Sustainable Water Resources Management
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-018-0234-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The development of a managed aquifer recharge project with recycled
water for Chihuahua, Mexico
Adriana Palma Nava1 · Fernando J. González Villarreal2 · Angélica Mendoza Mata3
Received: 29 March 2017 / Accepted: 9 February 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is an open access publication
Abstract
The groundwater supply of the city of Chihuahua, Mexico, is currently unsustainable: demand exceeds replenishment in this
area of relatively low precipitation and periodic droughts. The Chihuahua basin hydrologic analysis reflects only two areas of
opportunity to increase water supply: water reuse and managed aquifer recharge with treated wastewater. This paper presents
the results of project studies carried out by the Institute of Engineering of the UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autónoma
de México—National Autonomous University of Mexico) to define the best method for managed aquifer recharge (MAR)
with treated wastewater and to identify suitable locations. The work was conducted in accordance with the Mexican guidelines for aquifer recharge with treated wastewater (NOM-014; CONAGUA NOM-014-Requisitos para la recarga artificial
de acuíferos con agua residual tratada, 2007) and includes geophysical surveys and unsaturated zone modeling to design
a pilot test for intermittent infiltration which will subsequently inform the feasibility and design of a large scale system to
recharge 25 Mm3/year.
Keywords Aquifer recharge · Groundwater · Modelling · Water quality · Pilot test · Monitoring
Current situation
The city of Chihuahua is located in northern Mexico at an
elevation of 1500 m above sea level with a population of
930,000, which is growing at a rate of more than 2%. Mean
annual rainfall is 300 mm which falls mostly in July–September and there is a long dry winter with an average of
only 28 mm falling from December through May. The main
source of water supply for the city of Chihuahua currently is
groundwater in the “Chihuahua-Sacramento”, “TabalaopaAldama” and “Sauz-Encinillas” aquifers. Rural domestic and urban water demands are met through a series of
pumping wells that on average extract 118 Mm3 annually;
surface water supply is insignificant. In addition, 176 Mm3/
* Adriana Palma Nava
APalmaN@iingen.unam.mx
1
Coordinadora del Grupo de Análisis de Recarga Artificial de
Acuíferos de la Red del Agua UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
2
Coordinador Técnico de la Red del Agua de la Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) e Investigador del
Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
3
Colaboradora del Instituto de Ingeniería, UNAM,
Mexico City, Mexico
year of groundwater are extracted for agricultural irrigation
purposes.
The estimated urban water consumption of the system
is 69 Mm3/year (2000 lps) after an estimated 49 Mm3/year
(41% of the total supply) is lost from the urban water system due to leaks. It is estimated that 9 Mm3 of the leaked
water is lost due to evaporation, 22 Mm3 returns to the sewer
system and 18 Mm3 becomes unintentional recharge to the
Chihuahua-Sacramento aquifer (Fig. 1).
Treated wastewater (Fig. 1) amounts to 72 Mm3/year
or 2283 l/s. Wastewater is treated at 7 wastewater treatment plants (WWTP): The “South” plant is the one with
the highest annual volumes, averaging 54 Mm3 (1712 l/s);
the “North” WWTP follows with 13 Mm3 (412 l/s) and the
remaining 5 Mm3 (159 l/s) are treated by five more plants
(see Table 1). Wastewater is treated to secondary standard
using an activated sludge process to remove settleable solids,
and anaerobic digestion of sludge, diffusion of air with fine
bubble size with membrane diffusers and anaerobic treatment of primary sludge in two stages.
35 Mm3 of treated wastewater is currently used for irrigating 3100 ha of open space located mainly along the
riverbanks of the Chuvíscar River (an application rate of
1.13 m/year), and 7 Mm3 are used for watering city parks
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Fig. 1 Water balance in the city
of Chihuahua (Mm3/year)
Table 1 Potential availability of water for aquifer recharge
Waste water
Mm3/year
WWTP volume Water allocation Mm3/year
Mm3/year
Water without
allocation Mm3/
year
72
North
South
Others
6
19
5
30
13
54
5
7 reuse
35 irrigation
–
Potential
and gardens. Finally, 30 Mm3 of treated wastewater remain
unallocated for potential future managed aquifer recharge
to help supplement city water supply. Actually, this water is
discharged to the river.
