Haroon BhoratRelated papers
Towards an Asset-based Indicator of Poverty
Indian Journal of Human Development, 2020
Asset-based measurement of poverty
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 2010
Consolidating and improving the assets indicator in the global Multidimensional Poverty Index
World Development
Is poverty multidimensional? A comparison of income and asset based measures in five Southern African countries
Social Indicators Research, 2007
The missing link - Asset-based measures of poverty: Towards asset-income threshold and networth threshold
1 Chinese proverb: BETTER teach a man to catch fish than give him fish 1.0 INTRODUCTION One of the contributions of this chapter is to lend weight to the current discourse on asset-based measures of poverty and argue in support of Carter and Barrett (2005) 2 who propose an extension of the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of poverty measures. This chapter goes beyond asset-threshold and posits assets-income-based and networth measures of poverty applied to the FGT class of poverty measures. A binary classification of assets into tangible 3 and intangible is introduced representing what is called in this article the hardware and the software respectively 4. This chapter discusses the former, the hardware. I would like to use this classification to argue that while a lot of poverty studies focus on intangible assets (the software) such as education (literacy), health (longevity, fertility etc), only a few studies have focused on tangible assets (hardware) in the measurement of poverty hence it is given distinct prominence in this thesis. Tangibles include tractors, land, scotch carts, livestock and stocks (grain, seed). I entwine my work with that of Carter and Barrett (2005) with respect to the FGT class of poverty measures to broaden the scope of application of the tools they propose. This chapter is divided into five sections. Section 2 provides the background and is followed by a literature review as Section 3 which contains a brief appraisal of FGT extensions as proposed by Carter and Barrett (2005). In Section 4, I propose my own extensions to the FGT class of measures. Section 5 concludes. 2 This paper by Carter and Barrett (2005) is downloadable, see internet 2in the reference section. 3 Tangible assets are physical and material assets that have physical substance i.e. shape and form, and can be touched for example cash, land, and buildings. Intangibles describes assets that do not have a physical, tangible existence but are usually non-monetary in nature. Examples of intangible assets could include goodwill, brand value or patents, skills, knowledge and creativity etc. 4 It is quite tempting to categorise these further as concrete and abstract; objective and subjective respectively.
Poverty Index: Welfarist and Multidimensional Approaches
No Poverty. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals., 2020
“We are committed to ending poverty in all its forms and dimensions,” states the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations 2015, #24). The two main targets related to poverty are “1.1. By 2030 eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day” (or updated to $1.90 a day) and “1.2. By 2030 reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions.” The 2030 Agenda and SDGs recognize that poverty may be measured in various ways. One way is to use a money-metric international poverty line. An alternative and complementary way is to use a multidimensional poverty index. This chapter explains both approaches in depth.
The missing link: Asset-based measures of poverty - Towards an asset-income threshold and a networth threshold
One of the contributions of this paper is to lend weight to the current discourse on asset-based measures of poverty and argue in support of Carter and Barrett (2005) who propose an extension of the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class of poverty measures. This paper goes beyond asset-threshold and posits assets-income-based and networth measures of poverty applied to the FGT class of poverty measures. A binary classification of assets into tangible and intangible is introduced representing what is called in this article the hardware and the software respectively . This chapter discusses the former, the hardware. I would like to use this classification to argue that while a lot of poverty studies focus on intangible assets (the software) such as education (literacy), health (longevity, fertility etc), only a few studies have focused on tangible assets (hardware) in the measurement of poverty hence it is given distinct prominence in this thesis. Tangibles include tractors, land, scotch carts, livestock and stocks (grain, seed). I entwine my work with that of Carter and Barrett (2005) with respect to the FGT class of poverty measures to broaden the scope of application of the tools they propose.
Dime nsio ns
of
Po ve rty
in
Po st-Ap arthe id
So uth Africa
1 9 9 6 -2 0 0 1
A POVERTY STATUS REPORT
D e ve lo p m e n t Po licy Re s e arch U n it
School of Economics •
University of Cape Town
Dime nsio ns
of
Po ve rty
in
Po st-Ap arthe id
So uth Africa
1 9 9 6 -2 0 0 1
Prepared by:
Haroon Bhorat
Laura Poswell
Pranushka Naidoo
July 2004
Acknowledgement:
This publication was sponsored by the Secretariat for Institutional Support through Economic
Research in Africa (SISERA). Their generous financial assistance in this regard is acknowledged.
ISBN: 1-920055-01-0
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D e ve lo p m e n t Po licy Re s e arch U n it
School of Economics •
University of Cape Town
Table
of
Con t en t s
WH AT IS PO VERTY AN D H O W D O WE M EASURE IT?........................................................1
SO UTH AFRICA: PO PULATIO N , H O USEH O LD S AN D REGIO N AL GD P.........................3
ASSET AN D SERVICES D EPRIVATIO N ..................................................................................5
DWELLINGS..........................................................................................................................................5
WATER ...................................................................................................................................................6
SANITATIO N ........................................................................................................................................ 8
ENERGY TYPES..................................................................................................................................... 8
REFUSE REMO VAL..............................................................................................................................9
PRIVATE GO O DS .............................................................................................................................1 0
ECO N O M IC ACTIVITY, ED UCATIO N PRESEN T AN D FUTURE O PPO RTUN ITIES........11
EDUCATIO NAL ATTAINMENT......................................................................................................11
INDUSTRY O F EMPLO YMENT.......................................................................................................12
EARNINGS FRO M EMPLO YMENT................................................................................................1 3
UNEMPLO YMENT............................................................................................................................1 4
UNEMPLO YMENT AND THE ABILITY TO SATISFY HO USEHO LD FO O D NEEDS .............15
UNEMPLO YMENT, SO URCES O F INCO ME AND HO USEHO LD FO RMATIO N ...............16
ACCESS TO FINANCE......................................................................................................................1 7
H EALTH .................................................................................................................................18
CRIM E...................................................................................................................................2 1
CO N CLUSIO N .....................................................................................................................2 2
REFEREN CES.........................................................................................................................2 4
1
“To b e p o o r is to b e hungry, to lack she lte r and
clo thing, to b e sick and no t care d fo r, to b e
illite rate and no t scho o le d . But fo r p o o r p e o p le ,
living in p o ve rty is m o re than this. Po o r p e o p le are
p articularly vulne rab le to ad ve rse e ve nts o utsid e
the ir co ntro l. The y are o fte n tre ate d b ad ly b y the
institutio ns o f state and so cie ty and e xclud e d fro m
vo ice and p o w e r in tho se institutio ns” (W o rld Bank
2000, p .15).
“Fro m a hum an d e ve lo p m e nt p e rsp e ctive , p o ve rty
m e ans the d e nial o f cho ice s and o p p o rtunitie s fo r
a to le rab le life ” (UN DP 1997, p .5).
“Po licy d e b ate s have ind e e d b e e n d isto rte d b y
o ve re m p hasis o n inco m e p o ve rty and inco m e
ine q uality, to the ne gle ct o f d e p rivatio ns that
re late to o the r variab le s, such as une m p lo ym e nt, ill
he alth, lack o f e d ucatio n, and so cial e xclusio n”
(Se n 1999, p .108)
Po ve rty ta ke s o n m u ltip le d im e n sio n s a n d in
e sse n c e d e sc rib e s a sta te o f d e p riva tio n tha t
p re ve n ts a n in d ivid u a l fro m a tta in in g so m e
m in im u m “ so c ia lly a c c e p ta b le ” sta n d a rd o f livin g.
This sta te o f d e p riva tio n c a n the re fo re b e
m e a su re d in a n u m b e r o f wa ys a n d a c c o rd in g to
va rio u s a p p ro a c he s.
The m o st c o m m o n ly u se d m e tho d o f p ro filin g
p o ve rty in a so c ie ty in vo lve s firstly e sta b lishin g
the m in im u m a m o u n t o f m o n e y re q u ire d to m e e t
the c o st o f a n in d ivid u a l’ s (o r ho u se ho ld ’ s) b a sic
n e e d s, whic h wo u ld in c lu d e a fo o d a n d n o n -fo o d
c o m p o n e n t. This p o ve rty lin e is the n u tilise d in
c o n ju n c tio n with sp e c ific m e a su re s o f p o ve rty to
d e ve lo p a n a p p ro p ria te d e sc rip tio n o f in d ige n c e
in the so c ie ty. H o we ve r, p o ve rty lin e s a re d iffic u lt
to m e a su re a n d the c ho ic e o f lin e o fte n im p re c ise .
Fu rthe rm o re , in d ic e s a re o fte n su b je c tive a n d
a rb itra ry in the c ho ic e o f va ria b le s o r we ights
u se d in the ir c o n stru c tio n . Ye t a n o the r wa y o f
c o m p a rin g re la tive we llb e in g o f p re -d e fin e d
gro u p s is the p o ve rty d o m in a n c e a p p ro a c h. In
this typ e o f a n a lysis, n o p o ve rty lin e s a re u se d ,
b u t gro u p s a re m e a su re d a ga in st e a c h o the r in
te rm s o f c ho se n in d ic a to rs su c h a s in c o m e le ve ls
o r a c c e ss to c e rta in a sse ts o r se rvic e s. Usin g
in c o m e a s a n e xa m p le , the d o m in a n c e m e tho d
gra p hic a lly d e p ic ts the c u m u la tive p ro p o rtio n
o f tho se with a c c e ss to e a c h a n d e ve ry in c o m e
le ve l, fo r e a c h gro u p b e in g c o n sid e re d . If it is
sho wn tha t o n e gro u p ’ s c u m u la tive d istrib u tio n
a lwa ys fa lls a b o ve o r b e lo w a n o the rs ’ , stro n g
1
2
McKenzie 2003, p 9
McKenzie 2003, p 3
sta te m e n ts c a n b e m a d e a b o u t re la tive
we llb e in g. Fo r e xa m p le , in the c a se o f in c o m e , it
c o u ld the n b e sta te d tha t o n e gro u p is b e tte r o ff
tha n a n o the r fo r e a c h a n d e ve ry in c o m e p o ve rty
lin e c ho se n .
Me a su rin g the n u m b e r o f p o o r a c c o rd in g to a
p o ve rty lin e a p p ro a c h a n d c o n sid e rin g c ha n ge s
o ve r tim e re q u ire s a c c u ra te in c o m e o r
e xp e n d itu re d a ta . In So u th Afric a the in c o m e a n d
e xp e n d itu re su rve ys (1 9 9 5 a n d 2 0 0 0 ) c o lle c t
the re le va n t d a ta . At p re se n t, the re a re a
n u m b e r o f q u e stio n s o n the q u a lity a n d
c o m p a ra b ility o f the se d a ta se ts, with the d a ta
q u a lity o f the 2 0 0 0 su rve y c u rre n tly u n d e r
re vie w. G ive n this, the re is n o re c e n t d a ta se t with
whic h o n e c a n c o n fid e n tly c a rry o u t p o ve rty
c o u n ts fo r the c o u n try.
An a lte rn a tive a p p ro a c h to m e a su rin g p o ve rty,
in the a b se n c e o f d a ta o n in c o m e a n d
c o n su m p tio n , is to u se a sse t-b a se d in d ic a to rs.
An a sse t in d e x c a n b e c o n stru c te d u sin g d a ta o n
ho u se ho ld d u ra b le s (fo r e xa m p le , o wn in g a
ra d io , re frig e ra t o r e t c ) a n d h o u s e h o ld
c ha ra c te ristic s (fo r e xa m p le , the n u m b e r o f
ro o m s in a ho u se o r sa n ita tio n fa c ilitie s).
Pro vid e d a su ffic ie n tly b ro a d c la ss o f a sse t
in d ic a to rs is u se d , the in d e x sho u ld re fle c t
d iffe re n tia tio n o f livin g sta n d a rd s a c ro ss
1
ho u se ho ld s. O n e o f the a d va n ta ge s o f u sin g a n
a sse t-b a se d in d e x is tha t it a vo id s the p ro b le m s
o f re c a ll b ia s, se a so n a lity a n d m ism e a su re m e n t
tha t c a n o c c u r with in c o m e a n d c o n su m p tio n
2
b a se d m e a su re s o f p o ve rty.
