Boldly going where no one has gone before? An analysis of the humanist approach and values present in Thomas More’s Utopia and Star Trek the Next Generation in their quest to establish the most ideal state. By Aoife Willis MA in Comparative Literature and Cultural Studies University of Limerick Supervised by: Dr. Mariano Paz & Dr. Carrie Griffin Submitted to the University of Limerick September 2017 i Acknowledgements    I would first like to thank my supervisors, Carrie and Mariano for their support throughout this project, for lending an ear and allowing my confidence and excitement for this project to grow. Secondly, I would like to acknowledge the continuous support of Dr. Gisela Holfter throughout the year. She works tirelessly for her students and is a credit to the university. Thirdly, I would like to extend my appreciation to all the staff at the University of Limerick who I encountered throughout my undergraduate and masters studies. i Abstract Boldly going where no one has gone before? An analysis of the humanist approach and values present in Thomas More’s Utopia and Star Trek the Next Generation in their quest to establish the most ideal state. by Aoife Willis ‘While the word ‘utopia’ originated at a particular time and place, utopianism has existed in every cultural tradition. Everywhere utopianism has held out hope of a better life, and at the same time questions have been raised about both the specific improvements proposed and, in some cases, whether improvement is possible.’ (Sargent 126) With so much material already available, it is amazing that the utopian genre has not become saturated, and with the rise of the dystopian and anti-utopian text from the late 19th century some may argue that it has. There are still those however who prescribe to the positive imagination of the utopia up to the present day and have hope for the future and human kind. This continuous reinvention and re-imagination of the utopian genre, like so many literary genres, has transferred from textual form to the modern on screen method of storytelling. Conceived five hundred years apart, this project looks at two utopian texts; Thomas More’s Utopia (novel) and Star Trek: The Next Generation (television series) as examples of this varied and rich field. Aside from being utopian texts, both these texts also engage with humanist philosophy when imaging their ideal state. The aim of this project is to investigate the humanist philosophies of these texts and examine how/if the underlying philosophical and moral values that these texts are based on have changed in the centuries that separate these texts. This project found that each of these texts’ philosophies’ foundations were based on faith in human reason, justice and ethics have remained the same. Although this project found many similarities in both texts approaches to problems such as inequality, respect and the betterment of human kind, the biggest divider of these texts was the place of religion in society. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………i Abstract………………………………………………………………………..………….......ii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………....iii Author’s Declaration…………………………………………………………………….......v Chapter One: Introduction ………………………………………………...…………….....1 Chapter Two: Literature Review …………………………………………………………...4 2.1 Defining Utopia 2.2 What is Utopian 2.3 Science Fiction 2.4 Philosophy 2.4.1 Renaissance Humanism 2.4.2 Secular Humanism 2.5 Conclusion Chapter Three: Reason……………………………………………………………………..13 3.1 Money and Wealth 3.2 Religion 3.3 Conclusion iii Chapter Four: Justice ………………………………………………………………...........27 4.1 Money and Wealth 4.2 Education 4.3 Gender 4.4 Keeping Things Civil 4.5 Conclusion Chapter Five: Morals and Ethics………………………………………………..…………38 5.1 The Golden Rule 5.2 Following the Commandments 5.3 Conclusion Chapter Six: Conclusion …………………………………………………………..…….....46 6.1 Final Statement 6.2 Limitations of my own study and further study Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………………48 iv Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that this project is entirely my own work, in my own words, and that all sources used in researching it are fully acknowledged and all quotations properly identified. It has not been submitted, in whole or in part, by me or another person, for the purpose of obtaining any other credit / grade. I understand the ethical implications of my research, and this work meets the requirements of the Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee. Signed: Date: v Chapter 1 Introduction A map of the world that does not include Utopia is not worth even glancing at, for it leaves out the one country at which humanity is always landing. And when humanity lands there, it looks out, and seeing a better country, sets sail. Progress is the realization of utopias. (Oscar Wilde qtd. in Sargent, Utopianism; A Very Short Introduction 1) Long before Thomas More coined the name that defined the genre it has long been part of the human condition to imagine the perfect, most ideal state in the form of a utopia. From the Garden of Eden to Plato’s Republic these ideal states have taken on many forms and have created a rich and varied field. No two forms perhaps differ more than Thomas More’s Utopia (1516) and Gene Roddenberry’s Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987 – 1994). Both texts conceived five hundred years apart, one a novel set in the time of its creation (early 16th century), the other a futuristic television series set a further four hundred years in the future (late 24th century), all in all its almost a millennia that separates these two texts actual timeline. Both these texts appear to be very different on the surface. The aim of this project however, is to go beyond the surface appearance of these texts and dig a little deeper. This project looks at the core values of these texts which were both influenced by humanist philosophy. This project considers not only the differences between each of the texts but also, and arguably most interestingly, the commonalities between the two texts philosophies and approach to establishing a utopian society based on these values. Using a comparative approach, this project sets out to answer the following question: 1 How/has the humanist view of the ideal place changed much, or at all, in the five hundred years since More defined the utopian tradition? Chapter 2 considers past research in a literature review. This chapter concentrates on the defining elements of a utopia and humanist philosophy, whilst discussing arguments surrounding the utopian genre and science fiction as a sub-genre of it. The many varieties of humanism over the centuries are outlined. This chapter sees that it is the belief in human reason, justice, and morals and ethics which the subsequent chapters consider in their analysis of the texts. Chapter 3 first looks at the manner in which each of these texts applies reason to their ideal state. As one of the two primary concerns in each of these texts, this chapter examines the place money and wealth, and religion in the ideal state. Chapter 4 continues on from reason and argues that social justice informs the reason. A pattern emerges in this chapter with the need for money and wealth again considered, in both texts, as a negative and detrimental element of society. This chapter also considers the role education plays as a tool to establish a society based on social justice and its influence on the pursuit for gender equality. The study of gender equality in each of these texts shows not only similar values and visions of the ideal state, but also highlights one of the limitations of both these texts when fully imagining the ideal state. Finally, after considering the manner in which each text considers the role of reason and social justice in their ideal state chapter five considers the morals and ethics that lay the foundation of all these elements. This chapter argues that it is these underlying morals and ethics that informs and are the roots of the humanist view of social justice and reason in each of these texts. 2 Having examined each text from the point of view of reason, social justice, and morals and ethics, the final chapter summarises the overall findings of this project and includes final statements. The final chapter also considers the limitations of this project and possible future studies going forward. This project is aware of the vast amount of material when considering Star Trek the Next Generation, there is a total of 178 episodes that span over 7 seasons. It would be impossible to analyse each one of these episodes, due to time and space constraints, along with the fact that not all episodes are relevant to this project’s topic. This study focuses on the first season of the series. The reasons for choosing season one of the Next Generation over the Original Series are many. Primarily this was due to the liberty Gene Roddenberry was given with the Next Generation in comparison to the Original Series. Made as syndication, Roddenberry did not have to answer to network executives, rules and regulations in the same way he did in the Original Series. This gave him more liberty to explore aspects such as the role of women, and modern themes such as terrorism, that were touched upon but not fully developed in the Original Series. Although he only wrote three of the episodes aired in the first season, Roddenberry’s role as executive producer of the show ensured that his vision of the Star Trek universe and utopian society was present in each episode. It is also noted that Roddenberry’s involvement in the show was greatly reduced after the first season. It is however his utopian vision, the foundations laid by him in the Original Series and his influence as executive producer that maintained consistent values, morals and philosophy throughout the first season, which was to be his last. 3 Chapter 2 Literature Review There are many debates surrounding the utopian genre. Some of these arguments include the feasibility of these imaginary places, how serious the authors and creators are about these societies being the perfect imaginations of society, and to what extent are these texts a response to the creator’s society and time. The literature discussed in this chapter discusses some, but not all, of the arguments and debates surrounding the utopian genre. The literature presents varied opinions and shows the diverse and rich field that utopian studies is. This chapter will first look at the process of defining utopia. Secondly, this chapter will consider science fictions place in the utopian genre. Finally, as this project considers the influence of humanist philosophy on these texts, this chapter will review examine humanist philosophy and its many manifestations. 2.1 Defining Utopia A utopia or eu-topia is a good and mythological place. Northrop Frye describes utopias as myths “which presents an imaginative vision of the telos or end at which social life aims”, that: begin in an analysis of the present, the society that confronts mythmaker, and they project this analysis in time or space. The contract projects it into the past, the utopia into the future or some distant place. (Frye 323) It is “an ideal or flawless state, not only logically consistent in it structures but permitting as much freedom and happiness for its inhabitants as is possible for human life” (Frye 329). 4 When Thomas More first coined the phrase for his 1516 novel the title implied a utopia as a no place1. A poem within the text referring to Utopia, the imaginary island, as Eutopia , meaning a good or happy place resulted in the word ‘utopia’ being interpreted as a good but non-existent or imaginary place (Sargent). Although the definition of utopia has largely been agreed upon, perhaps the largest divide in regards to the defining of utopia is regarding the limitation of what it includes. This is to say that some scholars, such as Lyman Tower Sargent include both the positive and negative (anti-utopia) manifestations in his description a utopia as a ‘non-existent society described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space’ (qtd in Fitting 135), whereas Suvin argues that utopia includes only the positive utopia is his definition describing it as; The verbal construction of a particular quasi human community where socio-political institutions, norms, and individual relationships are organized according to a more perfect principle than in the author’s community… (qtd in Fitting 135) This idea of a mythological no-place creates the idea of the horizon. A utopia will be forever out of reach, a point which will be explored further in the following segment. 