmer* HOT BkTxuiil.iIn HI) iO iO 30 O c c u p a t i o n of the 49 F a m i l y Heads of O t o n e y r ’jui Hi.ircu visjrict " 19o4 *3peci a li ze d carpentry R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 2 0 - Oo « °O oO o 9 O o. ’4 <>• oo Sweetwater Township Old Order Amloh Janas 1950 hand owned toy Amieh (33 Amlsh Tenant R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 21 - •« •••• V ##• «»» Q ''« VC #/* Sweetwater Township Old. Order Ami ah Mennonite Church Districts Represented 1953 Stoneyran Diatriot flo* 3 District HO. 4 District 2J0* 5 Compiled from: County Surveyor's map, 1952* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. O E O L O G I C M A P OF 37/LLf;YATnR TO'./JSKIP Cenozoic B r a Quaternary B y s t e m Rece nt A l l u v i u m adn P l e i s t o c e n e Q u t w a s h L ac us t r i n e .Deposits ,i P r e d o m i n a n t l y fine Mi&Mk sand, 3 i l t and clay. P al eo zo ic Br a P e n n s y l v a n i a n Series A ll eg he ny 'Formation A l t e r n a t i o n shale, .sandstone ............ and f ir ec la y w i t h thin 'beds A of coal and limestone. P ot ts vi ll e F o r m a t i o n A l t e r n a t i n g shale, sandstone and fireclay wit h thin beds of limestone and coal. m o d i f i e d from: Ohio hater Re so u r c e s 3 oard B u l l e t i n 6, pi. 7. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 23 - STi Sweetwater Township Topographies Map Elevation Over 1200 feet H 1200-1300 feet El 1100-1200 feet M 1000-1100 feet CZ3 900-1000 feet □ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 24 - H Aftl E R X yn.it A I Sweetwater Township Profile through line A - B Elevation in township v a r i e s f r o m 9 3 5 to 13 0 0 feet Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 25 - W*t,t'ery^j \ ft Sweetwater 2?own3hip Physiographic* Features Flood Plain in Upland gently to strongly sloping Steep Soils Compiled from: Soil Snrvery. series 1938, no* 32* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 26 - Sweetwater Township Soils AtMns loam e s Keene silt loam S3 Muskingum loam Pope loam m Vfellston silt loam s Compiled from: Soil Survey: series 1938, no* 32* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Soil Natural Drainage Parent Material Workability Erodlbility Atkins loam poor medium to strongly acid alluvium easy low Keene silt loam moderately good noncalcareous clay shale moderately easy to moderately difficult moderate to moderately high Muskingum loam excessive noncalcareous sandstone, siltstone, shale^ moderately easy to impractical high 4 Pope loam good medium to strongly acid alluvium easy low Wellston silt loam good noncalcareaous sandstone, siltstone, shale easy low to moderate CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAJOR SOIL TYPES OF SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP Soil Surverv. Series 1938, no. 32. ESTIMATED AVERAGE ACRE YIELDS THAT MAY BE EXPECTED OVER A. PERIOD OF YEARS Soil Com Bu. A B Atkins low...... 15 high..... 50 00 56 Wheat Bu. A B — Hay Tons A B Pasture Days/Acre A B 15 30 18 32 .5 .5 1,2 1.5 -- ---42 105 12 20 15 28 20 28 25 40 .6 1.1 1.6 2.0 -- — — 42 126 highly I**35 19 31 40 50 1.4 2.7 168 210 Pope:•• low.. .....15 U .....33 12 18 20 26 22 25 30 32 .7 2.4 1.7 3.5 - ---84 .147 W elIst o h . low.......18 •high...... 33 12 15 20 27 20 30 30 45 — — — Oats Bu. A B Eeene . low. ..15 high;..... 25 ■ \t >-■ .. — - 2.5 2.0 o.l --- ----- 63 147 A. Without use of manure, amendments, or beneficial rotation^ B. Under current practices of management. Absence of yle3.d figure Indicates crop not commonly gnpwii'' data hot available. y'P‘* low^hrepresents" the lowest average ylelds^for-ahy ^cfr subsoils listed under, the general- heading, high*-— represents the highest average yields for any of the subsoils listed under the general heading. Compiled from: Soil Survey, series 1938, no. 32, table 16, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. POPULATION OF SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP Sweetwater Township Stoneyrun Village Hatteryville Villlg©,. 1950 2,429 889 460 1940 2,309 836 453 1930 2,407 895 494 1920 1,827 618 352 1910 1,050 389 334 1900 1,747 243 1890 200 founded 1882 1380 1870 1860 1850 - 1840 1830 named 1812 '.1 8 2 0 1810 first settled. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Ota!ERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS IN SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP Industry Agriculture Coal mining 3 brickyards 1 machine shop 1 blacksmith shop 1 broom company 1 lumber company 1 roofing company 1 printing company 1 milling company 1 locker plant (freezers) 1 food processing company 1 bakery 1 cheese canning factory 4 cheese factories 3 dairies 1 cream station (for a dairy outside the twp„) 1 poultry house 1 hatchery and produce Farmers Equity Company, Inc, Livestock auction Poultry and egg auction 2 thrashers S tores 8 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 grocery stores hardware stores harness and shoe shops furniture stores general stores clothier 5^ and 10^ store electrical, heating and appliance shops auto supply shop glass company rag shop drugstore flower and gift shop Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS IN SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP (conto} Services 4 2 2 2 2 1 3 6 5 1 1 1 2 barber shops beauty shops funeral homes insurance agencies several individuals who sell insurance cleaners and pressers hotel restaurants garages (sales and service) service (gasoline) stations bulk (oil and gasoline) station state highway garage bank post offices Transportatlon Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad (freight only) Express agency Motor Transportation Company Many individual truckers" Several auto drivers (cater mainly to the Amiah) U tilities 1 telephone company 1 sub-station of the Ohio Power Company 2 water towers Professional Services 2 1 1 1 Physicians Dentist Oculist Veterinarian - - > Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. COMMERCIAL ESTABLISHMENTS IN SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP {cont.) Community Buildings 1 1 1 1 1 2 Township Hall Community Hall City Hall Mayor’s Office Jail Fire Departments 1 Cemetery R.ellKlous and Fraternal 2stablishnents 2 Knights of Pythias Halls 1 American Legion Kail Ref orcied CSaiJRoh. Lutheran Church. United Brethr.esr Church Free Methodist Church. E5Onnoni ts Church 2 Brethren Churches (SUB) Church of God Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. — »**««*» Crops Farras reporting of acres Corn 128 OTieat. 120 Oats Barley Rye Soybeans Alfalfa bay Clover & timothy Potatoes 109 Apples Cberri es Peacbes Pears Plumbs 140 123 ICO 68 Trees 2653 716 1955 256 374 Grapes i r? Vi lies 415~ 1662 1415 960 15 6 51 167 2239 236 3 2 15 31 127 136 120 Livestock Farms reporting Cows and beifers Horses Hogs Sheep Chickens Turkeys 137 119 • 113 1348 399 1788 12 100 141 2 17049 3540 FARM PR0DUC2 Sweetwater Township January 1, 1945 U u S« Census Bureau, unpublished material Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Stoneyrun From a distance the brickyards give the Tillage the appearance of an industrial town* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Trie c o m e r A n Ariel: Aireer y s tore. broom Stoneyrun of I.-ain St. p.nc. B roec. St. S t o n e ’ T im :Air-.nc. in .ittie r,iri. 3i AOo n.ii ',ic. i -- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 56 - % 0 Gil m 3t<rceX o §§ si OBIG 4 aoS © © -£ch o oI a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. m m m m m Farmstead This f&rsa is located In Sweetwater township and is owned by a preacher la church district Humber Four. The land was first cleared six generations ago by an Aralah farmer In ISIS. It ha© remained la the sane family ever sine© passing from father, to daughter, to son, to son, to daughter* Typical feature© of Ami eh farmsteads show well In this photograph* The carefully fenced yard with the bird hous.es, the grape arbor leading to the garden and behind the garden the vegetable patch. A n A®leh woman la working In the patch* In the large house live one daughter and her family. la the smaller house live two unmarried daughters. The hill rises quite steeply behind the farmstead and on the crown of the hill (outside the picture) Is the family grave yard* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farmstead This fans Is located in Sweetwater township and In owned by a. eseabor of stoatgrxun church district, OQ/OL49# It consists of 108 acres and In devoted to seaeraX dairy farming* It has been In the present family for three generations# Another aesabsr of stoneyrun church di&trXoi. 00A14?, lives in the tenant house# this farmstead is also typically Aalsh. the two residences, the grape arbor and fenced garden with the martin houses# .All Azoish. farms have a windmill that la used to p m p the water* In stoneyrun ©lectrio lines pass close to most faxias, but no wires go into the farmstead# Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. F a m a te& d 2 M s farm 1© located In Sweetwater township and belongs to & member of the Stoneyrun church dis­ trict* The fans consists of SO acres and is princi­ pally devoted to dairying although there is a con­ siderable amount of general f a m i n g * The aerial pho­ tograph. gives a good idea of the spacing of the faunasteads* but it gives an Incorrect impression of the topography. Although the land loohs level it is fairly hilly, The farm was first, settled by an Eng­ lishman in 18.28. I t 'ms bought by the fath.e2vin.Xaw of the present owner in 1923. This la the earns barn and barnyard as drawn by *Sarah *n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A farmstead. This T&rm Is owned by an Englishman, but the lnpxwreanents have been made by Ami eh tenants. The typically Amlsh house, the broiler house and the bi& barn were built by various tenants* Two residences on one farm is cu&tos&ry* The tenant Is e .eioeber of £to~ neyrun church district, Q0A143* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tilts far& belongs to a lasniber of church district #3« It has both a big hous© and a Groggvater house. The large house has the typical high porch above the suasaer- kitchen. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. House W a s h house M i l k house BUILDING-S ON AN A M I S H G E N E R A L F A R M OOA9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission Brooder sheds E q u i p m e n t shed Contoured field.s in the background. BUILDINGS ON AN A M I S H G E N E R A L FARM OOA9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A Broiler farm This fa r m was b o u g h t by a S t o n e y r u n c h u r c h member, 00A25» eight yes.rs ago f r o m an E n g ­ lishman. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A Broiler f arm This f a r m was b o u g h t by a S t o n e y r u n c h u r c h member, 00A25» eight years ago f r o m an E n g ­ lishman. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HOttS© Addition to front anfl bask built by Agslefe* the Downstair© was oosspletely rexsodeied. to acc o m o d a t e church* and to m ® t th© requirenente of the Ord- nuns* Plumbing wae in- stalled* Soon to be torn down 00A2£ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Battler house Built bj AtalttU ra»a#r ^asii iiouse BU UILDINGS ILDINGS S ^ O T £ B S S’ 'SB 0OA25 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. House Shed This b u i l d i n g has since b e e n torn d o w n ORIGINAL BUIL D I N G S ON F A R M B O U G H T B Y A M I S H M A N OOA1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. House built to replace "English” house Shed built to replace ’’English” shed BUILDING- BUILT BY AMXSH 00A1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S^iS^fcS-A' Broiler house built by Amish OOA1 This picture shows the topography typical of Stoneyrun. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 51 - A M I S H HOUSES The following is a generalized description of the typical Amieh houses in Stoneyrun church district. Tenant farmers and those who have just bought their land live in the houses that are already there. When they build their own homes, 1hey generally include various features of their neighbors1 houses, BUILDING MATERIAL: The older houses are of wood, painted white with slate roofs. The new houses that are being built are of yellow brick with composition shingle roofs. A n ar­ chitect is not used; almost all the planning is done by the couple building the house, and almost all the actual building and special designing Is done by members of the Amish commun­ ity. PORCHES: The older houses have a large porch over the summer kitchen that is used to hang the clothes on. The porch is high so that when you are"on it you have the feeling of being above the earth and can survey the fields easily. The newer houses have front porches that are smaller and lower, but are good for visiting. The people in these houses genera ally have a place in the basement to hang their clothes. Most of the houses have small back porches. All the porches have railings around them. ROOMS: The old style houses as well as the barns are built on a hill. This is well suited to the topography of Tuscarawas. From the back or side, one can walk directly into the first floor, but in the front the ground is level with the summer kitchen. The summer kitchen is the front of the basement. It Is large and cool, with a cement or stone floor. The walls are stone or brick and are frequently whitewashed. In the summertime the family gathers here for meals and all the cooking is done down In the coolness. The laundry facil­ ities are in the summer kitchen or a separate wash house. The summer kitchen is used for all large scale cooking ventas^gs^j^. such as canning and preparing the lunch for church. The room is well ventilated and immaculately clean. The back half of _the basement consists of «torsggj# cellars resplendent fsupply in these cool,,, basements. On the first the house is another kitchen. This is smaller,: though still largeB by modern standards. The family can eas­ ily be fed In the kitchen. This kitchen is used during the spring, autumn and winter. On the first floor is also found Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AiaSH HOUSES (cont.) a dining room* that nay be used for meals and is generally used for ironing and sewing* There is the parlor, the good room with duet covers over everything and the welcome stove,. The master bedroom is always on the first floor. In it the" youngsters nap. Houses that have indoor bathrooms have the bathroom on the first floor. The