A we ll-kn o wn e xa m p le o f a n in d e x u se d to
re fle c t d iffe re n c e s in we llb e in g is the Un ite d
N a tio n s D e ve lo p m e n t Pro gra m m e ’ s H u m a n
D e ve lo p m e n t In d e x (H D I). This m e a su re is u se d
to c o m p a re c o u n trie s in te rm s o f the ir
a c hie ve m e n ts in a tta in in g a c e rta in sta n d a rd o f
livin g p ro xie d fo r b y in d ic a to rs o f life e xp e c ta n c y
a t b irth, a d u lt lite ra c y, a c o m b in e d p rim a ry,
se c o n d a ry a n d te rtia ry sc ho o lin g e n ro lm e n t ra tio
a n d G ro ss D o m e stic Pro d u c t p e r c a p ita .
W ith the re c e n t re le a se o f c e n su s 2 0 0 1 , we ha ve
a t o u r d isp o sa l a we a lth o f d a ta o n a ra n ge o f
livin g sta n d a rd s in d ic a to rs o the r tha n in c o m e /
e xp e n d itu re . Thro u gh c o m p a riso n s o f the se
in d ic a to rs with tho se re p o rte d in c e n su s 1 9 9 6 ,
we c a n d e ve lo p a p ic tu re o f d e p riva tio n in 2 0 0 1
a n d o f c ha n ge s in we llb e in g o ve r tim e . In this
re p o rt we u se m a in ly a n a sse t-b a se d a p p ro a c h
c o m b in e d in so m e in sta n c e s with p o ve rty
d o m in a n c e a n a lysis.
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
W H AT I S PO VERTY AN D H O W
D O W E M EASU RE I T?
2
O u r c ho ic e o f p o ve rty in d ic a to rs in c lu d e s tho se
c o m m o n ly u se d in the lite ra tu re o n p o ve rty
a n a lysis, the re le va n c e o f whic h to So u th Afric a is
stro n gly su p p o rte d b y the fin d in gs o f the So u th
Afric a n Pa rtic ip a to ry Po ve rty Asse ssm e n t whic h
c o n te xtu a lise d the e xp e rie n c e o f p o ve rty
thro u gh the vo ic e s o f So u th Afric a n s the m se lve s.
Ke y the m e s to e m e rge fro m this p ie c e o f wo rk
re ve a le d tha t in So u th Afric a to b e p o o r m e a n s to :
“Be alie nate d fro m yo ur co m m unity, to b e unab le
to sufficie ntly fe e d yo ur fam ily, to live in
o ve rcro w d e d co nd itio ns, use b asic fo rm s o f
e ne rgy, lack ad e q uate ly p aid and se cure jo b s and
to have fragm e nte d fam ilie s” (May 2000, p 5).
Fu rthe rm o re , we c o n sid e r vu ln e ra b ility a ke y
d im e n sio n o f p o ve rty a n d in c lu d e in d ic a to rs o f
lo w a d e q u a c y to d e a l with sho c ks in o u r a n a lysis.
Ultim a te ly tho u gh, while the in c o m e p o ve rty
a p p ro a c h is wid e ly u se d a n d e xtre m e ly p o we rfu l,
it d o e s e xc lu d e b o th a sse ts p o sse sse d a n d
se rvic e s a c c e sse d b y in d ivid u a ls in the so c ie ty.
The se ra te s o f o wn e rship a n d a c c e ss in va ria b ly,
a re c ritic a l, a d d itio n a l d e sc rip to rs o f p o ve rty in a
so c ie ty, a n d the y will b e the d o m in a n t a n a lytic a l
d e sc rip to r o f p o ve rty in this re p o rt.
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
The a im o f this re p o rt is to p ro vid e a p ic tu re o f
a sse t a n d se rvic e s d e p riva tio n , e c o n o m ic
a c tivity, a n d he a lth a n d sa fe ty, a n d to illu stra te
the c ha n ge s in the se in d ic a to rs fro m 1 9 9 6 to
2 0 0 1 . W e u se the c e n su s d a ta (1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 1 )
3
to a n a lyse shifts in the se in d ic a to rs d u rin g the
5 ye a r p e rio d , a n d in c a se s whe re d a ta o n shifts is
n o t a va ila b le , we a tte m p t to c re a te a b ro a d e r
p ic tu re fo r 2 0 0 1 u sin g m o re d e ta ile d d a ta fro m
the La b o u r Fo rc e Su rve y, Se p te m b e r 2 0 0 1 . W e
a n a lyse the in d ic a to rs o f e c o n o m ic a n d so c ia l
we llb e in g o n the n a tio n a l le ve l a n d fo r thre e
p ro vin c e s, n a m e ly, G a u te n g, Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l,
a n d Lim p o p o . The se p ro vin c e s we re c ho se n to
illu m in a t e t h e re gio n a l d isc re p a n c ie s in
we llb e in g tha t e xist in So u th Afric a , e ve n o n a
p ro vin c ia l le ve l. G a u te n g wa s c ho se n a s a p ro xy
fo r the ric he st p ro vin c e s (G a u te n g a n d the
W e ste rn Ca p e ), Lim p o p o a s re p re se n ta tive o f
the p o o re st p ro vin c e s (Lim p o p o , the Fre e Sta te
a n d the Ea ste rn Ca p e ) a n d Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a s
3
the m o re a ve ra ge p e rfo rm e r.
The re p o rt b e gin s with a b rie f o ve rvie w o f
t h e d e m o g r a p h ic a n d lo c a t io n -s p e c ific
c ha ra c te ristic s o f the c o u n try in 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 1 .
Se c tio n 2 the n c o n sid e rs ke y in d ic a to rs o f
d e p riva tio n su c h a s a c c e ss to b a sic go o d s a n d
se rvic e s. Se c tio n 3 fo c u se s o n e c o n o m ic
in d ic a to rs o f we llb e in g a n d in c lu d e s d a ta o n
e d u c a tio n , e m p lo ym e n t a n d u n e m p lo ym e n t.
Se c tio n s 4 a n d 5 p ro vid e a d d itio n a l c o ve ra ge
o f fu n d a m e n ta l p o ve rty in d ic a to rs n o t in c lu d e d
in the p re vio u s se c tio n s su c h a s he a lth sta tu s
a n d c rim e . Fin a lly, se c tio n 6 e n d s the re p o rt with
so m e c o n c lu d in g re m a rks.
Prior research on income poverty has found that the Eastern Cape, Free State and Limpopo rank as the poorest provinces, with Gauteng and
the Western Cape being the least poor. The remaining provinces are found between these extremes. The poverty rates and rankings for the
provinces vary with the survey data and poverty lines used (see Bhorat et.al 2001; May 2000; Statistics South Africa 2000.)
3
SO U TH AFRI CA:
PO PU LATI O N , H O U SEH O LD S
AN D REGI O N AL GD P
The a n a lysis b e gin s with a b rie f o ve rvie w o f the
d istrib u tio n o f in d ivid u a ls a n d ho u se ho ld s b y
p ro vin c e . As c a n b e se e n in Ta b le 1 , the o ffic ia l
p o p u la tio n figu re fo r 2 0 0 1 wa s 4 4 .8 m illio n ,
risin g fro m 4 0 .6 m illio n in 1 9 9 6 . This a m o u n ts to
a n in c re a se o f 1 0 .4 p e rc e n t o ve r the 5 ye a r p e rio d
4
o r a p p ro xim a te ly 2 p e rc e n t p e r a n n u m .
p e rc e n ta ge p o in ts fro m 9 .1 m illio n in 1 9 9 6 to
1 1 .2 m illio n in 2 0 0 1 . Me a n ho u se ho ld siz e fe ll
fro m 4 .1 to 3 .8 p e o p le . In te re stin gly, a ltho u gh
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l is the la rge st p ro vin c e in te rm s
o f a c tu a l n u m b e r o f re sid e n ts, G a u te n g ra n ks
a s the p ro vin c e with the gre a te st n u m b e r o f
ho u se ho ld s. The re a so n fo r this d isp a rity is
d u e to the d iffe re n c e in ho u se ho ld siz e ,
w it h h o u s e h o ld s s ig n ific a n t ly la rg e r in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l (m e a n o f 4 .3 in 2 0 0 1 ) c o m p a re d
with tho se in G a u te n g (m e a n o f 3 .2 in 2 0 0 1 ).
Thu s the sha re o f ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g
a c c o u n ts fo r 2 3 .7 p e rc e n t o f the to ta l in 2 0 0 1 ,
The sp a tia l d istrib u tio n o f the
Table 1: Population and Share of Population by Province, 1996 and 2001
p o p u la c e b y the c o u n try ’ s n in e
Population
Share of Population
p ro vin c e s p ro ve s illu m in a tin g
1996
2001
1996
2001
p a rtic u la rly in the c a se o f the tre n d
Eastern Cape
6 302 525
6 4367 63
15.5%
14.4%
d a ta . In b o th 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 1 , the
Free State
2 633 504
2 706 775
6.5%
6.0%
7 348 423
8 837 178
18.1%
19.7%
p r o v i n c e w i t h t h e la r g e s t Gauteng
8 417 021
9 426 017
20.7%
21.0%
p o p u la tio n wa s Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l, KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
4 929 368
12.1%
11.8%
5 273 642
fo llo we d b y G a u te n g, the Ea ste rn Mpumalanga
2 800 711
3 122 990
6.9%
7.0%
Ca p e a n d Lim p o p o . In te rm s o f Northern Cape
840 321
82 2727
2.1%
1.8%
p o p u la tio n in c re a se s, G a u te n g North West
3 354 825
3 669 349
8.3%
8.2%
3 956 875
4 524 335
9.7%
10.1%
a n d the W e ste rn Ca p e ha ve Western Cape
National
40 583 573
44 819 776
100.0%
100.0%
e xp e rie n c e d the gre a te st gro wth
a s the fo rm e r ’ s p o p u la tio n ro se b y Source: Census 1996; Census 2001
2 0 p e rc e n t o ve r the 5 ye a r p e rio d
fo llo we d b y Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l (KZ N ) with 1 8 .6
a n d the la tte r ’ s b y 1 4 p e rc e n t . The Ea ste rn Ca p e ,
p e rc e n t a n d the Ea ste rn Ca p e with 1 3 .5 p e rc e n t.
Fre e Sta te a n d N o rthe rn Ca p e ha ve e xp e rie n c e d
The N o rthe rn Ca p e is the sm a lle st m a kin g u p le ss
the sm a lle st c ha n ge s o f le ss tha n 3 p e rc e n t ,
tha n 2 p e rc e n t o f to ta l ho u se ho ld s in 2 0 0 1 .
o r le ss tha n 1 p e rc e n t p e r a n n u m . Su c h sta rk
d iffe re n c e s in the p ro vin c ia l p o p u la tio n gro wth
Ta b le 2 a lso re ve a ls the d ive rge n c e b e twe e n the
ra te s re fle c t m a jo r shifts in the d istrib u tio n o f
ru
ra l-u rb a n n a tu re o f the p ro vin c e s. G a u te n g
the p o p u la tio n . This c a n la rge ly b e a ttrib u te d to
a n d the W e ste rn Ca p e a re p re d o m in a n tly u rb a n ,
in te r-p ro vin c ia l m igra tio n , with tho se in se a rc h
whe re a s Lim p o p o is m o stly ru ra l. Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
o f b e tte r e c o n o m ic o p p o rtu n itie s m o vin g to
fa lls b e twe e n the se e xtre m e s with a re la tive ly
the re la tive ly m o re p ro sp e ro u s re gio n s.
e ve n p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s fo u n d in b o th
typ e s o f re gio n s. The n a tio n a l a ve ra ge in d ic a te s
Ta b le 2 sho ws the d istrib u tio n o f ho u se ho ld s b y
tha t 6 2 .4 p e rc e n t o f So u th Afric a n ho u se ho ld s
p ro vin c e , the m e a n ho u se ho ld siz e , a s we ll a s the
a re c la ssifie d a s b e in g lo c a te d in u rb a n a re a s.
p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s lo c a te d in u rb a n a re a s.
