g&l (print) issn 1747–6321 g&l (online) issn 1747–633x Article Visual silence and non-normative sexualities: art, transduction and performance Adam Jaworski Abstract Marginalisation of people in non-hegemonic/non-normative gender roles and sexualities is often discussed in terms of their ‘silencing’. Silence tends to occupy liminal stages of communication and interaction, it is well suited to indexing marginalised subjectivities. However, this paper argues that in the context of artistic performance, that is where silence is displayed rather than imposed, it can be revalued as airming and liberating. Art, which thrives on equivocality and understatement, tends to be silence-friendly due to its afordances of relative indeterminacy and ambiguity. Several examples of transduction of silence in modern and contemporary art illustrate how art embraces, rather than obscures or disavows, male and female homosexual identities and non-heroic masculinities. he works examined include Robert Rauschenberg’s and Agnes Martin’s monochromes, New York Dada drawings and photographs, and activist HIV/AIDS installations and photographs. keywords: non-hegemonic gender roles and sexualities; silence; art; transduction; performance Ailiation University of Hong Kong. email: jaworski@hku.hk g&l vol 10.3 2016 433–454 ©2016, equinox publishing doi: 10.1558/genl.v10i3.32038 434 AdAm JAworski Introduction: gender representation, multimodality and transduction A rich body of work on the representation of gender and sexuality in the mass media, advertising, textbooks, popular culture and other domains of social life has focused on the reproduction of hegemonic and essentialist notions of femininity and masculinity. A number of studies in critical discourse analysis and social semiotics have considered diferent aspects of visuality in gender and sexuality representation. One of the pioneering studies is Gofman’s (1979) examination of ways in which women, and to some extent men, are portrayed in print advertisements (see Bell and Milic 2002 for a later replication). Other, more recent, CDA-inspired studies include stereotyped gender representations in Brazilian online tourism advertising (Caldas-Coulthard 2008) or Getty Images stock photographs (Machin 2004); the use of colour to index gender roles and sexualities in print media (Koller 2008) and online blogs (Vaisman 2016); essentialisation of racialised masculinities in martial arts ilms (Hiramoto 2012); competing discourses of gender representation in Singaporean advertisements (Lazar 2014); and so on. his very selective list of references indicates a predominant focus of researchers on issues to do with traditional gender roles (masculinity and femininity) and (heterosexual) sexualities. An emerging body of work has focused on verbal and visual representations of a wider range of sexualities. For example, Sunderland and McGlashan (2012) have examined two-mum and two-dad families in children’s picture books; Borgerson, Isla, Schroeder and horssen (2005) have studied the representations of same-sex families in consumer advertising. Both studies indicate that while non-traditional sexualities and non-heterosexual families gain presence in mainstream media, their depiction of sexuality tends to be mapped onto traditional gender roles and/or the imagery of ‘straight’ families. And despite stock image banks such as Getty seemingly turning to a more diverse and inclusive gender representation, Aiello and Woodhouse (2016) observe that Getty images of people represented as ostensibly androgynous, cross-dressing, transgender, homosexual or, more broadly, queer tend to be abstracted from speciic context of daily life. he aim of this paper is to broaden the scope of critical discourse analysis with regard to the visual/multimodal representation of non-normative gender roles and sexualities with a particular interest in visual art. Focusing on what is considered ‘non-normative’ may require critical discourse scholars to get of the beaten track of their usual terrain for harvesting data, and to deploy new methods of enquiry, something that hurlow (2016) refers to as the ‘queering’ of critical discourse studies. I address here artists’ VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 435 self-positioning in terms of their non-normative, or non-hegemonic, gender roles and sexualities in what I refer to as instances of silence in art, or silent art. Most researchers in multimodal discourse analysis have largely focused on print, broadcast and online media, literary iction and ilm. Visual art remains a relatively unchartered territory, even though, as has been pointed out by Machin (2016), the origins of multimodality, as a corrective to the logocentric approach to communication can be linked to two important books that brought art to the attention of discourse analysis and sociolinguistics: Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) and O’Toole (1994). Both books were conceptually grounded in Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics model, however, it was only the former that ofered a link to the underlying social, historical and other, broadly ideological, motivations behind the sign makers’ communicative choices and their efects in visual communication, including art. he latter built on Halliday’s work to construct a formal, structural system for the analysis of works of art, however, with little attention to critical analysis of visual