water is supplied by grav­ ity or pumped with a gasoline engine. On the second floor are numerous bedrooms. FURNITURE: Both kitchens are well .equipped with at least one stove in each. The stove may be a rwood stove, a coal stove, a kerosene stove, Black is the traditional color, but some of the stoves are difficult to distinguish from a regu~ lar gas or. electric range. There is either a spring house or an ioehc&E^o? both. Even though there are two kitchens £ have never seen more than on® icebox. The kitchens have a sink and drainboard with running water or a small hand pump. There are roomy .cupboards in the kitchen. The upstairs kitchen often has a linoleum floor. Throughout the house kerosene lamps or Colraan lanterns are used. Some of these lamps may resemble electric lamps, but most are frankly functional. r' The parlor is the beat room. It and the kitchen a r e u s u a l l y -. :'v the only rooms with e tovee. The s tov e alone woul d malee l t the most comfortable room. Here there are some comfortable chairs* and perhaps even a couch. There Is generally a desk . and often a sideboard with a few old dishes displayed, On the wall hang various religious mottos, sometimes highly dec­ orated. Perhaps a calendar and an almanac will also be in evidence. The shades of the room are generally drawn unless It is in use, and if it is summer even then, so that on® sits In semi--darkness that I presume is supposed to.siipfcLaie cool­ ness, The shades also prevent the fading of the.,furniturer^; and few’ throw rugs. The upholstered furniture is factory made, but most of the rest of the furniture is either niade by the husband or some other close relative. Some homes are completely furnished with handmade pieces of black walnut. There are occasionally pictures on the wall or such things as artificial flowers or goldfish in bowls. Goldfish and caged birds are very popular. The windows of the d f h | ^ 3 y©om are ; generally a profusion of potted plants, There is a Single curtain in each window, generally of soft blue. The curtains may be. green, but they are always a plain cola# and blue Is . ; by far. the most frequent. The upstairs rooms often have mor« Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A1USK HOUSES (cont.) and brighter wall decorations than the rooms into which the guests are usually shown. \ DOUBLE HOUSES: Most Amish farmsteads include two houses. A' large house"in which the manager and usually the owner of the farm lives and a small house In ?/hich the son or eon-in- • law and his wife live, or the father and mother, or sometimes a tenant and his family. These two houses are often connected by a porch or sometimes a hallway, but they always function as separate units. To my knowledge a house is never used for a single man or woman. If the husband or wife he.a died the living one moves in with the other family, but does not live alone in the house. Instead of two houses some of the larger houses are built to Include a smaller apartment. In this case too the apartment is completely equipped and the two parts of the house are run separately. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Summer "Room" The w i l l o w r o c k e r is o f t e n c a l l e d a n A m i s h rocker. At least one of these r o c k e r s is found in e v ery A m i s h home. T y p i c a l of A m i s h sitting rooms is the rocker, the fan c y k e r o s e n e lamp, the windows c o vered b y a single curtain. (The shades are u s u a l l y drav/n, I r a i s e d them for the picture.) The scatter r u g w o v e n from fam i l y rags is also typical. P o t t e d gardens and. p o t t e d pla n t s are popular decoratio n s . M o s t s i t t i n g r o o m s have one easy chair and o f t e n a couch. The c u pboard in the corner was made f r o m two orange crates. The cupboard curtain, the p i l l o w on the r o cker and the scarf on the table are of p r i n t e d cotton. P a t t e r n e d m a t e r i a l is acceptable because old fe e d sacks were used. The foots t o o l was made of five large fruit juice cans. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sc r e e n e d b r e e z e w a y House of 00A1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FARIA DRAWINGS The following drawings were made by the children in the five rural schools of Sweetwater township* They were drawn for me, in response to my request that the children draw a picture of a farm. Each child was given a sheet of man!11a drawing paper, nine-by-twelve inches; a pencil without an eraser; and a box of crayons with eight colors. dren that ashed to use chalk were given it. Many children used their own erasers and supplemented the eight colors with crayons of their own. The following pictures have been reduced In size but have not been cropped. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chil­ Farm This d r a w i n g shows the esse n t i a l f arm buildings. The b a r n w ith a b r i c k e d s e c t i o n for the m ilk cows and a silo, the house, the m i l k house, the fences and walks. No roads lead to or from this farm. A single p i g repres e n t s the livestock. Eli 9 years Grade 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farm This 1 b an accurate drawing of the child’s home. It shows the characteristic slate-roofed* white Amish house, yellow tile milk house and the white bank barn. The flower garden and the vegetable patch are included. The roads, fences and doors were stressed in almost all the children’s drawings. Emma Lena 12 years Grade 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. rWjW i ' 'ffA^ SS^it ■'» . H ^ U ' t.J'IJ il.1, ^ . -W*: ’g: ;^r-.f■'V'"" — ’ T h i s i s a d r a w i n g o f t h e f a r m a a © s e n f r o a t h e p o r c h o f the c M l d * a hos&e* T h e d e t a i l s a r e ?jolts a c c u r a t e * T h e p a t h in f r o n t o f t h e s a t e I s n u d d y because* t h e c o w s w a l k on the g r a s s , S h e e n t r a n c e ’to t h e m i l k h o u s e i s cesiented* The child who drew the picture la a d a u g h t e r o f OGA125* Conpare this drawing with t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h o f h e r f a t h e r * e farsa# Sarah 12 yea rs Grade 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Far© "The hors© Is out in the field grazing. That field there’s a plowed field. It i?j summer. There*© a garage for the buggies*" (Usually called a shed*} He specifically drew attention to tne fence between the fields* The only path connects t h e h o u s e wit»x the b u s s / '‘g a r a g e * ,5 hose 14 years Grade Q , Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farm The x-ray drawing of the house, outhouse and b a m show the furnishings well. The arrangement in the house is typ­ ically Amish: the children*s bedrooms are upstairs, the parents* bedroom is downstairs. In the '’room” is the stove. Nest to the Hroomw is the dining roora and beyond that the kitchen. In the barn are drawn two box stalls, three cows In stanchions, and the ladder to the hay loft. Red, yellow and black are the only colors used. The paths lead from the house to the outhouse and barn. In this drawing all the paths are within the farm. Melvi n 8 years Grade 2 pf Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farm "Drawing a boy. H e ’s pl o w i n g the field in summer." This b r i l l i a n t l y c o l ore d drawing includes a m o d e r n tractor p l o w i n g the f ield and a purple car on an orange road. The fences are still important, but the r o a d leads p a s t the farm as it "goes to town." The b o y b l u s h i n g l y said it was not a d r a w i n g of his farm. Three years after this p icture was d r a w n his family left the Old Order A m i s h church. Chris 13 years Grade 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. n n <\ n n n Farm fo thi6 boy the farta is the house, "the barn* and the field* One feels that they are his places of security* F Ben 6 years (?) Grade 1 (?) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Farm Tha farm Is the barn and the livestock, hut the girl who drew the picture could not leave out the house and the people living in the house. She ha® emphasized the door to the house, the door to the stair, the stair, the door at the top of the stairs and herself in bed. If the man and woman were supposed to represent the parents their bedroom would have been drawn on the first floor of the house. Elmina 11 years Grad© 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - V v ’ ! I ■ ; I Far© This atsieh girl represented & f&na by showing an (Araleh) man going to a field filled with livestock. Many of the children*a drawings showed a high degree of symmetry. Ks.hl e 14 years Grade 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AI.IISK F A R M E QUIPMENT Same idea of the amount of equipment used on a good Amish. farm is given b y the list of items o f f e r e d at the pu b l i c sale (Feb* '22, 1952) of a m e m b e r of ch u r c h d i s t r i c t nu m b e r Vnj?e&0. of the old order A m i s h E e n n o n l t e church. The owner was mov— i n g to a n o t h e r farm about five miles away* The sale was well' a t t e n d e d and n e t t e d over £3,000*00. 18 HEAD OF C A T T L E - I n c l u d i n g 15 H e a d of R e g i s t e r e d and High C-rnde Ho l s t e i n Dairy Cattle. Reg* cow, 8 years, f r e s h Dec., B r e d Jan. 13; Reg. cow, 8 years, f r e s h August, b r e d Nov. 5 ; Keg. cow, 7 years, f r e s h August, b red Dec. 20; Grad's cow, 8 years, f r e s h Nov., bred Jan. 7; C r u d e cow, 5 years, due to f r e s h e n A p r i l 15; P u r e - b r e d heifer, due to f r e s h e n !'arch 20; Grade heifer, due -to freshen A p r i l 20; 2 p u r e - b r e d service age bulls, 15 non.; 1 p u r e - b r e d y e a r l i n g heifer; 2 p ure - b r e d heifer calves, 2 and 6 months old; 1 p u r e - b r e d bull calf, 4 montha old; 1 grade heifer, 4 m o n t h s old; 2 w h i t e faced f e e d i n g steers, w e i g h i n g GOO lbs.; 1 black steer calf, ' 4 months old. O n e ' w e l l - b r e d 6 - m o n t h - o l d b ull calf, sired by A ndreas Di c t a t o r Renown, whose dam has 3 c o n s e c u t i v e records that average o v e r 75 0 lbs, fat on 27.. H i s dam Is a d a u g h t e r of D unloggin M a s t e r Oliver, who m ade 500 lbs. fat on her first two lactations. (Cattle will be T B a n d B a n g s tested before sale). Al l p u r e - b r e d cattle will be f u r n i s h e d w i t h applications f o r registry, a n d transfers f i l l e d out. FEED — 15 tons first c u t t i n g alf a l f a a n d Ti m o t h y hay; 400 bales strai7, baled direct from the thrasher; 400 bas k e t s ' corn; 100 bushels oats. HOGS - 2 y o u n g sows, bred to f a r r o w l a t t e r part of March; 16 f e e d i n g stoats. FAR M M ACHINERY - Nevf I d e a M o d e l 10 m a n u r e spreader, w i t h & lime spreading attachment; Mc-D* all steel hay l a d d e r w a g o n w i t h flat b o t t o m bed; A l l - s t e e l hay w a g o n w i t h d r o p - c e n t e r bed a n d b r a k e on upright; b o x wagon; Me— D* binder, 7-ft. cut, new; Mc-D. 5-ft. mower; Kc-D. side rake; Mc-D. web hay lo a d e r Mc-D. corn b i n d e r w i t h tongue t ruck a nd b u n d l e carrier; Mc-D* 2 way plow; Kc-D. 9—7 disk drill; B l a c k Hawk corn p l a n t e r w i t h check row attachment; two B u r c h . w a l k i n g plows; Oliver riding plow; two-horse cultivator; o n e - h o r s e cultivator; h o r s e - d r a w n double disk; D u n h a m cultipacker; s p r i n g - t o o t h e d harrow and spike-tooth harrow; 1 - h o r s e weeder; V a c - O - S a y seed cleaner; c o r n sheller; Yan k e e sled; stoneboat; H e c k yokes; harness; l o g chain; single trees; d ouble trees; 3 a n d 4 - h o r s e Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AMISH FARM Ev^JlKaEN? (cont.) F A R M tlACHIHSRX (cont.) eveners; collars; oridlea nalters; 1 l ~xl6 b r o o d e r house; -I. M a c o m b coal b r o o d e r stove; c h i c k feeders; fountains; p o u l t r y netting; 1 100-ft. roll 1x 2 m e s h wire fabrick, 60-in. high; ;; 1 100-ft. r oll 1- 4 iaesh w i r e "fabric, 24-in. high; w i r e f e n ­ cing; l o c u s t posts; steel posts; b attery f e n c e charger; n e w ./ w o v e n ?/Ire f e n c e stretcher; r o p e f ence stretcher; l o g g r a p p l e nook; ha y ropes; pulleys; I r e l a n d h ay hoist; L o u d e n grapple hook; 6 hop. W i s c o n s i n a i r - c o o l e d motor; M c C o l l o u g h 1-man c h ain saw, new; M y e r s pump Jack; p o w e r grindstone; h o i s t i n g '' jack; J a m e s w a y f e e d cart; r u b b e r hose; forks; shovels; b u l l ' lead; sprayer; extension ladders; snow fence; 50-ft. l a w n fence; 1 0 - gals. w h i t e paint; roof paint; p l a t f o r m scales; 2 . w e l d e d w a t e r i n g troughs; n i n e IQ-gal. m i l k cans; m i l k cooler; whey cans; m e a t grinder; sausage stuffer; h o g hangers; 2 n e w 6l ft. Siaedley h o g houses; one 6x8 h o g house; o n e 8 - h o l e S medley h o g feeder; I 4-hole 3r,edley h og feeder. LUM32R. - A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1000 ft. oak l u m b e r in 2x4, 2x6, 2x6 an d 1 - i n c n boards; small a m o u n t of dry m a p l e anc -pine boards: 68 pie c e s l ”- 6 “- 1 4 ft. l o n g f e n c e boards; 2 0 p ieces 1; 1 « x 6'-12 ft. l o n g fence boards. * ’ ^ HO'j 31H 0 L D GOODS - One 75-lb. C o o l e r a t o r icebox; 1 snail h e a t i n g s t o v e ; 1 d i n i n g r o o m table and six chairs; lard; vinegar; an d m a n y ar t i c l e s too n u m e r o u s to mention. H e r a l d . F e b r u a r y 14, 1952, p. 7. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IP* ---- --- - Buggy Surrey Haywagon mw- Jt-VJi-.i; . Feed Waterwagon sled Tractor SO M E A M I S H F A R M E Q U I P M E N T N o t e absence of r u b b e r tires* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHURCH 0&LENDAR Service 1952 “7T953 Christtag Chrlsttag January 1955 Scripture Lukes 1 , 2 Matts 20 , : II Corse 1954 Matts 2— 3 6 Matts 4-5 ' Matts 6-7 4 Matt:8-9 <Matti2£fc*««) February March Matt;15-16 Matts 26-27 Saemann April MattS13 J ohns15 Neugeburt Neugeburt Johns 3 Rom; 6 Ordnunge MattslS Ordnunge I Cors 5 May (Ltebeemahl)* (Llebesraahl)* Johns8 Gal: 5 Pflngst Pflngst June Acta:1-2 John:14 Rom:8 or I These;5 July Emte John:4 r Emte Rev: 14 Elnaamralung Elnsammlung Lukes: Luke: 14,16 August Luke:17,18 Luke:10 I Cor:13 September Neugeburt Neugeburt (See above) Ordnungg (See above) Ordnunge October Llebesmahl Llebesmahl (Se^llfee) Hebsll,12 November John:17 E£hs4 or Rom:12 James:2,3 December Welt-Ende WelV-Snd© Matt:24,25 * Lute 22,1-33 I Cor« 10 to verse 25 I Cor„ 11:2, then 17 to end of John 6, 48 to end John 13, 1-17 0§ter Saemann From; Per Neue Amerlkanlsche Calendar„ (Baltic, Ohio, Johann R&bsr, 1952, 1953, 1954) , ppo 6-29* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sin Oicgijlev U O It uttfc Sicfoern bie in ben litifd)cli Wc mci n i > c i i iiebruudjt im'bcit. O ' e b n u t i f sif ;'s n Ij a n 33 a i t i (, ; ) { ii b e r C 1) i o . Service M a n u a l of the C e n t r a l Ohio A m i s h C ommunity Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Sin SRegiftcr tion SdjriWii nub SHebern $ ie in ben SMlf=9lmifd)cit (Semeiit: ben gebrandjt uicvben. 