The n u m b e r o f ho u se ho ld s in c re a se d b y 2 3 .7
Eastern Cape
Free State
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
Mpumalanga
Northern Cape
North West
Western Cape
National
Households
1996
2001
1 332 342 1 512 590
625 033
733 138
1 964 108 2 651 596
1 660 694 2 087 125
982 455 1 180 160
732 909
603 836
187 088
206 837
720 625
929 339
982 967 1 173 429
9 059 149 11 207 123
Share of
Households
1996
2001
14.7%
13.5%
6.9%
6.5%
21.7%
23.7%
18.3%
18.6%
10.8%
10.5%
6.7%
6.5%
2.1%
1.8%
8.0%
8.3%
10.9%
10.5%
100.0% 100.0%
Source: Census 1996; Census 2001 and 10% samples
4
See Statistics South Africa 2003a
Mean household
size
1996
2001
4.3
4.1
3.8
3.6
3.3
3.2
4.5
4.3
4.6
4.3
4.3
4.0
3.8
4.2
4.0
3.8
3.7
3.6
4.1
3.8
% of households in
urban areas
1996
2001
43.0%
40.4%
72.5%
78.8%
96.5%
96.6%
52.6%
53.0%
13.1%
12.7%
43.1%
45.3%
68.2%
76.4%
42.2%
38.6%
90.3%
88.8%
59.9%
62.4%
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
Table 2: Households, Share of Households, Mean Household Size and Area Type by Province, 1996 and 2001
4
Co n sid e rin g gro ss d o m e stic p ro d u c t (G D P) p e r
c a p ita p e r p ro vin c e highlights, ye t a ga in , the
va st d isp a ritie s b e twe e n the re gio n s.
In wha t fo llo ws, the p o ve rty situ a tio n in So u th
Afric a is e xp lo re d u sin g m a in ly a n a c c e ss to
se rvic e s a n d a sse t-b a se d a p p ro a c h whic h
c o n sid e rs a c c e ss to b a sic go o d s a n d se rvic e s
a s ke y in d ic a to rs o f we llb e in g. Cha n ge s in
the c ho se n in d ic a to rs a re in ve stiga te d fo r the
in te r-c e n sa l p e rio d in a n e ffo rt to highlight
whe re im p ro ve m e n ts ha ve b e e n m a d e o r
d e c lin e s e xp e rie n c e d . Fo r this a n a lysis n a tio n a l
figu re s a re c o n sid e re d , a s we ll a s tho se fo r
thre e p ro vin c e s, n a m e ly, G a u te n g, Kwa Z u lu N a ta l, a n d Lim p o p o . Twe n ty p e rc e n t o f the
p o p u la tio n re sid e in G a u te n g, the se c o n d
la rge st p ro vin c e whic h is highly u rb a n ise d a n d
ha s the highe st le ve ls o f in c o m e ge n e ra tin g
p ro d u c tive a c tivity. Lim p o p o is the fo u rth la rge st
p ro vin c e in p o p u la tio n te rm s b u t is m o stly
ru ra l a n d re la tive ly p o o r. Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l ha s
the la rge st p o p u la tio n a n d ha s a re la tive ly
e ve n ru ra l-u rb a n sp lit. Fu rthe rm o re , Kwa Z u lu N a ta l p e rfo rm s with m e d io c rity in te rm s o f G D P
p e r c a p ita a n d o n m a n y gro u n d s, lie s c lo se to
the n a tio n a l a ve ra ge s. In m a n y wa ys, the
p e rfo rm a n c e o f G a u te n g will b e in d ic a tive o f
tha t o f the W e ste rn Ca p e , whic h is a lso
re la tive ly we ll o ff. Lim p o p o figu re s will b e sim ila r
to tho se o f the Ea ste rn Ca p e a n d Fre e Sta te ,
with Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l d isp la yin g m o re c lo se ly
t h e c h a ra c t e ris t ic s o f t h e in t e rm e d ia t e
p ro vin c e s. The fo c u s in this re p o rt is o n
in d ic a to rs o f e c o n o m ic we llb e in g, vu ln e ra b ility
a n d o p p o rtu n itie s to im p ro ve o n e s sta n d a rd
o f livin g.
Firstly, it is n o te wo rthy tha t n a tio n a l G D P ha s
in c re a se d o n ly m a rgin a lly in re a l te rm s o ve r the
p e rio d , a t a p p ro xim a te ly 0 .5 p e rc e n t p e r a n n u m .
Co n se q u e n tly, sm a ll c h a n ge s a c ro ss th e
p ro vin c e s o ve r the 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 p e rio d a re
visib le . The we a lthie st p ro vin c e s in G D P p e r
c a p ita te rm s a re G a u te n g a n d the W e ste rn Ca p e ,
with the p o o re st b e in g Lim p o p o a n d the Ea ste rn
Ca p e . The re la tive we a lth o f G a u te n g a n d the
W e ste rn Ca p e is the d rivin g fo rc e b e hin d the
p o p u la tio n m o ve m e n ts m e n tio n e d p re vio u sly.
In te rm s o f G D P p e r c a p ita , the o the r p ro vin c e s
fin d the m se lve s in the m id d le o f the sp e c tru m .
Eve n tho u gh G a u te n g c o n trib u te s the gre a te st
sha re to n a tio n a l G D P, the in c re a se in p o p u la tio n
in G a u te n g ha s o u tstrip p e d re a l G D P gro wth,
thu s le a d in g to a d e c lin e in re a l G D P p e r c a p ita in
the p ro vin c e .
Su c h sm a ll c ha n ge s in re a l gro wth p e r c a p ita
o ve r the 5 ye a rs fro m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 m ight
su gge st the re wo u ld ha ve b e e n little sp a c e fo r
im p ro ve m e n ts in sta n d a rd s o f livin g o f So u th
Afric a 's p o o r o ve r the p e rio d . G o ve rn m e n t
p o lic ie s a im e d a t im p ro vin g the p light o f tho se
in n e e d , su c h a s in c re a se d u tilitie s p ro visio n ,
m a y in d e e d im p ro ve a c c e ss to b a sic se rvic e s,
b u t la c k o f e c o n o m ic o p p o rtu n itie s like fo rm a lse c t o r e m p lo ym e n t m ig h t w o rk in t h e
o p p o site d ire c tio n to ke e p p e o p le in a sta te
o f d e p riva tio n .
Figure 1: Gross Domestic Product per capita (at constant 1995
South African Rand prices) by Province, 1996 and 2001
30000
GDP per capita at constant (1995) prices
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Eastern Cape
Free State
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
Western Cape
National
1996
7421
12840
26039
11419
6513
Mpumalanga Northern Cape North West
14097
15316
10896
20887
14087
2001
8065
12786
24645
11395
7526
14156
16528
10097
20992
14307
Source: Census 1996; Census 2001; Statistics South Africa 2003b
5
ho u sin g n e gligib le . The re ha s b e e n little c ha n ge
in d we llin g typ e s fro m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 . Kwa Z u lu N a ta l ha s a m o re e ve n sp re a d o f d we llin g
typ e s a n d ha s e xp e rie n c e d n o ta b le shifts sin c e
1 9 9 6 . Sp e c ific a lly, the in c id e n c e o f ho u se ho ld s
re sid in g in fo rm a l d we llin gs in c re a se d b y
6 p e rc e n ta ge p o in ts to 6 1 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 with
a c o rre sp o n d in g 4 p e rc e n ta ge p o in t d e c lin e o f
tra d itio n a l d we llin gs to 2 8 p e rc e n t a t the e n d
o f the p e rio d . In fo rm a l d we llin gs c o m p rise
1 1 p e rc e n t o f the p ro vin c ia l to ta l in b o th 1 9 9 6
a n d 2 0 0 1 . It is in Lim p o p o , ho we ve r, whe re
the m o st d ra m a tic re lo c a tio n ha s ta ke n p la c e .
In this, the p o o re st p ro vin c e in o u r a n a lysis, the
sha re o f ho u se ho ld s in tra d itio n a l stru c tu re s
d e c lin e d fro m 3 2 p e rc e n t to 2 0 p e rc e n t with
fo rm a l ho u sin g ’ s sha re risin g fro m 6 2 p e rc e n t to
7
7 3 p e rc e n t o ve r the five ye a r p e rio d . G ive n the
ru ra l n a tu re o f this p ro vin c e , it is q u ite
re m a rka b le tha t the p ro p o rtio n o f fo rm a l
d we llin gs c o m p a re s with tha t in G a u te n g a n d is
sign ific a n tly highe r tha n Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. It is
e n c o u ra gin g to n o te tha t, a c ro ss the b o a rd ,
the fa llin g in c id e n c e in tra d itio n a l ho u sin g ha s
b e e n c o m p e n sa te d fo r p rim a rily b y a n in c re a se
in the in c id e n c e fo r fo rm a l, ra the r tha n
in fo rm a l ho u sin g.
ASSET AN D SERVI CES
D EPRI VATI O N
In a sse t-b a se d a p p ro a c he s to p o ve rty a n a lysis,
the re a re a se t o f fa irly sta n d a rd in d ic a to rs tha t a re
u se d to m e a su re re la tive we llb e in g. The se ra n ge
fro m the typ e o f d we llin g in d ivid u a ls re sid e in ,
a c c e ss to b a sic se rvic e s su c h a s c le a n d rin kin g
wa te r, re fu se re m o va l, sa n ita tio n , e n e rgy fo r
c o o kin g a n d lightin g, to u tilisa tio n o f a sse ts su c h
a s re frige ra to rs, te le p ho n e s a n d ra d io s. In this
se c tio n whe re the d a ta is a va ila b le , we c o n sid e r
the shifts in m a n y o f the se in d ic a to rs fro m 1 9 9 6 to
2 0 0 1 , a t the n a tio n a l le ve l a n d fo r o u r 3 se le c te d
p ro vin c e s. In so m e c a se s, we p ro vid e m o re d e ta il
u sin g d e sc rip tive 2 0 0 1 d a ta with the a im o f
c re a tin g a b ro a d e r a n d m o re su c c in c t p ic tu re o f
livin g c o n d itio n s a t this tim e .
D wellings
To b e p o o r is to lack she lte r….
H o u sin g is a ke y a sse t fo r the p o o r a n d c a n
p ro vid e m o re tha n a p la c e o f she lte r a n d a sp a c e
fo r livin g. As a n a sse t, a ho m e is a p o te n tia l
so u rc e o f in c o m e (fo r e xa m p le , ro o m s c a n b e
re n te d ), c a n se rve a s se c u rity fo r lo a n s a n d a s a
5
p la c e o f wo rk.
In d ic a tio n s o f d we llin g q u a lity p ro vid e a d e e p e r
in sight in to tho se ho u se ho ld s tha t a re m o st
vu ln e ra b le to sho c ks su c h a s a d ve rse we a the r
c o n d itio n s. The La b o u r Fo rc e Su rve y, Se p te m b e r
2 0 0 1 , a ske d q u e stio n s o n the sta te o f ho u sin g
Figu re 2 sho ws the c ha n ge s tha t ha ve o c c u rre d in
the typ e s o f d we llin gs o c c u p ie d b y ho u se ho ld s
fo r the thre e se le c te d p ro vin c e s a n d n a tio n a lly.
Figure 2: Dwelling Types by Province, 1996 and 2001
It c a n b e se e n tha t a t the n a tio n a l le ve l
6 8 .5 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s live d in
fo rm a l d we llin gs in 2 0 0 1 , u p fro m
6 4 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 . The sha re o f
in fo rm a l h o u sin g re m a in e d a lm o st
c o n sta n t o ve r th e p e rio d a t th e
6
1 6 p e rc e n t m a rk , with the in c id e n c e o f
tra d itio n a l d we llin gs d e c lin in g fro m
1 8 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 to 1 5 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 .
100%
80%
60%
20%
0%
1996
2001
Gauteng
1996
2001
1996
Kw aZulu-Natal
2001
1996
Limpopo
2001
National
Other
1.6%
0.3%
1.5%
0.4%
1.4%
0.2%
1.4%
0.3%
Traditional
0.7%
1.3%
32.0%
27.9%
31.8%
19.7%
18.2%
14.8%
Informal / shack
23.8%
23.9%
11.2%
10.8%
4.9%
6.6%
16.0%
16.4%
Formal
73.9%
74.5%
55.3%
61.0%
62.0%
73.4%
64.4%
68.5%
Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
5
6
7
Moser 1996, p.9
Note: The number of informal dwellings nationally rose from 1,453,013 in 1996 to 1,836,236 in 2001 (Census, 1996; Census, 2001 and author’s
own calculations.)
