Daniel as Wisdom in Action

This file contains all of the content of the essay, but does not reflect the pagination in the book. Daniel as Wisdom in Action Andrew E. Steinmann Concordia University Chicago Biblical wisdom literature, especially the book of Proverbs, offers advice on becoming wise and behaving wisely. But wisdom literature presents its own challenge: is it even proper to speak of a biblical wisdom literature—whether that entails a genre or literature with a certain outlook or literature written by sages?1 Some have argued that wisdom is recognizable, though a precise definition of a wisdom genre is elusive.2 Others have implied that wisdom literature as a genre is simply a modern construct.3 Without belaboring the point, I would like to suggest that there is a cluster of biblical books that have ee o siste tl g ouped togethe si e a ti uit a d hethe o e ishes to la el the isdo o something else, this phenomenon alone demonstrates that learned readers have shared an opinion that these books are more like each other than they are like other books of the Hebrew Bible. Thus, Josephus e tio s fou ooks that he des i es as h s to God a d ou sel fo the o du t of life that probably were Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs.4 Philo, in The Contemplative Life, speaks of the sa ed ooks of the The apeutae as La a d o ds spoke God th ough the p ophets and Psalms and the other books that foster and perfect knowledge a d piet . 5 Vulgate codices frequently grouped together Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus as libiri didactici.6 If we are to tolerate suggestions that because these books were not 1 For instance, Sneed has argued that wisdom literature was not the product of a guild of sages. See Mark Sneed, Is the Wisdo T aditio a T aditio ? CBQ 73 (2011): 50–71. 2 This i ludes a gu e ts i pape s p epa ed fo p e ious “BL sessio s: Ma k “ eed, G aspi g Afte Wi d : The Elusi e Atte pt to Defi e Wisdo , pape p ese ted at the a ual eeti g of the “BL, Chicago, IL, November 18, ; ‘ussell L. Meek, P ophet a d “age i Dialogue: Histo a d Methodolog , pape p ese ted at the a ual meeting of the SBL, Baltimore, MD, November 22, 2013), esp. 11–13. 3 E.g., Will K es, Wisdo as Mask a d Mi o : ‘espo se to ‘ussell L. Meek, pape p ese ted at the a ual meeting of the SBL, Baltimore, MD, November 22, 2013). Kynes traces the modern concept of biblical wisdom lite atu e to Joha F ed i h B u h s Weisheits-Lehre der Hebräer, published in 1851. See K es, Wisdo as Mask a d Mi o , . 4 Antiquities 12.43; Steinmann, The Oracles of God: The Old Testament Canon. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1999), 116; Joh Ba to , The La a d the P ophets: Who A e the P ophets, OTS 23 (1984): 3–4. 5 The Contemplative Life, 25, emphasis added; see also the discussion in John Barton, Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the Exile. (New York: Oxford, 1986), 58. 6 These include Codex Amiatinus Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence; Codex Cavensis at the abbey of La Trinita della Cava, Italy; Codex Corbeiense in the Russian National Library, St. Petersburg; and Codex Turonensis in the National Library of France, Paris. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action alled isdo 2 the a ients, the entire concept is simply an ill-defined modern conceit, then we might want to be consistent and deny the concept of the biblical prophetic books as currently conceived or the concept of biblical historical books, perhaps also the books often labeled Deute o o isti History, si e the alo g ith the isdo p ophets ooks e e ost ofte si pl lu ped togethe as the the a ie ts.7 Moreover, if we want to become bogged down in arguments about genre, let us concede that the concept of genre itself is a slippery one that literary critics have always struggled to define.8 Thus, I will assume for the purposes of this paper that there is a constellation of Old Testament books of wisdom or, if one prefers ancient characterization: books that promote pious and efficacious thought and life.9 These books share enough similarities to set them apart from the other biblical literature and invite us also to observe how they interact with other types of biblical literature. Yet, when we look at these books as a whole we find that with the exception of a few short passages i E lesiastes E l : : − : ; − ; : − ; : − a d pe haps the a ati e po tio s of Jo Jo : -17), there are no examples of wise persons in action in wisdom literature, no extended biblical case studies of wise people.10 This is partly a consequence of the nature of wisdom literature—it tends to be poetic, epigrammatic, and aphorismic. It is not often or primarily a narrative genre. 7 E.g., 2 Macc 15:9; Matt 5:17; 7:12; 11:13; 22:24; Luke 16:16, 29, 31; 24:27; John 1:45; Acts 13:15; 24:14; 26:22; 28:23; Rom 3:21; from Qumran one could also include the Damascus Document (CD A, col. 7, line 14–18) and The Rule of the Community (1QS col. 8, lines 15–16). 8 This has ee a k o ledged fo uite so e ti e. “ee the o lassi studies su h as Ja ues De ida, The La of Ge e, C iti al I ui , : –82; Stanley Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? (Cambridge: Harvard, 1980); Alastair Fowler, Kinds of Literature (Cambridge: Harvard, 1982); Thomas Kent, Interpretation and Genre. (Lewisburg: Bucknell, 1986). 9 I would include Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, as well as certain wisdom Psalms in this classification. Song of Songs in my opinion is marginally wisdom/didactic. The apocryphal/deuterocanonical books of Ben Sira and Wisdom might also be considered as sharing the same orbit with these books. 10 By extended case study, I mean the presentation of someone as wise followed by tracing his wise thoughts, observations, and acts over a lifetime or at least over a significant portion of his life. Certainly, 1 Kgs 3 first declares “olo o ise usi g Yah eh s o o ds Kgs : –15; 2 Chr 1:6–13) and then by giving one example of his wisdom in action (1 Kgs 3:16–28). No other actual examples of wise acts or even wise writings by Solomon are given, although such acts and writings are mentioned (1 Kgs 4:29–34; 10:3–4; 2 Chr 9:1– , . “olo o s o ds at Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 3 So to find a biblical example of a wise person we have to turn to books with more extensive narrative accounts that seek to portray the protagonists in their storylines as wise.11 I believe that the book of Daniel seeks to depict Daniel and his three Judean companions in precisely this way. One rough indication of this is the concentration of wisdom-related te s i Da iel. B isdo - elated te s I mean terms that are used with some frequency in biblical wisdom literature as characterizing a wise person or wise behavior and attitudes and that share a fair degree of semantic overlap with the term wisdom (‫)חכמה‬. In Daniel we find a number of these Hebrew terms or their Aramaic cognates: Hebrew terms: Term Occurrences in Daniel In Daniel In OT Poetry/Wisdom12 19 (11%)13 84 (49%) Verbal root ‫ בין‬understand Dan 1:4, 17; 8:5, 16, 17, 23, 27; 9:2, 22, 23; 10:1, 11, 12, 14; 11:30, 33, 37; 12:8, 10 Noun ‫ בינה‬understanding Dan 1:20; 8:15; 9:22; 10:1 4 (11%) 23 (61%) Noun ‫ דעת‬knowledge Dan 1:4; 12:4 2 (2%) 61 (68%) the dedication of the temple could be argued to be an example of his wisdom (1 Kgs 8:12–53; 2 Chr 6:1–42), but there are other examples of prayer in the OT that show similar piety and theological acumen where the speaker had not been labeled as wise (e.g., Ezra 9:6–15). Solomon can barely be seen as a case study of a wise person, and certainly not an extended case study. If anything, in 1 Kgs he is a case study of a wise person turned foolish—he spe t o e ti e uildi g his house tha Yah eh s Kgs 6:38; 7:1), and he turned from Yahweh (1 Kgs 11). 