21 n 3 u f a n g e n a m (f f) r i 1t 1a g. (frftcr Sonntag. © d ) rift: 2 uca§, 1 u nb 2 . Siebev: © eite 3 8 5 , 7 7 o , 501 3?. 14. ^rneiter Sonntag. © d jv ift: 9)tattl)au§, 2 u n b 3 . S ie b e r: © eite 0 0 4 , 7 7 0 . 4 8 1 , 7 1 6 SB. 14. f r i t t e r Sonntag. ©cfyrift: 5Diattl)au§, 4 u nb 5. Cieber: © eite (323, 7 7 0 , 8 0 2 . SBierter Sonntag. ©cf)rift: UfatHjauS, (3 unb- 7. Sieb e r: © e ite 5 6 3 , 7 7 0 , 4 0 4 SB. 17. IJiinftec Sonntag. ©cfjrift: 9JiattI)rtii§, 8 u nb 9. S ieb e r: © eite 5 1 2 , 7 7 0 , ( 5 1 2 — 11) Scdiftcr S o tn n a g . © d jr if t: 2)?attijaua, -10 u n b 11 . S ieb er: ©eite 4(3, 7 7 0 , 2 0 5 SB. 6 , 6 8 3 SB. 9. Sicbcnter S o n n ta g . ©cfjrift: ‘D Jiattfjaus, 12 u n b 1 4 . Sieber: © e ite 3 1 6 , 7 7 0 , 2 7 8 SB. 1 1. Service M a n u a l of the C e n t r a l Ohio A m i s h C o m m u n i t y ii 3 Sr R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 'Jitte r S onntag. SBicraebntcr Sonntag. © t h r i f t : !Diatt^du§, 1 5 u n b 1 6 . S ieb er: © e ite 2 7 8 , 7 7 0 , 1 1 5 SB. 4 . ^ r e i^ e i tS © t h r i f t : 3'ofy- 3 ; © a l . 5. S ieb er: © eite 3 4 1 , 7 7 0 , 3 5 , 2 0 5 SB. 4 . SJlcunter S onntag. Dftern. 3runf3el>nter S o n n tag . © t h r i f t : ^ o h o n n e S , 1 4 ; SHonter 8. S ieber: © eite 2 0 5 , 7 7 0 , 7 3 8 , SB. 57. © c ^ r i f t : TOattljauS, 2 6 u n b 2 7 . Sieber: © e ite 7 0 0 , 7 7 0 , 4 4 5 , 3 8 5 SB. 2 5 . 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SB. bi§ aum ©nbe. 2>obanne§ 6 bon SB. 4 7 bi§ gum ©nbe. 3>o^anne§ 13 bon SB, 1 b is 18. Sieb e r: © eite 6 8 3 ober 4 8 1 , 7 7 0 , 3 0 2 , bon SB. 1 ober non SB. 2 0 ; 411 ben 8 , unb 9, SB. m a n n ’bie SDiener tom m en. Sieb 6 9 2 beim fyufemnfdjen. 'Jtcnngcljnfer Sountag. ©rnte. \ / © t h r i f t : SfofyflnueS, 4 , O ff . 3 o lj. 14. S ieb e r: © eite 2 0 1 , 7 7 0 , 4 6 0 , 4 5 2 . ^uianaigfter Sonntag. © i n f a m nt 1 u n g. © t h r i f t : S ucaS , 12 u n b 13. S ie b e r: © e ite 7 0 6 , 7 7 0 , 4 9 2 SB. 25. Service M a n u a l of the C e n t r a l Ohio A m i s h C o m m u n i t y I I R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Slditunbattianjigftcr Sonntag. (Siiiu»b3«miMigfter Sonntag. © d j r i f t : 2 u c a § 14 u n b 16. S ieb er: © eite 4 8 9 , 7 7 0 , 7 0 6 , S i 12. © d j r i f t : $ltattljiiu§ 20 ; 2 ffo r. 6 . 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Sieber: S e ite 5n s , 77<>, 3 7 3 , 7 1 2 , bie 4 erften S i nodj bev Oiemeiit. Sin ber iiodjjeit 7 1 2 S'. 5 ; b a n n 8 7 s um aufgeljiirt nnir in ber Oiemeiit. T a i n t 841 S '. 14, b a n n 848 S'. 0 ; 0 4!( S'. 4 : 511 St. 7 : 2ohin § Sieb, 8 8 5 St. 20 . Sedjdunbjfflanjigfter Sonntag. S lu e bcm S 'a 1111 niijiirlniin i. © r o f ? =© e n t e i n . S d j r i i t : S ueae 15, S'. 1 bie 25. Sieber: S e ite 5 2 " S'. 80 mid) bev Oiemeiii. SBaim er a n f a u g t iniditonmieii, Dan 11 2 7 2 , 5 2 " , 7 0 0 , 102. TO* S'. 2 1 , 2 27. ©leid) tnie iin ft-riifjjaljr, ©ietje 1 3 . tag. ©onn= SiebeuuHbjtoanaigfter Sonntag. © d jr if t: (Sbriier 11 u nb 12 . S ieber: ©eite 5, 7 70, 2 0 9 , 2 8 4 . idicibr: Virbrr: S eite 7m>, 7 s o . 7 0 1 . Service M a n u a l of the C e n t r a l Ohio A m i s h Comm u n i t y i t R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - Kin 71 - Ojl^nun^^brlef der beschlossen worden 1st In Holmes County, Ohio, den 26ten Oktober 1917 , So sind wir beiei^jander versamraelt im Namen 1; des Herrn den 9ten Marz 1917 und gedenken auch einen Ordnungsbrief aufzusetzen, und was namhaft 1st im alten Brief wollen wir nicht namen. ' !• So sollen sich die Diener in Lehr und Leben, Handel und Wandel tragen und verhalten,ndass: es dean Evangelium und der Lehre Christ! gemass sei, darait sie anderen ein Licht seien, im Leben und Wandel nachzufolgen. Und well viel zu benamen war in Bezug auf Regel und Ordnung, so wol­ len wir die Sache kurz fassen, n 2*1st es angesehen, dass die Lehr Jesu viel ubertreten wird mit Afterreden und Hinterreden von Dienern und Brudern, welches billig sollte ausgerottet werdenl 8,1st ea angesehen dass die Eltern sollen die Kinder aufziehen nach der Ordnung von der Gemeinde, nichts machen Oder kaufen das sie nicht ; haben sollen, 4,1st es angesehen, dass die Hinlassigkelt um der veraammlung beizuwohnen ohne Ursach nioht soil R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. geduldet warden, sondern sie vernahmen, zu kommen, ihren Beruf getreulich wahrnehmen. 5.1st es angesehen dass das unnotige Hinausgehen und unnfitig lang ausbleiben in der Versammlung nioht sein soil, sondern ein jeder soil bald beikommen und der Lehr zuhoren. 6 0Ist es angesehen dass die Pracht und der Hochmut einkommen will in den sogenannten alten amischen Gemeinden, wo viel zu bensmen war* So wollen wir sagen was zur Pracht und Hochmut dient und gegen die Ordnung von der Gemeine ist tuad zum Unfrieden dient, soil nicht geduldet wer­ den, es mag dann Namen haben wie es will. 7.1st es angesehen fi2r unerbaulich f'ur Glieder von einer Gemeine in die andere halten Oder Junge in eine andere Gemeine .gehen fur den Bund aufrichten, ohne die Sach auf beiden Seiten verhandelt, dass es zum Frieden dient. 8. Ist es angesehen, wenn die Jugend in der Unordnung sind und deswegen die Gebote nicht gehalten haben und wollen einen Ehestand aufrichten, so soil ihnen nicht gedient werden, sie ha­ ben denn zuvor eine Versfihnung gemacht mit der Gemein. $ann soil der Ehestand bedient werden von dem volligen Diener von derselben Gemeine oder wo eine Freundschaft oder eine schriftmassige Ursach ist, kann ein anderer vSlliger Diener den Stand bedienen. Waiter ist es angesehen, wenn die Bruder in eine andere Gemeine gehen einen Ehestand aufzurichten, dann sollen sie ein Zeugnis haben von den D i e n e m , wo sie daheim sind. Und wenn die Jungen einen Ehestand aufrichten wollen, dann sollen sie kommen in einer christlichen Ordnung, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 73 E i n - O r d n u n g s b r i e f (Font 7 ) ------------ und nicht solche dazu nehmen als Nebensitzer, die in Unordnung sind* sondern nach der Ordnung. 9.1st angesehen fur unerbaulich ft!ir die Jugend oder altere Glieder, in di^ Saloonstoder Trinkhauser zu gehen und das starke-Getrank zu trinken oder zu kaufen und auf dem Weg herum fahren oder es heimnehmen und zusammen gehen und es trinken oder kaufen. Wenn solches vorkommt unfcer den Gliedern, so sollen sie nicht ungestraft bleiben, und die Eltern sollen alien , m^glichen Fleiss anwenden, um solches zu verhuten. 10.1st es angesehen von den alt-amlschen Ge­ meinden fur unerbaulich fur ^inen Telephon eignen Oder im Haus haben oder Hauslein am VVeg* aber wo sie sie haben in den hoheren Gemeinen und dort zum Frieden dienet, ist es zugelassen, sie zu brauchen i^ einem schriftmassigen Notfall oder in Mass und Massigkeit und bezahlen was diejenigen verlangen. llolst es angesehen f\2r Hauhalten mit Rat der Gemein mit dem Wort Gottes nach den Umstanden* wenn ein Fall sollte vorkommen wo angesehe^ wird von den Dienern und der Gemeinde f$r bannwurdig* so soli Bann und Meidung gehalten werden von Dienern und Gliedern bis sich eine evangelische Aufnahme erzeigt oder beweist. Sollte dasjenige meinen* es ware ihm Unrecht getan* so soil seln Umlaufen oder Hinterreden nicht angehSrt werden* sondern hlnweisen auf Buss und Besserungo Welter ist es angesehen wenn die Jugend in die umliegenden Gemeinden gehen, dann sollen sie ge­ hen nach der Ordnung von der Gemeinde, wo sie R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Ein Ordnungsbrijaf *~ ~(cont#) "“ daheim sind, nicht in d©r Unordnung, wie zu Zeiten den Pall ist* Welter war es angesehen von den alten Dienern, wenn die Jugend in die umliegenden Gemeinden kommt in der Unordnung, dann sollen die Diener von der Gemeinde, wo sie hinkommen, sie anreden, womit wir ganz einig sind# Diese vorhergehenden Artikel wurde vorgelesen und beschlossen mit Rat der Dienerversammlung, welche gehalten wurde in Holmes County, Ohio, den 24#, 25. und 26 Oktober 1917# Unterschrieben wie folgt: Holmes County, Ohio: ■«■ Noah P 0 Bitschy, Eli A# Troyer, Johannes B. Miller, Bnanuel P. Herschberger, *■ Moses E. Mast, Hnanuel J. Schrock, Wil­ liam E. Bitschy, Noah B. Miller, * Joni Troyer, Daniel Joder, Johannes Nissli, * Abraham S, Joder, Andreas Mast, Samuel L. Mast, & Jacob J. Stutzman, Solo Schlabach, Noah J. Coblentz, ■5V Samuel J. Miller, Johannes B. Reber, Ell J* Miller, Andreas A. Reber, * Benjiman D. Troyer, Jonas P. Bitschy, Robert M. Troyer, Abraham C# Troyer, Samuel J. Mast, Jonas M. Schwarzentruber, Joseph M. Miller, Daniel M. Wengerd, Ben­ jamin J. Joder, David L. Gerber, Johannes J# Herschbergero Geauga County, Ohio: * Christian J. Kauff­ man, * Daniel A. Byler, * Eli Beller, Daniel C# Beiler, Manasse M# Herschberger# Madison County, Ohio: Cornelius Bitschy R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Lancaster County, Pa,: # Gideon K* Stoltzf u s , * Benjamin P, Beiler, Johannes Boiler, Christian Glick, Jacob Lapp, Samuel M* Stoltzfus, Christian L. Fischer, Lemuel M. Stoltzfus0 Mifflin County, Pa,: Jacob H* Pitsche# Illinois: J # Mast, *■ David C, Pitsche, # Daniel J# Bitsche, *- Andreas Indiana: * Wilhelm Yoder, # David Burkhol­ der, * Joseph A, Schwarz, * Johannes Schmucker, Peter R* Schmucker, * Bischof R ep ro d u ced with P a s s i o n o f fh e c o p yi1ght ow n er. Further ^ ORDNUNG OF A CHRISTIAN CHURCH Since it is the duty of the church, especially in this day and age to decide what is fitting and proper and also what is not fitting and proper for a Christian to do, (in points that are not clearly stated in the Bible), we have considered It needful to publish this booklet listing some rules and ordinances of a Christian Church. We hereby confess to be of one faith with the 18 arti­ cles of Faith adopted at Dortrecht, 1632, also with nearly all if not all articles in booklet entitles "Article Und Ordnung der Chrietlichen Gemeinde." No ornamental, bright, showy fora-fitting, immodest or silk-like clothing of any kind. Colors such as bright red, orange, yellow and pink not allowed. Amish form of cloth­ ing to be followed as a general rule. Costly Sunday olothes to be discouraged. Dresses not shorter than half­ way between knees and floor, nor over eight inches from floor. Longer advisable. Clothing in every way modest, serviceable and as simple as scripturally possible. Only outside pockets allowed are one on work eberhem or vomas and pockets on large overcoats. Dress shoes, if any, to be plain and black only. No high heels and pomp slippers. Dress socks, if any, to be blaok except white for foot hy- ‘ giene for both sexes. A plain, unshowy suspender without buckles. Hat to be black with no less than 3-lnoh rim and not extremely high in crown. No stylish impressions in any hat. No pressed trousers. No sweaters. Prayer covering to be simple, and made to fit head. Should cover all the hair as nearly as possible and is to be worn wherever possible. Pleating of caps to be dis­ couraged. No silk ribbons. Young children to dress ac­ cording to the Word as well as parents. No pink or fanoy baby blankets or caps. Women to wear shawls, bonnets, and capes In public. Aprons to be worn at all times. No adorning of hair among among either sex such as parting of hair among men and curling or waving among women, R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 77 - ORDNUNG OF A CHRISTIAN CHURCH (p. 2) A full beard should be worn among men and boys before baptism if possible* No shingled hair. Length at least halfway below top of ears. No decorations of any hind in buildings inside or out. No fancy yard fences. Linoleum, oilcloth, shelf and wall paper to be plain and unshowy. Overstuffed furniture or any luxury items forbidden. No doilies or napkins. No large mirrors, fancy glassware, statues or wall pictures for decorations. No embroidery work of any kind. Curtains either dark green rollers or black cloth. No boughten dolls. No bottle gas or high line electrical appliances. Stoves should be black if bought new. Weddings should be simple and without decorations. Names not attached to gifts. No ornaments on buggies or harness. Tractors to be used only for such things that can hard­ ly be done with horses. Only either stationary engines or tractors with steel tires allowed. No airfllled rubber tires. Farming and related occupations to be encouraged. Working in cities or factories not permissible. Boys and girls working out away from home for world people forbid­ den except in emergencies. Worldly amusements as radios, card playing, party games, movies, fairs, etc., forbidden. Reading, singing, tract distribution, Bible games, relief work, giving of tithes, etc., are encouraged. Musical instruments or different voice singing not per­ missible. No dirty, silly talking or sex teasing of chil­ dren. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ORDNUNG OF A CHRISTIAN CHURCH (p. 3) Usury forbidden in most instances0 No government bene­ fit payments or partnership in harmful associations. No insurance. No photographs. No buying or selling of anything on Sundaj'. It should be kept according to the principles of the Sabbath. Wor­ ship of some kind every Sunday. Women should spend time in’ doing good or reading God's Word Instead of taking care of canaries, goldfish o r house flowers. Church confession is to be made If practical where transgression was made. If not, a written request of for­ giveness should be made to said church. All manifest sins to be openly confessed before church before being allowed to commune. I Tim. 5, 20. A period of time required be­ fore taking new members into full fellowship. Because of a great falling away from sound doctrine, we do not care to fellowship, that is hold communion, with any churches that allow or uphold any unfruitful works of darkness such as worldliness, fashionable attire, bedcourtshlp, habitual smoking or drinking, old wlveB fables, non-assurance of salvation, antl-ciissionary seal or any­ thing contrary to sound doctrine. (See Menno Simons, 1st pt., P. 58-76; 2nd. pt., P. 91-98, and 383-386.) Plk9 County, Ohio, 1950 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF T H E 3TONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Rellg&oue behaviour ! Strictly j Forbidden reading popular novels or pulp magazines D1acouraged reading nonrelig­ ious, non-trade material Joining church younger than 16 marrying individu­ al not member of j the Amish church attending revival meetings frequent attendance at non-Amish church Sunday School formal Bible dis­ cussion meeting for group Bible reading on Sunday R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - ciO - I SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYR.UK ORDWUNG 1955 I I Religious behaviour I Allowed 1 Encouraged rmen know _ .... ........ Required .... the Bible very thoroughly men agree to serve as ministers, if called | 3 \ reading or recit­ ing English pray­ ers <> Spontaneous prayers at family worship reading English Bible Join church during middle twenties family prayers morning and eve­ ning prayers before and after meala reading or reeltin* German prayers • reading German Bible ability to read German aloud speak Pennsyl­ vania Dutch Join church in late teens Join church before marriage attendance at fun­ 1 regular attendance eral of non-Amiah at the Aralah ser­ occasional visit vices to non-Ami ah church Informal discus­ sion of Bible group meeting for German Bible read­ ing on any day other than Sunday reading some nonMennonite relig­ ious material R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONSYRUN ORDEUKG 1955 Religions behaviour (pc2) r Strictly Forbidden TiDiscouraged t attempts to con­ vert outsiders to the Ard eh faith interest in missions missing Communion three tinea in succession with­ out very good ex­ cuse R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Religious behaviour (p.2) Allowed j Encouraged personal support of missions money donation for relief work out­ side Amish commun­ ity women sewing for reli ef preserving food for relief women cover head while praying attendance at all Instruction peri­ ods prior to bap­ tism missing "two suc­ cessive Commun­ ions Communion at least once a year ! regular church at| tendance ' visit I-W boys ■jadmonish erring ii brother R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOKE ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG- 1955 Harrled men Strictly Forbldden Discouraged clean shaven face mustache any trimming of edges of beard hair out with clippers shaping hair slightly hair parted on side head covered outside necktie brilliantly col­ ored shirts patterned shirts shirts with •trlr shirts of aynthe-. j tic materials shirts with a pocket fly opening on trousers crease in trou­ ser leg cuff in trousers belt buckles on suspen­ ders suit coat witllapela or buttons bright, checked or tweed material vests with buttons R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEERUN ORDNUNG 1955 Marri ed men Allowed { t ------------- ------r Required j | 1 I \ Encouraged hair parted In middle hair unpartea hair to ear lobe regulation style hat plain colored shirts of somber hue white shirts white shirts for ohuroh pockets in trou­ sers buttons on trou­ sers broad-fall trousers oreaseless, cuffless trousers plain suspenders leather suspen­ ded® work Jackets of denim with but­ tons or zippers > waist band on trousers suspenders matching trouser material i I i i 1 high lapeiless coat closing with hooks and eyes black, navy blue, or dark gray suits vests with hooks and eyes and wool­ en baok R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOME A3PSCT3 OF IKE STCIJSYRUII ORDHUNG- 1955 :lp,rrled p .-221 (p.2) Strictly Forbidden Discouraged brown oxfords bright or pat­ terned socks raincoats wrist watoii watch chain sweaters R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Allowed Encouraged Required Ibrown work shoes black shoes blaok shoes for church overshoes regular work socks I black socks buttons on over­ coat overcoat with cape pocket watch no watch R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Marri ed women Strictly Forbidden Discouraged short hair braided hair hair parted on aide use of barrets or combs waving hair uncovered head hat long coat coat with but­ tons bonnets any other color than black coats any other color than black or navy blue dresses of figured material transparent mater­ ial nice pin for short coat material with slight woven stripe "miracle fabrics" shades of yellow bright shades of red deviation from basic dress pat­ tern short sleeves short skirts skirts Just a few inches below knee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S0H2 ASPECTS OF THE STOHEYRUIJ CRDNUKG 1955 km .* X v M . »« ^ U y A i Allowed hairpins and bobby pina thinning hair head scarf when working scarf over Kapp short coat with­ out buttons Encouraged Required hair pine only uncut hair hair in bun on back of head hair parted in middle always wear white Kapp bonnet at all times outside shawl Instead of coat white Kapp out­ side of home bonnet for dress shawl for dress black bonnets shawls blaok completely plain material acetate fabric cotton, linen wool opaque mater­ ial blues, greens, lav ender s, grey s , black, brown follow basic pattern three-quarter length sleeves stand-up collar round neck long sleeves high neck skirts to middle of calf Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME) A SPS GTS OF THE STQNSYRUN ORDVJUl'ICr 1 9 5 5 Marrled woman (p„2) 5t.rict.ly Forbidden Discouraged bodloe and skirt different mater­ ials buttons any place snaps on house dress brown shades for stockings very.sheer stock­ ings socks shoes any other color than black low out pumps high heels open heela or toes nylon black stockings pumps i * J froufrou or fancy j underwear t colored under­ wear i fancy nightgowns transparent night­ gowns make-up lipstick, rouge, eyeshadow face powder colored gloves Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF TH& STONEYRUK ORDNUNG 1955 Married women (p.2) Allowed Encouraged Required contrasting apron for house work matching apron no halsduch worn at home halsduch apron worn at all times organdy apron for church halsduch worn for dress organdy halsduch for church dresses pin down front with straight pins dress aprons pin work aprons tie no stockings at home cotton black stockings black stockings laced shoes black shoes flat shoes Cuban heels bare feet at home high shoes laced shoes any kind of u n d e r ­ wear that is mod­ est and service­ able plain under­ wear plain, motherhubbard type night clothes long sleeves mild perfume no cosmetics blaok gloves fancy handker­ chiefs Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE 3T0NEYRUM ORDNUNG 1955 Marrled women (p.3) Y Strictly Forbidden Discouraged rain coats slacks sweaters Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE 3TOHE2G\UH ORDHUHG 1955 H a r r i e d women (p.3) Allowed Encouraged Required skirts at all times dresses i I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SO:,'2 ASPECTS OF THE STOHZYRUH ORDHUHG 1955 Houses owned by church members (no mort- gage) Strictly Discouraged shutters 2 curtains at a window figured curtain material ruffle on bot­ tom of curtain or ruffle at top, lavender, yellow curtain© lightning rods fancy trim colored paint on exterior of house el sc tri cl ty floor lamps lamp shades Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STCN32RUN ORCCOTG 1355 Houses owned by church, members (no mortgage) Allowed Encouraged Required V one straight cur­ tain window shade white or blue or green transparent material single white or blue cotton curtain * remove lightning rode brick* wood white paint whi t e picket fencee- - - plain fences cement walks gasoline lantern kerosene lantern flashlights gasoline irons gasoline washing machines gasoline water pumps tear out wiring wind mill for pumping water ■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 95 - SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Houses owned by church members (no mort­ als®) (p»2)• Strictly Forbidden Discouraged large figured wall paper bright wall paper tiny figured wall paper band of "paper trim molding telephone furnace (previous to 1954) kerosene heating stoves in house bottled gas cook stove refrigerator i ; i carpets bought rugs pictures of people pictures on walls cupboards with transparent glass doors Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 96 - SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Houses owned by church members (no mortgage) (p.2) Allowed walls painted pastel shades leave on wall paper linoleum, rubber plastic floors Encouraged Required wooden floors > remove telephone may leave in fur­ nace coal or wood stoves kerosene and gas­ oline stoves ooal cook atoves ice box mirror in bath room indoor plumbing on ground floor hot water spring house rugs woven from rags sew own carpet rags woven by Amish calendars wall mottos plaques small paintings absolutely baren walls cupboards with translucent glass doors or curtains Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 97 - SOKE ASPECTS CP THE STOI5IYRUN ORDKUSG 1955 Hquggc owned b y c h u r c h a enherg (no mort­ gage) (p.3) Strictly Forbidden r*-iacouraged »r o overetuffed furni­ ture couchee Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME A3PE0TS OF THE STGI7SYRUII GRDNUHG 1955 Houses owned by church members (no m o r t i s e ) Allowed Encouraged (p.3) Required beautiful d o c k s Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 301:12 ASPECTS 0? TH2 STOUEYRUN ORDNUNG 1955 Farming; one a own land Strictly Forbidden Discouraged tractors with rubber tires tractors with luga electricity gasoline powered nllksr bottled gaa brooders heating with fur­ nace heating with hot water sharecropping with man with tractor hiring English help English tenant owning truck membership In farm­ ing associations Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 100 - SOME ASPSC 23 0? THE 3T0N E Y R U M ORDNUNG- 1955 14W. Farming ones own la ^A Allowed Encouraged tractors for belt power, for thrashing use of horse batteries electric fences flashlights kerosene lanterns Required gasoline lanterns gasoline engine gasoline elevator gasoline water pump. gasoline hot water heater kerosene brooders coal, gasoline, oil stoves frolics with Eng­ lish neighbor® frolics with Amish hlring Araish hiring truck and driver membership in Farmers Equity specialized farm­ ing S 0C„So farm plan general farming contour plowing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 101 - G,AT*n - r - ' “V p C C ripT>r'^ / T > T r'T pl y f V v T T ^ P . T ^ 7j\Jt_,0. itkj**m W * kJ PW*T 1 *.X.U-* •w'U.VAfM^bVil vy* W*» N-* .«• «S WW Fp.rr!Iny ones ov;n i-^nd (p*2) Strictly Forbidden Di eccuraoed entering produce in fair or show English hired hand with trac­ tor occasional hiring of English man with tractor hiring use of bull­ dozer use of PoM,Ao "pay­ ments by individ­ ual Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEYRUN ORDNONG 1955 Farming ones own land (p »2) Allowed give or cell to person who enters produce In compe­ tition buying feed and seed outside community Encouraged Required buying produce of the Ami sh government loans Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S0H2 ASPECTS OF THE STONEXRUN ORBHUNG 1955 Faming, an Englishman8s land Strictly Forbidden Discouraged tractors with rubber tires If renting tractors If on shares telephone driving truck Hired out to an English farmer driving tractor driving truck driving car Hiring out to an Englishman non-farmer driving truck driving car Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONE¥RUN OHDNUNG 1955 F a m i n e an Englishman* s land Allowed Encouraged Required use horses only electricity any electrical farm convenience a Hired out to an Ei\nlish farmer using all farm equipment except truck l s | Hiring out to an En slishmon non-farmer using all other equipment l I I j ; 1 i t i 1 I : I i ! : ' ! ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STOHSYRUN QRDNUNG 1955 Transportation Strictly Forbidden D5. tcouraged airplane travel airplane travel when serving abroad owning a oar h i r i n g 8. car for pleasure carriage bright colored buggy A t o m front on buggiec rubber tire® on any horse drawn vehicle dashboard colored and numer-j oufl buggy lights decorated har­ nesses battery buggy light® bicycle® Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SOME ASPECTS OF THE STONEXKUN ORDNUNG 1955 Transportation Allowed Encouraged hiring a car when needed riding in a car paying for each time car is ridden Required in boat travel for pleasure train travel all black buggy or black surrey roll curtain in back steel rimmed wheels manure deflector foam rubber cush­ ions bright buggy dus­ ters red reflector tape absolutely plain harness kerosene buggy lanterns Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VARIATION IN THE ORDNUNG OF COMMUNING OHIO CHURCHES 1955 Smaller Ohio Amlsh community Stoneyrun sweaters allowed sweaters forbidden sweaters forbidden bottled gas al­ lowed bottled gas for­ bidden bottled gas for­ bidden Sunday school al­ lowed Sunday school for­ bidden Sunday school for­ bidden go to high school without objection go to high school only when forced when forced to high school try to at­ tend parochial school use storm fronts on buggy storm fronts for­ bidden but used storm fronts not used tobacco considered wrong little feeling against tobacco mild drinking dis­ couraged mild drinking ig­ nored men's hair quite short men's hair slight­ ly shorter men's hair longer houses fairly plain houses plain houses very plain ' Center of central Ohio Amish community Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - lOo - ArnSH HEN'S CLOTHES Stoneyrun Churon District A n Amishman can always be spotted by hie hair-cut and his beard. Perhaps because of this, the man's every-day clothes very less from those of the world than the clothes of his wife. His good clothes for preacning are made from the time honored patters. BEARDS AilD HAIR STYLES: The face is clean shaven until the man Is engaged. Then he grows a tiny beard under his chin, about an Inch and a half across and three-fourths of an inch deep, and only about one-fourth of an inch long. rifhen he is published (his name read out at preaching service prior to marriage) he lets his beard grow. The Amlsh men shave their upper lip and often part of their lower lip and cheeks so that their whiskers frame but do not hide their faces. Their hair is not supposed to be parted and is to come to the ear lobe. Baldness seems to be ratuer infrequent. At church only four men out of fifty showed a tendency towards baldness, HAT: The Ami simian is never seen outside without his hat. In winter and for all formal occasions he wears a broadbrimmed black felt hat made by various commercial hat coupani es. For working in the fields and occasionally for coming, to town in the summer the Amlsh man wears a straw hat that is often not distinguishable from the English farmers' straw hat3, GOAT: For formal occasions the Amishaan wears a suit coat known as a Kuthze, It may have a round neck or occasion­ ally a small collar that stands straight up. It comec -down to about the middle of the hips and is fitted in at the waist. It closes with six large hooks and eyes. It is generally worn open. In the summer a coat is seldom worn except for formal . occasions. In winter the everyday coat is usually an over-_ all jacket with Sears arid Roebuck buttons down the front, it nay even close with a zipper. VEST: The vest is only worn for services. It is sleeve­ less, and usually has a high collar that stands up. It is fitted in sharply at the waist and flares out a bit below the waist. It closes with hooks and eyes. In the summer it often ia worn instead of the Mutiize. It is made of black broad­ cloth and the back is of wool iatner than silk or rayon as in the suits of the worldly men. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 105 3S (cor.to) SHI - - J . 4 cu 3 ton-H. shirt witii ike pocket reThe col Ir\r c u ^ t o n Is u e u n l l y m o v e d is s c c e p t u b a . e f Oi‘ C i - \ >. 1 *=**f 1 i nbuttoutod ;- j ail. no 4.O • C (Ills f>.i-trO s covered lrr V : v•u‘d ) . V«ien t • . . K C : i r* '/ot-.xey •.*^r*2'* tj_l - u ,j _t • [ s. .1r t z iii a J, 3 - * I T 'L £ ' C l o il (: b i . U. c *J * u I " i V o 1 i‘ O .ittono. TIGUS.TRS: Tie Sunday- suit nas cuff-letss, broaclfali tr on­ cers of blacu broadclotl. Tie trousers are also k n o w n as barn­ door trousers bscr.usc tie w h o l e front u n b u t t o n s across tie top in n u c n tne same fa.sjd.oxi as bell botfori trousers. 7.".e pa.its close w i t u four or six b u t tone. u n d e r n e a t h tie flap, tie two sides m e e t i n u.e uicl.le so tnere is a double layer of wool ov e r toe l o w e r abdomen. A pocket is c o n c e a l e d in each of trie side p lackets a n d a watcri p o c k e t is aevm on tie u p p e r part of tne inside flap. Tic- pants live a w a i s t b a n d a n d ore neld i n p l a c e oy two suspenders of Ins sane mat trial. I n tie fiel d s the i.ien we a r par t s of tne sa: le cut made fr c n heavy blue denim wit.i suspenders of Drue aeuiin or ueatrier. SOCKS: On formal occasions tie lueu wee r black do els, over cilx, b u t for every lay tuey w e a r r e a u r a r '7o.rjT.--Doc.iD. SH0C3: The m e n v/eax1 -dtl, bla c k d o e s , a li (-_fit v/o.l;fit for Cress a n d neavy w o r k sloes tuo res t of ike lime. j jj R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Ill - AHI'iH B O *3' Ci/JIHih? Stoncvrun C h u r c h District. BABY B O Y S : Tae Daby ooy I k or^ssed j u s t * l i n e Ills iv.’iii £!L ctci'; in '■"■ •f .j-if’ or cos v/i tn l o n g slorV^fi j ?■. c r o c .i0 tec. bio, lor. j v'hite stockings arid boo tie 3. "VY .T LXTj-hjiti m 0 1 3 • Boys osyoni u-j.e 0uby s out u lis.e r yea r s n a y "os d r e s s e d very m u c h like their y o u n g e r sister on l y they never n e a r a c o v e r i n g a n d start n e a r i n g a h at very young* L I TTLE BOY: By the tine a bo y is two he is d r e s s e d as a r e p l ica of his f a t h e r except that ha still w e a r s l o n g stock­ ings. Fro:., ire tine he is two u n t i l he f i n i s h e s school lie r e a r s p a n t s of the sane cut as his f a t h e r ’ s a n d u s u a l l y of blue denin, tkongn he nay have w o o l pan t s of black, nav y blue or brown. His shirts are o f t e n h o m e m a d e a n d m a d e fr o m the 3ame m a t e r i a l as his r i o t e r ’s dresses. .1 hav e n e v e r seen seen shades o f p i n k or lavsndar, but all shades of blue, green, b r o w n and gray seem popular. Even for p r e a c h i n g the little boys may n o t w e a r SLuthze, bu t the. older boys w e a r liuthze or vests vnien they are d r e s s e d formally. The boys go b a r e f o o t e d in summer a n d weal'' hea*/y black wor k shoes at all other times. They too wear over a l l jackets for every day. A D G Y S S C B b T BOYS: The boys over 16 seem to be very con­ scious of tneir appearance. Fo r c h u r c h they a l w a y s w e a r white shirts, though the:/ may not w e a r the M u t h z e u n l e s s I t is cold. T h e i r h a i r is cut as short as p o s s i b l e a n d is o f t e n part ed on the side. Saturday nig h t in tow n they only w e a r their liluthze if absol u t e l y necessary, a n d they wil l oft e n turn back the c o l l a r to m a k e it look ac m u c h as p o s s i b l e like a regular co a t l a p e l * , / O t h e r w i s e they lou n g e a r o u n d in their g ood pants and b r i g h t shirts. O n these o c c a s i o n s theii"’ shirts are always i m m a c u l a t e l y clean a n d pressed. It is a bit startling to see n y o u n g A n i s h n a n w i t h the r e g u l a t i o n black felt hat, broadfall trousers a nd an o r a n g e s a t e e n shirt. Their socks .are hidden* All the rest of the cost u m e Is care­ fully prescribed, so the y o u n g boys seen to e x p r e s s tneir in ­ d i v i duality in the i r brirbt shirts. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - A TTU I l l - sVi C\ ol h e s Hen A elu .lt P 'la u ^rOaJ \or»n-vvrveJ V\al\ V*\ ^e. WooV«i Cev,(t «.M= Vei,t lo'itv ^\0©k» «ev>d C*\C ^•V^Te fc>rOexct\a.\i% i'iocj L.tu<?. (J^est. Wu.irov\«d uf Hi0 b***lr iOuticj £ \3°^ >< t> *■Oa.tA Vj*-»vt-,rr^ E> b»oa4 a p ro a V\c*N Ki«^k| C’A u^Vy^e iw,"U» ViooVv <x»eA e^«> feu-‘\To*\ «rl oei o* COVor^i b'fOacly-eUl, C U . \ ^ ' < ,>1 ' T ro n ie r> YrOW\: 'VoJcf, A "V*<?jOe-t\y\u. ot \W j> «-F\4l\ot " l Vs«. W > « v . « o h v t e V <dv\v\<,^\vj«xvse«e \ I^n*.>ww H ^V\* CCvvAu r^ ’ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. TWc <o«vck. AMISH 770M3W'S CLOTHES Stoneyrun Church. District T h e adult w o m a n ’s costume Is easy to make, does not waste material, Is com?ortnble to work in, and Is becoming;. DRESS. The skirt is a straight piece, often, the width of the material gives tne length of the skirt. It Is pleated in the back and gathered In the front. The fullness varies, good dresses tending to be fuller than every-day dresses. The skirt placket Is In the front a little off center to the left. In preaching dresses the placket nay. conceal a pocket. In the little g i r l s ’ dresses and every-day. dresses there is us­ ually a patch pocket on the front of the skirt that Is con-r cealed by a m a t c h i n g apron. The oodice of the dress is cut on the straight of the goods, It Is fitted with darts at the waist In the back and front and sometimes w i t h darts at the shoulders. It overlaps in the front and Is pinned in place with straight (common) pins. The sleeves may be very slightly puffed, enough so that they do not bind at the elbow when working. They are not full enough to waste material or to get-In the way. There Is no cuff. The bottom is merely, hemmed. Good dresses have a plain round neck into w h i c h the halsduch can he tucked;' vEvery«day dre&ees may',have a plain-round neck .Petex^a&vCQllaj?*-T h e ^ o d l e e a n d the' sklrt are Joined together with a straight waist ba n d about an Inch and a half wide. APRON. Usually the apron matches the dress exactly. (It Is of the ease material.) A r o u n d the house some women may wear no apron a t all or an apron from a different dress that may have already worn out. This apron is always of a fairly heavy, opaque plain material. A t preaching the w o m e n w e a r or­ gandy aprons. The aprons are gathered slightly into a waist band about 1^ inches wide. .On the right side the waist b a n d extends well beyond the apron and is wrapped around the bafaK^' and pinned at the left side. HALS DUCH. In Stoneyrun the hale duch Is only w o r n for formal occasions. For church It Is made of white organdy. For other functions it matches the dress. The point la tuck­ ed Into the middle of the apron waist band, the two sides come over the shoulder and are tucked Into the front waist band of the apron. I t Is tucked In around the neck so that R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. AMXSH SfOMEN‘3 CLOTHES Stoneyrun Church District (eonto) almost the whole "bodice is covered, STOCKINGS. During the week all the Ami eh women wear black cotton stockings. When dressed for special occasions they may wear silk or nylon black stockings. SHOES. The older women nay wear high, laced black shoes. The middle-aged women wear black oxfords or black laced shoes with Cuban heels. WINTER WRAPS, The women wear black fringed shawls when visiting or attending church. When working around the yard or when they are not very dressed up they wear short navy blue or black jackets fastened with hooks and eyes or large;hat *plnSo ""‘ HEAD COVERING. Adult women wear a white organdy prayercovering at all times. For church it Is finely pleated and tied under the chin in a bow. At other times the ribbons hang loose or are tied at the very end and hang down the back. Out of doors in summer and winter a black bonnet is worn. It has a stiff visor, soft gathered back and a gathered piece that covers the shoulders. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. AMISH GIRLS8 CLOTHES Stoneyrun Church. District BABY GIRLS: Babies are dressed in short white dresses with long sleeves. They wear Long-white stockings pinned to thetr diapers, (which may be protected by plastic pants*) They wear white crocheted bibs that usually have an edging of pink or blue. When they are very young they wear knitted or crocheted booties in blue or pink or white. By the time they are four or six months old they wear black patent leather shoes. For preaching they wear a white organdy covering. LITTLE GIRLS: From the time the baby walks un.tll she en­ ters adolescence she wears a dress with a plain bodice, long straight sleeves, and a slightly gathered skirt. It always has a straight stand-up collar and buttons up the back. Over this she wears a pinafore-type apron that flares slightly. It Is sleeveless, buttons with one button at the back of the neck and hangs straight from the shoulders. Usually It is of the sane naterlal as the dress, but for preaching she wears a white organdy apron. She wears black, heavy oxfords and long black or brown stockings that are often pinned to her under­ wear. In summer she goes barefooted. In warm weather she does not wear stockings to school. In school or in the house she wears a black silk or organdy covering, usually with the ribbons hanging loose; at preaching she wears a white organ­ dy covering like her mother’s. When she goes outside she takes off her covering and ties on a head-scarf. It is always plain, but often brightly colored silk or nylon. For special occasions she wears a bonnet instead of a scarf. OLDER GIRLS: Their dress is of the same basic pattern except that it opens down the front instead of the back and there are no buttons on It, only pins. It usually has a plain round neck or a Peter-Pan collar. In Stoneyrun only half aprons are worn. Black or white head coverings are worn to school, but white coverings are still worn for preaching. vJlnter wraps consist of a short black coat with hocks and eyes or pins to keep it closed. If the weather le bad, heavy overshoes are worn. LATE ADOLESCENCE (16 and over, girls who have finished the 8th grade): These girls dress exactly like their mothers ex­ cept that they wear black coverings for most occasions. Often the ribbon has not been cut, but hangs in a U down their b$&k. They wear nylon stockings when they are dressed up, with babydoll shoes. They like to wear bright colored dresses and pretty, bright head scarfs instead of bonnets. Their dresses R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. 11 ,. AHZSH GIRLS’ CLOTHES Stoneyrun Church District (eont„) have collars and well-fitted bodices. Their coats are usu­ ally pinned shut with a fancy pin. Some of them use perfume and some set the front of their hair to make it wave nicely* They wear their hair braided around their head until they are niarrl ed« R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Hi A - vw\iA Cl VO Ovr\<2.n Ma.tw.TC ftm\2>V\ XJo’ me.vN koWxTe, louc*1^ V\«AiAvwcU ewvscV <X,^ro»> A ytw<,V\ G v*-V wVskTt to^®<’xv'^ ptvtuyo*1* *^^pC O \tie.r A >r\vs\\ G *v1 t\(X(b. \dOvnv\C.\" >06r»\ C>LaA*2>t cLa At\a.^Ve‘J Yrovvi: )0^r, ’Roio.vx'^M. ^ Av^islv^ dc Aw^eWj "H e^v^r*i, L^W’ R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. cktlJ i apt'QVN - 11'/ - Baste pieces in Ami sW U om an\s Dress b o cl\c e b cxc W UJCMst b<Xnal “ "*1 t i i S tft \rt Hex 0 u t V\t\e o^- a^TO-n doMeii R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. duch DRAWINGS OF PEOPLE The following drawings were made by the children in the five rural schools of Sweetwater township and by children In one of the rural schools In the center of the central Ohio A m i s h community. for me, at my request, They were drawn after they had drawn a picture of a farm. Each child was given a sheet of manllla drawing paper, nine-by-twelve Inches; a pencil without an eraser; and a box of eight crayons. Many children u sed their own erasers and some supplemented the eight colors w ith their own crayons. The following pictures have been reduced in size but have not been cropped. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . the man turns out to he Ho~ man. Under the Christeas tree are presents for ftoaaiw the picture was drawn in Karen. Honan 6 years Grade X riOns nan ha® pipe), the a *enofce the noon Is in shy.w °A. dog and two men ’;Ofi8 6 years Grads X R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. This Amishman is dressed in black trousers and suspen­ ders. He has a red shirt and a yellow straw hat. Robert 10 years Grade 5 "Here I've drawn an Amishman. I d i d n ’t mean to draw an Amishman. He just turned into one." This was her fourth attempt at drawing a person. Sarah Age 14 Grade 7 Amish M e n R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. I The child ??ho drew thl® Anish girl i® just ol d enough to start rearing adult dresses# H o t t c * hfy& c a r e f u l l y she haa drawn in the pins that fasten the front of the drees* lipr Awalsh Girl Ananda » years (3rads 3 vuige airplane ©pouts flan©# The girl with short curled nair has a decorated bloua© a n d t r i cked shirt* The fingernail® of both the b o y a n d tn© t a i n t e d red- Worldly Children Verba 0 year® Gr a d e 4 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. This d r a w i n g was signed "Kiss Lucy D. Mast." in fancy script. The c h i l d r e n are d r e s s e d in purple, yellow, orange, and blue. This same c h i l d d r e w a picture of a house s h o w i n g her b e d and the door to her bedroom. 