The structure of formal homes in Limpopo is such that 71% of these dwellings have walls made of brick with the remainder made of cement blocks or
concrete. Eighty six percent of the roofs are constructed of corrugated iron or zinc. These structures are defined as formal according to the materials
with which they are built. It should be noted that even though they are more durable than traditional homes, the structures are often simple shells
Which will scarcely be found with, for example, a flush or chemical toilet. (Labour Force Survey, 2001 and author's own calculations)
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
40%
W he n c o n sid e rin g the p ro vin c e s in m o re
d e ta il, it c a n b e se e n tha t fo rm a l
ho u sin g d o m in a te s the p ic tu re fo r
G a u te n g with a lm o st thre e q u a rte rs
o f ho u se ho ld s re sid in g in su c h d we llin gs.
The p ro p o rtio n o f in fo rm a l ho u sin g
sign ific a n tly e xc e e d s tha t o f o the r
p ro vin c e s a t 2 4 p e rc e n t, with tra d itio n a l
6
re p a ir, sp e c ific a lly o n the c o n d itio n o f Figure 3: Percentage of Households Residing in Dwellings in
Poor Repair by Province in 2001
d w e llin gs ro o fs a n d w a lls. W e
c a lc u la te d a m e a su re o f d we llin g80.0%
vu ln e ra b le ho u se ho ld s, c a te go rise d
a s tho se ho m e s with we a k o r ve ry
60.0%
we a k ro o fs o r wa lls. Figu re 3 sho ws
tha t a c c o rd in g to o u r m e a su re ,
1 9 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in So u th
40.0%
Afric a c a n b e c la ssifie d a s b e in g in
p o o r r e p a ir a n d t h e r e fo r e a s
p a rtic u la rly in se c u re stru c tu re s. As to
20.0%
b e e xp e c te d , fo rm a l d we llin gs a re
ra re ly in p o o r re p a ir a n d sin c e
0.0%
G a u te n g ha s the highe st p ro p o rtio n o f
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
10.1%
10.5%
15.0%
11.5%
Formal
fo rm a l d we llin gs, it se e m s re a so n a b le
39.5%
59.2%
50.4%
44.5%
Informal
to e xp e c t G a u te n g to ha ve b e tte r
56.9%
44.1%
46.9%
36.8%
Traditional
16.9%
23.4%
21.7%
19.2%
q u a lity d we llin gs. O f n o te is the
Mean vulnerable households
gre a te r p ro p o rtio n o f Lim p o p o ’ s Source: Labour Force Survey, 2001
fo rm a l d we llin gs tha t a re d we llin gvu ln e ra b le , re fle c tin g d iffe rin g q u a lity
An o the r in d ic a to r o f q u a lity o f life within the
o f fo rm a l ho u sin g b e twe e n the p ro vin c e s.
ho m e is the le ve l o f o ve rc ro wd in g. Figu re 4
Im p o rta n t to o , is tha t in fo rm a l d we llin gs fa ir
sho ws the p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s with a n
wo rse tha n tra d itio n a l d we llin gs, a ltho u gh
8
a ve ra ge o f two o r m o re p e o p le p e r ro o m .
b o th typ e s a re re la tive ly highly in se c u re .
In fo rm a l d we llin gs a re the m o st d e p rive d , with
Kw a Z u lu -N a t a l in fo r m a l h o m e s a r e o f
o ve rc ro wd in g b e in g m o st se ve re in the se
p a rtic u la rly p o o r q u a lity, with 5 9 p e rc e n t b e in g
9
a
b o d e s , t h u s fu r t h e r e m p h a s is in g t h e
c la ssifie d a s vu ln e ra b le .
vu ln e ra b ility o f the se ho u se ho ld s. Altho u gh
G a u te n g p e rfo rm s the b e st a n d Lim p o p o the
Eve n with the in c id e n c e o f vu ln e ra b ility lo we st
wo
rst, the re is little d iffe re n c e in the p ro p o rtio n s
a m o n gst fo rm a l d we llin gs, n a tio n a lly c lo se to
a
c
ro
ss the se p ro vin c e s.
ha lf o f in fo rm a l d we llin gs a n d o ve r a third o f
tra d itio n a l d we llin gs c a n b e c la ssifie d a s
vu ln e ra b le . This su gge sts tha t while the p ro visio n
o f fo rm a l ho u sin g is a ke y p o lic y in te rve n tio n ,
the re re m a in s the sho rt-te rm su b sid ia ry a im
o f im p ro vin g the q u a lity a n d sa fe ty o f
e xistin g d we llin gs.
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
The a b o ve ha s illu stra te d , within the c o n te xt o f a
thre e p ro vin c e o ve rvie w o f d we llin g typ e s, tha t
firstly, fo rm a l d we llin gs a re the d o m in a n t fo rm o f
ho u sin g n a tio n a lly a n d a c ro ss the thre e
p ro vin c e s. Se c o n d ly, it is im p o rta n t to n o te tha t
the re ha s b e e n a n in c re a se in the a b so lu te
n u m b e rs o f in fo rm a l d we llin gs. Fin a lly,
within the a b o ve c o n te xt, the m e a su re o f
Figure 4: Percentage Households with 2 or more Household
ho u se ho ld d we llin g vu ln e ra b ility re ve a ls
Members per Room by Province in 2001
tha t it is in fo rm a l d we llin gs whic h a re
60.0%
d isp ro p o rtio n a te ly in d isre p a ir a n d
o ve rc ro wd e d , b o th n a tio n a lly a n d a c ro ss
the thre e p ro vin c e s.
40.0%
W ater
20.0%
0.0%
Gauteng
KZN
Limpopo
National
formal
15.4%
17.5%
19.9%
16.6%
informal
39.7%
37.7%
44.0%
37.8%
traditional
22.3%
29.3%
35.3%
31.7%
Average
21.3%
23.0%
24.6%
22.4%
Source: Census, 2001
N ote: Number of Rooms includes kitchens but exclude bathrooms and toilets
8
9
Ac c e ss to c le a n d rin kin g wa te r a n d
s a n it a t io n s e r vic e s p r o vid e s a
fu n d a m e n ta l b a sis fo r p ro m o tin g go o d
he a lth o f the p o p u la tio n . Figu re 5 sho ws
tha t n a tio n a lly, ga in s ha ve b e e n m a d e
in wa te r p ro visio n in the in te r-c e n sa l
ye a rs with a c c e ss to p ip e d wa te r (in the
d we llin g, ya rd o r p u b lic ta p ) in c re a sin g
fro m 8 0 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 to 8 4 .5 p e rc e n t
People per room is calculated as household size divided by the number of rooms where number of rooms include kitchens, but exclude bathrooms
and toilets.
Data is not available to control for size of rooms.
7
Figure 5: Main water supply for the household by Province,
in 2 0 0 1 . H ighly u rb a n ise d G a u te n g
p e rfo rm s e xc e p tio n a lly we ll with
9 7 .5
p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s u tilisin g p ip e d
wa te r a s the m a in so u rc e . In te re stin gly,
a c c e ss to p ip e d wa te r in Lim p o p o e xc e e d s
tha t in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. In fa c t, Kwa Z u lu N a ta l re sid e n ts a p p e a r to b e the m o st
su sc e p tib le to u sin g
p o o r q u a lity wa te r
with 1 8 .4 p e rc e n t o f wa te r o b ta in e d fro m
rive rs, stre a m s, d a m s o r sp rin gs in 2 0 0 1 .
W it h a s ig n ific a n t p r o p o r t io n o f
ho u se ho ld s in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l u sin g su c h
p o o r q u a lity wa te r, the like liho o d o f a n
o u tb re a k o f wa te r-b o rn e d ise a se s su c h a s
c ho le ra , is in c re a se d .
1996 and 2001
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1996
2001
1996
Gauteng
2001
Kw aZulu-Natal
1996
2001
1996
Limpopo
2001
National
Borehole/ rain w ater tank/ vendor/other
3.9%
2.4%
9.5%
8.4%
13.5%
11.5%
7.8%
6.2%
River/stream/dam/spring
0.1%
0.2%
24.3%
18.4%
11.0%
10.5%
12.3%
9.4%
Piped w ater (all types)
96.0%
97.5%
66.3%
73.2%
75.5%
78.0%
79.8%
84.5%
Altho u gh the b igge st ga in s in a c c e ss to
p ip e d wa te r ha ve b e e n m a d e in Kwa Z u lu N a ta l (a 6 p e rc e n ta ge p o in t in c re a se ), the Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
m o st d e p rive d p ro vin c e a c c o rd in g to this
in d ic a to r, the fa c t tha t o ve r a q u a rte r o f
the p ro vin c e ’ s ho u se ho ld s still d o n o t ha ve
to sp e n d b e twe e n 1 5 to 4 4 m in u te s to re a c h
a c c e ss to p ip e d wa te r is su gge stive o f the
the ir wa te r so u rc e with a fu rthe r 8 p e rc e n t o f
c ha lle n ge still fa c in g the p ro vin c e .
ho u se ho ld s ta kin g 4 5 m in u te s o r m o re to ge t
to wa te r. Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l fa irs o n ly m a rgin a lly
W he n c o n sid e rin g the tim e ta ke n fo r a ho u se ho ld
b e tte r with 1 8 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s re q u irin g
to a c c e ss its p rim e wa te r so u rc e , it b e c o m e s
1 5 to 4 4 m in u te s a n d a n o the r 5 p e rc e n t
e vid e n t tha t Lim p o p o is the p o o re st p e rfo rm e r,
sp e n d in g m o re tha n 4 5 m in u te s to re a c h the ir
fo llo we d b y Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d the n G a u te n g.
wa te r so u rc e . This figu re sho ws c le a rly ho w
G a u te n g d o m in a te s b o th p ro vin c e s a n d
Figu re 6 sho ws the c u m u la tive p ro p o rtio n o f the
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l d o m in a te s Lim p o p o in te rm s o f
ho u se ho ld s in e a c h p ro vin c e in te rm s o f the tim e
tim e to m a in wa te r so u rc e . Su c h figu re s
ta ke n to re a c h the ir m a in wa te r so u rc e . It c a n
e m p ha sise the p light o f the p o o r in te rm s o f
b e se e n th a t n a tio n a lly 8 5 p e rc e n t o f
tim e sp e n t fe tc hin g b a sic e sse n tia ls su c h a s
ho u se ho ld s ha ve a c c e ss to wa te r within
wa te r, a n d why a c c e ss to c le a n wa te r n e a r the
1 4 m in u te s o f the ir ho m e . Fu rthe rm o re , 9 6
ho m e c a n m a ke a fu n d a m e n ta l d iffe re n c e to
p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s a re within a 4 4 m in u te
sta n d a rd s o f livin g, a n d the a b ility to p u rsu e p a id
p ro xim ity
o f the ir m a in wa te r so u rc e . In
e c o n o m ic a c tivity.
Lim p o p o in 2 0 0 1 , 1 9 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s ha d
Figure 6: Distance to Water in Minutes by Province in 2001
1.20
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0
1-14 min
15-44
45+
Gauteng
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.00
Kw aZulu-Natal
0.59
0.77
0.95
1.00
Limpopo
0.52
0.73
0.92
1.00
National
0.73
0.85
0.96
1.00
Source: Labour Force Survey, 2001
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
1.00
8
Figure 7: Sanitation for Households by Province, 1996 and 2001
Sanitation
Im p r o ve m e n t s in s a n it a t io n h a ve
a lso b e e n m a d e with in c re a se s in
flu sh o r c he m ic a l to ile ts o f 9 p e rc e n ta ge
p o in ts n a tio n a lly. Sim ila r ga in s (o f 4 to
5 p e rc e n ta ge p o in ts) ha ve b e e n m a d e
a c r o s s t h e 3 p r o vin c e s u n d e r
c o n sid e ra tio n in d ic a tin g th a t o th e r
p ro vin c e s m u st h a ve e xp e rie n c e d
su p e rio r a d va n c e s.