11 The other place in OT narrative one might look for wisdom lived out is in the life of Joseph (Gen 37; 39–50). See the comparison between Joseph and Daniel in Andrew E. Steinmann, Daniel. Concordia Commentary. (St. Louis: Concordia, 2008), 37– ; Matthe “. ‘i dge, Je ish Ide tit u de Fo eig ‘ule: Da iel as a ‘e o figu atio of Ge esis . JBL : − ; We d L. Widde , The Cou t “to ies of Joseph Ge a d Da iel Da i Canonical Co te t: A Theologi al Pa adig fo God s Wo d a o g the Natio s. Old Testament Essays 27 (2014): − . Fo studies o Joseph see also Mignon R. Jacobs, ”The Conceptual Dynamics of Good and Evil in the Joseph Story: An Exegetical and Hermeneutical Inquiry.” JSOT 27 (2003): 309−38; Yigal Levin, “Joseph, Judah and the ‘Benjamin Conundrum’.” ZAW 116 (2004): 223−41; Christoph Levin, “Righteousness in the Joseph Story: Joseph Resists Seduction (Genesis 39)” pages 223−40 in Thomas B. Dozeman, Konrad Schmid, and Baruch J. Schwartz, eds. The Pentateuch: International Perspectives on Current Research. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011. Yonatan Grossman. ”The Story of Joseph's Brothers in Light of the ‘Therapeutic Narrative’ Theory.” Bib Int 21 (2013): 171−95; J. G. McConville, “Forgiveness as a Private and Public Act: A Reading of the Biblical Joseph Narrative.” CBQ 75 (2013): 635−48; Konrad Schmid, “Josephs zweiter Traum: Beobachtungen zu seiner literarischen Funktion und sachlichen Bedeutung in der Josephsgeschichte (Gen 37−50).” ZAW 128 (2016): 374−88. 12 Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes. None of these terms occur in Song of Songs, but I consider it only marginally a wisdom book (see note 8 above). 13 Percentages are based on the number of occurrences in the OT. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 4 Noun ‫ מדע‬understanding14 Dan 1:4, 17 2 (33%) 1 (17%) Noun ‫ חכמה‬wisdom Dan 1:4, 17, 20 3 (2%) 91 (61%) Verbal root ‫( ׂכל‬H stem) act sensibly; have insight Dan 1:4, 17; 9:13, 22, 25; 11:33, 35; 12:3, 10 9 (15%) 27 (46%) Noun ‫ ׂכל‬good sense, insight Dan 8:25 1 (6%) 8 (50%) Aramaic terms: Term Occurrences in Daniel Noun ‫ בינה‬discernment Dan 2:21; 4:31, 33; 5:12 Adjective ‫ חכים‬wise Dan 2:12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 24, 27, 48; 4:3, 15; 5:7, 8, 15 Noun ‫ חכמה‬wisdom Dan 2:20, 21, 23, 30; 5:11, 14 Noun ‫ מנדע‬knowledge Dan 2:21; 4:31, 33; 5:12 Some comparison with the wisdom and poetic books is also revealing. Judging from vocabulary alone, Daniel is most closely related to Proverbs and Job and somewhat more weakly related to Ecclesiastes:15 Term Daniel Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Verbal root ‫בין‬ understand 19 (11%) 23 (13%) 26 (15%) 34 (20%) 1 (>1%) Noun ‫בינה‬ understanding 4 (11%) 9 (24%) 0 (0%) 14 (37%) 0 (0%) Noun ‫ דעת‬knowledge 2 (2%) 10 (11%) 4 (4%) 40 (44%) 7 (8%) Noun ‫מדע‬ understanding 2 (33%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (17%) The infrequently used noun ‫ מדע‬occurs only six times in the OT. Interestingly, half of these are used in 2 Chr : − i “olo o s e uest to God fo isdo (but not in the parallel in 1 Kgs 3:9–14). Yet 2 Chr does not o tai the a ou t of “olo o s de onstration of his wisdom as found in 1 Kgs 3:16–28 or the description of his wisdom as in 1 Kgs 4:29–34. 15 The relationship to Psalms is more complicated, since not all Psalms can be characterized as wisdom literature, although a number of Psalms explore or expound on wisdom or wise attitudes and behavior and could be characterized as wisdom psalms. 14 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action Noun ‫ חכמה‬wisdom 3 (2%) 18 (12%) 6 (4%) 39 (26%) 28 (19%) Verbal root ‫( ׂכל‬H stem) act sensibly; have insight 9 (15%) 3 (5%) 11 (19%) 13 (22%) 0 (0%) Noun ‫ ׂכל‬good sense, insight 1 (6%) 1 (6%) 1 (6%) 6 (38%) 0 (0%) 5 I will argue below that upon closer inspection, Daniel has a much closer relationship with Proverbs than with other biblical wisdom literature. Clearly, the Hebrew portions of Daniel, which comprise just over half of the book, have more than their share of the occurrences of these terms. A statistical comparison of the vocabulary of the Aramaic portions of Daniel with the biblical wisdom books would require much more sophisticated methods.16 However, it is noteworthy that the Hebrew terms derive from four roots (‫בין‬, ‫ידע‬, ‫חכם‬, and ‫)ׂכל‬ and that the four Aramaic terms derive from three of these (all except ‫)ׂכל‬. These Aramaic roots are true cognates of the Hebrew counterparts—that is, the semantics of the Aramaic roots substantially corresponds to those of the similar Hebrew roots. In Daniel it is difficult, if not impossible to distinguish the use of these Aramaic roots from their Hebrew cognates. At the same time, Daniel lacks explicit discussion of the polar opposite terms so frequently employed in the antithetical parallelism of Proverbs—it does not use vocabulary related to foolishness.17 This lack of interest in directly describing foolishness highlights that the book of Daniel is more about depicting action than it is about describing wisdom in more objective terms as is done, for instance, in Proverbs or Ecclesiastes. Instead, when foolishness is described in Daniel it is ultimately shown to be imprudent and thoughtless but never labeled as such. Thus, the folly of those who worshiped 16 I am not aware of any studies that attempt to do this. However, I am confident that linguists could devise such methods. 17 Such as the noun ‫פתי‬, the nouns ‫ כסיל‬and ‫כסילות‬, the nouns ‫ אויל‬and ‫אולת‬, the noun and verbal root ‫נבל‬, the phrase ‫חסר־לב‬, the adjective ‫בער‬, the noun, adjective, and verbal root ‫גבה‬, the noun ‫רמיה‬, or the nouns ‫ לץ‬and ‫לצון‬. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action Nebuchadnezza s idol Da , Ne u had ezza s u ise a oga e Da 6 a d Belshazza s d u ke dis espe t fo Is ael s God Dan 5) are shown to be foolish by the outcome of the narrative, not by calling these behaviors foolish. However, this is not surprising, since in each instance the foolish behaviors are by pagans who have no dedicated relationship to Yahweh, a prerequisite for possessing biblical wisdom (e.g., Job 28:28; Prov 1:7, 29; 2:1–5; 3:5, 25–26; 9:10; Eccl 12:3). To highlight these behaviors as foolish would be almost pedantic, stating what ought to be obvious to the knowledgeable reader. However, by letting these foolish acts go unlabeled, the author all the more powerfully highlights for the reader the explicitly labeled wisdom of Daniel. The text allows readers to conclude that some behavior by pagans is foolish so that they can appreciate all the more the wise behavior of Daniel a d othe s as flo i g f o thei elatio ship ith Is ael s God. More importantly, a major focus of the book is how to live among the nations and continue to live the pious life of a worshiper of Yahweh.18 The emphasis on godly wisdom fits with this focus and explains also the lack of any accenting of foolish eha io that ight det a t f o the autho s essage. So, what exactly is the relationship between the wisdom of the OT and Daniel? Attributes of Biblical Wisdom Before we can investigate Daniel as wisdom in action, we must first understand what biblical wisdom is. First and foremost, biblical wisdom is an attribute of God. This is stated most directly in Prov 3:19:19 Yahweh founded the earth by wisdom; he established the heavens by understanding. However, this is also implied elsewhere. For instance, the poem about the way to wisdom in Job 28 speaks of wisdom as God s si e o l he k o s the a to it: 18 19 See the discussion in Steinmann, Daniel, 30–31. All translations a e the autho s. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 7 But God understands the way to it [wisdom]. He knows its location, for He looks to the ends of the earth and sees everything under heaven. When God fixed the weight of the wind and established the water by measure, when He determined a limit for the rain and a path for the lightning, He considered wisdom and evaluated it; He established it and examined it. (Job 28:23-27) Later in Job when Yahweh challenges Job from the whirlwind, he also claims wisdom as his own: Ca ou se d out light i g olts, a d the go? Do the sa to ou: He e e a e ? Who put wisdom in the inner organs or gave the mind understanding? Who can number the clouds using wisdom? (Job 38:35-37a) This passage in Job also highlights that true wisdom is a gift from God, as also explicitly stated in Proverbs: Yahweh gives wisdom; from his mouth [come] knowledge and understanding (Prov 2:6). More importantly, wisdom is linked with righteousness, specifically the active righteousness of a person who trusts God.20 Consider the following proverbs: Do not warn a mocker, otherwise he will hate you. Warn a wise person, and he will love you. Give [advice] to a wise person, and he will become even wiser. Teach a righteous pe so , a d he ill add [to his] isdo . P o : − The father of a righteous person will cheerfully rejoice. The man who begets a wise person will find joy in him. (Prov 23:24) This righteousness places an emphasis on character that is unique to ancient Israel. Clifford has noted that at least when speaking of Prov 1–9 Israelite wisdom is unique in the Ancient Near East: Taken as a whole, the instructions of Prov 1– a e disti ti e…The a e less spe ifi tha their Egyptian and Mesopotamian prototypes. They urge reader to seek wisdom rather than to do or not do particular actions. To put it another way, Proverbs emphasizes character rather than acts.21 20 For further on the link between wisdom and righteousness in Proverbs see Sun Myung Lyu, Righteousness in the Book of Proverbs (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012); Bruce K. Waltke, Righteousness in Proverbs, WTJ 70 (2008): 225–237. 21 Richard J. Clifford, Proverbs: A Commentary, (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1999), 18. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 8 Whatever theory one expounds about the relationship of Prov 1–9 to the rest of the book, in its present setti g, this se tio se es to set the to e fo the o ise sa i gs that follo a d pla e i the eade s mind that these shorter aphorisms ought to be read in the context of character shaping action.22 Thus, real wisdom according to the OT stems from a relationship with Yahweh and is often captured in the phrase the fear of Yahweh (‫)יראת יהוה‬. 23 This phrase at times may denote fear of punishment, although such uses are rare in the Hebrew Bible. For example: Fear Yahweh, my son, and [fear] a king. Do not associate with those who are rebellious, because their disaster will happen suddenly, and who knows what ruin both of them will cause? (Prov 24:21–22) 22 For various theories about the origin of Prov 1–9 see Daniel Estes, Hear, My Son: Teaching and Learning in Proverbs 1–9. (New Studies in Biblical Theology; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997); Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1–9: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB A; Ne Yo k: Dou leda , ; Fo , The “o ial Lo atio of the Book of P o e s, i Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran. (ed. Michael V. Fox et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 227– ; Leo G. Pe due, Wisdo Theolog a d “o ial Histo i Proverbs 1– , i Wisdom, You Are My Sister: Studies in Honor of Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm., on the Occasion of His Eightieth Birthday. (ed. Michael L. Barré; CBQMS 29; Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1997), 78– ; Pat i k W. “keha , A “i gle Edito fo the Whole Book of P o e s, CBQ 9 (1947): 190–98; Andrew E. Stei a , P o e s – as a “olo o i Co positio . JETS 43 (2000): 659–74; Roger Norman Whybray, The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study. History of Biblical Interpretation 1. (Leiden: Brill, 1995); Whybray, The Composition of the Book of Proverbs. (JSOTSup 168; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1994). 