'SMS Lucy 11 years Grade 6 The c h i l d r e n in this d r a w ­ ing are d r e s s e d in orange, red, purple, and brown. They repre­ sent specific people, scho o l ­ mates of R o b e r t ’s. Th e y are "running." Robert 11 years Grade A Amish Youth R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. D I F F E R E N T I A L APPLI C A T I O N OF THE O R D N U N G TO V A R I O U S C H U R C H M E M B E R S o r d n u n g fully enf o r c e d landed, married specific eco n o m i c relaxation "specialist'1 general ec o n o m i c relaxation landless, married t e mporarily outside the community ge n e r a l relaxation general re l a x a t i o n I ordnung — in force r eti r e d unmarried BAPTISM adole 3cents "General r elaxation" signifies the m o d i f i c a t i o n of the ordnungo In all cases the m o d i f i c a t i o n Is v e r y slight. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. ^ ------ c/ / C >reo-c-'r'cr_. \aY\ CK K esis t a t e o to I n n o v a t i o n i’-.ere is an iner-GUoin^, * osistanc^ to i.X'j^LCV a t i Oil XX'Gili y ■-.X*i^ ~•■--■j.",y vU .. O ..l..UGX" • rt.c.herence to txie orcinuii.^ doci-Ga,;...- s f r o m tiie OGnoOX' ■ / '.j Ui i - cri^iiCr^y • R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - Ov^i V 5 v>Ae L A J TVve. c V v x t c.V» cxrvol \ 3ev^ on < i x.'ts T \r\e re y o r e c o n \r o \ “t V t e c f \ / L l c t h o d s o f SocL-'ii C o n t r o l R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 127 - ho c e T e m o n iiat a 5nTe.»-ex.eti ah COX«'^>r"J-n / Ceremonial Interaction With Other Religious Communities R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 123 - £tr\cj|jsW hCtc^WbofJ ArrdsV. other than Old Otieir D isTant cW«.rcH district ttei^bbormc^ church district H om e SH ch arch d istr ic t CH PH SW. SW SW SH SW Visiting Pattern of One Old Order Amlsii Family October 13 to November 13 S - sibling P - parent C - cousin 'fl - wife H - husband more than 5 visits 2 - 5 O visits 1 visit SW - sibling of wife Only visits between home of "host* and home of another family are indicated. Other guests that may be at the visited home are not indicated. This is an atypical pattern in that the host family was a minister's family and during much of this period I was living with the family. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 129 - £ relish n e A a h b o rs sVi olhsi* tnCLii Old Order D\Shan't cKu.rch district Hei q K b o r irta chu r c h district Horn £ chu.rch di strict Guests at a Single Gathering July 1 S P C N - sibling parent cousin nephew or niece W - wife H - husband SW - sibling of wife R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 130 - CIRCULATION OP THE HERALD OCTOBER 1958 Total 7,192 Ohio 3,210 Indiana 1,326 Pennsylvania 1 ,224 Iowa 518 Illinois 266 Virginia 146 Kansas 130 Delaware 112 Maryland 94 Michigan 90 Oklahoma 60 Oregon 50 New York** 45 Missouri 39 Siseonsln 50 Tennessee 23 Florida 18 All Other States 26 Ontario 40 * Large Conservative Ami ah Community and small Acrt'sh Community R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission of the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . - 131 - ANALYSIS OF THE HERALD Scribe columns from central Ohio August 3. 1953-July 27* 1954 Topic Frequency Visiting 55 Church Where meeting Special services Secondary church activity Visiting clergy 71.6 Space (percent) 45.2 17 66.7 39.3 24.2 23.4 8.6 3*5 2.5 2.4 Births, weddings, deaths and funerals 62.5 12.5 Agriculture, economics 73.4 12.3 Health, illness, accidents 57*5 11.7 Travel out of state 45<>9 11.5 Weather 71.2 5.5 All the columns (articles) written by scribes In the area of the central Ohio Amish community were analyzed for the period of one year. There were 3 6 3 articles with a total of 15741 lines. In the chart above the major topics reported are listed by frequency (the percentage of articles In which they were mentioned) and by the space de­ voted to each topic (the percentage of lines). The total space comes to more than 100 percent be­ cause some items were classified under more than one topic. For example, "Pre. Menno had the anfang at the Abe Stutzman church while in Pa. for the wedding." This would classify as visiting clergy, out of state travel, and wedding. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 132 - A TYPICAL HERALD COLUMN Centrevllie, Mich. July 2 - Nice hay weather at present. The wheat is turning fast. Some will start cutting wheat this week. Church was well attended at David P. Millers. Simon Millers, Emma, Ada and Katie Borkholder of Nappanee also attended. Church is to he at Jake Bontragers July 15th. Allen M. Bontrager from Ohio returned to his duties in the hospital, after visiting his cousins, aunts and uncles here in Mich. Mr. and Mrs. Eli Bontrager are still in the hospital. Heard both have ribs broken, and she has her collarbone broken, also cuts and bruises. That*s what they found so far. Roman Millers are blessed with a little dish washer, Rosanna. Ruby W. Miller Is working for them. The young folks had supper and singing at the David P. Miller home. Miss Emma Schmucker and Betty Miller spent Saturday afternoon in Nappanee. Betty Miller. Herald, July 5* 1956, p. 7- R eprod u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. FOR SALE— N ew P erfection oil ' ranges, all m odels in black coior. Can ship anyw here. K eim Stdves, B ox 76, Mt. H ope, O hio. 32tf IFOR SA LE— Jam es hand w ash-l I ers, com plete w ith wringer, | $34.50, plus 3% sales ta x in Ohio, I i F.O.B. Mt. Eaton; Scottd el H usky! corn shellers and m ixers; B r ig g s1 '& Stratton en gine repairs and service, S erv el kerosene refriger­ ators. S ch affter Bros., Mt. Eaton, Ohio. ' 15tf Women 9a fo r A m ish Black-Kid Hi S tin e N E W BORN B A B IE S Stack Patent U otfacr Soft Soto S izes 4 to 9 B. D and EEE w idths. $2.50 FOR THE HOSTETLERSTUTZM AN BOOK, or 5 for $11 : w h ile th ey last. T hey m ust be m oved from bindery to m ake room. L. A. M iller, Arthur, Illinois. 37 tf FOR SA LE— The letters of the A m ish and M ennonite division in 1693 to 1711, price 50c. This book g iv es a true history of w h at caused the A m ish and M ennonite d ivision. C. J. Schlabach, R .l, B ox 62, M ulino, Ore._________49tf RELIGIOUS B O O K S ! Ger.-Eng. B ib les are here, both leather and IM ITATION leather binding. B uchners Concordance and D ictionary, 1148 pages. S an ­ ders G er.-Eng. P ictorial prim ers, paper bound. . Story of the G os­ pel, B ible Stories and m any other R eligious books. Germ an A lm a­ nacs are here. (S en d for free price list.) BENJ. ESH BOOK STORE Ronks, Pa. • ••» B (MvkyUal BOOKS - PERIODICALS Sizes 0 to o o k A m Sen 2 5 S. O R A N G I LAMQASra, W1G-WAM IRON TONIC A blood tonic and appetizer. I R elieves rheum atism , sinus trouble and stom ach disorders. K ept in stock at all tim es by j ANDY SCHLABACH FOR SA LE— Good sized 8 year ] old bay standard bred trotting ’ mare. A lso 5 year old bay stand7 ard bred trotting gelding, plenty of speed. B oth traffic safe, sound, top buggy broke. A lbert Beachy, R. 1, Barrs M ills, Ohio. 35-36 FOR SA LE— Top- buggy, in good . condition. Jacob A. W eaver, S ta r 1 Route, M illersburg, Ohio, ( a t ' Trail). 38-39* Typical Advertisements from the B ox 97 - Sugarcreek, O. FOR SALE^—Hand m ade buggy | harness, Tegular H eavy w eig h t or' m ade to your specification. Black ; trim, $43.50; N ick le trim or brass, j $45.00. P ostage paid. D iscount to D ealers in 3 se t lots or more. M AST H A R N E SS & REPAIR SHOP, Arthur, 111. 23tf Herald R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 13 4 - SEATING PATTERN GF VISITING AMISH FAMILIES 3rd younge s t A Fathe r A 4th youngest A 1 | | : Mother A b a b y on Ian C h i l d r e n of C sit together w i t h oldest and y o ungest c h i l d r e n alter nating C h i l d r e n of A sit t o g e t h e r w i t h old* e s t and y o u n g e s t alternating Mother B t o d d l e r on lap 3rd y o u n g e s t B Father B 4th youngest B Mother C 3rd youngest toddler C c Father c 4th youngest c Host Family "A" V i s i t i n g Families "B" "C" R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. - 13 5 - RESULTS OF THE NOVEMBER 1952 ELECTION SWEETY/ATER TOWNSHIP §TOHEYRUN & HATTERYVILLE VILLAGES For President Eisenhower Stevenson For Governor Lausohe Taft For Lieutenant Governor For Secretary of State For Auditor of State For Treasurer of State For Attorney General For U. S. Senator For Rep. to Congress For State Senator For Rep. to Gen. Assembly For County Commissioner For Prosecuting Attorney For Clerk of Court For Sheriff For County Recorder For County Treasurer For County Engineer 2 Mill School Levy FOR AGAINST Township "X T4" 1*1pjyo mmm R D 211 56 549 192 D R D R D R 97 177 75 157 77 158 85 145 63 166 66 155 58 214 65 206 75 151 103 140 60 190 104 120 81 184 76 152 95 157 101 136 106 150 87 153 329 405 241 446 235 437 252 428 206 465 210 443 177 532 187 519 214 461 259 439 234 397 338 363 250 426 251 425 276 434 287 394 263 446 297 397 128 118 524 161 D R D R D R D R P R D R D R D D R R D R D R D R D R D R D R I would estimate that at the most 100 Amigjj, voted. All hut perhaps five would have voted in the Township. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. In t h e pug*-* o f thi.- h o o k y o u lo ok h ey o io i t h e v .a lis o f l o c k e d in nu nn eri* -*. w h e r e t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t n e v e r e n te r* a n d w h e re d ru n k e n p riests a l o n e c a r r y t h e k ey * a n d h a v e ru-cess to h e l p ­ le s s a n d d e f e n s e l e s s g i r l * H o w s u b t e r r a n e a n p a s s a g e s le a d f r o m s e m i n a r i e s ,»nd p r i e s t ' s p a r ­ so n ag es to n u n n e ry b asem e n ts Fiom an c l e r i c a l s te a c h th e i r fe m a le v ictim s t h a t a p rie st c a n n o t sin — R e ce iv e s o rd in a tio n vows lay in g p r o s tr a t e in c o f f i n — M o t h e r S u p e r i o r i n s t r u c t s young n u n s w h a t th e i r re la tio n s h ip w ith p rie sts m ust b e — F o rc e d to k eep th e c o m p a n y of th r e e p riests on h e r o r d i n a t i o n n i g h t Flow p r i e s t s w e r e a d ­ m i t t e d t o B l a c k N u n n e r y flay arid n i g h t R ow s o f b a s e m e n t d u n g e o n s fo r reb ellio u - n u n s L im e p i t s in b a s e m e n t , w h e r e b o d i e s o f m u r d e r e d b a b e s a n d re b e llio u s n u n s w e re th ro w n - B e a u ti­ ful y o u n g n u n g a g g e d a n d m u rd e re d by o rd er o f t h e B i s h o p , a n d h e r b o d y c a s t in t o li m e p it b e c a u s e s h e r e f u s e d to s e rv e p rie sts -T w in b a b ie s b o m o f n u n . b a p tise d b y th e ir p rie stly fa th e r, s tra n g le d b y th e M o th e r S u p e rio r and th e i r b o d ie s c a s t in to lim e p i t — A u th o r o f th is b o o k e s c a p e s t o g i v e b i r t h t o a c h ild b e g o t t e n by a p r ie s t— M id n ig h t scream s o f o u tra g e d n u n s — T e r r i b l e d i s e a s e s o f p a p a l c l e r i c a l s — H o w o ld n u n s d is a p p e a r , a s p rie sts tire o f th e m — T h is b o o k g i v e s y o u t h e t e r r i b l e , d i s m a l r o u t i n e in t h e d a i l y l i f e o f a c l o i s t e r e d n u n . f r o m t h e r i s i n g in t h e m o r n i n g u n t i l r e t i r i n g in t h e n i g h t — L i t ­ a n i e s . c a t e c h i s m . p r a y e r s in L a t i n , s a c r a m e n t s . A v e M a r i a ’s. G l o r i a P a t r i s . m e d i t a t i o n s , c r o s s ­ in g selv es w ith h o ly w a te r , p e n a n c e s . lick in g th e cro<is on t h e floor w i t h t h e t o n g u e , d r i n k i n g t h e w a t e r in w h i c h t h e M o t h e r s u p e r i o r w a s h e d h e r fe e t, h a n g i n g b y t h e i r f e e t f r o m th e ceilin g an til a lm o s t d e a d , w e a r in g t h e t o r t u r e c a p u n til t h r o w n i n t o c o n v u l t i o n s . e t c . . e t c . . e tc . T h e m o st te r r ib l e w h ite slave re v e la tio n s e v e r w rit­ te n . D e f e n s e l e s s w o m e n e n s l a v e d to R o m a n p r i e s t s . A t l a s t l i b e r t y a n d t h e B ib le . R ead a b o u t th e a w fu l tria ls she s u f f e r e d a f t e r h e r e sc a p e f r o m th is H o u se o f D e a th — h e r trav els, le c tu re s an d n a rro w escapes fro m d e a th a t th e h a n d s o f h e r p ersecu to rs. H ow th e God o f M e rc y w ho w atch es o v e r th e sp a rro w , p ro 1948 S E R I E S T R A C T No. 27 Tract aad B o o k A d Combined Price S U M per Hundred for tins Tract M A R IA M ONK Or Secrets of tbe Black Nunnery in M ontreal Canada Revealed- A Great B o o k of Facts H A M A M C W l - ftfiy M Man Text— N o w the Spirit speaketb expressly, that in latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits and doctrines of devils. Forbidding to marry and commanding to abstain from meats. (Bible] The Original Story in F«U, Written by Herself. More T h a n T en Million Copies Printed. R o m a n Bishops have tried every w a y possible to suppress this book, and failed. N o Book Lake This in Print Tract c i r c u l a t i n g amo n g the Old A m i s h Order of C e n t r a l Ohio a d v e r t i s i n g a r e c e n t e d i t i o n of M a r i a M o n k . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. WINTER COTTONS A full grown girl” Possible Influence of mall order catalogs on Amish children’s drawing ears* Roebuck* and Company all and v.’lnter catalog* 1954* . ?37. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. A G-irl G-oing to School This child a ttending a world l y i n s t i t u t i o n is obviously a d a u g h ­ ter of the world. Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission (Asleh) Children Going to School the high school boy ®ise©& the hue* He Is walking through the fields to school* Thai bus I s n ’t the high school bus? its- the Lgrade school) bus* Those children getting on it a r e n ’t going to high school* They are just like Lavt (her brother in first grade)* At the far end of the road is a yellow blur that represents the high school bus* In th© background is a white barn with a place for the cows and horses* a gray broiler house and a red house* In the foreground is a haystack &r*d a wagon* A large wagon was ©rased because it %»ae '’not nice *” The picture was drawn the first, year the ftoneyrun children were forced to attend high school* dertrude age: 7 grade: 2 with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission - 138 - REG I TAT IOr.' ahd study program u s e d in the O n e - r o o m Schools in S w e e t w a t e r T o w n s h i p Morning Program 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 Time G1 30-8:35 30-8:45 45-8:55 5 5 - 9 :05 0 5 - 9 :15 1 5 - 9 :25 25-9:35 3 5 - 9 :45 4 5 - 9 :55 55-10:10 10 - 1 0 : 1 5 1 5 - 10:20 2 0 - 10:25 25-10:30 3 0-10:40 40 - 1 0 : 5 0 50-11:00 Opening exerc ises for a 11 g r a d e s . ♦ • • A Rd Rd A A A HA HA £d A Rd A A A IIA IIA A A Rd Rd A A A HA 3«V A A Rd A A A A WB A A Rd A A A A A V/B A ri. m A A A A s,v A m E Rd S' A A 3Y7 E Rd Rd E E A A R e c e s s a11 g r a d e s 'iV mm ± 'i E Rd E A Rd A Hxi’ mi Rs E E A Rd A HB Rd E E E Rd A HH HU E Hd E E Rd A i■» H Bk iii E E HY/t Rd E E E nut H'w E E HH E E E HBk HU E HH S Gy E E rest v/1 Gy HA E Gy HW E Y/t E Gy IIA HA Gy HvV E E tft Gy Gy HA I-IA writing, art a n d m u s i c all grades. • • • 00-11:10 10-11:15 1 5 - 1 1 :20 2 0 -11:30 02 03 G4 05 06 07 08 m U n d e r l i n e d subjects are recitation. Abbreviations G - Grade S<7 - Se a t w o r k Hv/ - H a n d w o r k Rd - Reading - Arithmetic E English Geography Gy HA He Q.1th or Agriculture H H - H e a l t h or Hi s t o r y W ri t i n g a i'j - numbers HB - n u m b e r B u i l d i n g U.7 - H umber V/ork H Bk - Hu m b e r B o o k l e t IA71 - Humb e r w r i t i n g R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 139 - RSOITATIOi, _>HD STUDY PROGRAH u s e d in the O n e - r o o m S c h o o l s in S w e e t w a t e r Township A f t e r n o o n Program Time G3 G4 G5 G6 H oon re cess all g rades. 3.7 Rd Rd Gy Gy Gy S./ RdL Rd Gy Gy Gy RdL PSt H Gy Gy Gy RdL pst H Gy Gy Gy RdL H HB PSt Gy Gy H rest HH HH Gy GoP Go in-i H H Gy HI I Go GoP h HI-I HH rece ss a 11 grades. GoP HH IIH GoP HH Gy Rd GoP H H Rd Sp Gy RdSp So Rd H H R d Gy 37/ RaS P Gy Rd IIH Rd kdS ii op Sp 3p P •££ 3;/ 3p Rd Bn HH on S'// op Sp Rd Rd Rd Bp res t ' _ S p RE. 1—1 30-12 :30 30-12 :40 40-12 :50 50- 1 :00 (DO- 1 :10 10- 1 :20 20- 1 :35 35- 1 :45 45-1: 55 55- 2 :10 10- 2 120 20-2: 30 30- 2 :37 37- 2 :45 45- 2 :55 55- 3 :05 05- 3 :15 15- 3 :30 G2 a 11 12 12 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 Gd G7 G8 I-IA SyK Gy H Gy II Gy II GyH Rd Rd HA SyH GyH GyH GyH GyH Rd Rd Rd Rd Rd Rd E E E Sp Sp Sp T~ E E Sp Sp ££ U n d e r l i n e d subjects are recitation. Abbreviations R d L - R e a ding Langu. ge sVtL - /ritten Language PSt - Picture Story Coloring Go GoP - C o l o r i n g , P a s t i n g OO S p elling Rd Re a ding IIA HH GyH E Gy H e a l t h or A griculture H i s t o r y or Health G e o g r a p h y or H istory English Geography R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 140 - SCHOOLS OF SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP 1952 - J B o e h n Nane s of School & 1. 1 1 s S.H. s M t a a s e h e ;SF r o © h t G r 0 ■7 a o n V a a 1 a G r a ra o m ir a • r L 1 a n e e y S c h o S.H. H 1 S h S c h o 0 1 o 1 !io. o f ; School, . 7 9 S 8 t *. No, of Grades, ,'8 8 h':/ No. -of Grades';!' • •4 ted 8 8 r.- No- of Class-..•...I rooms' -1 4 No. of -: , 8 •1? 23 19 28 41 F^ilt^V*12 6 10 12 20 NbV;;:Mls2i-.14 21 16 25 35 2 3 3 : / **" V H O . 'N o t 102 1 2 ':rl ' ’ sixv0 ** •♦ ♦3 • .■* '•• ... 90 : ‘V • »4»* . 2 2 0 3 Helicon. *;-of?-'■ ' teacher. *.Mannonlte -A 270 Brath® E BrethreiA & ran R it V*- . • Metho­ dist - ■v H ;- ' : . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission . One of the rural scliools in Sweetwater township All the children who attend, thie school are cousins. Their parents belong to the Stone.7run Church District of the old Order Asisli. There are two outhouses, two see— saws, and at the corner of the school house a pump* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 143 - ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY USED IN THE SWEETWATER TOWNSHIP RURAL SCHOOLS PREPARED BY THE COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION GRADE ONE R^jAD'TNCt' ARITHMETIC HEALTH SAFETY WRITING READING GRADE TWO READING SPELLING ARITHMETIC HEALTH SAFETY "Here We Go," Diagnostic Reading Readiness Book "Over the Wall," Development Reading' Readiness Book, (For immature groups only) "Skip Along," Pre-primer "Under the Sky,” End Pre-primer "Open the Door,” 3rd Pre-primer "High on a Hill,*" 4th Pre-primer "The New Day In and Day Out,” Primer "The New Round About" Pre-primer Workbook (To be used with pre-primers) Workbook for "The New Day In and Day Out" Workbook for "The New Round About" "Jolly Numbers. Primer" (Workbook for first -§• year) "Jolly Number, Book One" (Workbook for second •§■ year) "Jolly Numbers, Beginners Course" (Contains same material as above workbooks) Bushwell and Others Early "Happy Days With Our Friends" "Good Times With Our Friends" Barueh-Montgomery-Bauer * "Away We Go," Pre-primer "Happy Times," Primer (Not remembered) "In Storm and Sunshine," 1st Ready (not read) ’ Buckl ey-Whi te-Adams-S i lv ernale "Correlated Handwriting" Recorder "Here We Start" Dr. Freeman Books by O'Donnell and others "The New Down the River Road" O'Donnell add others "The New Friendly Village" O'Donnell Workbooks for the above "The New My Word Books" Book II Breed and Seals "Jolly Numbers" Book II (New Edition Buswell and Others "Three Friends" Barueh-Montgoaery-Bau» "In Town and County" Buckley-White-AdamsS iive r n a l e 'WRITING "On we Move Dr. Freeman R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 144 ELEMENTARY GRADE THREE f i E O T ---- SPELLING ARITHMETIC HEALTH SAFETY GEOGRAPHY ENGLISH WRITING GRADE FOUR READING SPELLING ARITHMETIC HEALTH SAFETY GEOGRAPHY ENGLISH HISTORY 'WRITING GRADE FIVE READING SPELLING ARITHMETIC HEALTH SAFETY GEOGRAPHY i OURSE OF STUDY, continued "The New Through the Green Gate" "The New If I Were King" Workbook for the above. 0*DonnelI and Others "The New My Word Books" Book III Breed and Seale "Living Arithmetic" Grade 3 Buswell and Others "Five -in the Family" Baruoh-MontgomeryGauer "Here and There" Buckley-White-AdamsSilvernale "Our Neighbors at Home" Smitji "English is Our Language" (Grade 3) Sterling and Others "Correlated Handwriting" Recorder "We Write Now" Dr. Freeman "Singing Wheels" Book IV 0*Donnell and Carey Companion book "The New My Word Books" Book IV Greed and Seale Workbook for above. "Living Arithmetic" Grade 4 Buswell and Others "The Girl Next Door" Baruch-MontgomeryBauer "Around the Year" Buckley-White-AdamsSilvernale "Geography of Many Lands" McConnell Workbook for the above. "English is Our Language" (Grade 4) Sterling and Others "They Made America Great" McGuire "Correlated Handwriting" Recorder "We Grow Up" Dr. Freeman "Engine Whistles" Book V 0 TDonnell and Carey Companion Book for Engine Whistles "The New My Word Books" Book V Breed and Seale "Living Arithmetic" Grade 5 Buswell and Others "You" Baruch-Montgomery-Bauer "On Land and Water" Buckley-White-AdamsSilvernale "Geography of American Peoples" McConnell R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. 4 - 145 - E L E M E N T A R Y COURSE 0? STUDY, continued G R A D E F IVE contin u e d ENGLISH " E n g l i s h Is Our L a n g u a g e " (Grade 5) S t e r l i n g and Ot h e r s HISTORY "The S t o r y of A m e r i c a n F r e e d o m " Mc G u i r e WRITING "Corr e l a t e d H a n d w r i t i n g " R e c o r d e r "Working T o g e t h e r " Dr. F r e e m a n G R A D E SI X AN D SEVER (list incomplete) READING ~ "nngine Whistles" B o o k V 0 C o n n e l l and Carey C o m p a n i o n B o o k for "Engine Whistles" SPELLING "The Hew My Word B o o k " B o o k VI B r e e d and Seale ARITHMETIC " L i v i n g A r i t h m e t i c " G r a d e 7 Bus w e l l and Ot h e r s G E N E R A L SCIENCE "Our Env i r o n m e n t , It's R e l a t i o n to Us" C a r p e n t e r - W o o d O bjective Tests, B o o k I GEOGRAPHY " G e o g r a p h y of a W o r k i n g Yforld" M c C o n n e l l "The Story of O h i o " V a n F o s s e n EuGLISH " Junior E n g l i s h in A 0 tion" (Book I) F i f t h E d i t i o n T r e s s l e r ar.d S h e l m a d i n e W o r k b o o k M a s t e r y U n i t s in E n g l i s h Grammar, S e v e n t h T e a r 'WRITING "Co r r e l a t e d H a n d w r i t i n g " R e c o r d e r Grade 7 " F in d i n g Hew Ways" Dr. F r e e m a n G R A D E EIGHT READING "Cult u r a l G r o w t h R e a d i n g - L i t e r a t u r e Series" " Ex c u r s i o n s in F a c t and F ancy" B r e w t o n and Others SPELLING "The Hew M y Word B ook" B o o k V I I I Breed ci'-'icL @sis ARITHMETIC "Living A r i t h m e t i c " Grade 8 Bu s w e l l and Ot h e r s GE N ERAL SCIENCE "Our E n v i r o n m e n t , Its R e l a t i o n to Us" C a r p e n t e r - W o o d Obje c t i v e Tests, B o o k I ENGLISH "Junior E n g l i s h in A c t i o n " (Book II) F i f t h E d i t i o n T r e s s l e r and Shelmadiaae WRITING "Correlated Handwriting" Recorder "Loo k i n g A head" Dr. F r e e m a n R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. ami ah Parochial School Photographed In late June. The weeds have not "beer; mowed as school was not. in session. Built during the summer of 1954* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 147 - PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS OF THE CENTRAL OHIO AMISH Name of School No. of Grades Enrolment Established Maple Grove 1-9 40 1945 Fountain Nook 1-8 39 1948 Pleasant View 1-8 53 1947 Beech Grove 1-8 31 1950 Cherry Ridge 1-8 33 1952 Sidling Hill 1-9 32 1954 Dublin 1-8 35 1955 Fairview 1-9 30 1955 High School Attendance enforced 1943-44 1951-52, 1954 1954-55 Oak Grove 8t 28 1955 Fountain Valley 8+- 23 1955 Frog Pond (Sam Yoder) 1-8 40 1951 Ohio Amlsh D irectory 1 9 5 6 , Vol. 1, p. 4. Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 148 - WORLD WAR I NEWS ITEM. A greeting in our Savior's name. People are all well excepting some colds. The weather is cool again. We 5re having more rain than usual this spring. Oats fields are nice and green much more barley is. being put out this spring than usual on account of the wheat falling. A few farmers think they have some wheat that will be harvested, some corn is planted. As we are living in an age of time when the gospel is preached over a wider area than ever before, but in what state of affairs the world is in? A world war, never since the time of Julius CaeBar was so large a portion of the civilized nations at war, never were such destructive weapons used to destroy life, never were the nonresistant people put to a more trying test in our country. How are we meet­ ing the great problems confronting us. Shall we weaken under the test or are we willing to put all our trust in our dear Savior? Are we willing to follow his foot steps? Our young brethren in camp were tested first let us take a lesson of their faithfulness. They sought exemption on the ground that they belonged to a church which forbids its members the bearing of arms or participating in war in any form. Now we are asked to buy Liberty Bonds the form in which the government has to carry on the war. Sorry to learn that some of the Mennonites have yielded and bought the bonds, vfhat would become of our nonresistant faith if our young brethren in camp would yield. From letters I received from brethren in camp I believe they would be willing to die for Jesus rather than betray Him. Let us profit by their example they have set us so far, and pray that God may strengthen them in the future. Many people can't understand why we d o n ’t \yant to help defend our country. Christ said render unto Caesar that which belongs to Caesar and to God that which belongs to God. Caesar stands for civil govern­ ment. Caesar protects our property for which we should willingly pay our taxes, as Christ asked us to, the money its denomination and value is estimated and made by the authorities of civil government. But our coming in this world our intellects our physical powers do not belong to Caesar. If he claims them to defend him, Christ's laws strictly forbids our yielding to such a claim. Hov; many of our brethren have went to the ballot box giving their choice who should govern our country, will the same brethren respond to the call of the men whom they helped put in office. Paul says be ye not unevenly yoked with unbelievers, are we pilgrims and strangers? or do we think we must use Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 149 - WORLD WAR I NEWS ITEM (continued). our right of citizenship at the ballot box. Christ said my kingdom is not of this world. If we claim citizenship in Christ's kingdom, can we serve two masters? Christ said ye cannot serve God and mammon. Yfe cannot have citizenship in two earthly kingdoms at one time, much less I think we can claim one in a heavenly kingdom and one in an earthly kingdom. Self defense is the first law of nature, it is often said, did Christ appeal to self defense? no, when the chief priests and captains of the temple and the elders came to him, Jesus said to Judas betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss. Christ did not defend himself but Simon Peter drew the sword smote the high priest's servant and cut off his right ear, here is an act of the first law of nature the cause seemed to Peter to demand it. Did Jesus justify it? no He showed his sympathy for humanity, healed the wounded man, and said to Peter put up thy sword into its place for all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword. He did not say should pe r ish by the sword but with it. So all who used the sword or other weapons of carnel warfare and not repented must perish and all the weapons of our war­ fare will perish with them. April 21st I attended two funerals one a mile north from us an old man nearly 80 years old, a good neighbor but never belonged to church. I took a great lesson the minister in his sermon called him brother. 