representation. he primary concern with multimodality in this paper is that of transduction or transmodalisation, that is the transformation of social meaning across diferent modes or the interplay between and the mixing of semiotic resources across diferent modalities (Kress 1997, 2010). In Kress’s social semiotic approach to communication, the semiotic work of social interaction is always transformative in that it projects and proposes ‘possibilities of social and semiotic forms, entities and processes which reorient, refocus, and “go beyond”, by extending and transforming what there was before the interaction’ (Kress 2010:34; see also Kress and van Leeuwen 2001). Some transformations of meaning may involve no change in mode (e.g. translation of a novel from English to German). Transduction, which involves moving across modes (e.g. from image to speech) is reminiscent of Jakobson’s (1959:233) notion of intersemiotic translation or transmutation in particular concerned with ‘an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems’. However, the transposition of semiotic resources from one mode to another does not produce simple ‘semantic equivalences’ (Iedema 2003). On the contrary, our interpretations of semiotic resources under diferent conditions of their transduction and in speciic acts of performance (Bauman and Briggs 1990) are subject to varying, systemic constraints, or ideology, and material afordances of the modes and circumstances in which they are deployed (Machin 2016; Jaworski 2016). he plan of the paper is as follows. I start by explaining how silence, an ‘acoustic fact’, is transducted into visual art. Next, I provide some background on the way silence has featured in the work on language, gender 436 AdAm JAworski and sexuality ideologies, and how silencing has been construed as a form of subordination and resistance. My analytic section on (re)claiming nonnormative sex roles and sexuality in silent art focuses on Robert Rauschenberg’s and Agnes Martin’s monochromes, New York Dada drawings and photographs, and activist HIV/AIDS installations and photographs. I conclude by considering the idea of ‘silence as voice’. Silence in art A comprehensive overview of the uses and manifestations of silence in art lies well beyond the scope of this paper (e.g. Sontag 1966; Kamps and Seid 2012; Daniels and Arns 2012). Suice it to say that for deinitional and analytic purposes, silence (in art and otherwise) is treated here in its broadest sense, not simply as absence of words or sound, but as a multimodal, meditational means mobilising a wide range of ‘verbal and textual tools’ (Jones and Norris 2005a:9). hese semiotic resources enable us to perform speciic actions, or take afective and epistemic stances (i.e. expressions of the person’s emotional states and certainty in expressing their propositions that are grounded in the socio-cultural conditions of communication). Sustained reoccurrence of the ‘same’ stances, in turn, is highly consequential for reinscribing these conditions anew (Jafe 2009). In other words, the evaluative and authoritative stances do the work of self- and otherpositioning, of discursive in- and out-group marking, even – or especially – where no fundamental diferences between in-groups and out-groups ‘exist’ (Joseph 2013), and of reinscribing speciic regimes of knowledge, afect, legitimation, authenticity and authority, naturalised and normalised as enduring ideologies (Jaworski and hurlow 2009). he meditational tools for conveying acoustic silence may include pauses, interruptions and ellipsis, but they are better characterised as an open-ended pool of resources that blur (but not necessarily obliterate) the igure–ground distinction of the auditory channel. I derive this notion of silence from Danielle Duez’s deinition of silence as ‘any interval of the oscillographic trace where the amplitude is indistinguishable from that of background noise’ (Duez 1982:13). When silence is assumed to have communicative intention and produces contextual efects, it may become communicatively relevant (Sperber and Wilson 1986; Jaworski 1993). In terms of Halliday’s (1978) tripartite taxonomy of communicative metafunctions of language and other semiotic systems, such silences can be ideational (communicating something about the world), interpersonal (communicating something about our relationships with others), and textual (creating coherence of texts and signalling their interpretive VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 437 frames). In other words, silence can manifest notable absences or omissions, secrets, acts of censorship, restraint and understatement, even if we can only guess or speculate on the denotational content of such omissions, secrets or what exactly is being censored (ideational metafunction; e.g. see Zerubavel 2006). Silence can express a wide range of emotions and subject positions such as calm, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, and so on, or provide a space for relection and ‘subject formation – privacy, interiority, sexuality’ (Buchloh [1988]2000:274) (interpersonal metafunction). Finally, silence can be used as a keying device (Gofman 1974), for example when a pause signals that the following stretch of talk is to be interpreted as artful performance (textual metafunction). My examples of silence in art, understood as transductions of acoustic silence to the visual medium, draw on three types of