The Chihuahua basin hydrologic analysis suggests
that while water supply leakage is a major issue, and this
increases costs of water supply and sewage treatment, it
would take a long time to fix and only 9 Mm3/year is really
lost from the system if water can be fully recycled (Fig. 1).
Of the two non-exclusive areas of opportunity identified
to increase water reserves: water reuse and managed aquifer recharge with treated waste water (Dillon et al. 2010),
managed aquifer recharge was considered to present
improved flexibility for future water supplies. However,
there would need to be assurances that this could be done
safely, sustainably and economically.
13
Hence UNAM was asked to assist in evaluating where
this could be done and to design a pilot project to demonstrate that this would be safe. The work plan was to
follow Mexican standards NOM-014 (CONAGUA 2007)
“Requirements for the artificial recharge of aquifers with
treated waste water”.
Work has advanced through the initial stages of that
plan and sites have been identified, one of them has been
characterized using geophysics. A pilot plant was designed,
unsaturated zone modelling performed to predict its hydraulic and solute transport behavior, and operational approval
is awaited for a 6 months intermittent infiltration trial with
monitoring to evaluate performance and inform development
of a full scale recharge facility.
The NOM‑14 procedure for developing MAR
projects using treated wastewater
Mexican standards, called norms, which regulate the development of managed aquifer recharge projects are known as
NOM-014 (CONAGUA 2007) “Requirements for the artificial recharge of aquifers with treated waste water”. These
are part of a wider set of norms that apply to public water
supplies and wastewater treatment that are also relevant
to establishing a MAR project. The requirements outlined
in norm NOM-014 determine activities that are necessary
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to establish a MAR project. These can be summarized as
follows:
1. Collating available information and if necessary performing minimal basic studies.
2. Measuring the quality of the treated wastewater.
3. Undertaking a “Pilot” project of recharge in situ.
4. Perform hydrogeochemical analysis.
5. Use of numerical models of flow and transport to predict
changes in head and the fate of constituents of recharged
water.
6. Meeting the maximum permitted limits of recharge
water that CONAGUA allows for parameters that are
not regulated by the potable water standards (NOM-127SSA1-1994 1994).
7. Performing any epidemiology studies that CONAGUA
may require once the trial results have been reported
8. Respecting minimum distances and residence times
between recharge facilities and all production wells.
9. Undertaking of monitoring of hydraulic head, and water
quantities and quality during the operation of the project.
Siting of recharge facilities
To meet the project objectives, several potential managed
aquifer recharge locations were studied. Important characteristics making these locations suitable for MAR include
their proximity to the recharge water source and availability
of land.
The potential locations for managed aquifer recharge projects considered several technical aspects, including local
characteristics (Arévalo et al. 2006), economic, social, and
legal/administrative considerations, including the ability to
adhere to the NOM-014. These represent step one of the
NOM-014 process. The process favors infiltration through
the unsaturated zone as this provides a further level of treatment, equivalent to slow sand filtration, before water reaches
the aquifer. Intermittent infiltration, known as soil-aquifer
treatment (SAT) is preferred as a means of assisting with
nitrogen removal, and in re-aerating surface soils. It is also
helpful from an operating perspective because drying allows
desiccation of the biofilm that accumulates on the soil surface during ponding and interrupts the breeding cycle of
mosquitos. Hence, the hydraulic conductivity of the unsaturated zone is a consideration for site selection.
The result of these preliminary analyses demonstrated
two favorable potential locations for MAR, including the
wastewater discharge area of the “North” Waste Water
Treatment Plant (NWWTP) in the river Sacramento, and
the area bordering the “South” WWTP (SWWTP), located
approximately 1 km from the Chuvíscar River. Hydrogeological characteristics that make these areas favorable for
MAR include that the aquifers are unconfined and dominated by alluvial and fluvial deposits of varied pore-size
distribution (high permeability). The water table was also
found to be deep. Figure 2 shows the two prospective areas
within which treatment facilities could be located.