2.2 What is Utopian Many scholars agree that the purpose of a utopian is to reflect on one’s society in a critical way and in turn then offering a solution to these perceived undesirable elements of their world by creating their ideal imagined place. The utopian writer looks at his own society first and tries to see what, for his purposes, its significant elements are. The utopia itself shows what society would be life if those elements were fully developed. (Frye 324) Alistair Fox in relation to More’s Utopia writes; L a To e Sa ge t eaks do the le i al o igi s of the o d i Utopia is ; A Very Short I t odu tio , sa i g; The o d is ased o G eek topos ea i g pla e o he e, a d u; f o the p efi ou meaning no or not (2). 1 5 ….Utopia was conceived from the outset as being in an ambiguous relation with England: the more the two countries appear to be opposed, the more they turn out to be similar – the obvious differences paradoxically serve to underline the more significant parallels. (231) Utopianism is not simply looking what is bad and offering a solution, but has also been seen as a way of pushing towards something better. Quoting Argentinian filmmaker and theorist Fernando Birri, Eduardo Galeano said that: A utopia está lá no horizonte. Me aproximo dois passos, ela se afasta dois passos. Caminho dez passos e o horizonte corre dez passos. Por mais que eu caminhe, jamais alcançarei. Para que serve a utopia? Serve para isso: para que eu não deixe de caminhar. (Utopia lies at the horizon. When I draw nearer by two steps, it retreats two steps. If I proceed ten steps forward, it swiftly slips ten steps ahead. No matter how far I go, I can never reach it. What, then, is the purpose of utopia? It is to cause us to advance). (CONTI outra) This is a positive way of looking at the idea of the utopia always being just out of reach. Lyman Tower Sargent however draws attention to the negative side of this idea of utopia always being on the horizon using East Germany a real life example: After 1989, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe…many works were published proclaiming the end of utopia…Having experienced both National Socialism and Communism, many Germans were happy to believe that utopias would no longer threaten them. But they also believed that the end of utopia would produce a better life. Not everyone believes it did, and many, particularly in the former Eastern Germanym believe that life was better under Communism because, although poor and withour freedom, they felt, not entirely accurately but not entirely inaccurately either, that they had economic security. Thus, we see yet again the phenomenon of appearing to reach utopia, which will be found inadequate. The opponents of utopia see this process negatively; the supporters see it positively. (103) Like one man’s trash is one man’s treasure, we see here that one man’s utopia is another man’s dystopia, or at least not his ideal place. Robert Nozick addresses this concept in his novel Anarchy, State and Utopia, saying that the ‘best of all possible worlds for me will not 6 be that for you’ (298). A utopia therefore is subjective and each utopian society is perhaps as unique and individual as those who conceived them. It is also important to note that every text is open to as many interpretations as there are people in the world. 2.3 Science Fiction SF [science fiction], like culture, is a contested term. As many commentators and analysis have noted, although we all know SF when we see it, there exists no standard, generally accepted definition of it. (Roberts & Kuhn in Weldes, 8) Unlike the utopian genre, which has a strong consensus regarding what defines it, say one or two variants, there is still a debate surrounding the definition and refinement of what science fiction is (Fitting). One aspect of this debate for those attempting to refine the definition of the genre is whether science fiction should be considered a sub-genre of utopian literature or vice versa. In the Third Norton Critical Edition of Utopia George L. Hogan gives a brief introduction into ‘Utopia’s Modern Progeny’, saying; From as early as the seventeenth century, a prominent subgenre [of utopia] was the scientific utopia2...in which science and its accompanying technological advances supply the foundations of the perfect society. (285) This description of the development of the utopian genre would imply that science fiction comes from utopia and is therefore a sub-genre of the utopian genre. This description, although perhaps oversimplified, shows how intertwined the two genres are with one another. In her work Jutta Weldes describes science fiction saying; It is make-believe, and we read it, watch it, argue about it, and poach on it for fun. As everyone knows, science fiction (or SF) deals with imagined futures, alien landscapes, Loga 1627. 2 efe s to Si F a is Ba o s Ne Atla tis as the p otot pi al E glish e a ple 85 , pu lished i 7 bizarre cityscapes, sleek ships for travelling through space, improbable machines for escaping time, encounters with fantastic creatures from other worlds or our own future, and radical transformations of societies and their inhabitants. Its hallmark, writes Darko Suvin, is “an imaginative framework alternative to the author’s empirical environment” (1979: 9) that, through strategies like exploration and estrangement, helps us to transcend our mundane environment. (1) Similarly, she argues that: Many works of SF begin with, make explicit reference to, and poach on politics, including historical and contemporary events, situations and characters from world politics. The relationship between SF and world politics then, are more numerous and more complex than is generally assumed. (4) Referring to ‘make-believe’, ‘imagined futures’, ‘radical transformations of societies of their inhabitants’ and an ’imaginative framework alternative to the author’s empirical environment’, one can see a very strong link between the statement by Weldes above describing science fiction and statements made by Frye (seen in the earlier section of this chapter describing utopia) describing utopia, which included phrase such as, ‘an imaginative vision of the telos or end at which social life aims’. It would not be difficult to imagine Weldes describing utopia here, rather than science fiction. While some may describe science fiction as a sub-genre of utopia, other scholars such as Darko Suvin see utopia as a sub-genre of science fiction. In his book, Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literature Genre, Suvin describes utopia as one of the forebears of science fiction but also argues that utopia is a sub-genre of utopia, saying: Utopian fiction is the socio-political sub-genre of SF, it is social-science fiction of SF restricted to the field of socio-political relationships or to socio-political constructs understood as crucial for the destiny of people. (Suvin qtd in Baker 103) 8 As the arguments discussed show, utopia and science fiction share a lot of overlap and the debate surrounding where these two genres separate is ongoing. Utopia certainly came before science fiction and science fiction did not come directly from utopia, yet it is certainly a modern form of the utopian genre. Fitting marks the 1970s as the moment when the two genres merged in the literary form saying: The moment of convergence between the two genres occurred in the 1970s when some science fiction writers tried to find ways to imagine alternatives to their society. But if the utopia presents an alternative to the present, science fiction is a neutral form, able to express positions in opposition to or in defence of the status quo; and with it widespread success the imagined futures of contemporary science fiction rarely imply or assert a critique of the present. (150) This assessment by Fitting would seem to contradict the definitions and descriptions of science fiction by Suvin, Weldes and Hogan and shows how divided the field is when defining what science fiction is, what it does and its exact relationship with utopia. 2.4 Philosophy Philosophy plays a huge part in, and lies at the core of, each of these texts. Plato, Socrates, Aristotle, Sartre, existentialism, anthropocentrism and religious are just a small sample of the philosophers and philosophies whose influence is evident in each of these texts (Grech, Caspari, Barad). When discussing both of these texts philosophically, the reader/audience may also take into consideration rhetoric and myth theories. It would be a monumental and impossible task to discuss each of these texts from every possible angle. This study focuses on the humanist philophies that have influenced these texts. Humanism is a broad category of ethical, metaphysical, epistemological and political philosophies in which human interests, values and dignity predominate. It has an ultimate faith in humankind, believes that human beings possess the power or potentiality of solving their own problems, through reliance primarily upon reason and scientific method applied with courage and vision. (Mastin, Humanism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy) 9 The word ‘humanism’ has more than one meaning. In its broadest sense, it is an attitude of mind that is centred on mankind and human interest. Generally, it implies a desire to think for yourself; to ‘do your own thing’ ; to accept results of free inquiry, whatever they may be; and to act in accordance with those results, in the light of reason, and in cooperation with other, for the promotion of human happiness. (Smoker 4) Coined by Friedrich Niethammer at the beginning of the 19th century, humanism is a philosophy that existed, like utopia, long before the term itself existed. The term derives from the Latin ‘humanitas’ and the ‘studia humanitatis’ constituted the study of subjects such as language, literature, history and moral philosophy3. There are many varieties of humanism, which include but are not limited to:      Literary Humanism Cultural Humanism Educational Humanism Renaissance Humanism Secular Humanism The focus of this study looks at Renaissance humanism and secular humanism, as Utopia and Star Trek TNG were grounded in these particular versions, respectively. 2.4.1 Renaissance Humanism Cline links Christian humanism closely with Renaissance humanism saying, ‘This movement [Renaissance humanism] was dominated by Christian thinkers, most of whom were interested in reviving ancient humanistic ideals in conjunction with their own Christian beliefs’. Modern Christian humanism has changed and morphed since the Renaissance and although similar is rather a product of that thinking rather than an exact continuation. First published in 1516, Thomas More’s Utopia is a reflection of Renaissance literature and humanism (Olin). More’s work reflects the thinking of the time, mirroring the influence of classical philosophers and works, such as Plato, Lucian and Aristotle, as well as Renaissance philosophers such as Erasmus, who was also highly influenced by the Classics, A o e detailed a ou t of the o igi s of hu a is a e fou d i Hu a is , Chapte : The O igi s of Hu a is Ni holas Ma . 3 The Ca idge Guide to ‘e aissa e 10 and Christian thinking, ‘In one fundamental respect More and Erasmus are very much alike. That is in their insistence that correct Christian ethics were an essential part of Renaissance society’ (Jools99). The Christian influence in humanist studies grew in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth century in particular (right around the time of More’s life and publication). This was mainly due to Patrarch and Ambrogio Traversari, a Camaldolensian monk who was the first to systematically translate the Scriptures (Hamilton). Regarding More’s intentions when writing Utopia Jools99 remarks on More’s Christian influence saying; More’s underlying aim, it could be argued, was a concern for public morality and the corruption by mortals of Christian ethics. Utopia was a land where everything was done and achieved for the common good and these were Christian precepts. The main difference in Utopia is that reason is insufficient. Renaissance humanists first and foremost valued education and established schools to do so. They believed that education was key to dramatically changing human beings. ‘Humanists believed that the ‘liberal studies’ [liberal arts] were the key to true freedom, enabling individuals to reach their full potential’ (Spielvogel 224). 2.4.2 Secular Humanism ‘Who are the secular humanists? Perhaps everyone who believes in the principles of free inquiry, ethics based upon reason, and a commitment to science, democracy, and freedom. Perhaps even you.’ (Kurtz qtd. in Council for Secular Humanism) The utopia genre and humanism have both been closely linked since the eighteenth century. …the tradition of utopian fiction received a special boost from the eighteenth century onward, when humanist faith in the potential of science of human beings in general led to a widespread growth in notions that an ideal society, based on the principles of the Enlightenment, could literally be established. (Utopian Fiction 76) Today, Austin Cline argues that philosophical humanism can be anything from as little as a view on life to as much as a way of life. Cline says that the common feature in humanism is 11 ‘that it is always focused primarily on human needs and interests’ and can be divided into two predominant categories, modern humanism and Christian humanism; Modern Humanism is often described as Naturalistic, Ethical, Democratic, or Scientific Humanism each adjective emphasizing a different aspect or concern which has been the focus of humanistic efforts during the 20th century. (Cline) Modern Humanism generally relies on the scientific method when determining what does and does not exist in the world. Cline describes it as ‘democratic rather than totalitarian’ and draws attention to the divide between those humanists who describe themselves as libertarian and those who see themselves as more socialist. 2.5 Conclusion Humanist philosophy has changed and morphed with throughout the centuries. Rather than being a specific doctrine on its own, Humanism is more a general way of life that upholds;    human reason, justice and ethics. It is an optimistic attitude to life whose ultimate goal is human flourishing. doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world better for those who come after. As an ethical doctrine, it;     affirms the dignity and worth of all people and their ability to determine right and wrong purely by appeal to universal human qualities searches for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests, focuses on the human capacity for self-determination. endorses universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition.4 (Mastin, Humanism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy) It is these beliefs in human reason, justice and ethics that this project considers in the following chapters. 4 For a further description and history of Humanism see http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_humanism.html 12 Chapter 3 Reason In Utopia More drew a picture clearer and fuller than anything his friend Erasmus had produced, of a humanistic state, of a society which was inspired by the central ideals they held in common. Where Erasmus, in the Praise of Folly, had portrayed the rule of unreason, More replaced the negative signs by positive ones, turned the picture around and depicted the rule of reason. A society ordered according to reason and ruled by reasonable men: that is the principal humanistic feature of this work. (Caspari 90) Gene Rodenberry has been quoted as saying; The result was that Star Trek – in the original series – but even more powerfully in the second series [The Next Generation] is an expression of my own beliefs using my characters to act out human problems and equations. (David) As discussed, a strong belief in the integrity of human reasoning, justice, and morals and ethics are central to the basic foundations of these two texts. This chapter considers Gene Roddenberry’s Star Trek: The Next Generation’s (TNG) to and Thomas More’s Utopia’s interpretation of the humanist philosophy from the perspective of reason. Human reasoning is a central theme in each of these texts and is the first of the three core elements of humanism which these two texts shall be analysed from, (the second and third being justice, morals and ethics, respectively). More was able to establish and postulate a society based on reason alone by eliminating ‘such factors as property, inherited social position, and, within limits, revealed religion5’ (Caspari 91) and so too did Roddenberry. One of the primary methods of correcting the unreasonableness of this world by both More and Roddenberry was to address the question of money and wealth. This chapter will first examine each texts belief in human reason, considering first how money and wealth influences the natural balance of society, corrupts and is essentially the metaphorical root of, if not all, but most evil in the world. It will then 5 Revealed religion is based on revelations and is direct opposition to reason. Many world religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam are all revealed religions, where the beliefs of the church were passed to the people through the teaching of a prophet. 13 go on to consider how each of the texts approaches the place of religion as a second major influencer of both historic and modern times. 3.1 Money and Wealth ‘If we analyse the defects of human society, they can all be traced to money and pride’. (Hankins 138) Money is in essence an unreasonable thing. Money and worth are intertwined and interconnected. The question ‘how much is x worth?’ is a completely subjective term and the value of one thing can vary from one person to another. It is unreasonable to think that, as an example, €10 may be ‘worth’ as much to every person. To a child €10 can buy more sweets or treats than they could possibly finish, whereas for the parent €10 is just a percentage of that week’s grocery shop. The unreasonableness of money and what this causes is discussed at length by both More and Roddenberry. Money and the division of wealth is one of More’s and Roddenberry’s main vices with this world, and one of the most unreasonable elements of not only sixteenth century society, but also the modern era. More’s discussion addressing the question of money, wealth and private property occupies a large amount of Book One and is returned to yet again towards the end of Book Two. Here More outlines and highlights his point, that money, as already stated, is the root of, perhaps not all, but the vast majority of what is evil in the world and the main cause of society’s woes. When it was eradicated from society so too were many of these vices. As More says; What a mass of trouble was cut away by that one step! What a multitude of crimes was pulled up by the roots! Everyone knows that if money were abolished, fraud, theft, robbery, quarrels, brawls, altercations, seditions, murders, treasons, oisonings, and a whole set of crimes which are avenged but not prevented by the hangman would at once die out….Even poverty, the one condition which seems more than anything else to need money for its relief, would die away if money were entirely 14 abolished. (95) Money is held in similar sentiment in the Star Trek universe. Again, it is the reason crime, social divides, and ironically and unreasonably, the poverty that exists in More’s, Hythloday’s and Roddenberry’s time and existed in the crew of the Star Ship Enterprise’s past6. Star Trek’s critique of money and its place in society is highlighted in the final episode of the first season of Star Trek TNG, The Neutral Zone. In this episode the crew of the Enterprise come across a group of people from the late 20th century who have been cryogenically frozen. Naturally, three visitors from the past are confused and take time to come to terms with where and when they are. It is not only the technology, strange dress and being in space they must wrap their heads around, but also, and perhaps with the most difficulty, new societal developments. One of these 20th century financier citizens is Mr. Offenhouse. A financier before he was frozen, he is a particular nuisance to Captain Picard and his crew. Mr. Offenhouse a once high powered man, with a vast wealth and the power that he perceived to have come with it. Mr. Offenhouse is anxious to get in contact with his old law firm, which he thinks is still practicing, in order to get his finances in order. Irritated by Mr. Offenhouse’s behaviour, which he sees as being irrational and unreasonable Picard scolds Mr. Offenhouse saying; A lot has changed in the past three hundred years. People are no longer obsessed with the accumulation of things. We’ve eliminated hunger, want, the need for possessions. We’ve grown out of our infancy. (The Neutral Zone) In the closing scenes of the episode and entire first season, [which happens to be Roddenberry’s last season working on Star Trek], Picard goes on to explain what has replaced money, in a brief, yet insightful exchange, again with Mr. Offenhouse: 6 The name of the ship captained by Jean Luc Picard and his crew in The Next Generation 15 Mr. Offenhouse: Then what will happen to us? There is no trace of my money. My office is gone. What will I do? How will I live? Captain Picard: This is the 24th Century. Material needs no longer exist. Mr. Offenhouse: Then what’s the challenge? Captain Picard: The Challenge, Mr. Offenhouse, is to improve yourself, to enrich yourself. Enjoy it. (The Neutral Zone) The crew of the Enterprise, thanks to technology, peace and abundance, like the citizens of Utopia, live in a post scarcity world where the accumulation of wealth is no longer the main motivation in life. As Captain Picard says, the challenge is to improve and enrich yourself. This ethos is mirrored in the Utopians who spend the vast majority of their free time studying academia. The people [of Utopia] in general are easy going, cheerful, clever, and like their leisure. When they must, they can stand heavy labor, but otherwise they are not very fond of it. In intellectual pursuits, they are tireless. When they heard from us about the literature and learning of the Greeks…it was wonderful to behold how eagerly they sought to be instructed in Greek. (More 67) The Utopians’ particular interest in the Greeks is a direct reflection on Renaissance Humanism’s interest in the classics and the value placed on learning and the acquisition of knowledge as a form of bettering yourself and becoming a better human being. In both Star Trek and Utopia, the value of money is replaced by the acquisition of and is transferred to the acquisition of knowledge. Knowledge and bettering yourself is a much more reasonable goal than the acquisition of wealth and goods. There is an infinite amount of knowledge in any society or universe, it cannot be taken away from those who possess it and when it is shared, unlike money, multiplies rather than divides. The abolishment of money and wealth subsequently raises the question of private property. 16 With the abolishment of money and wealth both texts subsequently abolish the concept of private property. In both Utopia and Star Trek it is replaced by communal property. This proposal has risen many debates surrounding whether or not this is a conceptualisation of a communist model (Caspari), and/or if this model is even viable, a question which is beyond this project’s scope. Both texts value this system and have very similar models based on communal property and living. As Grech describes life on the Enterprise, the crew; 1. Possess few personal items and this is manifestly so in ST ship crews. 2. Should not dine in luxury and should do so at a common table. This is also evident with meals taken in common rooms (such as “Ten Forward” in The Next Generation) 3. Should not own or even touch silver or gold, and indeed, in the ST future, currency and money are obsolete (Star Trek Movie, “Insurrection”). 4. Live together as a family in one house, and a star ship actually comprises a variably large but ultimately limited space. This is almost mirrored in Utopia where every Utopian; 1. Posses very little and what of what they do possess, they possess the same7. 2. Dines in a communal dining hall. 3. Despises gold and precious metals and has no use for them. 4. Lives together in family homes. Each Utopian home could easily be substituted for a star ship and each home a crew members living quarters. The common appraoches to the woes of society and underlying values of each of these societies are undeniable here. Seeing these as a reasonable is grounded in the value placed on equality, a concept explored further in the following chapters. 7 All Utopians dress alike and have similar furnishing in each home. 17 Although money and wealth has been removed from the Enterprise, private property had not entirely been eliminated from the Star Trek Universe. The crew of the Enterprise such as Data has his art collection, Picard possesses fossils and antiques and Riker has his Trombone. All these possessions are private property, but instead of possessing monetary gain and wealth, they benefit their owners that reflect humanist aspect. Like the utopians interest in the Greeks each collection enriches and attributes to their owner’s knowledge and/or skill set. We see, like the Utopians the crew of Enterprise seem to spend a huge amount of their free time engaged with academia and learning, showing the continual interest and value but on learning and knowledge in humanism and the belief in the power it has in the process of creating the ideal state. In both texts money is a major concern and a huge issue to be addressed in order to construct the ideal society and ensure a society that is ruled by reason. When discussing Utopia Caspari notes that; The question immediately arise: Is not Utopia more justly famous for its revolutionary social and economic features, for its portrayal of a communistic society?...The economic organization of the island, interesting and original as it is, is not the author’s primary concern but is introduced as a means toward the solution of his central problem, the achievement of the rule of reason. (90-91) Although each of these texts does not fully elaborate on how a world without money would work, for example, Star Trek has a multitude of plot wholes throughout, not just in TNG but the entire series where trade with other species, not in the United Federation of Planets8, such as the Ferrengi9, and where the acquisition and/or designation of property10 is concerned in civilian life. As Caspari has said in the above quote, neither Utopia nor Star 8 This is an alliance formed by planets and alien species throughout the galaxy that mirrors the United Nations. 