meditational means: 1. abstract monochrome art, such as one-colour paintings and prints that appear apparently blank or with minimal contrasts of colour and texture, or that are covered by repetitive, typically faint and understated geometric patterns; 2. representational art, in which the viewer can identify ‘notable absences’ of objects or igures; 3. conceptual art with metadiscursive or metaphorical references to silence, for example through the display of the word ‘silence’, or an image of the sealed mouths. A large body of language, gender and sexuality research has pointed to the silence and silencing of dominated and marginalised groups such as women, LGBTQ people (see below for an overview of some of the key issues). his paper examines how artists (re)appropriate silence as a semiotic resource for indexing non-normative, transgressive or equivocal gender and sexual stances and identities. It is in these moments, as I will argue, that their subject positions are rearticulated, and the silences are reclaimed with the potential of destigmatisation or reairmation through performative enactments of silence in art. he analytic lens of performance is key here as it bears close relation to the transformative efects of transduction, alluded to above. Bauman and Briggs’s (1990) classic work on performance underscores the recontextualisation or transposition and relocation of linguistic resources from one domain to another, frequently with artful overtones and form focusing (Coupland 2007:147). What is particularly relevant here is the propensity for performance to ‘move the use of heterogeneous stylistic resources, context-sensitive meanings, and conlicting ideologies into a relexive arena where they can be examined critically’ (Bauman and Briggs 1990:60). 438 AdAm JAworski Performance allows social actors to lift or detach texts from their original contexts of use (decontextualisation) and deploy them in new contexts (recontextualisation). To appropriate a text in this way is an act of social control, whereby performers claim ownership of the text and ascertain their legitimacy and authority to use it. In the process, texts are revalued as their decentring or recentring creates new conditions for their assessment. In the case of silence, which may typically be associated with mourning, inarticulateness, disempowerment or marginalisation, bringing it centre-stage in a performance, as artful, spectacular or ‘simply’ displayed, enables its critical reassessment as potentially subversive, commanding or liberating. Bauman and Briggs (1990:78) observe that the centring and recentring of texts connects them with a meaningful past through ‘the symbolic construction of discursive continuity’, for example as may be the case with the citing and reciting of a proverb. Moreover, performances cut across diferent scale levels: A given folktale performance, for example, may be traced through connected processes of decentring and recentring in local oral tradition, in the nationalisation of culture as it is appropriated by learned elites in the service of nationalist ideology, or in the internationalisation of culture as it is held up to view as part of world literature. (Bauman and Briggs 1990:78) In the examples below, similar continuities can be observed, especially when private and past silences are recentred through displayed art into the public domain transcending the ‘here and now’ by imagining new social orders (e.g. Rauschenberg) or aiming to obliterate all forms of social categorisation (e.g. Martin). Art provides an important platform for the performance, hence appropriation and ideological revaluation, of a wide range of silences. Unlike other meditational means, such as print, broadcast and online media, silence is easily accommodated by art due to its propensity for relative indeterminacy, reliance on symbolic meaning and irony. Pictorial void has, indeed, become part of the artistic programme of modernism, described in 1911 by Wassily Kandinsky as follows: ‘I always ind it advantageous in each work to leave an empty space; it has to do with not imposing’ (cited in Buchloh [1989]2000:488). Art, in contrast to other media, requires, or favours, repetition (as part of its creativity), loungers (as part of the ‘immersive’ process of its consumption), focus on ‘form’ rather than ‘meaning’, and if meaning is indeed of central importance, it is often interpersonal, or in Roman Jakobson’s (1960) terms conative, expressive, phatic and poetic (aesthetic), rather than ideational or referential. Besides, art requires explicit framing, necessary VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 439 for drawing our attention to itself. Other things being equal, outside of the performative or artistic frame, silence is more likely to go unnoticed or it may be treated as communicative malfunction (Scollon 1985). All of these afordances of art favour silence as a mode of its expression, transducted into the visual medium, for example, as empty spaces, grids, absences and, mimetically, as representations of gagged or covered mouths. Silence in language, gender and sexuality ideologies Non-normative sex, sexuality and gender roles are typically shrouded in silence, or silenced. his is usually the case, for example, with sex outside of marriage or committed relationships, or with most sexual activity that falls outside of the heteronormative patterns of behaviour. he home page photo of the