In accordance with the potential availability of water
as presented in Table 1, for the NWWTP, it is proposed
to construct water diversions on the river bed to facilitate
the infiltration of the 190 l/s in the first 2 kms of the river.
This will increase the natural recharge volume and improve
groundwater quality; hence, investigations were performed
to characterize the subsurface in this area.
Site characterization
Studies in this area included surface geophysics using vertical electrical soundings (VES) to estimate the electrical
resistivity or conductivity of the underlying lithology, topographic surveys and plotting the bathymetry of Chuvíscar
River.
The geophysical studies were conducted using 16
Schlumberger vertical electrical probes (SEVs) each have
up to 29 measurements, with a maximum spacing between
current electrodes of 1000 ms and spacing between potential electrodes of 100 ms (Hernández 2017). For each probe
a maximum of 5 splices was done, and at each station an
apparent resistivity reading was obtained (in Ohm-m). All
probes were acquired with resistivity equipment, induced
polarization and natural potential, taking into account the
availability of the land to be able to cover as much surface
area as possible (Fig. 3).
It should be noted that there is a water well supply located
a few meters from the survey. The extraction well has a discharge rate of 55 l/s, and the lithology is reported as a thin
layer of silty alluvium at least 4 ms thick, followed by a
sequence with several thick to medium horizons of gravels
with variable clay content inter-layered with sand and clay
horizons. The well has a depth of 350 ms and the depth of
its initial static water level was greater than 55 ms. A static
water level was reported at 100 ms depth at the time of the
vertical electrical surveys.
As a result of the geophysical studies carried out in the
SWWTP, it is inferred that the lithology in the first 100 m of
depth is represented mainly by alluvium, composed by layers
of gravels and sands that facilitate the infiltration process to
the aquifer. Deeper silts and clays are present, but variable
and are not expected to affect the infiltration rates from the
pilot recharge basin.
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Fig. 2 Waste water treatment plants and proposed recharge area for Chihuahua City
With the data shown in the preceding sections, a conceptual model of the study area beneath the proposed pilot
basin was generated. A schematic representation of this is
shown in Fig. 4. According to the above, the stratigraphy of
the terrain can be divided into five layers. The first two and
the fourth layers having characteristics similar to alluvium
and gravel, the third layer similar to a sandy medium, and
the fifth layer with typical features of silt.
Water quality
Water quality in the Chihuahua-Sacramento aquifer is
reported to be generally good with acceptable values of total
dissolved solids and related parameters of the NOM-127SSA1-1994 (1994) for drinking water quality. In relation to
the Tabalaopa-Aldama aquifer, the parameters are within the
norm, with the exception of one well with high iron content
and another well with nitrates in the upper limits which are
13
due to local sources of contamination; pumping has ceased
from these wells.
Regarding the water quality of the SWWTP, some of the
parameters of the treated effluent monitored are: chemical
oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD5),
total suspended solids (TSS), sediment solids (SED), fecal
coliforms, helminth, grease and oils, methylene blue active
substances (SAAM), Kjeldahl total nitrogen (NTK), total
nitrogen (N–NH3, N–NO2, N–NO3), pH, temperature, chlorine (CL2), and phosphorus (P). Some of the concentrations
recorded in December 2012 are shown in Table 2.
Further analyses are currently being performed to determine the relationship between source water quality and
NOM-14 standards to determine if further treatment is
needed before recharge. Such analyses will also allow comparisons with NOM-27 standards which need to be met at
the point of abstraction from the aquifer if the native groundwater is used as a drinking water supply. It will also allow
comparisons with native groundwater to ensure any existing
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Fig. 3 Localization of the probes and interpretation of the results in the SWWTP
non-potable uses of groundwater from production wells will
not be adversely affected by the MAR operation.