9 This is a race that appears in season one of TNG, they are a race completely opsessed with the acquisition of wealth and satirize capitalism and this obsession. 10 On the rare occasion when we do see them visit Earth you can see that there are still different types of dwellings, the question arises 'how are these properties acquired/designated without money?'. 18 Trek are meant as an exact blueprint of the ideal state. Rather, their function is to inspire its readers and viewers to examine their own society and for the creators of these imaginary societies to offer potential solutions to their own societies woes. They offer solutions whose ultimate goal is human flourishing, is about doing well and leaving the world better for those who come after and affirm the dignity and worth of all people. Humanist values dictate that everyone is seen and born as equals. By removing money and wealth from society, each of these texts eliminates one of the primary causes of inequality in society and disruptors of the natural order in life. The importance of equality is central to a humanist society and discussed further in the following chapter. 3.2 Religion Along with money and wealth, religion is one of the most debated topics in society. Questions that Star Trek and Utopia address include the place religion plays and should play in society, its power in society and its reasonableness. According to Ezugwu; Philosophical humanism opines that human beings are capable of understanding, discovering and realizing their true self as well as lead a moral, happy and healthy life through the power of human reason independent of a faith in God, the supernatural or divine. (269) Both More and Roddenberry held strong opinions and beliefs when considering religion’s place and role in their ideal societies. Although both More and Roddenberry view religion as a societal divider, it is perhaps the value each author places on religion and its role in their ideal state that differentiates these two texts the most. It is also perhaps one of the biggest developments and differentiations between the utopian societies of the More’s sixteenth century, based on Renaissance humanism and Rodenberry’s modern, secular humanism. As Smoker describes it; When applied to the revival of classical learning at the Renaissance (roughly, 13001550 AD), the word ‘humanism’ stands for passion scholarship and the arts and a broadening of cultural horizons; but the Renaissance ‘humanists’ were still 19 Christian. (Indeed, one of the best known of them, Thomas More, was canonized a Christian martyr.) (Smoker 4) Whereas, as described by Smoker in the previous chapter humanism has come to have, ‘more than one meaning. In its broadest sense, it is an attitude of mind that is centred on mankind and human interest…’ (4). Modern humanists have come to be divided on the question of religion; there are those who follow a religious humanist philosophy and those who prescribe to a secular belief. In opposition to More, Roddenberry subscribes to this ‘secular humanist’ or ‘scientific humanist’ (Smoker) philosophy. Roddenberry sees the idea of believeing in a god and/or an all powerful deity of some sort in a different light to More, seeing it as completely unreasonable, saying; I listened to the sermon [in his early teens], and I remember complete astonishment because what they were talking about were things that were just crazy. It was commuion time, where you eat this wafer and are supposed to be eating the body of Christ and drinking his blood. My first impression was, “This is a bunch of cannibals they’ve put me down among!” For some time, I puzzled over this and puzzled over why they were saying these things, because the connection between what they were saying and reality was very tenuous….I guess from that time it was clear to me that religion was largley non-sense – largley magical, superstitious things. (David 6) Although religion and revealed religion in particular goes against Roddenberry’s humanist idea of reasonable, reason was not absent when More was considering the place of religion in Utopia. As Robert P Adams states in his article, The Philosophical Unity of More’s Utopia, that in Utopia; "Reason" itself, as man's most divine gift, prompts man first of course to venerate god, but then above all to lead a joyous Epicurean life, not in selfish privacy, but actively aiding other men to equal felicity, since they are (by inference) equal in the "society of nature.” (61) In his utopia More argues that it is only reasonable that there is a God and afterlife. More argues that if man were to dismiss the idea of an afterlife then there would be no consequences for his actions on Earth, and consequently there would be no reason for he or she to act in a dignified manner, with more than just their own interests at heart. 20 Who can doubt that a man who has nothing to fear but the law, and no hope of life beyond the grave, will do anything he can to evade his country’s laws by craft or break them by violence, in order to gratify his own private greed? (More 86) Although the humanist beliefs of Star Trek seem to have more faith in mankind and human reasoning, it does not dismiss the idea of a god in its entirety. The Q entity (Encounter at Farpoint), an omnipotent being that vows to closely watch the crew throughout their voyages, watching and judging, is an entity that if encountered by a less developed species would be considered a God. Rather than being intimidated by this being and concerned by its approval, the crew of the Enterprise rather believes in a moral obligation to act in the best interest of everyone and leaves the world a better place, not just in the present, but for the next generation also. As already mentioned, the manner in which each of these texts approaches religion and its place in the world is perhaps one of the most dividing elements among them. In his interview with Roddenberry, The Humanist (Alexander David) comments on the episode Justice (season one episode seven) saying to Roddenberry; Another good example of your humanistic philosophy on the program is the episode ‘Justice’…The scantily clad love-making race, the Edo, is observed and protected by its orbiting “god,” an advanced race or being that is only dimly perceived. At the conclusion of the episode, I recall turning to my wife and commenting that that was the most anti-religious and humanistic television program I had seen in years. (David 16) This would imply that humanism is anti-religious, which More’s Utopia is not and neither is Star Trek: TNG in its entirety. When creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was not in a sense anti-religion and those who believe it in. Roddenberry simply saw it as something he believed to be unreasonable and believed that organized religion would no longer have a place in society in the 23rd century (when the Original Series was based), ‘Gene [Roddenberry] felt very strongly that all of our contemporary Earth religions would be gone by the 23rd century’ (Moore). When conceiving the ideal state, as a secular humanist, 21 Roddenberry placed his faith and trust in what he could see and measure, rather than the abstract and unprovable idea of God and heaven. Linked with agnosticism and atheism, [modern/secular] humanism contains an appeal to reason that is decidedly in contrast to religious authority or revelation. Humanism also encourages us to discover the universe as well as the nature and destiny of the human being through our own efforts. Both the appeal to reason and the impulse to discovery certainly permeates Star Trek, especially the Original Series and The Next Generation11. (Barad xiv) In the name of reason, there are several aspects of religion that Roddenberry addresses, that again appeared five hundreds earlier in Utopia. Firstly there is the question of ‘which religion?’ If there were to be a religious presence on the ship, how would that look? Before even including all the religions that would be present on the planets that make up the United Federation of Planets, Roddenberry notes the multitude of contending religions on Earth alone and the logistical nightmare it would be to accommodate them alone to begin with (David). Furthermore, if every planet the Enterprise was to visit and considering the multitude of planets members of the United Federation of Planets, which the Enterprise crew comprised of, Roddenberry stated that ‘every person on the ship would have to be a chaplain’ (David 6). More also recognizes the problems caused by the multitude of religions in society and the logistical nightmare in trying to accommodate for all of these differing beliefs and addresses these problems in his work also. The first answer to the problems caused by religion is respect. In response to the question ‘which religion?’ both texts envisage a society open to all possible religions. Each utopia is accepting of all and respectful of those who wish to believe in a deity or an equivalent. As soon as he [Utopus, the King of Utopia] gained the victory, therefore, he decreed that everyone could cultivate the religion of his choice, and strenuously proselytize This is a direct refle tio of Ge e ‘odde e s elief, as involved in the establishment of The Next Generation. 11 eato of the o igi al se ies a d ei g hea il 22 for it too, provided he did so quietly, modestly, rationally, and without bitterness toward others. If persuasion failed, no one was allowed to resort to abuse of violence. Anyone who fights wantonly about religion is punished by exile or enslavement. (More 85-86) They [the crew of the Enterprise] have their own beliefs, which are private to them, and they don’t evangelize or go around discussing them with other people. I’ve always assumed that by this time [the twenty-fourth century] there is a belief that is common to people in “Star Trek” that, yes, there is something out there. There is, perhaps something that guides our lives but we don’t know what it is and we don’t know if it is. (David 28) The most significane difference seen here is the idea that More allows for and encourages debate and discussion of religion (reflecting on the enphassis put on learning and the accumaltion of knowledge in Renaissance humanism). He most likely sees this as a way of promoting understanding and inspiring peace, as to degrade to violence as a form of persuasion is totally abhorent. Roddenberry on the other hand viewed religion as a private matter and not to be discussed at length, Rodenberry viewed religion as causing conflict in society and prescribed to the saying, ‘two things you do not discuss in a pub; politics and religion’(because they are inevatibly going to lead to an dispute), in his ideal state. Thus, in choosing a religion for the ideal state, both More and Roddenberry come to the conclusion that that in a utopian and ideal society freedom of choice and respect for others are two key components to establishing the ideal world. More however goes one step further when answering the question of ‘which religion’. As unlike Roddenberry, More’s ideal commonwealth is also centred on the foundation of there being a god. As Caspari explains; As far as dogma is concerned, the only articles of faith which Utopians are expected to believe in, on pain of losing their rights of citizenship, are that the soul is immortal, and that there are rewards and punishments after death for good and bad deeds. (Caspari 123-124) 23 The only exception he [King Utopus] made [in regards to religion and beliefs] was a solemn and strict law against any person who should sink so far below the dignity of human nature as to think that the soul perishes with the body or that the universe is ruled by mere chance rather than divine providence. (More 86) This demonstrates More’s deep belief in God and a higher power and shows that humanism in this interpretation has not always stood in direct opposition to a belief in a deity or religion; in fact it is the humanist belief in reason that solidifies the place of religion in Utopia. Even