100%
80%
60%
40%
The c o n tra st b e twe e n the p ro vin c e s is
sta rk with G a u te n g b o a stin g a n 8 7
p e rc e n t in c id e n c e o f flu sh o r c he m ic a l
to ile ts c o m p a re d with Lim p o p o ’ s m e re 1 8
p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 . It is in te re stin g to n o te
tha t e ve n tho u gh o ve r 7 0 p e rc e n t o f
Lim p o p o d we llin gs a re c la ssifie d
as
‘ fo rm a l ’ , o n ly 1 8 p e rc e n t o f a ll
ho u se ho ld s ha ve a fu n c tio n in g to ile t. The Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
high a n d e xc e p tio n a lly high p ro p o rtio n s
Energy types
o f p it la trin e s in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d Lim p o p o
re sp e c tive ly re fle c t the ru ra l n a tu re o f the se
To b e p o o r is to use b asic fo rm s o f e ne rgy ….
p ro vin c e s. Fu rthe rm o re , the n o n e o r u n sp e c ifie d
c a te go rie s in the se 2 a re a s a re a lso high,
Th e c o u n t r y ’ s p o s t -1 9 9 4 e le c t r ific a t io n
su gge stin g tha t a p p ro xim a te ly 1 in 8 Kwa Z u lu p ro gra m m e ha s b e e n a n in te n sive , a n d in d e e d
N a ta l ho u se ho ld s a n d 1 in 6 Lim p o p o ho u se ho ld s
high-p ro file o n e . The d a ta b e lo w, in su m ,
ha ve n o to ile t fa c ility a t a ll.
c o n firm s the tre m e n d o u s su c c e ss a c hie ve d
in e n su rin g this im p ro ve d a c c e ss to e le c tric ity
fo r lightin g p u rp o se s. N a tio n a lly, while
Figure 8: Energy types used for Lighting by Province, 1996 and 2001 5 8 p e rc e n t o f a ll ho u se ho ld s ha d a c c e ss
to e le c tric ity fo r lightin g in 1 9 9 6 , within
five ye a rs this figu re ha d in c re a se d
to 7 0 p e rc e n t. D isc o u n tin g o f c o u rse
the c o n stra in ts fa c e d b y ho u se ho ld s in
te rm s o f u se r fe e s fo r this fo rm o f
e n e rgy, it is c le a r tha t the ga in s fro m
the e le c trific a tio n p ro gra m m e ha ve b e e n
fa r-re a c hin g.
20%
0%
1996
2001
Gauteng
None of the above/ unspec
3.0%
1996
2001
1996
Kw aZulu-Natal
1.4%
15.7%
13.1%
2001
1996
Limpopo
21.7%
2001
National
18.0%
12.9%
9.7%
Bucket latrine
2.5%
0.5%
0.9%
0.3%
0.5%
0.1%
4.6%
2.4%
Pit latrine
11.6%
9.9%
41.6%
41.0%
64.7%
63.7%
32.2%
28.4%
Flush toilet or chemical toilet
82.9%
87.2%
41.7%
45.4%
13.1%
18.0%
50.3%
59.1%
100%
80%
60%
40%
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
20%
0%
1996
2001
1996
Gauteng
2001
1996
2001
Kw aZulu-Natal
1996
2001
Limpopo
National
Other
1.1%
0.5%
1.4%
1.0%
1.7%
0.9%
1.2%
0.8%
Candles
16.9%
15.9%
39.9%
35.0%
37.1%
27.6%
28.5%
22.7%
Paraffin
2.5%
2.9%
5.2%
2.6%
24.6%
7.7%
12.6%
6.8%
Electricity
79.6%
80.8%
53.5%
61.4%
36.6%
63.8%
57.6%
69.7%
Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
Eve n w ith G a u te n g ’ s a lre a d y high
e le c tric ity u sa ge ra te s in 1 9 9 6 , a t
7 9 p e rc e n t, the re ha s b e e n a m a rgin a l
in c re a se o ve r the 5 -ye a r p e rio d , a s
8 1 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in 2 0 0 1
re p o rte d a c c e ss to e le c tric ity fo r lightin g.
This wa s re fle c te d e sse n tia lly in a o n e
p e rc e n ta ge p o in t d ro p in c a n d le u sa ge .
Kw a Z u lu -N a ta l a n d Lim p o p o sh o w
sign ific a n t shifts. In Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l the re
ha s b e e n a n in c re a se o f 8 p e rc e n ta ge
p o in ts in ho u se ho ld s u sin g e le c tric ity
fo r lightin g while in Lim p o p o whe re ju st
o ve r a third o f ho u se ho ld s ha d a c c e ss to
e le c tric ity in 1 9 9 6 , 5 ye a rs la te r, ju st
u n d e r two -third s o f ho u se ho ld s re p o rte d
9
ha vin g a c c e ss. As a re su lt o f this
e le c trific a tio n , the re we re d e c lin e s in
p a ra ffin a n d c a n d le s a s a n e n e rgy so u rc e ,
with the m a jo r shift b e in g fro m p a ra ffin .
Cle a rly, fo r the m o re d e p rive d p ro vin c e s
a n d fo r the c o u n try a s a who le , the p o sta p a rthe id p e rio d re fle c ts a p ro c e ss o f a
ra p id e xp a n sio n in the u se o f e le c tric ity a s
the p re fe rre d e n e rgy so u rc e fo r lightin g.
Figure 9: Energy Types used for Cooking by Province, 1996 and 2001
100%
80%
60%
40%
It is in te re stin g to n o te tha t e n e rgy c ho ic e s
fo r c o o kin g a re q u ite d iffe re n t to tho se fo r
lightin g. This will la rge ly b e a fu n c tio n o f
c o st, a va ila b ility, the e ffe c tive n e ss o f the
e n e rgy so u rc e to p e rfo rm the give n ta sk
a n d the a sse t re q u ire m e n ts fo r c o o kin g.
Figu re 9 sho ws the in c re a se in e le c tric ity
u se d fo r c o o kin g n a tio n a lly is a m u c h lo we r
4 p e rc e n ta ge p o in ts fro m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
c o m p a re d with the rise o f 1 2 p e rc e n ta ge
im p a c te d o n b y flu c tu a tio n s in the p ric e o f this
p o in ts fo r lightin g. It is a lso a p p a re n t ho w
go o d , whic h in tu rn m o ve s with the in te rn a tio n a l
im p o rta n t p a ra ffin is a s a n e n e rgy so u rc e fo r
o il p ric e . In d e e d , Bho ra t a n d O o sthu iz e n (2 0 0 3 )
c o o kin g in a ll thre e p ro vin c e s a n d ho w sign ific a n t
sho we d tha t gre a t c ha n ge s in the p ric e o f
wo o d is in the m o re ru ra l a re a s.
p a ra ffin fro m 1 9 9 9 to 2 0 0 1 re su lte d in p a ra ffin
ra n kin g a s o n e o f the 4 highe st c o n trib u to rs to
O n c e a ga in , the p a tte rn in G a u te n g ha s re m a in e d
in fla tio n fo r the 4 0 p e rc e n t p o o re st ho u se ho ld s
sta b le with p a ra ffin risin g b y 1 p e rc e n ta ge p o in t
10
to b rin g the 2 0 0 1 figu re to 2 1 p e rc e n t. Kwa Z u lu in the c o u n try. This in d ic a te s tha t tho se he a vily
N a ta l ha s a lso e xp e rie n c e d o n ly m in o r c ha n ge s
re lia n t o n this re so u rc e will b e highly vu ln e ra b le
in its e n e rgy u sa ge p a tte rn s with a slight d e c lin e
to su c h p ric e s sho c ks. O n c e a ga in , this is
in wo o d u se b e in g re p la c e d b y e le c tric ity. Ye t
fo re m o st a m o n g st in d ivid u a ls o c c u p yin g
a ga in it is in Lim p o p o whe re the gre a te st ga in s
in fo rm a l d we llin gs.
ha ve b e e n m a d e , a ltho u gh fro m a ve ry lo w b a se .
The re ha s b e e n a 5 .5 p e rc e n ta ge p o in t in c re a se
Refuse rem oval
in e le c tric ity u se d fo r c o o kin g, m o stly re p la c in g
wo o d . H o we ve r, in this p ro vin c e wo o d is b y fa r
Access to a servi ce such as el ectri ci ty, i n the
the p re d o m in a n t e n e rgy so u rc e fo r c o o kin g
i
ni ti al phase, i s undertaken i n a fai rl y central i sed
with u sa ge ra te s o f a lm o st 6 0 p e rc e n t. O n ly o n e
fashi
on by the rel evant parastatal – i n thi s case
q u a rte r o f ho u se ho ld s in the Lim p o p o u se
Eskom.
H ow ever, i n the case of refuse removal ,
e le c tric ity fo r c o o kin g.
these fal l under the purvi ew of l ocal government
authori ti es. Effecti vel y thi s type of servi ce i s
The m o re d e p rive d a re he a vily re lia n t o n p a ra ffin
hi
ghl y decentral i sed maki ng i t harder for
a n d wo o d . The c ho ic e b e twe e n the se will b e
provi nci al and nati onal government to i ntervene
sha p e d b y a va ila b ility a n d p ric e . Fo r e xa m p le , in
and
shape these acti vi ti es. In addi ti on, the rates
2 0 0 1 6 7 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s tha t re sid e d
of
refuse
removal may al so be i ntri catel y l i nked
in t r a d it io n a l d w e llin g s , w h ic h w e r e
to
the
payment
(or non-payment) of property
p re d o m in a n tly in ru ra l a re a s, u se d wo o d a s
rates w i thi n communi ti es, so i mpacti ng on thi s
the ir p rim a ry e n e rgy so u rc e fo r c o o kin g. In
parti cul ar servi ce del i very. We report here the
c o n tra st, 6 0 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s o c c u p yin g
shi
fts that have occurred i n the i nci dence and
in fo rm a l ho m e s, whic h we re m a in ly in u rb a n
type of refuse removal .
a re a s, u se d p a ra ffin a s the ir m a in c o o kin g fu e l.
W o o d will b e m o re re a d ily a va ila b le in ru ra l
At the n a tio n a l le ve l, the re ha s b e e n a m o d e st
a re a s, whe re it is o fte n c o lle c te d b y m e m b e rs o f
im p ro ve m e n t in re gu la rise d re fu se re m o va l, with
the ho u se ho ld a n d the re fo re “ fre e ” . Pa ra ffin will
5 5 p e rc e n t o f a ll ho u se ho ld s ha vin g re fu se
b e m o re re a d ily a va ila b le in u rb a n a re a s a n d
re m o ve d b y a lo c a l a u tho rity a t le a st o n c e a
“ fre e ” wo o d le ss so . H o u se ho ld s tha t a re he a vily
we e k in 2 0 0 1 , u p fro m 5 1 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 .
re lia n t o n p a ra ffin , will the re fo re a lso b e he a vily
20%
1996
2001
Gauteng
10
2001
Kw aZulu-Natal
1996
2001
Limpopo
1996
2001
National
4.7%
6.9%
6.8%
5.0%
4.3%
8.6%
6.8%
Wood
0.9%
0.7%
29.5%
27.0%
63.2%
59.5%
22.9%
20.5%
Paraffin
19.3%
21.4%
17.8%
17.9%
12.3%
11.2%
21.5%
21.4%
Electricity
72.9%
73.2%
45.8%
48.3%
19.5%
25.0%
47.1%
51.4%
Other (including animal dung, coal and gas)
6.8%
1996
The poor here are defined in terms of household expenditure, and refer to the lowest spending 40% of Households in 1999.
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
0%
10
Figure 10: Refuse removal by Province, 1996 and 2001
The backlog though is clear in that just under a
third of all households in the society still resort
to using their own refuse dump. O f interest is the
fact that local authorities ensure either regular
waste removal – or almost no removal at all.
Hence the share of households reporting waste
removal ‘less often ’ by local authorities is
negligible across all provinces and at the
national level.
100%
80%
60%
40%
The re wa s a n e xistin g high le ve l o f wa ste
re m o va l in G a u te n g, a n d this ha s in c re a se d
m a rgin a lly o ve r the 5 -ye a r p e rio d . Kwa Z u lu N a ta l sho ws the la rge st im p ro ve m e n t in
re gu la r re fu se re m o va l risin g fro m 4 2
p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 to 4 9 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 .