In Table 2 there are too few samples analyzed to date
(0–2) to determine the reliability of the analyses and the
consistency of the quality of treated wastewater to be used
for recharge, which are required to then evaluate whether
there is a need for further treatment. Table 2, when updated
after more monitoring with more samples and more analyses, is expected to show whether the treated wastewater
meets the requirements indicated in NOM-014, regarding
the permissible limits of contaminants not regulated by
standard (BOD ≤ 30 mg/l) and TOC ≤ 16 mg/l, in surface
recharge systems. It will also reveal which parameters
need to be removed in the vadose zone, and by what proportion to meet groundwater requirements and NOM-127.
Based on the information from the studies and the secondary treatment level of the SWWTP, MAR by means
of infiltration lagoons is proposed. The feasibility of
this approach will be further evaluated through conducting a pilot project, hydrogeochemical analysis and the
development of numerical models. During 6 months of
operation of the pilot project, water quality parameters
will be monitored, residence time will be evaluated and
the amount of water recovered will be recorded, see Fig. 5
(NRMMC, EPHC and NHMRC 2009).
Design of the pilot test
The aim of the trial with the pilot test is to recharge sufficient water over a period of 6–12 months, so that there will
be an observable breakthrough of recharge to the water
table with a noticeable piezometric response and water
quality response. This will allow a preliminary evaluation
of water quality changes during water transport through
the unsaturated zone. The design was based on considering
the basic parameters of surface soil infiltration rates and
hydraulic head. The estimated infiltration rate through the
floor of the basin when containing water by infiltrometer
studies was 0.7 m/day and the maximum depth of ponded
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Fig. 4 Conceptual geologic
model of pilot recharge site
Table 2 Available data
on selected water quality
parameters for treated effluent,
native groundwater and the
corresponding standards under
the Mexican NOM-014 and
NOM-127
13
Water quality parameter
Source water Native ground(mg/l)
water (mg/l)
Fecal coliform organisms (n/100 ml)
Chloride
Hardness (CaCO3)
Fluorides
Iron
Phosphorus
Manganese
Nitrates
Nitrites
Sodium
Total dissolved solids
Sediment solid
Total suspended solids
BOD
DOC
TOC
Sulfates
Methylene blue active substances
0
NOM-014
(mg/l)
NOM-127 (mg/l)
0
250
500
1.50
0.30
22.20
200
3
0.04
2.14
5.30
0.05
0.021
4.65
0.15
10
1
200
1000
58.89
440
0
50
23.10
89.31
30
16
72.17
0.10
400
0.50
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Fig. 5 Diagram of soil-aquifer treatment of treated wastewater (from NRMMC, EPHC, NHMRC 2009—Australian Guidelines for MAR)
water was considered to be 1 m of water. This led to a conceptual design of the test pilot site with a square pond of
100 m2 of infiltration surface area, bounded by reinforced
concrete walls. Water enters through an existing secondary channel that is derived from the main channel of the
treated effluent of the SWWTP.
The excavation depth is 1 m. It was proposed that the tank
have a free border of 0.35 m, which gives a wall of 1.35 ms.
In addition to the abovementioned, a screen of 0.35 m of
depth was added with the objective of preserving the stability of the cementing shoes (Fig. 6). Provision was made for
the ability to periodically scrape the surface of the basin as
needed to remove an anticipated bioclogging layer.
Fig. 6 Diagram of the design of the pilot test basin
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Plan for operation of the trial
Infiltration operation consists on alternating wet–dry
cycles in the lagoon to help achieve complete mineralization of the organic matter contained within the treated
wastewater and soils (Hernández et al. 2017).
The number of wetting–drying cycles and their periodicity were calculated considering that the system works with
continuous flow when wet and that the source water has been
subjected to a secondary treatment. In total, two design variables were considered during the wet–dry cycles that depend
mainly on the water flow rate and the permeability of soils.
Stages of 5 days/10 days (wet/dry) were proposed, with an
average residence time in the pond of 18 h (0.5 m divided
by infiltration rate), see Fig. 7. The pond is to be operated to
fill until 1 m depth is achieved and then drained, with rate
of fill adjusted so that the basin drains 5 days after inflow
commenced.