though a revealed religion does not seem reasonable, even the Utopians process in choosing a religion is a reasonable approach, ‘But gradually they [the Utopians] are coming to forsake this mixture of superstitions. And to unite in that one religion which seems more reasonable than any of the others’ (More 84), in this case Catholocism, once again highlighting More’s piousness. More even goes as far as to offer a solution and explanation for each of the differing religions we encounter in the world; Utopus laid down these rules not simply for the sake of peace [Anyone who fights wantonly about religion is punished by exile or enslavement]…but also for the sake of religion itself. …he suspected that God perhaps likes diverse and manifold forms of worship therefore deliberately inspired different people with different views. (More 86) When considering it from the point of view of reason, More’s suggestion here seems nothing but reasonable, to leave the world to be ruled by chance is utterly chaotic .When comparing these two texts with one another there is a shift from needing a god to assure human kind working towards the greater good, as to not would result in being punished in the afterlife (Utopia) towards true trust in human reasoning, where all is done for the improvement of yourself and as a result mankind (Star Trek: TNG). As it was seen with money, these are not direct blueprints to follow, but rather a suggestion to a better way of living. In both texts, it is reason that is considered first and religion second, as Caspari and Adam describe it; The picture of the ideal commonwealth on the island of Utopia, of nowhere, outlined in the second part of Utopia, might also suggest to his [Thomas More’s] fellow 24 countrymen and to the Christians of Europe some ideas which they could adopt to their advantage from a society that had solved the problems of communal life so much more successfully than they, on the basis of reason alone and without the aid of Christian Religion. (Caspari 99) The good life in Utopia is represented as achieved by man’s wisdom and energy alone, whereas the wretched conditions in Europe were the sorry accomplishment of Christians, who possessed not only the same ‘natural’ gifts as the Utopians but above all the aid of divine revelation. (Adams 65) 3.3 Conclusion As Caspari says,' A society ordered according to reason and ruled by reasonable men: that is the principal humanistic feature of this [More’s Utopia] work' (90). Reason is one of the primary driving forces in the construction of each of these societies. Human reasoning acts as a lighthouse in the darkness of this unreasonable world, saving the inhabitants of these two texts from unreasonable perils that lie in wait. Money and religion are two of these perils to be addressed in both Utopia and Star Trek TNG when imagining a society ruled by reason. Comparing both texts it is possible to see that there are many commonalities between the issues facing society today, (or the late 1980’s, when Star Trek: TNG first began to air) and the early sixteenth century. The biggest divide we see in each of these texts approach to creating the ideal state is that of religion. More sees a need for religion in what is to be an ideal society, whereas Roddenberry dismisses the idea of a deity and revealed religion, yet both creators reinforce the importance of respect towards those that do engage in such beliefs. These societies ruled by reason and humanist values are informed by More and Roddenberry’s concept of social justice, a philosophy concerned with creating a fair and equal state. The following chapter considers these texts humanist approach to social justice 25 in the pursuit of the ideal state and how this informs the idea of what is considered reasonable in each of these texts. 26 Chapter 4 Justice What kind of justice is it when a noble man or a goldsmith or a moneylender, or someone else who makes his living by doing nothing at all or something completely useless to the commonwealth, gets to live a life of luxury and grandeur, while in the meantime a laborer, a carter, a carpenter, or a farmer works so hard and so constantly that even a beast of burden could scarcely endure it? (More 94) Following reason, social justice is the second element that lies at the core of humanist values and principles, which each of these societies are influenced by. We saw in the previous chapter that reason acts as a lighthouse. In an unreasonable world reason shows the way in Utopia and Star Trek TNG. If reason is the light that shines from the house, then it is the concept of social justice that is the structure that houses that light, as it is social justice that guides and informs the citizens of Utopia and the crew of the Enterprise’s sense of reason. Social justice is the idea that everyone in society is seen and treated as equals. As Ellis outlines, the principle foundations of the humanist concept of social justice are; (a) The principle of no unjustified disadvantage. No people should be arbitrarily prevented, hindered, or otherwise disadvantaged in their quest to live as well as they can in the society in which they live. (b) The principle of no unjustified advantage. No people should arbitrarily advantage in their quest to live as well as they can in the society they live. (Ellis 27) In order to address these possible disadvantages and advantages and to ensure as equal a state as possible, both More and Roddenberry address aspects of society such as the role of money and wealth, tools to establish equality such as education and areas in which equality must be addressed such as gender. When comparing The Original Series and The Next Generation Gonzalez notes that; Both shows point to the possibility of societies free of class distinctions, as well as of ethnic and gender biases. Star Trek, the original series [and The Next Generation], indicates that Earth in the near future is based on a selfless politics and economics… (Gonzalez) Lawrence Wilde, similarly, outlines More’s interpretation of social justice, saying; 27 It seems to me that More conceives social justice as a situation in which all members of society have equal opportunity to develop their potential in a way that is compatible with the good of all. In broad terms the structural basis for social justice is present in Utopian society, with an economy that delivers abundance and sustainability, a fair distribution of goods, guaranteed work with limited hours, and total security from the threat of economic elites or market vicissitudes. (102) Establishing a society based on social justice is to strive for equality for all. Three aspects of society that each of these texts see as imperative for the removal of any disadvantages and/or advantages are, money and wealth, education, and gender, all of which this chapter will discuss. 4.1 Money and Wealth ‘…in Utopia no one is poor, there are no beggars, and though no one owns anything, everyone is rich’ (More 94) As discussed in the previous chapter, money and wealth are not just an unreasonable aspect of society but also a great social divider and cause of great social inequality. By removing money and wealth from society, each of these texts have eliminated one of the primary causes of inequality in society. Furthermore, by removing the traditional sense of money and wealth, one of the most basic forms of advantage or disadvantage a person can have in society is also removed. In Utopia and the universe of Star Trek TNG everyone is rich because both societies are based in a post scarcity society. A discussion between Mr. Offenhouse and Captain Picard in ‘The Neutral Zone’ offers an insight into the power money has in present day society and how those is possession of it have a clear and unfair advantage. Captain Picard scolds Mr. Offenhouse for worrying about his money and wealth, saying that humanity have moved on from the need of possessions and things Mr. Offenhouse corrects Captain Picard, saying; Mr. Offenhouse: You’ve got it all wrong. It’s never been about possession. It’s about power. 28 Captain Picard: Power to do what? Mr. Offenhouse: To control your life, your destiny. Captain Picard: That kind of control is an allusion. Mr. Offenhouse: Really? I’m here aren’t I? I should be dead but I’m not. (The Neutral Zone) Mr. Offenhouse may not understand the 24th century’s independence from the obsession with and need for monetary gains and possessions, but neither does Captain Picard understand the power money gave people like Mr. Offenhouse in the 20th century and the inequality it caused. The 20th century was a time when money could, and still can in the early decades of the 21st century, buy the best education, food and medicine, or in the case of Mr. Offenhouse and his fellow passengers, even prevent death. Like More, Roddenberry removed money from society as it was had negative and detrimental effects on society, and thus no place in a utopian vision. Those born with money or who managed to accumulate money had not only a distinct advantage in both the 20th century and now, but in More’s also time. As More says; What a mass of trouble was cut away by that one step! What a multitude of crimes was pulled up by the roots! Everyone knows that if money were abolished, fraud, theft, robbery, quarrels, brawls, altercations, seditions, murders, treasons, poisonings, and a whole set of crimes which are avenged but not prevented by the hangman would at once die out….Even poverty, the one condition which seems more than anything else to need money for its relief, would die away if money were entirely abolished. Baker-Smith comments on the closing pages of More’s Utopia, saying; (95) The anger which sounds in Raphael’s outburst has much in common with the earlier attack on enclosures of Book 1: but now, with his description of Utopia behind us, we are better able to seize on the point of money is the means by which a natural community is corrupted into an artificial system one controlled by the rich for their 29 own benefit. (202) Thus each of these texts draw a clear and distinct line between money and the advantage of control it gives to those in possession of it. Once money and wealth was removed from each of these societies common property was established as an alternative and better solution. The creation of common property is a key component in establishing an equal state in both Utopia and onboard the Enterprise. It has removed social classes based on wealth, and is key to establishing a society where as described by Ellis, no one person is at a disadvantage or distinct advantage. Its removal has, theoretically, made every citizen equal in the sense that no one can buy or acquire better things or opportunities. While money and wealth is an element of society that both More and Roddenberry see detrimental to society and its removal necessary to establish a fair and equal state, education is a tool to be used in the journey towards the ideal state. 4.2 Education Education is the greatest liberator mankind has ever known and the greatest force for social progress. (Gordon Brown, qtd in Smith 1) Among all the benefits that learning bestows men, there is none more excellent than this, that by the study of books we are taught in that very study to seek not praise, but utility. (More qtd in Caspari 121) Just as money can divide society in a negative way, education can be used as a positive tool to establish a unified state based on social justice and equality. Like money and wealth, education and access to it was once, and still is, a major tool in society when it comes to dividing people into social classes. Although the removal of money and wealth is perhaps the first step towards creating a fair and equal state, education and access to it is crucial in securing fair and equal opportunities for all. As already discussed, the acquisition of knowledge and the goal to better ones self has become the new form of wealth in each of 30 these utopian societies. In both Utopia and on board the Enterprise education is no longer for the privileged but is available to all. Equal access to education is not only a manner in which to ensure equal opportunity in these texts, it also reflects the great value humanists place on knowledge in the process of ensuring human happiness and being human, ‘As in Utopia, the basic aim of education is not to prepare for some specific activity or profession but to enhance the possibilities of being human,’ (Stanford Center for the Study of Language and Information), Traditionally, education is a social marker where the more and better educated a person is the more likely they are to be seen as part of the upper and richest class in society. Because money and wealth has been removed in each of these societies, there is no longer a richer class in the traditional, monetary sense. Although both texts aim to remove the metaphorical 1% neither successfully manages