23 On this phrase see Karl Barth, Fear of the Lord Is the Beginning of Wisdom. Int 14 (1960): 433–39; Henri Blocher, The Fear of the Lord as the Principle of Wisdom. TynBul 28 (1977): 3–28; John Bowman, The Fear of the Lord, in Studies in Wisdom Literature. (ed. W. C. Van Wyk; Hercules, South Africa: N H W, 1981), 9–12; William P. Brown, Come, O Children...I Will Teach You the Fear of the Lord (Psalm 34:12): Comparing Psalms and Proverbs, in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients. (ed. Ronald L. Troxel, et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 85–102; Daniel Castelo, The Fear of the Lord as Theological Method. Journal of Theological Interpretation 2 (2008): 147–60; Robert L. Cate, The Fear of the Lord in the Old Testament. Theological Educator (1987): 41–55; David J. A. Clines, The Fear of the Lord Is Wisdom (Job 28:28): A Semantic and Contextual Study, in Job 28: Cognition in Context. (ed. E. J. Van Wolde; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2003), 57–92; Alexander A. Di Lella, Fear of the Lord and Belief and Hope in the Lord Amid Trials: Sirach 2:1–18, in Wisdom, You Are My Sister, 188–204; Alexander A. Di Lella, Fear of the Lord as Wisdom: Ben Sira 1, 11–30, in The Book of Ben Sira in Modern Research: Proceedings of the First International Ben Sira Conference 29–31 July, 1996, Soesterberg, Netherlands. (ed. Pancratius C. Beentjes; New York: De Gruyter, 1997), 113–33; Walter C., Kaiser, Jr. Wisdom Theology and the Centre of Old Testament Theology. EvQ 50 (1978): 132–46; Roland E. Murphy, The Fear of the Lord: The Fear to End All Fears, in Overcoming Fear between Jews and Christians. (ed. James H. Charlesworth, et al.; New York: Crossroad, 1992), 172–80; Zóltan Schwáb. Is Fear of the Lord the Source of Wisdom or Vice Versa? VT (2013): 652–62; Dawn Lyn Spies. The Fear of the Lord in Numbers 13–14. Lutheran Forum 44 (2010): 10-12; Andrew E. Steinmann, Proverbs. Concordia Commentary. (St. Louis: Concordia, 2009), 27–28; Anneke Viljoen and P. M. Venter. An Exploration of the Symbolic World of Proverbs 10:1–15:33 with Specific Reference to the Fear of the Lord . HTS 69 (2013); Bruce K. Waltke, The Fear of the Lord. Journal of the Christian Brethren Research Fellowship (1992): 12–16. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 9 Do not let your mouth lead you to sin. Do not say in the presence of the esse ge , It as a istake. Wh should God e a g ith ou state e t a d ui the o k of your hands? For many dreams [result in] pointless actions, and so do many words. Therefore, fear God. (Eccl 5:5–6; EV 5:6–7) In both cases fear denotes d ead of God s pu ish e t that i gs ui . However, the fear of Yahweh more frequently does not denote fear of punishment, but instead a positive relationship with God that leads one to shun evil. This is especially in evidence in Deut 6:2–13 and Deut 10:12 where the fear of Yahweh is linked with love for him, appreciation for his deliverance of Israel from Egypt, and willingness to alk i his a . In Proverbs this positive relationship leads to wisdom and shunning of evil behavior. Do not consider yourself wise. Fear Yahweh, and turn away from evil. (Prov 3:7) The fear of Yahweh is discipline that leads to wisdom. (Prov 15:33) Do not allow your heart to envy sinners. Instead have the fear of Yahweh all the time. (Prov 23:17) He [Yahweh] said to a ki d, Note: The fear of Yahweh—that is wisdom. And to turn from evil is understanding." (Job 28:28) These two meanings are not unrelated. While fear of Yahweh as a motivation to escape his punishment is d ead of God s ath, the fea of Yahweh that denotes a positive relationship is a much more subtle fear—fear of the loss of relationship with a loving and gracious God who brings blessings on those who fear him. Possessing the fear of Yahweh, therefore, brings comfort and reassurance in that relationship: The fear of Yahweh is strong confidence, and his children will have a refuge. (Prov 14:26) The fear of Yahweh [leads] to life, and [one who has it] rests content. He will not be disturbed by trouble. (Prov 19:23) Thus, understanding this more subtle fear of Yahweh is wisdom, something that sinners and fools cannot attain (cf. Prov 2:1–5). Finally, we ought to note that true wisdom is sometimes counterintuitive from the perspective of those who do not possess it. That is, those who possess godly wisdom act in ways that are pleasing to God even if it appears to threaten their well-being in this life. For instance, consider this proverb: Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action A pe so s good se se akes hi an offense. (Prov 19:11) 10 slo to a ge , a d it is to his credit that he overlooks Those who do not possess divine wisdom might view this advice as harmful, since overlooking an offense appears to put one in a weaker, more vulnerable position—a person who is easily imposed upon. Yet, the wise person understands that being longsuffering is being godlike (Exod 34:6; Num 14:18; Neh 9:17; Ps 86:15; 103:8; 145:8; Joel 2:13; Jonah 4:2; Nah 1:3). A good reputation is to be chosen rather than great wealth. Favor is better than silver and gold. (Prov 22:1) Many suppose that one cannot be too rich, that riches are an unalloyed blessing or at least more blessing than bane—but this saying runs counter to such thinking.24 The person without godly wisdom may reason that great wealth can buy a good reputation and curry favor with others. However, a person with godly wisdom knows that this kind of reputation and favor is ephemeral, lasting only as long as o e s ealth is p ese t, a d it e tai l is of o alue efo e God (cf. Zeph 1:18; Jas 5:1–6; 1 Pet 1:18). I stead, the ise pe so alues God s i st u tio Ps : . Do t gi e e po e t o i hes. Feed e [o l ] allotted food. Otherwise I may feel satisfied a d de ou a d sa , Who is Yah eh? Or on the other hand, I may become poor and steal and profane the name of my God. (Prov 30:8b-9) This prayer of Agur only makes half-sense to the worldly-wise person: it certainly is not good to be poor, si e it dep i es a pe so of the as th eate i g life a d ea s to suppo t o e s life. Ho e e , Agu s o e is less o po e t o e o it th eate i g o e s elatio ship ith God. More importantly, while great wealth may seem like a good problem to have, Agur sees it as dangerous because it can damage 24 For a wider discussion of wealth and poverty in Proverbs see Timothy J. Sandoval, The Discourse of Wealth and Poverty in the Book of Proverbs (Biblical Interpretation Series 77; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2006); Raymond C. Van Leeu e , Wealth A d Po e t : “ ste A d Co t adi tio I P o e s. HS 33 (1992): 25–36.; Harold C. Washington, Wealth and Poverty in the Instruction of Amenemope and the Hebrew Proverbs. (SBLDS 142; Atlanta: “ hola s, ; ‘oge N. Wh a , Po e t , Wealth, a d Poi t of Vie i P o e s. ExpTim 100 (1989): 332–36; H G M. Willia so , A Ch istia Vie of Wealth a d Possessio s: A Old Testa e t Pe spe ti e. ExAud 27 (2011), 1–19; G. H. Witte e g, The “ituatio al Co te t Of “tate e ts Co e i g Po e t A d Wealth i the Book of P o e s. Scriptura 21 (1987): 1–23. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 11 o e s elatio ship ith God by making that relationship seem unnecessary (cf. Matt 19:24; Mark 10:25; Luke 18:25). The wise person prays only that his physical needs be met (cf. Matt 6:11; Luke 11:3). As we turn to the narratives in Daniel, we see that the actions and aptitudes of Daniel, Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael illustrate a number of passages in Proverbs that speak of kings and service to kings. Daniel Demonstrates Wisdom through Service to Overlords All of the a ati es of Da − i ol e se i e to ki gs—by Daniel (Dan 3-6), by Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael (Dan 2), or by all four men (Dan 1). Proverbs has much to say about serving kings (e.g., Prov 14:35; 16:12–15; 19:12; 20:2, 8; 21:1; 22:11, 29; 24:21–22; 25:2–27), and Daniel and his Judean companions demonstrate isdo is i te esti g to ote that espe iall P o as applied to se i g o e s : − is i the fo aste —in this case monarchs. It of ad i e fo ki gs a d those ho se e them.25 “o e see espe iall apt as ge e al des iptio s of Da iel s deali gs ith Nebuchadnezzar. For i sta e, P o sa s, B patie e a ule : a e pe suaded, a d a soft to gue a eak a o e. Daniel and his companions repeatedly show patience in dealing with the pagan Nebuchadnezzar o sta tl efe i g hi to the God of Hea e Dan 2:18−19, 37, 44 o the Most High God Dan 3:26; 4:2; 5:18, 21) without directly upbraiding him for his pagan beliefs and practices. Wisdom Leads to Prominence Do you see a person who is efficient in his work? He will serve kings. He will not serve unknown people. (Prov 22:29)26 Gle do E. B e, A othe Wisdo - Book i P o e s. JBL : − ; ‘a o d C. Va Co te t a d Mea i g i P o e s 5− 7, “BLD“ . Atla ta: “ hola s , , , − , , 26 It is inte esti g to ote that this p o e is ot t eated as “olo o i i p o e s ut is f o the people P o : − : ; see esp. P o : l ANET, 424, n 46 a d The He e Book of P o e Tea hi g of A e ophis, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology : − . . This pa ti ula sa i i the Wo d of A e o ope. Thus, it o es f o hat theologi all ight e see as atu al k o la . “ee Joh ‘uffle, The Tea hi g of A e e ope a d Its Co e tio ith the Book of P o e s. : − ; Paul O e la d, “t u tu e i the Wisdom of Amenemope a d P o e s pages − 25 Leeu e , . o ds of ise s a d the g has a pa allel ledge of God s Tyn Bul 29 i Go to the Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 12 This proverb notes that competent earns recognition and reward.27 It e ou ages lea i g o e s aft ell i stead of fo usi g o o e s ad a e e t. Those ho seek su ess ithout e pe di g the effort to increase their competence risk losing any advantages and offices they may have acquired when it becomes obvious to those who promoted them that they are not worthy of their position. Da o tai s the a ou t of Da iel a d his o pa io s efusi g to eat the ki g s i h food. Ho e e , e also fi d i that In every matter of wisdom and understanding about which the king consulted them, he found them ten times better than all the diviners and mediums in his entire kingdom. Da : . This sets the stage of the p o otio of these e i Da : − : Then the king promoted Daniel and gave him many generous gifts. He made him ruler over the entire province of Babylon and chief governor of all the wise men of Babylon. At Daniel's request, the king appointed Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego to manage the affairs of the province of Babylon. But Daniel remained at the king's court. A Wise Person Avoids Sinful Behavior It is a disgusting thing to kings to do wickedness, for a throne is established by righteousness. (Prov 16:12) This proverb encourages kings and those who serve them to think about the long-term stability of their position rather than the immediate wealth and power that can be gained through corruption. The stability of the throne and the positions of those serve it can only be achieved if the king knows that it is in the interest of the royal house to rid the court of schemers and malefactors.28 In Dan 6 King Darius clearly was upset when he discovered that he had been manipulated into issuing a decree that endangered Daniel (Dan 6:14).29 Darius clearly acknowledges Daniel s piet Da La d I Will “ho You : “tudies i Ho o of D ight W. You g. Joseph E Colleson and Victor H. Matthews, eds. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1996). 27 Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs. WBC 22 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 171; Richard J. Clifford, Proverbs. OTL (Louisville: West Minster John Knox, 1999), 208. 28 Clifford, Proverbs, 159. 29 Note that this is another example of foolishness of a king—he can be manipulated by appeal to his vanity into actions that he later regrets (Dan 6:7–10). Note, however, that Darius is not called foolish, and a casual reader might miss his foolishness altogethe a d fo us o l o the ulti ate foolish ess of Da ius offi ials ho talk hi into unwise behavior. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 13 6:17)—a sig of Da iel s righteousness—and Daniel himself declares the righteousness of his actions (Dan 6:23). The narrative also portrays Darius as bothered by the unrighteous act of condemning the lo al Da iel to the lio s de Da : − . Da ius ight ithout food a d sleep a e a o se ue e of the severe anxiety he experienced. It would be tortuous for a ruler to be pressured into condemning an innocent man whom he has regarded favorably. With a guilty conscience, Darius is unable to enjoy entertainment or pleasures, so he refrains from them. This characterization of Darius serves to further e phasize the ighteous ess of Da iel s a tio a d the isdo of his eha io . In the end, the king not only rejoices in the rescue of the righteous Daniel (Dan 6:25-27), but also shows his disgust for the wicked scheming of his officials as he condemns them to the punishment they had prepared for Daniel (Dan 6:25). The pu ish e t fo Da iel s a use s is the fate the had designed for him. The legal practice of imposing upon those who make a false accusation the penalty that they would have imposed on the accused was common in the ancient Near East (see Esth 7:10) and as e e e do sed i OT La the lio s Da e d the isdo : Deut : − ; Ps : − ;P o : , ; : . The a e ous a tio s of as a i id de o st atio of hat the a se e of God s p ote tio ea s. I the of Da iel s a tio s is highlighted y the contrasting results for the righteous Daniel versus the foolish and scheming officials. Wisdo ‘esults i a Maste s Fa o to a d His “e a ts A ki g s fa o is to a d a se a t ho has i sight, ut his fu (Prov 4:35) is fo o e ausi g sha e. The e is life i the light of a ki g s fa e; his fa o is like a loud of [that rain. (Prov 16:15) i gs] sp i g The person who loves a pure heart—his lips are gracious; a king will be his friend. (Prov 22:11) The favor of kings is toward righteous lips. He loves a person who speaks upright things. (Prov 16:13) Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 14 Da iel s God-gi e i sight i to ki gs d ea s a d his ise ad i e leads to lessi gs fo hi self and his fellow Judeans. He not only interprets dreams (Dan 2 and Dan 4), but also advises kings (Dan 4:24) and is known to be absolutely trustworthy in the faithful execution of his office (Dan 6:3). All of these result in Daniel being favored by both Nebuchadnezzar and Darius. This is already hinted in Dan : he e Da iel u de stood e e ki d of isio a d d ea