0 how can we call such an one a brother, is it any wonder that the people are satisfied to live without confessing Christ I heard much of heaven in their sermons but never a mention was made of hell. They often brought forth the name of Christ, but the name of Satan was never mentioned. The same Jesus that told us about heaven told us about hell. If we fear God we need not fear Satan, as we have sown we shall reap. If people are deceived thru preaching is it any wonder they go to war with one another and call it right. I must often wonder that there is so much strife and misunderstanding in some localities among the nonresistant people I was in hopes this terrible war would b r i n g all church members closer together. A house divided against itself cannot stand. M. S. Bontreger Dodge City, Kansas, May 15» 1918 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. No. classified as % classified as No. in $ in Total Membership Service Service I-A I-AO IV-E I-A I-AO IV-E Church Total Mennonite Church 9343 8.0 13,394 52,296 31,266 9,047 10,000 4.219 3/000 1,730 1,436 1,000 3,206 75 177 220 772 3296 3113 713 671 245 200 166 135 109 70 0 0 0 5.8 6.2 9.9 7.8 6.7 5.8 6.7 9.6 9.4 10.0 4.6 0 ■ 0 0 372 245 55 6 3 32 132,313 Old Order Amish "Old" Mennonite General Conference Mennonite Mennonite Brethren Mennonite Brethren in Christ Conservative Amish Church of God in Christ Mennonite Defenseless Mennonite Krimmer Mennonite Brethren Evangelical Mennonite Brethren Old Order (Wisler) Mennonites Weaver Mennonite Staufer Mennonite Kleine Gemeinde Brethren in Christ United Zion Children Reformed Amish Christian Church of God (Mennonite) Hutterian Brethren 8.6 3854 1408 4571 23 958 1799 225 527 34 10 91 65 16 0 0 0 0 27 360 486 228 112 24 3 58 21 29 0 0 0 0 722 1978 828 260 32 187 187 17 49 64 70 0 0 0 63 41 0 0 2 56 3 0 0 1 126 11 6 3 29 MENNCNITE PARTICIPATION IN THE SELECTIVE SERVICE PROGRAM WORLD WAR II Mennonite Yearbook* 1947* p. 53* tinrub. Yn the Mame of Christ, p. 286. 39.1 14.3 2.9 29.2 57.7 31.5 73,5 13.8 5.0 54.8 48.1 14.6 0 0 0 0 46.5 3.5 93.5 10.8 60.0 26.6 15.6 31.9 36.4 4.3 16.7 9.7 76.3 1.5 93.5 10.2 34.9 15.5 36.3 58.8 26.6 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 51.8 25.9 22.2 20.0 5.5 74.5 0 0 100 0 0 100 90.6 6.2 3.1 - 151 - STOliSTRUK CHURCH UHLEZRS IK CPS Date of B i rth Informant H umber Date of Service OOA7 February 7, 1945 October 19, 1946 0QA25 March 6, 1945-' October 27, 1946 October 2, 1945 00A113 M a rch 6, 1945- October 27, 1946 December 3, 1922 OQA147 May 4, 1945 November 6, 1946 September 23, 1923 00A151 March 20, 1945 October 22, 1946 February 11, 1925 00A153 March 6, 1945 September 27, 1346 -July 17, 1921 M a r c h 22, 1923 - These m e n served In the following states: California, Colorado, Delaware, Iowa, Maryland, Nebraska, N o rth Dakota, Virginia, They worked for the following government agencies: National Park Service, Soil Conservation Service, State Mental Hospitals. They were engaged in the following work: Fire fighting, blister rust control, road and trail maintenance, fence building, tile draining, dam building w i t h power equipment, contouring, terra­ cing, tree planting, nursery work, grass seed p r o - ’ duction, farm work, cooking, work in mental hospi­ tals o Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 152 - P ROGRAM OF AN AMISH CHURCH SERVICE Service Congregation Leader Hymns foresingers Anfang singing (seated) se a ted Prayer (s i l e n t ) kneeling Scripture reading standing Minister B M a i n Sermon Scripture R e a d i n g Witnessing seated seated seated Minister C Minister C Ministers A,B,D Prayer (read) kneeling Minister C Benediction standing Minister C Hymn singing (seated) foresinger Minister A Minister A and C either bishop or preacher Minister B usually a deacon Minister D not essential, but If present is asked Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHURCH SERVICE Usual seating arrangement i Old Women Young Women v/ith Babies I | Adolescent Girls Anfang# Sermon# Scripture# ( ^ ) Preacher Other Ministers Door Men Men Men Adolescent Boys Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 164 - DAS LOBLISD 0 Gott Vater, wir loben dich, Und deine Giite pre 1 sen: Die du, o Herr, so gn&digllch. An uns neu hast bewiesen. Und hast uns Herr zusammen g ’filhrt, Uns zu ermahnen durch dein Wort, Gib uns Genad zu diesem. Oeffne den Mund# Herr, deiner Knecht, Gib ihn*n Wei she it darneben, Dass sie dein Wort m8g sprechen recht, Was dient zum frommen Leben, Und niitzlich ist zu deinem Pre is, Gib uns Hunger nach aolcher Speiss, Das ist unser Begehren. Gib unserm Herzen auch Verstand, E rleuchtung hie auf Erden, Dass dein Wort in uns werd bekannt, Dass wir fromm mBgen werden, Und leben in Gerechtlgkeit, Achten auf dein Wort allezeit, So bleibt man unbetrogen. Deln, o Herr, ist das Reich allein, Und auch die Macht zusammen, Wir loben di c h in der Gemeln, Und danken deinem Namen, Und bitten dich aus Herzens Grund, V/ollst bey uns seyn in dieser Stund, Durch Jesum Christum, A m e n . A u s b u n d , pp. 770-71, Hymn No. 131Eln Unpartellsche Lieder-Sammlung, pp. 1-2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 155 - DAS LOBLIED 0 Gott Vater 0 God Father, v;e honor Thee, And praise Thy goodness, That Thou Thyself, 0 Lord, graciously To us anew hast shown; And hast us, Lord, together led To admonish us through Thy Word; Give us grace for this. Open the mouth, Lord, of Thy servants. Give them wisdom likewise, That they Thy Word may speak truly, W h ich leads to godly living, And is useful for Thy praise; Give us hunger for such food, This is our desire. Give our hearts also understanding. Enlightenment here on earth, That Thy Word in us be known, That we may become devout And live in righteousness, Regar d i n g Thy Word at all times, Thus remains man undeceived. Thine, 0 Lord, is the kingdom alone And also the power altogether. We praise Thee in the church And thank Thy name; And entreat Thee from our heart depths, To be wi th us in this hour, Th r o u g h Jesus Christ. Amen. Believing that a translation into En g l i s h of the old h y m n would be a help in understanding and appreciation of it, several of our young brethren of a church which us e s the h y m n regularly have endeavored to be a help in this unders t a n d i n g and appreciation. Their aim has not b e e n to retain the rhythm, but to give as much as possible the sense of the words. Ed. Herold der Wahrheit (English section) July 15* 1952, pp. 43^-35. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BAPTISMS IN THE CENTRAL OHIO COMMUNITY reported in the Herald August 1953-August 1954 * 17 baptisms mention plus "some" This does not represent the actual number of individuals baptized. It represents the number of references to individuals mentioned in the H e r a l d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FREQUENCY OF FAMILY NAMES b y church district in the central Ohio Community 1953 No. of family names in church district No* of families in church district Church District No. 7 32 No. 12 8 8 24 31 No. 28 No. 11 9 9 54 43 No. 13 No. 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 59 48 35 45 36 59 No. 1 No. 2 No. 7 00 • o £3 11 54 No. 3 12 12 12 12 12 12 65 54 39 40 39 45 No. No. No. No. No. No. 13 34 No. 18 14 14 57 54 No. 27 No. 31 15 15 42 51 No. 5 No. 6 16 16 16 16 16 45 57 37 64 67 59 No. No. No. No. No. No. 17 17 17 58 47 52 No. 17 No. 22 No. 25 19 39 No. 19 16 Total No. of family names: 46 No. 9 No. 14 10 16 29 30 32 33 4 20 21 23 24 26 Total N o 0 of families: 1565 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 153 - FAMILY NAMES IN THE CENTRAL OHIO COMMUNITY b y frequency of occurrence 1953 Name Mille r Yoder Troyer Hershberger Raber Schlabach Mast Weaver Beachy (Beechy) Keim Wengerd Hochste tier (Hoste t i e r ) (Hoshstetler) Schrock Mullet Er b Coblentz Kaufman Stutzman Shetier Kline Swartzentruber Glngerich Borkholder (Burkholder) Nlsley (Nissley) Barkman Bontrager (Borntrager) Kurtz Chupp Detweiler Yutz Byler Sehmucker Bowman Kuhns Graber Zook Garber Noc, of families bearing 400 254 143 86 84 74 64 No. of church districts found in 44 33 30 29 33 33 30 29 22 30 21 19 15 14 16 17 25 20 20 18 17 15 13 13 12 11 8 8 7 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 14 10 8 11 12 9 7 6 6 7 7 3 4 3 4 4 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 61 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. FAMILY NAMES IN THE CENTRAL OHIO COMMUNITY Names borne by only one family 1953 Anderson Burkey Di9ner Fry Helmuth Lehman Otto Sommers Swartz Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 150 - WEDDINGS IN THE CENTRAL OHIO COMMUNITY reported in the Herald August 1953-August 1954 ▼ 22 weddings reported* plus "several weddings on thanksgiving" and "weddings too numerous to mention" This does not represent the actual number of couples married. It represents the number of references to marriages in the H e r a l d . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - c _a/ "L u ~0 £ d i- ir o0 0 131 - ■— n o i C(r 3 o £ a;£ C D >00 ^ V <oCj 2 .v^S^-CQ- 1 * u. q; c ac iO £ £ cr ?tr> J1 7" £ £ 6 */) cr £ > aJ 0/ c <y v <D c C £ "d La» a* </) > -o o <^s cn c c t 5 -a QJ d £ (V cr C £ Of a/ cr C £ q; £ 0 3 c o cr c d o (V £> '-n i(V 'T *-J ~3 u ti a; /) <v a> £ O c: a> £ £ a; £ j-j - C T~* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 153 TWILIGHT MEDITATIONS Eli J. Bontreger I*m eighty-eight years old today And still a traveler on the way From time unto eternity The Lord has been real good to me. He brought me through some wondrous days, And led me with sustaining grace, I cannot thank Him as I should, C a n ’t thank Him as I wish I could. Was brought up on a Christian way, Was taught w h a t ’s right, and how to pray. I longed to lead a godly life, But flesh and spirit had a strife. And flesh too oft the v i c t ’ry won. My best intentions were undone. 0 wretched boy that I was then, My good intentions failed again. And so has been my entire life, My flesh has been too much alive, And when I thought it was subdued It showed itself with strength renewed. So here I am quite old a man, Have labored much in my l i f e ’s span, Find nothing good about myself As I am "laid upon the shelf." My hope is now for eternal bliss And life beyond the grave is this, That Christ has died and bled for me And suffered death to make me free. My sins were on my Savior thrown, He carried them, though not His own, Hung on the cross and suffered pain To make me free from guilt again. 1 now regret xyith bitter tears Where I have failed In all these years, And now rely upon His grace And hope to meet him face to face• Had Christ not come and died for me, Where then would this poor servant be? All who repent, on grace rely, Will see their Saviour, by and by. January 19* 1956 Ol.-‘ v -1 I , 5''. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 10 4 - HYMNS READ AT OLD ORDER AMISH FUNERALS Mentioned in the Herald* No. No. No. No. 357 358 390 437 page references to the Ausbund "Achi was 1st d o c h unser Leb*n?" Lledersammlung pt. 173 2 Herzlieh Tut m ich v erlangen Lieder sammlung p. 317 2 Alle Menschen nrflssen Sterben Lie de r sammlung p. 196 6 Nun Gute nachts, ihr Liebsten mein 3 Freu dich sehr, 0 meine Seele (Frie dich sein 0 heine Seele) 3 Mine lebesfoden lauft zu ende (Mein Lebens Fauden Lauft zum Ende) 2 Wir weis ve nahe mir mein ende (Vir veis vie nohe mir mein ende) Welt Hinweg Von menschen hilf schient aus zie sein so stillet Gottes hilfe ein Veit hinvergt ich bin dien neede Aensneals spazeart ich bean un hare On Jordan*s Stormy Banks I stand R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission. - 165 - FUNERAL TEXTS AND SCRIPTURE READING Mentioned In Obituaries in the Herald John 5:19-31 John 5:24 John 5:24-30 John 14 John 20 John 21 Romo 5:1-10 I Cor. 15 I Cor. 15:25-45 I Cor. 15:35-58 II Cor. 1-4 II Cor. 5 I Thess. 4 I These. 4:13-18 I Tim. 4:7 I Tim. 4:6-8 R e v . 7:9 Rev. 14 R e v . 20 Rev. 21:1-9 Rev. 21:1-18 Rev o 21 Rev. 22 Job 4:19 Ps. 9 Ps. 29 Ps. 39:5-9 Ps. 90 Ps. 103 Ps. 104 Amos 4:12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 166 - U Vl't/moncLau rn cx^ 3° Tue Sclau SuiadaLi Vr»a^ 3 5u~n- lO ecin eJsd ai SuncJ-ai^ tYia.«^ 15 hna.^ U ma SaTu.r d Sixnfcla^ kviad IS Sunday '/ mai| 15 vancicxu 5tLmcj.ac| rn 8 A<&cen» iOV-> v/OvA-mcla^ y Vna^ 22. 19 u eclv\esda^ mcaj 18 Ascen sior\ 5 Ulnd ay ITVo.i-| 15 COMMUNION 1955 Central Ohio Community May 6-May 30 No. t 1 . 15 . h n T V t i f 5. Church Lines State Roads County Lines ___ 1J .... JL...... . . 1 Compiled from the Herald Absence of a date does not necessarily mean absence of communion* R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. - 167 - STQNEYRUN COMMUNION Participating ministers October 27» 1952 n m 1 Bishop Preacher L ]Deacon Church Lines State Roads County Lines R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Joseph# 3 1/2 years# Ma» Sara* 6* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Mary, 7 years Rubin, 18 months Paul, 3 years Menno, 8 years Ivan, 9 years Susan, 14 years R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Adln, 6 years Rubin, 4 years Mathew, 2 l/2 years Mosie, 5 years R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Rubin* 4 years Dianna* 9 years Ada, 6 years* Miriam* 11* Edna* 4, Mary, 7 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Four Amish Sisters Ada 11 years, Marie 9, Susan 13» Gertrude 7 The costumes of the little girls and older girls are different. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Leona# age IX years and her brothers Mosle, 5 years? Henry# 2 1/2; Paulie# 4 Mose# 5 years; Ernest, 8; Susie# 10 R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Saros Amish brothers play with a new duckling Mathew, 2 years; David, 10 months; Eubin, 4 y e a r s . R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission. Three brothers playing in their sand box David 6 years, James 5, Ivan 4 Most Amlsh farms have a sand box for the children. The usual place for It 1 b under the grape arbor. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Amlsh boys wrestling Adin, 4 years* Rubin, 18 months. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Sunday Playmates John# 11 yearSj Mose» 10; Ivan# 9? Menno# 8; Abraham# 7; M i n # 8; Ernest# 8* Five brothers and two cousins spend Sunday together while their parents and the little children spend Sunday with a family in the neighboring church district. The girls of corresponding age spend the day at a differ­ ent farm. The adolescent children went with their parents but formed a separate group. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Amish boys playing "Revival'5 Mosie age 5 years, preaohlng, Paul age 4, sing­ ing, Paul and Henry age 2 1/2, listening. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. Amish father and daughter haying Pausing for a drink of water before returning to the fields R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. An AmlQla mother dre&Bizsg her son R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission. APPENDIX X Courtship Behavior Attitudes T o w a r d Se x Xarriaga Obtainable from the author. R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.