Maintenance of these facilities consists on the periodic
removal of deposited fine material in the infiltration lagoon,
approximately every 3 months. It is also necessary to avoid
the growth of vegetation, which typically may impede infiltration rates. It is recommended that the delivery systems
and valves are cleaned once a year with pressurized water.
Operation and monitoring of the trial
The pilot project will be operated for at least 6 months to
collect and analyze data (Fig. 8). NOM-014 requires that
all artificial recharge pilot projects include a monitoring
program that periodically (before and during the operation)
evaluates the following: (a) the quality of the recharge water;
(b) the quality of mixed recharge water-native groundwater;
and (c) the piezometric head measurements at the infiltration
pond and groundwater, for a minimum period of 6 months.
Fig. 7 Conceptual operational
schedule for one wet–dry cycle
of the pilot basin trial
13
Following the guidance in NOM-014, secondary treated
wastewater recharge water will be sampled biweekly and
the groundwater quality once a month. The water quality
samples will be analyzed in accordance with the parameters
outlined in the NOM-127-SSA1-1994 (1994), and in the
parameters of Table 3 of the normative appendix “A” of the
NOM-014, see Table 2.
Three nested monitoring wells were designed and located
based mainly on groundwater flow directions and lithology.
Well 1 is located at a distance of 1 m from the lagoon, and
it has a total depth of 30 ms, while well 2 is located at a distance of 5 ms from the infiltration pond at a depth of 60 ms.
The third well is located at a distance of 10 ms from the
infiltration pond with a total depth of 102 ms.
The instrumentation of each well allows measurement
of the parameters of interest for this study, including: water
levels, hydraulic conductivity, temperature, and pH. Additionally, it is planned to install a suction-cup lysimeter or
other form of water sampling in each monitoring location for
subsequent analysis in the laboratory to fulfill the monitoring requirements of NOM-014.
Vadose zone model of fate of water
and solutes
The study area was conceptualized with five horizontal
layers of porous media with contrasting permeability. The
vadose zone model was configured based on the geological
model derived from the geophysical survey. The flow model
considers the planned operation of the basin with (wet/dry
cycles) as described above.
The numerical flow modeling employs Richards equation
for single-phase flow (liquid phase), using a finite-difference scheme in a two-dimensional vertical slice through the
center of the basin to below the water table. Likewise, the
numerical modeling of solute transport in unsaturated media
consists of the solution of the advection–dispersion equation. Both models were developed using the public domain
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Fig. 8 Location of the working pilot test
code VS2DTI—Variably Saturated Porous Media (2D) for
Simulation of Water and Solute Transport, developed by the
U. S. Geological Survey (Healy and Ronan 1996).
The simulation produces a time series of two-dimensional
fields of simulated variables; moisture content, saturation,
pressure potential, total potential and velocity fields and solute concentration. The solute transport solution has been
run with two scenarios: conservative transport of solutes
and reactive transport (with linear sorption with and without
degradation).
The horizontal numerical discretization involves 30 columns of cells with Δx = 1 m , extending 10 m each side of
the basin. The vertical discretization uses 73 rows of cells
with Δz varying from 0.5 to 2 m depending on the proximity to the basin and to material layer boundaries. Hence, the
model has 2190 active cells.
Two types of recharge periods are defined:
a. A refill period with infiltration: corresponding to the
period that includes the filling cycle of the pilot lagoon
with a 5-day duration; and
b. A period without infiltration: corresponding to the
period comprising the drying cycle of the pilot lagoon
with a 10-day duration.
Flow simulations indicate that the porous media in the
first 40 m from the soil surface determine the rate of infiltration. In these strata, the moisture content, and hence degree
of saturation, are higher in media of lower permeability that
drain more slowly. In contrast, the low saturation reached
by the gravel layer indicates that it is able to drain water
from above more quickly. Thus, the difference in saturation
indices between the materials described reveals that the first
three strata determine the infiltration rate in the vadose zone
with relative independence to the lower two, even though
one of these has the lowest hydraulic conductivity in the profile. The wet ‘bulb’ present in the unsaturated zone, initiates
contact with the static water table level after approximately
270 days (Fig. 9).