s, g a ti g hi a spe ializatio that went beyond that of his Judean companions, though was of the same kind of divine favor and wisdom with which they were endowed.30 A Wise Person Can Know When to Defy a Maste s A ge A king's fearful anger is like a lio s g o l; hoe e i t udes o hi (Prov 20:2) e da ge s his life. The ki g's a ge is like a lio s g o l, ut his fa o is like de o g ass. Prov 19:12) Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego risk the full rage of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan 3). Their wisdom in preferring to live in the fear of Yahweh rather than in fear of royal reprisal ultimately leads to royal favor. This narrative, more than any other in Daniel, demonstrates the counterintuitive nature of divine isdo g a ted to God s people. While the book of Proverbs recognizes the anger of a king, Daniel and his friends show the complexity of wisdom in fearing the wrath of Yahweh—the true king—over the king of Ba lo . Thei a tio s a tuall i ite the Ba lo ia ki g s a ge ut fo a e ise reason—to maintain their reliance on God and the gracious relationship he has established with them. They flatly state that they have no need to answer the king (Dan 3:16). But more importantly, they state that if their God exists, it follows that he has the ability to save them—and their wisdom is shown that they fea God 30 o e tha the fea the ki g s ath.31 John J. Collins, Daniel. Hermenia. (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 144. Steinmann, Daniel, − ; Pete W. Co o , Da iel III : A Li guisti a d Theologi al P o le . VT 26 (1976): − ; A iel A. Blo h, Questio i g God s O ipote e i the Bi le: A Li guisti Case “tud . Pages − i Semitic Studies in Honor of Wolf Leslau on the Occasion of His Eighty-fifth Birthday. (Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1991). 31 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 15 A Wise Pe so Ca Alla His Maste s A ge A king's anger is a messenger of death, but a wise person can assuage it. (Prov 16:14) Da iel s ea tio he he u de stood Ne u had ezza s d ea of a la ge t ee Da also shows wisdom in action. Daniel knew that telling the king bad news was a frightening prospect, and Ne u had ezza e e e og ized the fea o Da iel s fa e Da assuage the ki g s a ge The isdo hile also : . Daniel immediately sought to o i g to a f a k po t a al of the d ea of Da iel s a tio is e hi ited i that he su tl s athe tha di e tl ea i g Da : − . ei fo es a ke theological point: God is in charge (Dan 4:21). This subtlety can then be wisely made more explicit when Da iel told Ne u had ezza that he ould e ai de e ted u til the ki g a k o ledges God s absolute rule, not his own (Dan 4:22). Finally, Daniel is wise to avoid details of Ne u had ezza s dreams—such as the iron and brass bands on the stump (Dan 4:12), thereby sparing the king embarrassment of imply that he may have to be restrained physically (cf. Dan 4:23). Daniel also displays a related ability—the capacity to allay a maste s fea . I Da o e o es fea of the ki g s hief eu u h appeali g to the ste a d ho placed in charge of Daniel and his companions (Dan 1: − he the hief eu u h had . The ten-day trial of a vegetarian diet not only proved successful, it was also a master stroke in that it did not require permanent rejection of the ki g s i h food. At the same time it allowed the four young Judeans to avoid breaking any of the dietary Laws found in the Pentateuch, with the Torah did not consider any edible plants to be unclean. Daniel wisely avoids any need to give a long explanation of which type of meant the Judeans could and could not eat (cf. Lev 11). A Wise Person Understands That God Controls Human Authorities A ki g's hea t i Yah eh s ha d is st ea s of water: He directs it wherever He desires. (Prov 21:1) Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 16 In the well-known account of the handwriting on the wall, Daniel for the first and only time in the book directly challenges and chastises a ruler. Unlike the more deferential attitude he displayed before Nebuchadnezzar, when he is called upon to interpret the inscription on the wall he is confrontational: He rejects the rewards that the king had proffered (Dan 5:17).32 Daniel then reminds Belshazzar that he ought to have learned a lesson from Nebuchadnezza s a oga e as e o ded i Da Da : − . He then upbraids Belshazzar for his lack of humility before the Lord of Heaven (Dan 5:22−23). Only after making the king listen to this stern condemnation does Daniel deign to interpret the dream. Daniel s actions display his wisdom in recognizing that God has di e ted Belshazza s thoughts a d e otio s f. Da : − . Not o l ill the ki g e patie t a d tole ate Da iel s o ds, he ill e e impose upon the prophet the rejected gifts (Dan 5:29). Though Da iel s defia e of Belshazza a d his interpretation of the handwriting might have been deemed worthy of death under other circumstances, Da iel as ise e ough to u de sta d the situatio a d to t uth that God s ill as at o k. The f ight of the king and the promise he had made in front of his guests probably forced him into honoring Daniel i stead of e e uti g hi . I the a ati e this se es to e phasize the isdo of Da iel s a tio s. A Wise Person Advises Kings to Be Merciful Mercy and truth protect a king; and he maintains his throne with mercy. (Prov 20:28) This proverb is an observation that rulers cannot make their position secure through tyranny, corruption, or bloodshed. The only way a ruler can remain truly secure is to show mercy while upholding truth, just as divine mercy and truth protect all.33 Mille a gues that Da iel eje ted Belshazza s gift ot out of ude ess ut to a oid a is o eptio s that God s se i es ould e ought. “tephe ‘. Mille , Daniel. NAC 18. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 162. Though that may be true, Da iel s eje tio of the e a d, ho e e , oa de s o ude eha io a d is p o a l a pu poseful sig al to the ki g that Da iel o side ed his a ts foolish a d a oga t a d e iti g God s disapp o al. See Steinmann, Daniel, 283. 33 Clifford, Proverbs, 186. 