Canadian, ill-fated online dating service marketed to married people or those in committed relationships, Ashley Madison Agency, depicted a woman’s face with an index inger over her mouth. he ‘Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell’ (DADT) policy in operation in the US armed forces between 1994 and 2011 disallowed service from members who had disclosed that they were homosexual or had engaged in homosexual conduct. More to the point here, the history of silence and silencing of sexual minorities, which in some cases, ironically, may have meant the majority of human beings (i.e. women; see below), is long and well documented. hese are what Nikita Dhawan refers to as ‘epistemic silences’ that result from the hegemonic ‘paradigms of knowledge and constellations of power that marginalise, invalidate and annihilate “other” perspectives and “other” ways of beingin-the-world’ (Dhawan 2012:55). In her discussion of language and gender ideologies, Deborah Cameron (2014) argues that the representations of male and female speech as distinct, opposite or complementary have persisted through time and are pervasive across diferent cultures. However, language ideologies are not immutable and they vary across diferent social groups, for example, men and women. Drawing on the work of Ann Rosalind Jones (1987), Cameron (2014:283) notes that, with regard to silence, the twentieth century ideal of ‘the modest, deferential, and publicly silent woman’ had its roots in the Puritan, bourgeois ideology aiming to establish a new moral order between the sexes with a clear division of labour, relegation of women to the domestic sphere and their subordination to men. his new social and moral order, which aimed at contrasting the respectability of the bourgeois household with the decadence of the aristocratic class, included speciic linguistic implications 440 AdAm JAworski in texts like A Godly Forme of Household Gouernmente (1614), which explicitly contrasted the verbal behavior of the ideal husband and the ideal wife. Whereas he would ‘deal with many men,’ she would ‘talk with few,’ and whereas he would ‘be skillfull in talk,’ she would ‘boast of silence’ (quoted in Armstrong and Tennenhouse 1987, 8). (Cameron 2014:284) In subsequent eras, these dominant bourgeoisie norms were adopted as ideals for middle class women, in contrast to the stereotype of ‘the garrulous, vulgar, and vituperative working-class woman’ (ibid.), epitomised in the ‘ishwife’ stereotype. Undesirable verbosity, in particular public speaking, was also linked to women’s sexuality in that it made them infertile and reduced them to the status of prostitutes, a claimed made in 1837 by a group of US Congregational ministers in a letter to the press (Bean 2006; cited by Cameron 2014:295). Silencing as a tool of subordination and resistance Pervasive silencing as a mark of women’s subordinate status has been noted across sociolinguistics, anthropology and cultural criticism (e.g. E. Ardener 1975; S. Ardener 1975; Belsey 1985; Cameron 1992; Lakof 1992; Spender 1980, 1982). One recurrent theme that appears to be underlying all of these studies is that silencing is linked to the discursive delegitimation of women’s voices and to the construction of the marginal, ambiguous or liminal status of women in society against the ‘male-as-norm’ prototypical model for all humanity (Jaworski 1993). Lakof suggests three fundamental aims of silencing women, and, we might add, other marginalised persons: 1. To silence is to appropriate to oneself a quintessentially human property: the ability to name and deine self and environment. … 2. To silence is to deprive of the ability to control one’s environment by setting the agenda or making predictions, in other words, of the capacity to be and see oneself as rational, as having a coherent narrative. … 3. To silence is to punish for speaking, or to deter from speaking what must not be said. (Lakof 1992:349) More recently, a considerable body of work has focused on the silence and silencing of non-normative sexualities, which are characterised by multiple ‘layering’ of silence related to the sense of ‘otherness’ (Foucault 1978) and ‘invisibility’ (hurlow 2001) experienced by individuals outside of nonheteronormative sexualities. On one hand, their self-legitimation requires a ‘breaking’ of silence in the performative speech act of ‘coming out’ (Chierry 2003). On the other hand, once ‘out’ they may experience a sense of intensiied silencing and marginalisation due to the fear of expected or VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 441 actual acts of verbal and physical aggression. Silencing is always a product of discourse (hiesmeyer 2003). Hence, the pathologisation and othering of non-normative sexualities that has dominated Western/Christian gender ideologies since the eighteenth century is particularly associated with the coercive contexts of such institutions as the church, family, education, medicine and the state and their ‘incitement to discourse’, or the proliferation of inquiry into and scrutiny over sexuality as the locus of a person’s ‘truth’ (Foucault 1978). Late capitalist societies continue to function in the shadow of Foucauldian repression. For example, in their extensive survey of research on sexuality in educational settings in the English-speaking world, Epstein, O’Flynn and Telford (2000–2001) point out the prevalence of the heteronormative norm across all levels