this. The Priesthood in Utopia are seen as the most moral holy members of society, where the crew of the Enterprise are elitist in themselves, having all graduated from the Westpoint of the 24th century, Starfleet Academy. The key difference that is proposed by both texts, in comparison to their own society, is that these privileges and riches are acquired through merit and earning them. Riches can no longer buy a better education and thus any advantage they may have had over the once poorer members of society is dissipated. Traditionally a male privilege More and Roddenberry imagine a society where education is available to all. This is not only a tool that addresses social classes but gender inequality also. [In More’s Utopia] Women are viewed as equals and are given the same educational opportunities as are men…Furthermore, More strongly believed that men and women should receive an equal education with no discrimination. (Ertugrul) 31 4.3 Gender ‘To boldly go where no one has gone before’ -Captain Picard If money and wealth corrupt and divide, education is a tool that can bring a society together again, gender inequality is then an element of society that can be addressed and improved by this. When imagining their society based on social justice, more and Roddenberry introduced some radical ideas that show how central equality has always been to humanist beliefs and how similar many of the values that lie at the core of each of these texts are. The first of these radical ideas was a woman’s place. Changing the infamous phrase from ‘to boldly go where no man has gone before,’ previously part of the opening sequence of The Original Series, to ‘to boldly go where no one has gone before’. Even before the first scene of Star Trek TNG begins to role a huge statement in terms of gender equality is made. This simple but significant change not only incorporates the idea of gender equality, but the inclusion of all species that comprises the United Federation of Planets and the crew of Enterprise. Both More and Roddenberry address this concept of inequality by putting women alongside men and in traditional male roles. The main cast of Star Trek TNG includes three female characters that have purposely been placed in three key roles on board the Enterprise. Chief Security Officer Lt. Tasha Yar and Chief Medical Officer Dr. Beverly Crusher take on traditionally male dominated roles and are strong and powerful female figures. Each of these women are in these powerful positions due to their graduation from Starfleet Academy. Unfortunately, this attempt at making a statement regarding the place of women and gender equality is somewhat undermined by the appointment of the male Klingon character Worf as Lt. Yar’s 32 replacement when she is killed before the end of the first season12 (The Skin of Evil & We’ll Always Have Paris). Commander Deanna Troi takes on the role of ships counsellor, a more traditionally female role than her other female piers. She is however given power and status with a seat on the bridge and the ear of the captain (Star Trek and Justice). In Utopia More also attempts to show women as equal to men by placing them into traditionally male roles, having them fight alongside men in battle and allowing them the possibility of joining the priesthood, the most revered members of Utopia. This is undermined however, by the fact that ‘only a widow of advanced years is ever chosen’ (More 90) and in their social relations where, ‘wives are subject to their husbands, children to their parents, and generally the younger to their elders’ (More 50), and where ‘Husbands chastise their wives…’ (More 73). Caspari makes an interesting observation regarding the humanists of the 16th century, saying, ‘The English humanists did not create a new structure of society. They largely accepted what they found and infused their ideas into the society that surrounded them,’ ( 9). The same can be said for Star Trek also where we women being placed in men’s roles, but never men in women’s. It is situations such as these scholars, such as Lyman Tower Sargent and Larry Leitch, argue that neither of these societies succeeded in establishing a truly equal society in this regard. Tower Sargent states that in Utopia, ‘Here we find a totally different concept [to that found in Plato’s Republic] of the role and status of women – no equality here’ (Sargent). Larry Leitch sums up the false idea of gender equality in Star Trek TNG saying; The 24th century of "Star Trek: The Next Generation," while generally peaceful, is a sexless, soulless, technocratic Eden, where Reason rules everything, no one raises their voice, authority is always right, and women still know their place. In this male fantasy of the ideal society, it is the "feminine" world of feelings and emotions that threaten to spin the universe out of orbit. Here, the male solutions of hierarchy, order and rigid principle are what breed success. 12 This as due to the a to s de isio to lea e the sho athe tha a pla ed sto li e 33 Both More and Roddenberry's attempts at gender equality shows that the humanist values to respect all and consider everyone equal has remained the same in the five hundred years that separate these two texts. Unfortunately, both these texts fail to establish a truly equal state. More and Roddenberry again offer the building blocks of the ideal state, a suggestive draft on the journey towards the ideal state, but, as Birri states; Utopia lies at the horizon. When I draw nearer by two steps, it retreats two steps. If I proceed ten steps forward, it swiftly slips ten steps ahead. No matter how far I go, I can never reach it. What, then, is the purpose of utopia? It is to cause us to advance 4.4 Keeping Things Civil ‘There can be no justice so long as laws are absolute. Life itself is an exercise in exception’ (Picard in Justice) Above is just some of the issues both More and Roddenberry address in order to create a society based on social justice. Once the concept of what is just and what a society based on social justice should include and/or exclude is established, the task of ensuring that those ideals are implemented and adhered to must be conceived. Because the citizens in both Utopia and Star Trek TNG understand and agree with the laws of the land and more importantly, because they are established on social justice, there is little inequality, thus there is very little conflict or need to actively enforce any rules and laws. Indeed, a chief characteristic of Utopia is the lack of laws they possess. One of the primary reasons for this, once again, is the removal of money and wealth, and the introduction of common property. As Caspari notes; …on that isolated island, all men…have been brought up so that they permit reason and goodness to prevail among themselves. In the absence of private property, very few laws are needed to make sure that “virtue is had in pryce and estimation. (Caspari 97) 34 Unlike Utopia, where More moves from one topic to another13, Star Trek does not have the same luxury of being so systematic in their approach to critiquing the woes of society and establishing their ideal society. Topics such as justice had to be interwoven with episodes and plot lines in order to be explored and discussed directly. Many of the elements of Star Trek TNG discussed in this project are not always quotable in the same manner in which More’s Utopia is, as unlike Utopia, Star Trek TNG is primarily a visual experience. The audience does not need someone to acknowledge that Lt. Tasha Yar, for example, the Chief Security Officer is a woman, they can see that for themselves. It is only when a form of conflict or differing opinions are imagined, for example when the crew of the Enterprise come in contact with other societies, do the audience see how more abstract topics such as justice and laws, that are difficult to portray visually, are dealt with and the values are held by the crew of the Enterprise portrayed. In season 1 episode 7 Star Trek does just this. In this episode, appropriately named ‘Justice’, a dispute arises between the Edo [the natives of the planet they are visiting] and the crew of the Enterprise. On the Edo's world, similar to the England More critiques in Book 1, every law is punishable by death. However, laws are only punishable when committed in one randomly selected zone at a time. Because only the mediators14 ever know which zone is designated at any one time very few are needed to enforce the law. Unlike More’s description of England however where there is ,‘a whole set of crimes which are avenged but not prevented by the hangman’ (More 95)15, this system works the Edo and results in no one breaking any laws as no one wishes to risk death. It is interesting to note the utopian presentation of this planet and society, where society again no longer has use for money and post scarcity exists. Although the law here works and deters crime, this is 13 More originally divided Book 2 into eight headings that outlined the initial topic of each section. These a e the e ui ale t of poli e o the Edo s pla et. 15 This quote is taken from Book 2 but is in direct reflection of the critiques of England found in Book 1. 14 35 obviously a fictional story line, a plot created in order to discuss the question of justice in the Star Trek universe, primarily to promote the humanist idea of adapting to situations and using ones ethics, morals and reason. There are two conflicts that the crew encounters in this episode. The first is the with the Edo, who wish to use capital punishment against Wesley Crusher when he breaks a law in one of these designated zones. The second conflict is within the crew themselves. They struggle with their own rules and morals when consider The Prime Directive when arguing for or against allowing the Edo to proceed with their laws; The Prime Directive prohibits Starfleet personnel and spacecraft from interfering in the normal development of any society, and mandates that any Starfleet vessel or crew member is expendable to prevent violation of this rule16. (Michael & Okuda qtd. in Peltz 640) The Prime Directive not only states that the crew of the all Starfleet vessels must not interfere with the internal development of alien societies, but by extension this also dictates that they must respect and adhere to the rules by which that civilisation lives by. Ultimately, The Prime Directive, as it so often is throughout the series, is over ruled by the crew who now see capital punishment as unethical. Riker’s statement, ‘When has justice been as simple a rule book?’ reflects the humanist flexible approach and ability to change and adapt to the times and situation at hand, where there is a ‘tradition of rejecting absolutes, judging every case on its merits, and above all, treating each individual as an individual’ (Smoker 40). This belief and attitude towards rules explains the continuous disregard for the Prime Directive. As it was seen in the previous chapter with religion, although both of these texts are based on humanist values and philosophies, their beliefs and philosophies are not mirrored in The exte t of hi h this ule is ofte o se ed is at ti es laugha le. Peltz s jou al a ti le On a Wagon Trai to Afgha ista : Li itatio s o Star Trek’s Pri e Directive elaborates on this. 16 36 every sense. The absoluteness of laws is one way in which both these texts differ. Where Star Trek has the Prime Directive, as discussed, the citizens of Utopia must believe in an afterlife, or risk being expelled from Utopia. 4.5 Conclusion Social justice lies at the core of humanist values, Utopia and the Star Trek Universe. Equality lies at the centre of both of these societies. Again we see money and wealth is seen as a primary reason inequality exists and when eliminated tools such as education can be employed to remove the inequality of not just social classes but gender inequality also. Ultimately, it is equality that lies at the heart of each of these texts and humanist values, equal opportunities and equal status for all. Ideas such as the removal of money and the place of women have been hailed as forward thinking and radical in regards to both these texts, yet as discussed both texts have similar ideas and tactics to create their ideal state, based on social justice and equality. So far this project has discussed the central role human reasoning and social justice play in the journey towards establishing an ideal state based on humanist values. Fairness, equality and above all the removal of any disadvantages or advantages people may have over each other must be eliminated. The following chapter discusses the ethics and morals of these texts. 37 Chapter 5 Morals and Ethics ‘The humanist view of morality is that it is simply codes of human conduct, devised by human beings for human benefit’ (Smoker 38) ‘Instruction in morality and virtue is considered just as important as the accumalation of learning.’ (More 89) Smoker uses the above quote to describe the basis of secular humanist morals and ethics, but as this chapter will explore the centrality of the wellness of human beings and the prioritisation of actions for human benefit lie at the core of not just secular humanism and also the Christian humanism in More’s Utopia. This chapter largely examines the Morals and ethics, although not completely interchangeable, are closely related. In their most basic forms both principles consider what is good and bad. Specifically, morals separate and distinguish what a person believes to be right and wrong, whereas ethics are the codes of conduct that a person or society perceive to be the correct way to live by. The common morals and ethics shared by a community’s citizens are what lay the foundations and shape society. Barad describes ethics as, ‘the systematic inquiry into human conduct designed to discover the rules that should guide our actions, as well as the good we seek in life’ (xiv). In Chapter Three, reason was seen as the light of the lighthouse, in Chapter Four, social justice was the building that supported it. In this chapter this project will show that the morals and ethics of Star Trek and Utopia are the foundations on this metaphorical lighthouse. This final chapter examining humanist doctrine examines the morals and ethics of More’s Utopia and Star Trek: TNG. As this project has developed it has deconstructed the humanist doctrine and way of life based on human reason, justice and ethics. Each society begins 38 with their morals and ethics, which establish and inform the value for social justice in each of these societies, which in turn informs human reasoning, discussed in chapter three. Together the ethical and moral basis of humanism is that it;     affirms the dignity and worth of all people and their ability to determine right and wrong purely by appeal to universal human qualities searches for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests, focuses on the human capacity for self-determination. endorses universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition. (Mastin, Humanism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy) This is achieved through two elements that lie at the core of humanism are knowledge and love.  With adequate knowledge, one is more likely to act reasonably and appropriately in any given circumstance.  With respect to love, one should willingly practice acceptance, tolerance and caring towards others, again using experience and intelligence in the process. (Hardie 27) With regards to knowledge, it permits reason to prevail. This reason is informed by the knowledge that the citizens possess. The more knowledge they possess the more moral and ethical decision they can reach. This is portrayed again in the seventh episode of season one of Star Trek TNG, ‘Justice’ where Picard explains to the Edo that capital punishment is no longer practiced within the federation, they are more advanced than the Edo – pointed out by the Edo but none the less poignant. This is further emphasized by the Edo’s belief in God, another alien being the Enterprise encounters above the Edo’s planet, a being they perceive to be both there and not. They cannot explain it but which confronts the crew when it believes the Edo, or its children as it calls them, are being harmed. As seen in chapter three some, such as David (the humanist interviewing Roddenberry), describes the Edo ‘god’ as ‘an advanced race or being that is only dimly perceived,’, view this episode as ‘the most anti-religious and humanistic television program I had seen in 39 years’ (16). I would agree with David that this episode is filled from start to finish with humanist philosophy and commentary, but rather than it being an anti-religious sentiment, rather an example of the ability of knowledge to eventually explain all things. This reflects modern and secular humanism which basis its faith and values in science and the pursuit of knowledge. As it was seen in the third chapter reason is…. Reason however cannot prevail unless it is informed by the guiding morals and ethics of a person or society, which are based on the knowledge they possess. While knowledge informs reason, love informs the basis of social justice and the equality that lies at its core. Acceptance, tolerance and caring, as Hardie states, make up the basis of what he considers to be what the concept of love represents in humanist philosophy. First and foremost, it is people that lie at the core of humanist philosophies and values. The Prime Directive is the embodiment of this concept that promotes acceptance, tolerance and caring. As already stated The Prime Directive is the number one rule of the Star Trek Universe that states that the members of the Starfleet must not interfere with the internal development of alien societies. As already discussed, in its most basic interpretation The Prime Directive is a moral stance that forbids interaction with societies that have not yet reached a certain level of technological advancement. Going further and arguably the true intentions of The Prime Directive (Peltz) it is designed to not interfere with the rules, ideas and values of other worlds and societies. This rule, ultimately, is to ensure that the crew does not end up acting as an imperial power, imposing their own ideals and values on a less developed alien nation (Peltz), because every society’s ideals and values, as much as they may differ from theirs, is to be respected and viewed as equal to their own. More has a law in Utopia that carries similar sentiments of respect and value for other values and ideas. 40 King Utopus here decrees that ‘…everyone could cultivate the religion of his choice, and strenuously proselytize for it too, provided he did so quietly, modestly, rationally, and without bitterness toward others’ (More 85-86). And so we see the foundations of social justice in each of these texts through the belief in respect, acceptance and tolerance of all. 5.1 The Golden Rule ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.’ (Hardie 27) In his introduction to ‘Atheist Mind, Humanist Heart: Rewriting the Ten Commandments for the Twenty First Century’, Bayer poses the philosophical question; Without a belief in God – an almighty deity who decides what is right and what is wrong – how could I know why any value should be more or less valid than any other? How could I justify the continued importance of morality in my life? Should I even be moral? (Bayer and Fidgor 3) Bayer does not answer this but leaves it as an open question, one that is ultimately answered in the preceding chapters by himself and his co-author, Fidgor. Unlike the citizens of Utopia who practice a form of humanism that believes in God and believe in a deity and an afterlife where your actions on this earth will be judged and then punished or rewarded accordingly, the crew of the Enterprise do not act in moral and ethical way to save their souls. Rather, they act morally for the benefit of all and the good of future generations. As smoker states; …[secular]humanism is deeply concerned with the responsibility of each succeeding generation to bequeath to the future a world as good to live in as possible. After all, while religionists may look to a life hereafter, the only future life for humanists is that of future generations of our species . (41) The philosophies of More and Roddenberry, although one religious and the other secular, are not all that different; when examined both beliefs and reasons for acting morally and ethically is ultimately because of future judgement and consequences. The secular humanist and the crew of the Enterprise’s actions are to benefit all of the species, not just mankind, 41 they encounter on their journey. They understand their actions will be judged by future generations the same way Utopians God will judge them and the consequences their actions may have. Ultimately it is The Golden Rule that is arguably one of the defining elements of humanist morals (Smoker). It lies at the centre of all humanist philosophies and, as Hardie and Smoker describes, appearing in a multitude of philosophical and religious beliefs it is hardly an original thought or belief. Quoted at the beginning of this segment the golden rule is simply “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” (Hardie 27). The Golden Rule is in response to, ‘The humanist view of morality [which] is simply codes of human conduct, devised by human beings for human benefit’ (Smoker 38). Treating others as you wish to be treated embodies the concept of respect and equality that lies at the heart of humanist philosophy. It answers the question posed by Bayer, ‘Should I even be moral?’ (3), because even if the crew of the Enterprise, reflecting Roddenberry’s humanist belief, largely do not believe in a god or an afterlife they do not escape judgement of future generations or their peers. To be moral means to treat others as equals and move one step closer to the realisation of a utopian state. 5.2 Following the Commandments ‘…if we’re talking about the ethics of Star Trek, religion would seem to be out of the questions, especially considering the long-time personal weltanshauung of series creator Gene Roddenberry.’ ( Barad xiv) Particularly in the last century, the idea of religion and need for religion as a moral guide and compass has dramatically decreased. As a 16th century text, based on religious values, More sees a need for religion in what is to be an ideal society, whereas Roddenberry, born in the 20th century, dismisses the idea of a deity and revealed religion, calling it, ‘largely non-sense – largely magical, superstitious things’ (David 6) and, although they have 42 differing opinions on religion and its teachings, both More and Roddenberry reinforce the importance of respect towards all beliefs throughout their texts. Interestingly, as much as Roddenberry dismisses the idea of a deity and the concept of conforming to a religion, a huge amount of his morals and ethical foundations found in Star Trek could come straight from six of the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments are the foundations of Catholic ethics and morals. However, as Bayer and Fidgor observed, these moral and ethical foundations are not entirely exclusive to Catholicism. The following are the commandments found in Exodus (20:1-17) in the King James17 Bible; 1. I am the Lord thy God…Thou shalt have no other gods before me. 2. Thou shalt not make unto thee any given image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God… 3. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 4. Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. 5. Honor thy father and thy mother… 6. Thou shalt not kill. 7. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 8. Thou shalt not steal. 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against your neighbour. 10. Thou shalt not covet your neighbour’s house; thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife, or his manservant, or his maidservant…nor anything that is your neighbour’s. (Bayer and Fidgor 15) As you can see, the first four commandments focus on God and the people’s relationship with him. These are reflected in Utopia’s law that every citizen must believe in a god and an afterlife where you will be judged for your actions and in which religion is the basis of all moral and ethical decisions. More could not envisage a state who’s morals and ethics would remain true without this higher being to judge and reward us in the end. In matters of moral philosophy, they [the Utopians] carry on the same arguments as we do. They inquire into the nature of the good, distinguishing goods of the body from goods of the mind and external goods…..They discuss virtue and pleasure, but their chief concern is what to think of human happiness, and whether it consists of one thing 17 Some are in abbreviated forms. 