32 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 17 When Daniel was asked by Nebuchadnezzar to interpret his dream of the large tree, Daniel not o l i te p eted the d ea , he also offe ed ad i e: … eak a a f o fo ou i i uities : : sho i g e ou si s ith ighteous ess a d to the poo . Pe haps ou p ospe it ill e p olo ged. Da Ne u had ezza appa e tl does ot take Da iel s ad i e a d fo a ti e loses his th o e Da − , de o st ati g the isdo of Da iel s ou sel by negative example. Throughout the accounts of Daniel, Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael and their interaction with kings, they exhibit wise behavior as advocated in Proverbs and summarized in Eccl 8: Who is like the wise person, and who knows the interpretation of a matter? A man s wisdom lights up his face, and his stern face is transformed. Keep the king's command because of your oath made before God. Do not be in a hurry and leave his presence, and do not persist in a bad cause, since he will do whatever he wants. For the king s word is authoritative, and who can say to him, What are you doing? (Eccl 8:1−4)34 Da iel’s P a e —Dan : 9− Daniel not only demonstrates wisdom in his interaction with kings. He also displays it in his relationship to God, as is shown in his p a e afte ha i g e ei ed e elatio of Ne u had ezza s dream and its interpretation.35 In this prayer Daniel includes the following concepts found in biblical wisdom literature, especially Proverbs: Wisdom belongs to God (Dan 2:20) God controls time and establishes worldly authorities (Dan 2:21) God grants wisdom (Dan 2:21, 24) Is Da iel’s Depi tio of Wisdo Relia t o P o e s? So, are we to conclude that the narratives of Daniel are somehow reliant upon Proverbs or biblical wisdom books more generally? I suppose the answer to this question depends on what one 34 It is interesting to note that Eccl 8:4b is almost an exact match to Job 9:12, where God—not the king—is the referent. Therefore, the wisdom admonition to fear Yahweh includes a healthy fear of the king. See Roland Murphy, Ecclesiastes. WBC 23A (Dallas: Word, 1992), 83. 35 O the i po ta e of this p a e to the e ti e a ou t i Da see G. T. M. P i sloo, T o Poe s i a “ea of Prose: The Content and Context of Daniel 2.20-23 and 6.27– . JSOT 59 (1993): 93–108. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 18 understands as reliance of one text upon another. If by reliance we understand close verbal affinities between texts, easily detected parallels in thought, structure, theme, or plot, then the answer would certainly be that Daniel is not reliant on Proverbs (or Job or Ecclesiastes). However, if by reliance we include a more indirect and understated influence of one text upon another, then I would argue that there is a certain reliance in that the author of Daniel has internalized the wisdom of Proverbs (and at times Job and Ecclesiastes)—especially the wisdom needed to serve in a royal court—and has shaped his account of the actions of Daniel and the three Israelite young men to foreground their wisdom. The author never gives readers the impression that he is at pains to illustrate the aphorisms in Proverbs or passages in Job and Ecclesiastes in his narratives. However, by his use of selected wisdom vocabulary, he signals to the reader that some connection exists with Israelite wisdom concepts. When one compares the situations in Dan 1–6 with situations addressed in more general terms in biblical wisdom books, especially Proverbs, the reliance—or influence, if you prefer that term—can be perceived. More importantly, why is Daniel portrayed as a wise courtier who exhibits wise behavior in the mode of the advice given in Proverbs? No matter when one dates the book of Daniel—from the early Persian period to the late Hellenistic era36—it was a book written to Jews living under foreign domination, and perhaps even persecution.37 For such readers there had to have been an important question concerning their piety: Was it possible to accept such domination, serve foreign overlords, and still ai tai o e s faith a d e e li e as a ise o shippe of Yah eh? Da iel s e a ple tells eade s that they can within certain limits. While there are absolutes to the ancient Israelite faith that cannot be compromised (cf. Dan 3 and 6), with God-given wisdom one can negotiate the sometimes treacherous churning waters between service to human masters and service to God. 36 For discussions of various positions on the date of the composition of Daniel see Steinmann, Daniel, 1–19 and the various commentaries and articles referenced there. 37 For further discussion see Steinmann, Daniel, 28–31. Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 19 Wise People i Da iel’s Visions While attention to the actions of wise people seems to be missing in most of the visionary sections of Daniel, it is present in its closing vision, Dan 10–12. God s people a e also depi ted as ise. They exhibit the behaviors that characterize their wisdom as of divine origin, since they lead others to knowledge and righteousness: Those of the people who have insight will make many understand, but they will stumble by sword, flame, captivity, and plunder for some time. (Dan 11:33) Those who have insight will shine like the brightness of the king, and those who bring many to righteousness like the stars forever and ever. (Dan 12:3)38 Moreover, their wisdom is—from a worldly viewpoint—counterintuitive (cf. Prov 19:11 cited above): they must fall, be purified, and cleansed, and they will understand this while the wicked will not: Some of those who have insight will stumble in order to refine them, purify [them], and make [them] white until the time of the end, for it is still for an appointed times (Dan 11:35) Many will be purified, be made white, and be refined, but the wicked will behave wickedly. The wicked will not understand, but those who have insight will understand. (Dan 12:10) These wise persons—those with insight—will accept their persecutions as pleasing to God even as it threatens their well-being in this life. It is their actions, not their cognitive awareness that demonstrates their wisdom. They, like Daniel, display sagacity by their life and unlike Daniel, even by their death. Retribution in Proverbs and Daniel—Is there a Link between the Two Books? Is there another wisdom link connecting Daniel and Proverbs? Dan 12:10 (quoted above) might seem to open the door for such an exploration. Standing in antithetical parallelism to those who have insight a e the i ked. Most poi tedl this is not the foolish see the dis ussio a o e o Da iel s The e is ge e al ag ee e t o e tato s of all st ipes that those ho ha e i sight at Da : a e i the first instance, faithful Jews who opposed the oppressive forced Hellenization of Judea by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. See Louis F. Harman and Alexander A. Di Lella, The Book of Daniel: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 23. (New York: Doubleday, 1977), 299; Miller, Daniel, 302; Steinmann, Daniel, 531. Collins, Daniel, 385 believes that they were more specifically those who resisted but did so by nonviolent means. 