of the educational system, both within and outside of the classroom setting. Wooley (2013) demonstrates how the pupils in a North California urban public high school are marginalised and silenced when targeted by expressions such as ‘that’s so gay’ and ‘that’s so ghetto’. However, as argued by Cameron (2006, 2014) ‘women’s silence’, particularly in the public sphere, does not manifest itself in any uniform fashion and requires a nuanced account of the distinction between the ideologies of language and gender and the actual linguistic practices of gendered speakers, as well as a careful account of the dividing lines between the ‘public’ and ‘private’ spheres, access to linguistic resources (e.g. literacy skills, genres of talk) and ideological values attached to the speech (and silence) of women (and men) through historical time and across diferent communities of practice. Likewise, Gal (1989) takes issue with the Ardeners’ muted group theory, which posits a structural inability of women to articulate their views and subject positions using male deined and dominated discourse as inaccessible and beyond their control. But, as Gal argues, women’s resistance and protest can reject words, for example, in publically subversive, nonverbal displays (e.g. dances, obscene gestures, nudity), or through verbal genres that involve implicit forms such as ambiguity and irony, while on other occasions they may be more directly expressed (e.g. poetry or gossip). here is a ine line here between silence as a form of oppression and silence as a form of resistance or airmation. Following Serano (2007), Edelman (2014) resorts to the metaphor of ‘stealth’ in describing the experience of invisibility among many trans-identifying persons triggered by the logic of the homonormative ‘in/out’ binary and the ‘cissexual assumption’ of experiencing the alignment between the mental and physical gender/ sex, typically assigned at birth. Edelman argues that, broadly speaking, in contrast to the lesbian, gay, bisexual and queer people who decide to come out as an endpoint of their quest for the performance and airma- 442 AdAm JAworski tion of their identity, trans people do not have the comfort of ‘coming out’ as ‘trans’ in the same way. On the contrary, this act may destabilise their sense of seeing ‘themselves primarily as women or men’ in that they would lay themselves open to a categorisation as ‘speciically trans women and trans men’ (Edelman 2014:161). Adopting the stance of stealth, they can then ‘self-actualize’ as trans men or trans women, without the scrutiny of their personal histories pre- and post-transition and of their bodies. his sentiment is expressed by Ben, one of Edelman’s female-to-male trans interviewees, as follows ‘I prefer to keep people guessing and I think that is a perfectly well-articulated, self-actualized position’ (Edelman 2014:160). Edelman notes that while for trans people breaking the stealth subjects them to the hegemony of cissexualism, ‘trans men face a double bind that motivates them to conceptualize stealth as an empowering, yet at times oppressive, way of living’ (Edelman 2014:152). (Re)claiming non-normative sex roles and sex/uality in silent art Silence as an acoustic signal, rhetorical trope or visual metaphor can be a powerful semiotic resource for expression of emotions (Jaworski 1993, 1997). For example, Ibrahim Hassan (1967, 1971) argues that in literature, silence ‘ills up’ such extreme psychological states as madness, ecstasy, outrage, and so on, when words fail to provide adequate expression for them. Drawing on these and the preceding theoretical observations I now turn to demonstrate how silence in art, multimodally and in tandem with other meditational means, rearticulates highly emotionally charged – repressed or transgressive – non-normative sexuality and gender identities. Queering social and artistic space: Robert Rauschenberg’s White Paintings My irst example concerns the White Paintings (1949–52) of Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008), produced as a series of works consisting between one to seven panels. he paintings’ mode of production (paint roller, household paint) and extreme non-representationality can be read as a radical decentring of the subject or artist. his stood in contrast to the dominant in the USA at the time Abstract Expressionist ethos of foregrounding the artist’s body and subjectivity through the dynamic, energetic gestures with which he (and only rarely she) left visible markings on his canvas, sometimes with the imprints of the artist’s hands, as in Jackson Pollock’s Number 1A, 1948 (Pollock 1948; see also Folland 2010). By asserting their individualism and control over the artistic process, eschewing any connections with the domestic sphere, and shunning decorative aesthetic, Abstract Expressionists aspired to link their art with meta- VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 443 physical, universalist ‘truths’, which in fact espoused predominantly the American, white, middle class, heterosexual ideology. he White Paintings (e.g. Rauschenberg 1951) negated this artistic programme. By stating that the subject of the White Paintings was the viewers’ shadows relected in the panels’ surfaces, Rauschenberg ‘not only [added] an ininite amount of “voices” to the work, but also [stripped] the artist (author) of the semblance of phallic power (authority)’ (Mullin 1999:212). In her detailed analysis