W ithin Lim p o p o , while re fu se re m o va l b y a
lo c a l a u tho rity e d ge d u p fro m 1 2 p e rc e n t to
1 5 p e rc e n t o f a ll ho u se ho ld s, tho se u sin g Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
the ir o wn re fu se d u m p n o t o n ly re m a in s the
G a u te n g (6 6 p e rc e n t). Fu rthe rm o re , 6 2 p e rc e n t
d o m in a n t fo rm o f wa ste re m o va l, b u t ha s a lso
o
f ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g ha ve a re frige ra to r,
in c re a se d sin c e 1 9 9 6 . Cle a rly the n , the in c re a se
whilst
o n ly 3 9 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in Lim p o p o
in the n u m b e r o f ho u se ho ld s o ve r this p e rio d ha s
ha ve a re frige ra to r. The n a tio n a l a ve ra ge fo r
m e a n t tha t while lo c a l a u tho ritie s ha ve b e e n
re
frige ra to r u tilisa tio n sits a t 5 2 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 ,
re sp o n d in g, the re sp o n se ra te ha s n o t b e e n
a
figu re whic h se e m s p a rtic u la rly lo w whe n
a d e q u a te , a s illu stra te d b y the gro wth in o wn
c
o
n sid e rin g su c h a fu n d a m e n ta l b a sic a sse t.
re fu se d u m p ra te s.
This re fle c ts the e xte n t o f d e p riva tio n c o u n trywid e . Po sse ssio n o f su c h a sse ts is c lo se ly lin ke d
Private G oods
to a c c e ss to e le c tric ity. The gra p h fo r te le p ho n e
a n d c e ll p ho n e a c c e ss is e xtre m e ly in te re stin g
In d ivid u a l o wn e rship o f a n d ho u se ho ld a c c e ss to
with the e xc e p tio n a lly high u p ta ke ra te s o f
a n u m b e r o f b a sic go o d s a re a lso in d ic a to rs o f
the c e ll p ho n e p la in ly a p p a re n t. In e ve ry
va ria tio n s in livin g sta n d a rd s. Figu re 1 1 sho ws
p ro vin c e , ho u se ho ld a c c e ss to a c e ll p ho n e
ra te s o f a c c e ss to o r o wn e rship o f a ra n ge o f
e xc e e d s tha t o f a c c e ss to a la n d lin e . In the
go o d s b y p ro vin c e fo r 2 0 0 1 .
e xtre m e is Lim p o p o , with o n ly 8 p e rc e n t o f
ho u se ho ld s ha vin g a te le p ho n e in the d we llin g,
W e se e tha t in 2 0 0 1 m o st ho u se ho ld s ha ve a t
b u t 2 5 p e rc e n t ha vin g a c e llu la r te le p ho n e .
le a st a ra d io a n d tha t te le visio n u sa ge to o is
Ac c e ss to p e rso n a l m o to rise d tra n sp o rt is lo w
wid e sp re a d , with a c c e ss p a rtic u la rly e xte n sive in
in a ll p ro vin c e s, with o n ly 3 0 p e rc e n t o f
ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g ha vin g p o sse ssio n
Figure 11: O wnership of selected Private Goods by Province in 2001 o f a ve hic le su c h a s a c a r, b a kkie o r va n . In
Lim p o p o this n u m b e r is ha lve d . Fin a lly, we
c o n sid e r c o m p u te rs. A c o m p u te r in the
ho m e is a n im p o rta n t in d ic a to r o f fu tu re
o p p o rtu n itie s in the wo rkp la c e . The se
ra te s a re lo w a c ro ss the p ro vin c e s with
1 5 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g a n d
a m e re 2 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in
Lim p o p o , ha vin g a c o m p u te r.
20%
0%
1996
2001
Gauteng
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
1996
2001
Limpopo
1996
2001
National
2.6%
2.6%
11.5%
10.4%
17.6%
15.8%
9.7%
8.7%
Ow n refuse dump
7.4%
8.7%
41.4%
38.6%
67.2%
68.2%
32.7%
32.6%
Communal refuse dump
3.3%
2.3%
2.9%
0.8%
3.0%
1.0%
3.2%
1.7%
Removed by local authority less often
3.8%
2.2%
1.2%
1.0%
0.8%
0.7%
2.3%
1.5%
Removed by local authority at least once a
w eek
82.9%
84.2%
42.9%
49.2%
11.4%
14.2%
52.2%
55.4%
80.0%
60.0%
40.0%
20.0%
Radio
Refrigerator
Telephone in
dw elling
Cell Phones
Television
Computer
Gauteng
77.4%
62.1%
32.4%
45.1%
65.7%
15.1%
30.0%
Kw aZulu-Natal
73.0%
46.9%
24.1%
28.5%
47.3%
7.1%
20.0%
Limpopo
69.7%
38.9%
7.7%
24.9%
39.8%
2.2%
15.1%
Source: Census, 2001; Labour Force Survey, September 2001
2001
Kw aZulu-Natal
No rubbish disposal
100.0%
0.0%
1996
vehicle(car, bakkie
or van)
11
e d u c a tio n a n d the re fo re b e tte r p ro sp e c ts o f
fin d in g wo rk b e in g the o n e s m o re like ly to
m igra te . Lim p o p o p e rfo rm s p a rtic u la rly p o o rly
w ith a p p ro xim a te ly 3 3 .4 p e rc e n t o f its
p o p u la tio n witho u t a n y fo rm o f fo rm a l e d u c a tio n
a n d o n ly 1 4 p e rc e n t with c o m p le te d se c o n d a ry
e d u c a tio n in 2 0 0 1 . Fu rthe rm o re , the re ha s
b e e n ve ry little im p ro ve m e n t in the se figu re s
o ve r the in te r-c e n sa l p e rio d , with the o n ly
ga in s re fle c te d in a le ss tha n 2 p e rc e n ta ge
p o in t in c re a se in the a tta in m e n t o f a te rtia ry
q u a lific a tio n . Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l ha s e xp e rie n c e d
slightly b e tte r im p ro ve m e n ts in G ra d e 1 2
c o m p le tio n b u t a sim ila rly lo w in c re a se in
a tta in m e n t o f highe r e d u c a tio n q u a lific a tio n s.
ECO N O M I C ACTI VI TY,
ED U CATI O N PRESEN T AN D
FU TU RE O PPO RTU N I TI ES
to b e p o o r is to b e illite rate and no t scho o le d
And to lack ad e q uate ly p aid and se cure jo b s
H a vin g a d e c e n t q u a lity e d u c a tio n a n d a c c e ss
to a n a d e q u a te ly p a id a n d se c u re jo b a re
wa ys tha t e n su re p e o p le ha ve su ffic ie n t
c o m m a n d o ve r re so u rc e s to m a in ta in so m e
so c ia lly a c c e p ta b le sta n d a rd o f livin g. The y
d e te rm in e c u rre n t in c o m e e a rn in g a n d sa vin gs
p o te n tia l a n d sha p e fu tu re o p p o rtu n itie s fo r
the in d ivid u a l a n d tho se who m the in d ivid u a l
su p p o rts. A ro b u st re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
e d u c a tio n a l o u tc o m e s a n d p o ve rty is ge n e ra lly
fo u n d , a s tho se with little o r n o e d u c a tio n a re
the wo rst o ff a n d tho se with the highe st le ve l
e d u c a tio n ha ve a c c e ss to the b e st p a yin g
jo b s with the gre a te st b e n e fits.
N a tio n a lly, the re wa s a 1 .4 p e rc e n t d e c lin e in
the p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls with n o sc ho o lin g
fro m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 . This im p ro ve m e n t wa s
e sp e c ia lly sign ific a n t fo r p e rso n s in the 2 0 to
3 0 ye a r a ge gro u p , whic h sa w a re d u c tio n o f
6 .5 p e rc e n t in the p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls
11
witho u t a n y fo rm a l sc ho o lin g. Fu rthe rm o re ,
fo r Lim p o p o the p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls in the
2 0 to 3 0 ye a r a ge gro u p with n o sc ho o lin g
d ro p p e d fro m 3 2 .4 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 6 to
1 9 .6 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 , in d ic a tin g a c o m b in a tio n o f
im p ro ve d e n ro lm e n t a n d gra d e p ro gre ssio n
ra te s a m o n gst the yo u th. H o we ve r, it is im p o rta n t
to b e a r in m in d tha t the se figu re s d o n o t re fle c t
d iffe re n c e s o r im p ro ve m e n ts in the q u a lity o f
sc ho o lin g, whic h is a ke y c o n c e rn .
Educational Attainm ent
Sin c e 1 9 9 6 , th e re h a s b e e n a m a rke d
im p ro ve m e n t in e d u c a t io n a l a t t a in m e n t
thro u gho u t So u th Afric a , with a d istin c t
d e c re a se in the p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls with n o
sc ho o lin g a n d a sign ific a n t in c re a se in the
p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls with G ra d e 1 2 o r
highe r e d u c a tio n . This is c le a rly e vid e n t
in Figu re 1 2 whic h c o m p a re s the le ve l o f Figure 12: Educational Attainment of Population over 20 Years O ld
e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t in 1 9 9 6 to tha t
by Province, 1996 and 2001
in 2 0 0 1 .
100%
11
Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1996
2001
Gauteng
1996
2001
1996
Kw aZulu-Natal
2001
1996
Limpopo
2001
National
Higher
8.4%
12.6%
4.8%
6.9%
4.5%
6.8%
6.2%
8.4%
Std 10/Grade 12
23.6%
28.0%
15.9%
19.8%
14.0%
14.0%
16.4%
20.4%
Some secondary
40.2%
34.3%
31.8%
28.8%
26.6%
26.1%
33.9%
30.8%
Complete primary
6.7%
5.5%
6.7%
5.7%
5.9%
5.5%
7.5%
6.4%
Some primary
11.7%
11.2%
17.9%
16.9%
12.1%
14.1%
16.7%
16.0%
No schooling
9.5%
8.4%
22.9%
21.9%
36.9%
33.4%
19.3%
17.9%
Source: Census, 1996; Census, 2001
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
It c a n b e se e n tha t G a u te n g c le a rly
o u tp e rfo rm s the c o m p a ra to r p ro vin c e s
with n o t o n ly the highe st p ro p o rtio n
o f in d ivid u a ls with a G ra d e 1 2 o r highe r
e d u c a tio n q u a lific a tio n in 2 0 0 1 (so m e
2 8 p e rc e n t a n d 1 2 .6 p e rc e n t
re sp e c tive ly), b u t it ha s a lso se e n
the gre a te st in c re a se s in the a tta in m e n ts
o f the se highe r le ve ls o f e d u c a tio n with
in c re a se s o f a p p ro xim a te ly 4 p e rc e n ta ge
p o in ts fo r e a c h sin c e 1 9 9 6 . The se
su p e rio r p e rfo rm a n c e ra te s c o u ld b e
in d ic a tive o f b e tte r e d u c a tio n p ro visio n
in G a u te n g, b u t c o u ld a lso b e lin ke d to
the in te r-p ro vin c ia l m igra tio n p re vio u sly
m e n tio n e d , with tho se with highe r
12
Industry of Employment
The re is a c lo se lin k b e twe e n e d u c a tio n a l
a tta in m e n t, the typ e o f wo rk a n in d ivid u a l is
e n ga ge d in a n d the a sso c ia te d e a rn in gs
p o te n tia l. Figu re 1 3 illu stra te s the sha re o f
in d ivid u a ls in e m p lo ym e n t b y in d u stry typ e
fo r the thre e p ro vin c e s a n d the c o u n try a s a
who le fo r 2 0 0 1 . It c a n b e se e n tha t the re la tive
im p o rta n c e o f d iffe re n t in d u strie s a s p ro vid e rs
o f e m p lo ym e n t d iffe rs su b sta n tia lly a c ro ss the
p ro vin c e s, re fle c tin g to so m e e xte n t the
d iffe re n c e s in the ru ra l-u rb a n n a tu re o f the se
re gio n s a n d the d iffe rin g G D P le ve ls.