38 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action 20 avoidance of terms in the semantic domain of foolishness). However, it does suggest that the righteousness of the wise (see discussion above) is matched by the wickedness of the foolish in Daniel. It is a commonplace in Proverbs that the wicked may face retribution for their acts. At times this is simply a poetic justice that they are ensnared in their own schemes: The person who digs a pit will fall into it. The person who rolls a stone—it will roll back on him. (Prov 26:27). Much more often the actions of wicked people lead them to eventual ruin (e.g., Prov 10:7, 16, 24; 11:2, 3, 6, 17, 19, 27, 31; 12:21).39 However, in a few cases Yahweh will bring retribution on the wicked: The way of Yahweh is a fortress for the person of integrity, but destruction for evildoers. A righteous person will never be moved, but wicked people will not dwell on earth (Prov 10:29). In some cases Yahweh is not mentioned as the source of retribution, but his work is implied: When the storm has passed, the wicked are no more, but the righteous person [has] an everlasting foundation. (Prov 10:25) Perhaps the most ominous expressions of this theology of retribution is found in sayings with the phrase ‫לֹא יִ נָ ֶקה‬, he ill ot go u pu ished (Prov 6:29; 11:21; 16:5; 17:5; 19:5, 9; 28:20).40 Two of these in particular appear to connect that punishment with Yahweh: Everyone with an arrogant attitude is an abomination to Yahweh. Be sure of this: that person will not go unpunished. (Prov 16:5) Someone who makes fun of a poor person insults his Maker. A person who rejoices over [so eo e else s] isfo tu e ill ot go unpunished (Prov 17:5)41 This is ofte ha a te ized as a t- o se ue e afte the theo p opou ded Klaus Ko h, Gibt es ein Ve geltu gsdog a i Alte Testa e t. ZTK 52 (1955): 1-42. Ho e e , Ko h s theo has ee alled i to question by Peter T. H. Hatton, Contradiction in the Book of Proverbs: The Deep Waters of Counsel (SOTSMS 13; Ashgate: Aldershot, 2008). See also Pete Hatto , A Cautio a Tale: The A ts-Co se ue e Co st u t . JSOT 35 (2011): 375–84. 40 “ha i Yo a. The I flue e of Legal “t le o the “t le of Aphorism: The Origin of the Retribution Formula and the Clause Lōʼ Yi ā eh He Will Not Go U pu ished i the Book of P o e s. Birkat Shalom Vol 1, Studies in the Bible, Ancient Near Eastern Literature, and Postbiblical Judaism Presented to Shalom M. Paul on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2008), 413–23. 39 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action What 21 akes these passages a out Yah eh s et ibution interesting is that they do not specify when one might expect Yahweh to act against the wicked.42 When will the wicked not dwell on earth (Prov 10:29)? Could the storm that carries away the wicked be eschatological or is it simply temporal (Prov : ? “i e the i ked ill ot go u pu ished, he ill thei Make ete out et i utio ? Any thoughtful, observant person who has lived a good number of years knows that some evildoers seem never to have gotten their comeuppance in this life. For eve Adolph Hitle ho died a o a d s death in a bunker or every Osama bin Laden who was killed in hail of bullets, there are just as many Josef Stalins who never had to face justice for atrocities committed under their direction. So are these proverbs reliable? Will the wicked get their just deserts? One solution to the conundrum of whether such Proverbs are reliable is the oft-stated position that the proverbs are intended to be generally, but not universally, true.43 Yet, Prov 16:5 is quite emphatic and does not seem to allow for such an interpretation. Note the idiom ‫יָ ד ְליָ ד‬, ha d to ha d i.e., e su e of this that is used only one other time, also with the phrase ‫( לֹא יִ נָ ֶקה‬Prov 11:21).44 However, another option might be to understand Proverbs as i pl i g that Yah eh s retribution will be primarily eschatological rather than strictly temporal. It appears that Daniel may be developing wisdom in that direction in two passages: Dan 7:9–28 and Dan 12:1–13. In Dan 7 the Ancient of Days comes for judg e t a d the ooks a e ope ed Da : , p esu a l i se i e of the judgment on the kingdoms of the world and in giving a e e lasti g ki gdo 41 to the people of the sai ts This same theme is found in the Wisdom of Amenemope, chapter 25 (24:9–10). See ANET, 424. Interestingly, many commentators fail even to notice or comment upon the i plied th eat of God s pu ish e t in these proverbs. See Clifford, Proberbs, 158, 164; Murphy, Proverbs, 121, 129. 43 E.g., as espoused in F ed i k Ca lso Hol g e , Ba ki g Dogs Ne e Bite, E ept No A d The : P o e s a d Jo . AthR 61 (1979): 341– . “ee also Ch isti e ‘o Yode , Fo i g Fea e s of Yah eh : ‘epetitio a d Co t adi tio as Pedagog i P o e s i Seeking out the Wisdom of the Ancients. (ed. Ronald L. Troxel, et al.; Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 167–83. 44 This idio ost p o a l ea s su el , e tai l , ithout a dou t see HALOT, s. v. ‫יָ ד‬, 3). It may derive from the practice of sealing an agreement with the striking of together hands (Prov 11:15; 17:18; 22:26). 42 Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action of the Most High : 22 —in essence dividing between the righteous and the wicked. In Dan 12 we again find a book, this time with the names of those who will be delivered (Dan 12:1). Then in the resurrection there is a division between those who will receive everlasting life and those who have everlasting shame and contempt (Dan 12:2), between those who have insight (‫)ה ַמ ְׂ ִכ ִלים‬ ַ and the wicked (‫ ְ;ר ָש ִעים‬Dan 12:10). In both Dan 7 and Dan 12 the wicked receive judgment, and there is no suggestion that there is any escape from it. The eschatological retribution associated with the wicked is contrasted with the blessings given to those who have insight. Daniel is not offering a direct interpretation of the retribution depicted in Proverbs. However, he is developing an eschatological retribution that in Dan 12 is tied to wisdom vocabulary and cannot help but affect how his readers will understand Proverbs that speak of Yah eh s et i utio o the i ked. Despite this, the author of Daniel does not focus on retribution of the wicked—it is mentioned only once as shame and contempt (Dan 12:2), but not the blessing for the wise. This is in keeping with his general trend foregrounding wise behavior and placing foolish/wicked behavior in the background. Conclusion I have argued that wisdom is an important motif in Daniel, although it is not the sapiential, proverbial, epigrammatic wisdom that is so common in the biblical wisdom literature. Instead the book of Daniel shows its readers how wise people act and display the wisdom of God in modes most clearly delineated in Proverbs but also occasionally found in Job and Ecclesiastes. Moreover, the book encourages wisdom by highlighting it as an attainable attribute for the faithful person who reveres Is ael s God. Ne e theless, this isdo , like P o e s isdo , is ofte ou te i tuiti e, si e ha i g it may lead to temporal trials and even death (Dan 11:33, 35; cp. the three young men in Dan 3 or Daniel in Dan 6). Precisely because their wisdom is demonstrated by action that can be observed by others, it Steinmann: Daniel as Wisdom in Action simultaneously shows itself to be godly sagacity and exposes the faithful to persecution. For Daniel, wisdom is as wisdom does. 23