of the White Paintings, Mullin (1999) argues that their apparent decentring of the author coincided with a number of personal and political circumstances that relegated Rauschenberg to a ‘marginal’ position: separation from his wife (Susan Weil) and a gradual social, artistic and romantic immersion in the community of homosexual artists at Black Mountain College (most notably Cy Twombly, Merce Cunningham and John Cage) amidst a strongly homophobic discourse in America at the time fuelled by raging McCarthyism linking homosexuality (as a weakening of society) with Communism. According to Folland (2010), the overall ‘intelligibility’ or ‘unreadability’ of the White Paintings (as well as some of his later work, i.e. the Combines) was not so much a manifestation of the artist’s homosexual or anti-homophobic aesthetic, as ‘a queering of representation, particularly of the extended metaphors produced by the New York school [i.e. Abstract Expressionism], but more generally of the postwar project of modernism itself ’ (Folland 2010: 362). he queering of the social and artistic space efects in erasing the dominant visual discourse of the hegemonic, masculine self and leaving it ambiguous and open to interpretation. Additionally, through their repetition (multiple panels), the White Paintings assume the status of what Milani refers to as banal sexed signs, ‘those mundane semiotic aggregates, which, precisely because of their leeting and unassuming character, can easily be ignored, but nonetheless “(in)form our understandings and experiences of [gender,] sexuality and subjectivity”’ (Milani 2014:204, quoting Sullivan 2003:190). By mapping the limits of homosexual representations in Cold War America with multiplications of white panels made with household tools and materials, White Paintings imbue social reality with the queerness of ‘a rejection of a here and now [and] an insistence on potentiality or concrete possibility for another world’ (Muñoz 2009: 1, cited in hurlow 2016:6). Equivocal masculinity: Marcel Duchamp, Francis Picabia and Man Ray In this section, I draw on Amelia Jones’s (2002) paper titled ‘Equivocal masculinity: New York Dada in the context of World War I’, in which the author uses the trope of ‘absence’ to examine non-combatant masculin- 444 AdAm JAworski ity of New York Dada artists, speciically Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), Francis Picabia (1879–1953) and Man Ray (1890–1976). While Jones does not frame her analysis through the lens of ‘silence’, I believe that in this context both labels (‘absence’ and ‘silence’) can be used interchangeably. Duchamp and Picabia, alongside a number of other European artists, escaped from Europe to the United States to avoid conscription, or simply to lee from the atrocities of war. As an American, due to his radical anarchism, Man Ray evaded compulsory conscription introduced in the United States in May 1917. Whether unit for active combat on medical grounds, or due to their paciist, anti-nationalist and anti-capitalist convictions, these key members of the New York Dada movement faced the dilemma of how to convincingly express and assert their subjectivity, and in modernism that typically meant masculine subjectivity. For these young men who did not ight, this problem was exacerbated by the traditional social order that led to World War I as it was based on the nexus of nationalist politics, the idea of capitalist progress and normative heterosexual masculinity. In the irst example, the decentring and loss of the artist’s masculinity is illustrated by Picabia’s drawing (one of many) of a feminised machine, titled Fille née sans mere (Girl Born without a Mother; Picabia 1915). Such drawings were not only projections of Picabia’s ‘masculine anxiety vis-à-vis the development of industrial capitalism, the power of the machine, and the rise of New Women with liberated sex roles they represented’. Jones sees such drawings as instantiations of Picabia’s feminisation brought about by ‘an AWOL conscript of uncertain nationality partying himself into a state of nervous exhaustion in New York’ (Jones 2002:179). Jones suggests that the drawing is the artist’s self-portrait in which his masculinity is a notable void or an absence, replaced by the igure of a feminised machine. Shadows, which are two-dimensional indexes, or traces, of threedimensional objects or persons, often characterised by the absence of their sources blocking the light, are referenced or represented in a number of works completed by Duchamp and Man Ray, such as Man Ray’s anthropomorphic ‘portraits’ of a man and a woman, Homme (Man) and Femme (Woman), both 1918. hese images are formed by mechanical objects and their shadows. heir ambiguous ‘gendering’ is achieved in Femme, for example, through the use of two concave photographer’s light relectors attached to a pane of glass that are both phallic and womb-like, and the clothes pegs used by Man Ray in his studio to hang developing photographs being also associated with women’s house chores. Homme uses another household object – the egg beater – referencing a traditionally feminine activity (cooking), though its shadow takes an unmistakably phallic shape. VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 445 Finally, Man Ray’s photograph of Marcel Duchamp behind his Rotary Glass Plates (1917 or 1920) represents Duchamp precariously close to the spinning glass plates, as if cutting him in half, while