The to ta l n u m b e r o f e m p lo ye d a t the n a tio n a l
le ve l in 2 0 0 1 wa s e stim a te d a t a p p ro xim a te ly
e le ve n m illio n . G a u te n g a c c o u n ts fo r a b o u t
2 5 p e rc e n t (a p p ro xim a te ly 2 ,8 m illio n ) o f to ta l
e m p lo ym e n t, whilst Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a c c o u n ts fo r
1 8 p e rc e n t (a p p ro xim a te ly 2 m illio n ) a n d
Lim p o p o a m e re 8 p e rc e n t (a p p ro xim a te ly
8 7 0 0 0 0 ) o f the e m p lo ye d .
N a tio n a lly, it is e vid e n t tha t the W ho le sale and
Re tail Trad e se c to r is the m a in p ro vid e r o f
e m p lo ym e n t with 2 2 p e rc e n t o f the e m p lo ye d
fo u n d in this se c to r. Co m m unity, So cial and
Pe rso nal Se rvice s a n d Manufacturing fo llo w in
im p o rta n c e a c c o u n tin g fo r 1 8 p e rc e n t a n d 1 5
p e rc e n t o f n a tio n a l e m p lo ym e n t re sp e c tive ly.
This p a tte rn o f the 3 d o m in a n t se c to rs ho ld s fo r
G a u te n g whic h is a lso c ha ra c te rise d b y a
re la tive ly high sha re o f e m p lo ye d fo u n d in
Finance and Busine ss Se rvice s a n d m in im a l
in vo lve m e n t in Agriculture (in c lu d in g hu n tin g,
fo re stry a n d fishin g) c o m p a re d with Kwa Z u lu N a ta l a n d Lim p o p o . The im p o rta n c e o f the
Finance and Busine ss Se rvice s se c to r in G a u te n g is
highlighte d b y the in c re a se in its sha re o f
12
e m p lo ym e n t fro m 1 0 .1 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 7 to 1 5 .5
p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 . In Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d Lim p o p o ,
W ho le sale and Re tail Trad e a lso sta n d s a s
the la rge st e m p lo ye r b u t in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l,
Manufacturing o u twe ighs Co m m unity, So cial and
Pe rso nal Se rvice s in im p o rta n c e . Manufacturing
a c c o u n ts fo r o n ly 8 p e rc e n t o f e m p lo ym e n t in
Lim p o p o , a p ro vin c e in whic h Agriculture
fe a t u re s a s t h e t h ird la rg e st e m p lo ye r
a n d c o m p rise s 1 6 p e rc e n t o f p ro vin c ia l
e m p lo ym e n t. In a d d itio n , it is im p o rta n t to
n o te tha t the sha re o f e m p lo ye d in the Se rvice s
se c t o r (c o m m u n it y, so c ia l a n d p e rso n a l
se rvic e s) is c o n sid e ra b ly la rge r in Lim p o p o
tha n in G a u te n g o r Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. The Se rvice s
se c to r typ ic a lly c o m p rise s o f go ve rn m e n t
e m p lo ye e s su c h a s te a c he rs, a n d he n c e we
c a n d e d u c e tha t go ve rn m e n t is a n im p o rta n t
so u rc e o f e m p lo ym e n t fo r in d ivid u a ls in
Lim p o p o . Mo re o ve r, e ve n tho u gh W ho le sale
and Re tail Trad e is the p re d o m in a n t e m p lo ye r
in the Lim p o p o , the q u a lity o f e m p lo ym e n t
in t h is s e c t o r d iffe r s s ig n ific a n t ly
Figure 13: Industry of Employment by Province in 2001
100%
Private households
Community, social and personal
services
80%
Financial ni termediation, ni surance, real
estate and business services
Transport, storage and communication
60%
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
Wholesale and retail tr ade
Construction
40%
Electricity, gas and water supply
M anufacturing
20%
M ining and Quarrying
0%
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Source: Labour Force Survey 2001
12
Statistics South Africa 1997
Limpopo
National
Agriculture, hunting, fo restry and
fishing
13
Table 3: Skills Levels of the Employed by Province in 2001
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
Highly skilled
26.3%
23.1%
18.8%
21.1%
Skilled
51.4%
49.5%
45.9%
50.8%
Unskilled
22.0%
27.4%
35.1%
27.9%
Skill Level
Source: Labour Force Survey 2001
b y p ro vin c e . In G a u te n g, fo r e xa m p le , 6 5 .6
p e rc e n t o f W ho le sa le a n d Re ta il e m p lo ym e n t is
fo u n d in the fo rm a l se c to r whe re a s in Lim p o p o
this figu re is 3 6 .1 p e rc e n t thu s in d ic a tin g tha t
a lm o st two third s o f jo b s in W ho le sa le a n d Re ta il
in Lim p o p o a re in fo rm a l a n d will, in m a n y c a se s,
13
b e highly in se c u re .
The skills p ro file o f the e m p lo ye d b y p ro vin c e
give s fu rthe r in d ic a tio n o f va ria tio n s in e a rn in gs
p o te n tia l fo r tho se tha t d o ha ve wo rk. Ta b le 3
sho ws u n su rp risin gly tha t it is G a u te n g tha t ha s
the gre a te st p ro p o rtio n o f its wo rke rs c la ssifie d
a s highly skille d a n d Lim p o p o the le a st, with
the o p p o site p a tte rn ho ld in g fo r u n skille d
wo rke rs. The skills p ro file o f the p ro vin c e s,
a n d the c o u n try a s a who le , is e xc e e d in gly
im p o rta n t whe n c o n sid e rin g fu tu re e m p lo ym e n t
o p p o rtu n itie s a n d tha t So u th Afric a ’ s gro wth
t r a je c t o r y h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r is e d b y
e m p lo ym e n t gro wth in fa vo u r o f the m o re highly
14
skille d sin c e the 1 9 7 0 s. Fro m this sta n c e ,
G a u te n g is c le a rly the b e st o ff. H o we ve r, the
m a tc h b e twe e n skills a c q u ire d b y in d ivid u a ls
a n d the skills re q u ire d in the m a rke t c a n n o t
b e ign o re d with ge n e ra l u p skillin g o n ly
tra n sla tin g in to jo b s if the skills a re tho se the
m a rke t d e m a n d s.
Earnings from Em ploym ent
Fro m this d isc u ssio n o n e m p lo ym e n t p a tte rn s, it
c a n b e in fe rre d tha t G a u te n g, w ith its
su b sta n tia lly la rge r p ro p o rtio n o f wo rke rs in
Finance and Busine ss Se rvice s a n d with the
highe st p ro p o rtio n o f wo rke rs c la ssifie d a s
skille d , a n d lo we st sha re d e sc rib e d a s u n skille d ,
will b e the re gio n whe re the highe st a ve ra ge
in c o m e s a re e a rn e d . This is in d e e d the p ic tu re
tha t p re va ils, a s is e vid e n t in Figu re 1 4 .
Figu re 1 4 illu stra te s the c u m u la tive d istrib u tio n
o f in c o m e fro m e m p lo ym e n t fo r the thre e
p ro vin c e s u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n a n d the c o u n try
Figure 14: Cumulative distribution of Monthly Income from
Employment by Province in 2001
120.0
100.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
None
R 1 - R 400
14
R 801 - R
1600
R 1601 - R
3200
R 3201 - R
6400
R 6401 - R
12800
R 12801 - R
25600
R 25601 or
more
Gauteng
2.0
8.4
21.4
45.5
65.9
81.7
92.1
97.1
100.0
Kw aZulu-Natal
2.7
17.6
35.8
56.9
75.9
89.9
96.6
98.9
100.0
Limpopo
2.4
29.9
49.5
65.3
81.4
94.0
98.3
99.3
100.0
National
2.2
16.0
33.0
55.0
74.0
87.9
95.4
98.4
100.0
Source: Census, 2001
13
R 401 - R
800
Statistics South Africa 2001, Labour Force Survey 2001
Bhorat, H. & Hodge, J. 1999
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
80.0
14
a s a who le . It re fle c ts the p ro p o rtio n o f the
e m p lo ye d e a rn in g b e lo w o r e q u a l to the u p p e r
b o u n d o f e a c h re c o rd e d in c o m e c a te go ry.
It su gge sts tha t a t e a c h a n d e ve ry in c o m e
c a te go ry, b a rrin g p e rha p s the ve ry sm a ll
p ro p o rtio n o f the sa m p le a t the highe st in c o m e
c a te go rie s, the sha re o f e m p lo ye d e a rn in g
b e lo w a n y give n in c o m e c a te go ry is a lwa ys
la rge r in Lim p o p o tha n fo r Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d
a lwa ys la rge r in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l tha n in G a u te n g.
wha te ve r lo w e a rn in gs lin e c ho se n , the
p ro p o rtio n o f Lim p o p o wo rke rs d e fin e d a s p o o r
will a lwa ys e xc e e d tho se in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
whic h will in tu rn a lwa ys e xc e e d tho se in
G a u te n g. The d a ta re fle c t the sta rk d iffe re n c e s
in q u a lity o f e m p lo ym e n t, in ho w the la b o u r
m a rke t is re m u n e ra tin g its p a rtic ip a n ts a n d in
the re la tive vu ln e ra b ility a m o n gst the e m p lo ye d
a c ro ss the p ro vin c e s.
U nem ploym ent
Fo r e xa m p le , the p ro p o rtio n o f the e m p lo ye d
e a rn in g R4 0 0 o r le ss p e r m o n th within G a u te n g
is a b o u t 8 .4 p e rc e n t, whe re a s 1 7 .6 p e rc e n t
o f e m p lo ye d in d ivid u a ls in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l,
1 6 p e rc e n t o f e m p lo ye d in d ivid u a ls n a tio n a lly,
a n d 3 0 p e rc e n t o f e m p lo ye d in d ivid u a ls in
Lim p o p o e a rn le ss tha n R4 0 0 a m o n th.
Fu rthe rm o re , the sha re o f the e m p lo ye d e a rn in g
b e lo w R3 2 0 0 p e r m o n th in G a u te n g sta n d s a t
6 6 p e rc e n t, while this figu re is 7 4 p e rc e n t
n a tio n a lly, 7 6 p e rc e n t in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d
ju st o ve r 8 0 p e rc e n t fo r the Lim p o p o . This
e vid e n c e in d ic a te s tha t the p ro p o rtio n o f the
wo rkin g p o o r within Lim p o p o (d e p e n d in g o n
the lo w e a rn in gs lin e ) is a s m u c h a s twic e the
sha re fo u n d in G a u te n g. Fu rthe rm o re , ho we ve r
the “ wo rkin g p o o r ” a re d e fin e d , tha t is, fo r
To b e p o o r is to lack ad e q uate ly p aid and se cure jo b s
N o t o n ly d o tho se in Lim p o p o e a rn , o n a ve ra ge ,
su b sta n tia lly le ss tha n tho se in b o th Kwa Z u lu N a ta l a n d G a u te n g, b u t the e c o n o m ic a lly a c tive
a re a lso m o re vu ln e ra b le give n m o re se ve re
lim ita tio n s o n e m p lo ym e n t p ro b a b ilitie s in
this p ro vin c e . This a sse rtio n is su p p o rte d b y
Figu re 1 5 whic h sho ws the n u m b e r o f
u n e m p lo ye d fo r o u r se le c te d p ro vin c e s a n d
n a t io n a lly, a s w e ll a s t h e a s s o c ia t e d
u n e m p lo ym e n t ra te s. The u n e m p lo ym e n t d a ta
u se d he re re fe rs to the e xp a n d e d o r b ro a d ly
d e fin e d u n e m p lo ye d , who a re tho se willin g
15
a n d a b le to wo rk, b u t d o n o t ha ve a jo b .