On the other hand, in the transport simulations (Fig. 10),
a constant concentration of conservative solute in the water
infiltrated over 6 months takes approximately one and a half
years to reach the aquifer without absorption or retardation
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Fig. 9 Vadose zone model results for saturation (dimensionless)
processes. This suggests that 6 months of recharge may be too
short an operating period to gain reliable information about
contaminant migration due to the reduced rate of downward
movement that occurs when the basin is not being used. The
lack of a hydraulic driver could be wrongly interpreted as sorption or degradation in the unsaturated zone. This illustrates the
value of a good characterization of the unsaturated zone and
unsaturated zone modeling in informing experimental design
for pilot projects. Note that further consideration should be
given to particulate transport, particularly for viruses and their
analogues, as in some circumstances, such as where preferential flow paths occur, these may be more mobile than even
conservative solutes, and be consequential for health impacts.
13
Conclusions
The application of the Mexican Guidelines for aquifer
recharge with treated wastewater (NOM-014) at Chihuahua
City demonstrates a logical approach to water quality protection of an aquifer under threat of depletion. Although it is
still at an early stage of investigations, the value of a staged
approach to risk assessment, also shared with the Australian Guidelines for MAR (NRMMC, EPHC and NHMRC
2009), quickly becomes apparent. The site selection process
is logical and constrained by easily available information.
Water quality comparisons between native groundwater, the
source water for recharge, in this case secondary treated sewage effluent, and the various applicable standards in Mexico
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Fig. 10 Vadose zone model results for conservative transport simulation of total suspended solids (g/l)
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allowed an understanding of which parameters need to be
attenuated in the unsaturated zone, and by how much to meet
the requirements.
Site characterization is very important and in this case
was performed with a single production well with a geological log supported by a vertical electrical sounding geophysical survey that enabled a layered geological conceptual
model to be developed. This model allowed the intended
pilot operation to be simulated and the fate of water and
solutes to be predicted. The preliminary results suggest that
the duration of the trial will likely need to be extended to
validate the treatment capacity of the vadose zone. Once
operational data become available the model can be refined
and rerun if necessary and assist in planning of a large scale
operation.
Design of these systems pose challenges and already the
initial design which had vertical concrete perimeter walls
has been modified to allow for easier scraping of sediments
from the surface of the infiltration basin, as will be required
periodically. Soil solution sampling from significant depths
also poses challenges and, on this site, such measurements
are likely to be a key to estimating long term removal of
consequential solutes in the vadose zone.
Although it is too early to conclude that this operation
will be a success, the pathway to success has been laid and
should the vadose treatment be inadequate, the options are
to change operating arrangements such as the length of wet
and dry cycles, or enhancing the treatment of the effluent
prior to recharge. This would enable a clearer picture of
costs and benefits of a full-scale project before making such
investment.
The pilot project presented here offers an opportunity to
improve the integrated management of the resource in the
basin, and suggest opportunities elsewhere. Incrementing
groundwater storage with recycled water is a strategy of
great value, principally in arid and semi-arid areas of the
country to solve the sustainable handling of the resource
in situations of shortage and climatic change.
Managed aquifer recharge in Mexico is developing,
thanks in no small part to the existence of the Mexican
guidelines (González et al. 2015). These are enhancing
the information and knowledge to improve understanding,
design, and operation and monitoring of these types of projects. However, one limitation on progress with managed
aquifer recharge has been continuous turnover in senior personnel in water boards who are in charge of the operation
and supply of water.
13
It is needed to inform them of these published water regulations that are now 10-years-old and should by now be bedded down and regarded as normal practice. Perhaps more
efficient ways of informing senior managers are required
to capture the benefits that Mexico is now poised to obtain.
Acknowledgements The authors want to acknowledge Peter Dillon,
Timothy Parker and Alfonso Rivera for the commentaries for this paper.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativeco
mmons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
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