43 or more… And what is more surprising, they seek support for this comfortable opinion from their religion…For they never discuss happiness without joining to their philosophic rationalism certain principles drawn from religion. Without these religious principles, they think that reason by itself is weak and defective in its effort to investigate true happiness. (More 59-60) Where the first four commandments discuss the relationship between God and his followers and can only be applied and practiced if one believes in God, the remaining six (five through to ten), as Bayer and Fidgor point out is the basis of a good and harmonious society, ‘the first four [commandments] deal mostly with the relationship between God and humans, while the rest deal with the ethics of human relationships’ (Bayer and Fidgor 15). ‘This broad agreement [between commandment five through to ten], for all moral codeseven those which are said to drive from divine revelation – were designed in the first place for social unity’ (Smoker 39). At the heart of these commandments is the golden rule and the basis of humanist values and morals; respect and equality. Where The Golden Rule states to treat others the same as you wish to be treated yourself, commandments five through ten give examples of how to implement this idea and live a life according to humanist ethics and morals. Thus, in answer to Bayer’s question, ‘Should I even be moral?’, the answer is yes, because humanist strives for the betterment of mankind and human benefit and it is these basic values and morals that are crucial to achieving this ultimate goal. 5.3 Conclusion ‘Human happiness and moral duty are inseparably connected’ George Washington The morals of Star Trek according to Barad say that; Justice exists within the individual; it’s possible for all of us to realize a higher level of moral consciousness; good is stronger than evil; evil tends to destroy itself; and finally, the virtues of courage, wisdom, temperance, and justice lead to the good life. 44 (95) After discussing reason, social justice and the morals and ethics of the humanist philosophy of each of these texts, it is this chapter, the morals and ethics of each of these texts and the foundation of the philosophy that lies at their foundations is the most similar. Their ends may differ but their means are the same – utopians are good because of gods judgement, the crew of the Enterprise are good because of the judgement of future generations. In 500 years the means are the same to only a slightly varying end. In order to create a utopian society human interests must be put first. 45 Chapter 6 Conclusion After More’s Utopia became known, literary utopias using his model have been published throughout the world, but again they reflect the specific places in which they were written. At the same time, different countries and cultures often faced similar problems, and sometimes similar answers were produced. (Sargent, Utopianism; A Very Short Introduction 85) By comparing More’s Utopia and Star Trek TNG, this project has seen just as Sargent describes, ‘different countries and cultures often faced similar problems, and sometimes similar answers were produced’ (Utopianism; A Very Short Introduction 85). These similar problems and answers centre around money and wealth, equality, religion and the golden rule of respect and fair treatment of all. We see that humanist values have for the most part remained the same and that as much society and science has advanced there is a core value and commonality to the values in these texts. Ultimately the belief in human kind has remained the same. Money is seen as a negative influence on society, everyone should be considered equal and again respected, and allowed the opportunity to pursue their own path and interest in life regardless of gender. In both texts money and wealth are seen as one of the primary causes of inequality and negative influences on society. In answer to this problem both texts propose to remove money and wealth and in its place put common property. The acquisition of knowledge is also held in high regard in each of these societies and has replaced money and wealth in both societies, showing that the traditional value and interest placed on learning and knowledge in humanist philosophy is as strong in modern humanist beliefs as in More’s Renaissance humanism. 46 Ultimately as this project establishes in chapter five that both texts hold similar moral and ethical values. We see that although Roddenberry prescribes to secular humanism and More Renaissance, there is a huge amount moral and ethical overlap that ultimately vouches for the betterment of all mankind, both now and future generations. This project has shown that not all aspects of the proposed elements of the ideal state are practical, plausible or fully realised. Neither text however, proposes to be perfect, just better. The utopian text has is a form of inspiration for society, a way to discuss where society has gone wrong and propose where and how it can better itself. The discussion in chapter four regarding both texts attempt to establish gender equality demonstrates this. As Oscar Wilde said in the opening chapter, ‘Progress is the realization of utopias’ (qtd. in Sargent, Utopianism; A Very Short Introduction 1) and so too is humanist philosophy, who’s ultimate faith in human beings possess the power or potentiality of solving their own problems, through reliance primarily upon reason and scientific method’ (Mastin, Humanism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy). 6.1 Final Statement This was an exciting and interesting project. Although aware that these were two well researched texts, the vast and varied amount of literature available on the Star Trek universe and More’s Utopia nevertheless surprised me. The original thought before this project began was there would be many similarities between the two texts philosophies. Once research for the project began however it was surprising to see not only were there similar problems and solutions to the woes of society proposed in each text, but both text each had similar failings, such as the practicality of a society based on common property and the realisation of true gender equality. 47 6.2 Limitations of My Own Study and Recommendations for Further Study Suvin states that ‘it is not always possible to be certain of an author’s intention (qtd in Sargent 6). Sargent goes on to say; Once created the artefact takes on a life of its own. With utopian literature readers come into play and may, of course, in their reading create something very different from what the author intended. Among our jobs as scholars is to try to understand to the best of our ability both the work the author intended and the work the reader creates. (Sargent 6) Even taking into consideration the past literature and research discussed in Chapter Two and throughout this study, as Sargent suggests this study was first limited by my own interpretation of the texts. It is very easy to imagine a vast number of people reading this study and disagreeing or questioning what has been said. Other limitations included time and length of this project. As already mentioned there is a vast amount of material already written on both Utopia and Star Trek. It would be impossible to read all of this material; this project hopes to have highlighted the most important pieces. The aim of this project was to focus on the positive utopian aspects of these texts. Initial research for this project highlighted arguments, particularly in relation to Star Trek, that focused on the dystopian elements of the texts; again this is dependent on how one interprets the text. Future research may wish to investigate this further from the perspective of dystopian theories and concepts. 48 Works Cited Adams, Robert P. "The Philosophic Unity of More's Utopia." Studies in Philology 38.1 (1941): 45-65. Journal Article. Barad, Judith. The Ethics of Star Trek. New York: HarperCollins Publisher, 2000. Book. Bayer, Lex and John Fidgor. Atheist Mind, Humanist Heart: Rewriting the Ten Commandments for the Twenty First Century. London: Rowan & Littlefield, 2014. Book. Caspari, Fritz. Humanism and the Social Order in Tudor England. New York: University of Chicago Press, 1954. Book. Cline, Austin. Modern Humanist Philosophy and Religion. 11 April 2016. Web site. 10 July 2017. <https://www.thoughtco.com/philosophic-humanism-248113>. CONTI outra. Para que serve a utopia? - Eduardo Galeano. 2017. Web site. 10 July 2017. <http://www.contioutra.com/para-que-serve-utopia-eduardo-galeano/>. David, Alexander. "The Humanist Interview: Gene Roddenberry - Writer, Producer, Philosopher, Humanist." The Humanist March/April 1991: 5 - 38. Magazine. Ellis, Brian. Social Humanism: A New Metaphysics. New York: Routledge, 2012. Book. “Encounter at Farpoint.” Star Trek: The Next Generation: Season 1. Syndication. Television. 1987. Netlflix. Web. 15 Sep. 2017. Ertugrul, Gulden. "Education in Thomas More's Utopia." n.d. Dergipark. Document from Web site. 10 August 2017. <http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/55667>. 49 Ezugwu, Umezurike V. "Harnessing the Benefits of Postmodernism: A Conversational Discourse." Critical Essays on Postmodernism. Ed. Godfrey O Ozumba, et al. Edioms Research and Innovation Centre, 2017. 358 - 379. Book Chapter. Fitting, Peter. "Utopia, Dystopia and Science Fiction." The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature. Ed. Gregory Claeys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 135-153. Book Chapter. Frye, Northrop. "Varieties of Literary Utopias." Daedalus 94.2 (1965): 323-347. Jounal Article. Gonzalez, George A. The Politics of Star Trek: Justice, War, and the Future. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1st September 2015. Electronic Source. <https://books.google.ie/books?id=YTXeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT49&dq=social+justic e+in+star+trek+the+next+generation&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwif87aOyoPWA hXjJMAKHb_dC28Q6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q&f=false>. Grech, Victor. Philosophical concepts in Star Trek: Using Star Trek as a Curriculum Guide Introducing Fans to the Subject of Philosophy - James Gunn's Ad's Astra. 10 June 2013. Web site. 29 June 2017. <http://www.adastrasf.com/philosophical-conceptsin-star-trek/>. Hamilton, Alastair. "Humanists and the Bible." The Cambridge Guide to Renaissance Humanism. Ed. Jill Kraye. Cambridge University Press, 1996. 100 - 117. Book Chapter. Hankins, James. "Humanism and the Origins of Modern Political Thought." The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Ed. Jill Kraye. Cambrodge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 118-141. Book Chapter. 50 Hardie, Glenn M. The Essence of Humanism: Free Thought Versus Religious Belief. Bloomington: Xlibris Corporation, 2004. Book. Jools99. Thomas More Utopia - Humanism in the Renaissance. 14 June 2016. Web site. 10 July 2017. <https://owlcation.com/humanities/Was-Thomas-Mores-book-Utopia-atypical-product-of-Renaissance-humanism>. “Justice.” Star Trek: The Next Generation: Season 1. Syndication. Television. 1987. Netlflix. Web. 15 Sep. 2017. Mastin, Luke. Epicureanism - by Branch/Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy. 2008. Web site. 27 June 2017. <http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_epicureanism.html>. —. Humanism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy. 2008. Web site. 27 June 2017. <http://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_humanism.html>. Moore, Ronald. Memory Alpha:AOL Chats. 2017. Web site. 23 August 2017. <http://memoryalpha.wikia.com/wiki/Memory_Alpha:AOL_chats/Ronald_D._Moore/ron012.txt>. More, Thomas. A Norton Critical Edition: Utopia. Ed. George M Logan. Third. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2011. Book. —. Utopia: Third Norton Critical Edition. Ed. George M Logan. New York: W.W. Norton, 2011. Book. Olin, John C. Erasmus, Utopia, and the Jesuits: Essays on the Outreach of Humanism. New York: Fordham University Press, 1994. Book. 51 Peltz, Richard J. "On a Wagon Train to Afghanistan: Limitations on Star Trek's Prime Direction." University of Arkansas at Little Rock Law Review 25.3 (2003): 635 664. Journal Article. Sargent, Lyman Tower. "The Three Faces of Utopianism Revisited." Utopian Studies 5.1 (1994): 1-37. Journal Article. —. Utopianism; A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Book. Sargent, Tower Lyman. "Women in Utopia." Comparative Literature Studies: Special Issue on Utopian Social THought in Literature and the Social Sciences 10.4 (1973): 302316. Journal Article. “Skin of Evil.” Star Trek: The Next Generation: Season 1. Syndication. Television. 1987. Netlflix. Web. 15 Sep. 2017. Smoker, Barbara. Humanism. London: Ward Lock Educational, 1973. Book. Spielvogel, Jackson. Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume 1: To 1715. 4th. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007. Book. Stanford Center for the Study of Language and Information. Thomas More (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). 2016. Web site. 20 July 2017. <https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-more/#ThePol>. "Star Trek and Justice." Law, Crime and Corrections Series: Volume 1 1 (2003): 134 - 135. Book Chapter. “The Neutral Zone.” Star Trek: The Next Generation: Season 1. Syndication. Television. 1987. Netlflix. Web. 15 Sep. 2017. 52 "Utopian Fiction." The Science Fiction Handbook. Ed. Keith Booker and Anne-Marie Thomas. Wiley - Blackwell, 2009. 75 - 85. Book Chapter. “We’ll Always Have Paris.” Star Trek: The Next Generation: Season 1. Syndication. Television. 1987. Netlflix. Web. 15 Sep. 2017. Wilde, Lawrence. Thomas More's Utopia: Arguing for Social Justice. London: Routledge, 2017. Book. 53