he also appears in a ghostly manner, evaporating or receding into the shadows (Ray undated). Here, as in the other examples, the imagery invokes anti-heroic, unpatriotic and non-hegemonic masculinity, in stark contrast to the preferred image of masculinity dominating European and American political propaganda at the time. However, as Jones points out, the visual imagery of absence resolved the artists’ fraught issue of their non-normative masculinity as ‘cowardly’ evaders of conscription by embracing rather than disavowing it. Gay rights anti-AIDS art: Gran Fury/ACT UP and Sterzing/Wojnarowicz In 1987, on the invitation from the New York New Museum, the Gran Fury/ACT UP collective (the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power) mounted in the museum’s window an installation SILENCE = DEATH (Gran Fury/ ACT UP 1987). It was part of an ‘activist’ (as opposed to, for example, ‘elegiac’; Crimp [1987]2013) piece of AIDS art, Let the Record Show … . Apart from the neon sign with the words ‘SILENCE = DEATH’ and the pink triangle signifying homosexual persons in Nazi Germany, later appropriated as an emblem of gay liberation, the installation featured a number of informational displays – photographic and electronic text – documenting the hatred against gay people by various public igures, the silence of President Reagan about the AIDS epidemic throughout most of the 1980s, and factual information about the spread of the epidemic. According to Crimp, it is only by unmasking and breaking the ‘murderous regime of silence and disinformation’ that AIDS can be defeated by groups of artists and activists ‘attempting to get the unambiguous word out about how safe sex and clean works can protect people from contracting HIV’ (Crimp [1987]2013:217). he initial link between the HIV/AIDS epidemic and gay people aligned the struggle against the disease and homophobia closely with the gay rights movement. Breaking the silence, by putting it on display alongside the pink triangle in the Gran Fury/ACT UP installation, links silence metaphorically with death and (the absence of ) gay rights. Similar sentiments are echoed in another piece, Andreas Sterzing’s 1989 portrait of the artist David Wojnarowicz (see Laing 2016), in which Wojnarowicz’s lips are sewn shut in the silent protest against society turning its back on him, a form ‘silent treatment’. he portrait opposes acts of silencing with a shocking performance of self-silencing (though the ‘self-harm’ efect was staged; Sterzing, personal communication). 446 AdAm JAworski Such dramatic displays, or performances, re-evaluate silence and silencing by drawing public attention to acts of censorship and abuses of free speech. Such was also the case when the BBC journalists staged a silent protest with their mouths covered or sealed by black tape in London on 24 June 2014, to protest against the jail sentence given to three al-Jazeera journalists in Egypt – Peter Greste, Mohamed Fadel Fahmy and Baher Mohamed – for allegedly spreading false news (BBC 2014). On 6 October 2015, a silent protest march at the University of Hong Kong took place, in which the university faculty opposed anti-democratic actions of the university council (O’Leary 2016). At the culminating point of the march, Timothy O’Leary, one of the co-organiser’s of the march opened his brief speech with the following words: Teachers, staf, postgraduate students, undergraduate students, friends of the University of Hong Kong, we march today in silence not because we have nothing to say, not because we are mourning anything. We march in silence to demonstrate to ourselves and to the city of Hong Kong what a university would be like if its academic staf and students were silent. We march today in silence for the last time. (O’Leary, personal communication) hus, displayed silence, whether in works of art or protest rallies, can metonymically index subordinate silences and silencing, both visually (e.g. covered mouths) and acoustically (e.g. symbolic, ‘one-minute-of-silence’ ritual). In such moments, a critical re-examination of silence is possible, whether as solidary or deiant, or reclaiming sexual, political or academic freedom. Anti-identitarian silence: Agnes Martin Around 1964, the paintings of Agnes Martin (1912–2004) evolved into her classic style of subtly pencilled grids on large, square, seemingly blank canvases (Bell 2015), such as Morning (Martin 1965). Her pencil and ink drawings and serigraphs show the same fascination with lines, grids and rhythmic repetition, emphasised by her works executed and exhibited in sets of up to twenty related images. he content of Martin’s paintings is bound up with expressing essential emotion, which aligns her with Abstract Expressionism of the 1960s; her methods, which favoured repetition, geometric format and understated formal means became inspirational to the Minimalist artists of the 1970s (Bell 2015). Martin’s work, inluenced by a wide range of Western and Asian literary and philosophical traditions, is inherently contemplative, withdrawn from a material world and directed inwardly and self-relexively towards the artist (and the viewer) examining the seeming ininities encapsulated in the VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 447 meditative patterns, repetitions and voids. he intense introspection and dissociation from the world, compounded by Martin’s belief in the classical autonomy of art, paralleled aspects of her personal life, which was marked by extended periods of solitude and a complete break in painting for 18 months in 1967–8. hroughout her life, Martin remained intensely private, ‘efectively concealing aspects such as her homosexuality and bouts of mental illness, to allow her work to take precedence’ (Bell 2015:20). If there is a link here with Rauschenberg’s White Paintings, it is only a supericial one. While Rauschenberg seemed to ind a visual means of queering the hegemonic and homophobic art and social scene of the 1950s America, according to Lovatt, [Martin] dismissed feminist readings of her work, even declaring to one interviewer that she was ‘not a woman’ [Johnston 1998:300]. Yet her refusal to acknowledge her own gender or sexuality has recently been productively interpreted as an anti-identitarian stance, which resonates with a younger generation of artists and writers. (Lovatt 2015:104) Martin’s refusal to identify her gender and sexuality both in her public persona image and in her work is reminiscent of some strands of contemporary iction, in which the real or imagined sex of the narrator is concealed by the author (Richardson 2006:3–4). For example, in Jane Winterson’s 1992 novel, Written on the Body, the unnamed, autodiegetic narrator, never identiied as male or female, is in love with a woman, having had previous sexual encounters with both men and women. Lanser (1996:250) refers to this silence as ‘destabilising’ both textuality and sexuality, and driving the novel as much as the surface plot. One could argue whether Martin’s relative silence in public and the silence of her art are indicative of her self-imposed exile as a schizophrenic lesbian, or as a means of transcending any form of (self-)categorisation. I trust it is the latter. he source of Martin’s fascination with silence as healthy and productive via Zen, rather than as repressive via the Western, Freudian tradition, ofered her a more comforting and liberating means of evading sexual diference (Katz 2011; Schif 2012). And when she suffered from the combined symptoms of schizophrenia (visual and auditory hallucinations) and mood disorders (depression and mania), having tried religion, therapy and drugs, when she sought ‘solitude in 1967, study and meditation inally helped’ (Baas 2015:231). Conclusion: silence as voice In contrast to other forms of mass mediatisation, art, which thrives on equivocality and understatement, tends to be silence-friendly due to its 448 AdAm JAworski afordances of relative indeterminacy and ambiguity. As silence tends to occupy liminal stages of communication and interaction, such as interactional openings and closings, or ritual and ceremonial speech, it is wellsuited to index liminal subjectivities. In the public domain of performance, silence has the potential of becoming a powerful and potentially emancipatory emblem of what in the private domain, or in other areas of social life, such as education, law and religion, continues to signify oppression or invisibility. In this paper I have suggested that in their visual performances, artists orient to silence as a resource that allows them to reassert or rearticulate stances (subject positions) that are linked to non-normative or marginalised gender roles and sexualities. he artists’ own subject positions in these performances need not always be fully transparent, and they may align themselves (Rauschenberg; the Dadaists; Martin) with, or ironise (ACT UP; Sterzing/Wojnarowicz) the stereotypical associations with silence. As in all other instances of performance, the audience is implicated in evaluating the performer’s alignment or distance from the projected voice (way of speaking, genre or mode) embedded and embodied in speciic acts of stance-taking and the moral and aesthetic orders expressed therein (Bauman 1986; Jafe 2009). hus, performative transduction of silence into the visual medium opens up traditional models of aesthetic and moral values associated with silence to interpretive scrutiny and evaluation by the audience, potentially creating spaces for their transformation (Bauman 2000; Jafe 2015). Like all meditational means, silence does not have any ‘intrinsic’ value (Jones and Norris 2005b). It can be used, transformed and appropriated in various ways. Its afordances predispose it to some forms of indexical work better than others, but these can vary across time and space. Regarding women’s silence, Cameron poses the following questions: might women’s reluctance to speak out in certain contexts or in certain ways be a symbolic resource for displaying legitimacy as a member of the category ‘women’? Under some conditions, is silence itself (the silence that signiies modesty, or respect for one’s betters, or the kind of enigmatic femininity that may be imbued with erotic meaning) a form of symbolic capital that women may have something to gain by deploying? (Cameron 2006:17; see also Gal 1989) In Jane Campion’s ilm he Piano (1993), Ada ‘speaks’ to the other characters through her music. When she refuses to reveal her inner self to Stewart, the silencing of the music acts as her protective shield (van Leeuwen 1998). Silence can be a powerful voice through which people can make themselves heard and understood. VisuAl silence And non-normAtiVe sexuAlities 449 About the author Adam Jaworski works at the School of English, the University of Hong Kong. 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