Figure 15: Expanded Unemployed and Unemployment Rates by Province, 1997 and 2001
9000000
60.0%
8000000
50.0%
7000000
6000000
40.0%
5000000
30.0%
4000000
3000000
20.0%
2000000
10.0%
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
1000000
0.0%
0
Gauteng
KwaZuluNatal
Limpopo
National
Unemployment Rate - 1997
31.2%
42.9%
46.4%
36.2%
Unemployment Rate - 2001
34.1%
46.0%
54.5%
41.2%
Unemployment - 1997
1157460
1216342
535374
5215542
Unemployment - 2001
1446700
1681329
1037035
7727343
Source: O ctober Household Survey 1997; Labour Force Survey 2001
15
Statistics South Africa (1998) uses the following definition of unemployment as its official definition. The unemployed are those people within the
economically active population who (a) did not work during the seven days prior to the interview, (b) want to work and are available to start work
Within a week of the interview, and (c) have taken active steps to look for work or to start some form of self-employment in the four weeks prior to
the interview. The expanded unemployment rate excludes criterion (c). Among those included in the expanded but not the official definition of
Unemployment will be discouraged job seekers (those who said they were unemployed but had not taken active steps to find work in the four
weeks prior to the interview). In the face of severe constraints to employment opportunities, the expanded definition of unemployment is adopted
in this report to capture the depth and severity of the unemployment problem.
15
N a tio n a lly, the figu re s a re c a u se fo r gre a t
c o n c e rn with the a lre a d y e xtre m e ly high
u n e m p lo ym e n t ra te o f 3 6 p e rc e n t in 1 9 9 7
risin g to 4 1 p e rc e n t in 2 0 0 1 . Eve n in the
p ro vin c e with the highe st G D P p e r c a p ita ,
the u n e m p lo ym e n t ra te ha s in c re a se d fro m
3 1 p e rc e n t to 3 4 p e rc e n t o ve r the 4 ye a r
p e rio d . O n c e a ga in , it is like ly to b e in -m igra tio n
o f tho se se e kin g e m p lo ym e n t o p p o rtu n itie s
t h a t h a s r e s u lt e d in t h is in c r e a s e .
Kw a Z u lu -N a t a l h a s s ig n ific a n t ly w o r s e
u n e m p lo ym e n t ra te s tha n G a u te n g a n d ha s
se e n a
sim ila r rise fro m 4 3 p e rc e n t to
4 6 p e rc e n t. In fa c t, in a b so lu te te rm s, it is
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l tha t fa irs the wo rst in tha t the
highe st n u m b e r o f u n e m p lo ye d a re fo u n d in
th is p ro vin c e , re la tive to G a u te n g a n d
Lim p o p o . Lim p o p o d o e s n o t o n ly su ffe r fro m
e xc e e d in gly p o o r e m p lo ym e n t p ro sp e c ts b u t
the situ a tio n ha s wo rse n e d su b sta n tia lly in
ju st 4 ye a rs, with a n in c re a se in the ra te
o f u n e m p lo ym e n t fro m 4 6 p e rc e n t to 5 4
p e rc e n t. W he re a s fo r m a n y o f the o the r
in d ic a to rs o f p o ve rty e ve n tho u gh Lim p o p o
is re la tive ly the wo rst o ff, it ha s in the m a jo rity
o f c a se s e xp e rie n c e d the gre a te st ga in s, in
te rm s o f u n e m p lo ym e n t this p a tte rn is re ve rse d .
This is o f d e e p c o n c e rn whe n c o n sid e rin g
the e xte n t to whic h gro win g jo b le ssn e ss
c a n c o n trib u te to the e n tre n c hm e n t o f
ho u se ho ld p o ve rty.
N a t io n a lly, 2 7 p e rc e n t o f h o u s e h o ld s
re sp o n d e d t h a t
t h e y so m e t im e s h a d
p ro b le m s sa tisfyin g the ir fo o d n e e d s in the
la st 1 2 m o n ths, with a fu rthe r 1 2 p e rc e n t
in d ic a t in g t h a t t h e y o ft e n o r a lw a ys
e xp e rie n c e d p ro b le m s. This a m o u n ts to 3 9
p e rc e n t o f h o u se h o ld s in th e c o u n try,
a c c o u n tin g fo r 4 6 p e rc e n t o f the p o p u la tio n ,
b e in g in a situ a tio n whe re the y c o u ld n o t
sa tisfy the ir d ie ta ry re q u ire m e n ts.
Figure 16: “In the past 12 months, how often,
if ever, did this household have problems
satisfying its food needs?”
Food Security - Gauteng
4%
5%
20%
61%
Food Security - KwaZulu-Natal
10%
4%
8%
never
seldom
sometimes
often
always
25%
52%
U nem ploym ent and the ability to
satisfy household food needs
11%
never
seldom
sometimes
often
always
Food Security - Limpopo
To b e p o o r is to b e unab le to sufficie ntly fe e d
yo ur fam ily
8%
7%
43%
37%
Food Security - National
5%
5%
7%
never
seldom
sometimes
often
always
51%
27%
10%
never
seldom
sometimes
Source: Labour Force Survey 2001
(Author’s own calculations)
16
often
Note: While such a question is highly subjective, it does provide a proxy indicator for the degree of household food security.
always
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
The d isc u ssio n a n d d a ta o n u n e m p lo ym e n t in
So u th Afric a highlights the va st n u m b e rs o f
the e c o n o m ic a lly a c tive p o p u la tio n who a re
u n a b le to fin d p a id wo rk. Cle a rly, in c o m e
p o ve rty will b e se ve re fo r m a n y ho u se ho ld s
to whic h the u n e m p lo ye d a re a tta c he d .
The c o n se q u e n c e s o f su c h high u n e m p lo ym e n t
ra te s a re im m e d ia te ly c le a r whe n c o n sid e rin g
fo o d se c u rity. A q u e stio n in the La b o u r Fo rc e
Su rve y, Se p te m b e r 2 0 0 1 give s u s so m e
in sight in to whe the r ho u se ho ld s c a n sa tisfy
the ir fo o d re q u ire m e n ts. Re sp o n d e n ts we re
a ske d to a n swe r the fo llo win g q u e stio n : In
the p a st 1 2 m o n ths, ho w o fte n , if e ve r, d id
this ho u se ho ld ha ve p ro b le m s sa tisfyin g its
16
fo o d n e e d s? The d a ta in Figu re 1 6 , b y
p ro vin c e , m a tc h e xc e p tio n a lly c lo se ly to the
u n e m p lo ym e n t d a ta in Figu re 1 5 .
16
The d iffe re n c e s b y p ro vin c e a re o n c e a ga in
sta rk with G a u te n g b y fa r the b e st o ff a n d
Lim p o p o e xc e p tio n a lly vu ln e ra b le with 3 7
p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s so m e tim e s ha vin g
p ro b le m s a n d a n a d d itio n a l 1 5 p e rc e n t o fte n
o r a lwa ys b e in g u n a b le to m e e t the ir fo o d
n e e d s.
Figure 17: Household Formation by Number of Unemployed and
by Province in 2001
100%
80%
60%
40%
Up o n c lo se r a n a lysis o f the d a ta , it wa s
re ve a le d tha t 5 3 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s tha t
ha ve a t le a st o n e u n e m p lo ye d p e rso n fa ll in to
the so m e tim e s, o fte n o r a lwa ys c a te go ry.
Fu rthe rm o re , tho se ho u se ho ld s tha t a re fo o d
in se c u re b u t d o ha ve sa la rie s/ wa ge s a s
the p rim a ry in c o m e so u rc e , a re fo r the m o st
p a rt ho m e to e a rn e rs tha t a re p re d o m in a n tly
in lo we r e n d jo b s a n d / o r in the in fo rm a l
17
se c to r. Su c h d e sc rip tive a n a lysis fu rthe r Source: Labour Force Survey 2001 and authors’ own calculations
e m p ha sise s ho w la b o u r m a rke t vu ln e ra b ility
tra n sla te s in to ho u se ho ld vu ln e ra b ility,
m o ve to ho u se ho ld s in whic h the re a re
m e a su re d in this sp e c ific c a se b y a p ro xy fo r
p e n sio n / gra n t re c ip ie n ts, with u n e m p lo ym e n t
the d e gre e o f ho u se ho ld fo o d se c u rity.
sta tu s the n a ffe c tin g ho u se ho ld fo rm a tio n .
20%
0%
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
U nem ploym ent, Sources of I ncom e
and H ousehold Form ation
The c o n se q u e n c e s o f u n e m p lo ym e n t re a c h
b e yo n d b a sic n e e d s a n d sta rt to im p a c t o n
fa c to rs su c h a s ho u se ho ld fo rm a tio n a s we ll.
If o n e is u n e m p lo ye d , o n e will n e e d to re ly
o n o the rs in o rd e r to su rvive . It wo u ld the re fo re
b e e xp e c te d tha t the u n e m p lo ye d wo u ld a tta c h
the m se lve s to ho u se ho ld s with re gu la r in c o m e
e a rn e rs. In So u th Afric a two c ritic a l so u rc e s
o f in c o m e , o the r tha n wa ge s a n d sa la rie s, a re
p e n sio n s a n d re m itta n c e s. Figu re 1 7 sho ws the
ho u se ho ld b y the m a in in c o m e so u rc e o f
the ho u se ho ld a n d the n u m b e r o f u n e m p lo ye d
p e r ho u se ho ld . It c a n b e se e n tha t n a tio n a lly,
sa la rie s a n d wa ge s a re the p rim a ry in c o m e
so u rc e fo r 6 0 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s, fo llo we d
b y p e n sio n s a n d gra n ts tha t a re the m a in so u rc e
fo r a fu rthe r 1 8 p e rc e n t. Re m itta n c e s a re a lso
sign ific a n t a t 1 4 p e rc e n t. As the m a jo rity o f
the p e n sio n s a n d gra n ts c o m p rise o ld a ge
p e n sio n s (a n d in c re a sin gly the c hild su p p o rt
gra n t), a p ic tu re e m e rge s o f high n u m b e rs
o f u n e m p lo ye d within a ho u se ho ld b e in g
d e p e n d e n t o n tho se who re c e ive o ld a ge
p e n sio n s. It is like ly tha t the u n e m p lo ye d in fa c t
17
Statistics South Africa 2001, Labour Force Survey 2001
Gauteng
Kw aZulu-Natal
Limpopo
0
1
2
3
4+
Total
ave by province
no income
0.9%
3.9%
6.2%
4.7%
5.4%
2.5%
4.0%
1.0%
1.7%
other non-f arm income
4.7%
4.5%
4.5%
3.9%
5.7%
4.6%
3.3%
5.7%
5.0%
Sales of f arm products
1.1%
0.8%
0.5%
1.3%
1.1%
1.0%
0.5%
0.9%
2.5%
Pensions and grants
15.3%
17.2%
25.6%
30.8%
35.7%
17.8%
10.3%
19.0%
26.7%
Remittances
8.6%
20.6%
24.0%
18.5%
17.3%
13.8%
7.4%
17.1%
25.3%
Salaries/ w ages
69.2%
52.8%
39.0%
40.7%
33.6%
60.1%
74.0%
56.3%
38.7%
Pro b le m s o f e xc e ssive p re ssu re o n the e ld e rly
a rise fro m su c h situ a tio n s in whic h lim ite d
re so u rc e s n e e d to b e sha re d a m o n gst m o re
a n d m o re p e o p le . The a b ility o f the se
ho u se ho ld s to c o p e with sho c ks m a y b e
re d u c e d , thu s in c re a sin g vu ln e ra b ility. In d e e d ,
e xc e ssive d e p e n d e n c e c a n re su lt in e n tire
ho u se ho ld s b e in g p u she d in to p o ve rty.
O n c e a ga in it is Lim p o p o , with the highe st
ra te s o f u n e m p lo ym e n t a n d lo we st in c o m e
e a rn e rs, fo r whic h d e p e n d e n c y o n gra n ts is m o st
e vid e n t with 2 7 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s b e in g
re lia n t m a in ly o n p e n sio n s a n d 2 5 p e rc e n t o n
re m itta n c e s. The n u m b e rs o f u n e m p lo ye d
a tta c he d to ho u se ho ld s with the se m a in
in c o m e so u rc e s is e xc e p tio n a lly high in this
p ro vin c e . In fa c t, a c ro ss a ll p ro vin c e s, the
p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s with a t le a st o n e
u n e m p lo ye d m e m b e r is e xtre m e ly high; in
G a u te n g, 4 1 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s ha ve a t
le a st o n e u n e m p lo ye d m e m b e r, in Kwa Z u lu N a ta l the figu re is highe r a t 4 6 p e rc e n t a n d in
Lim p o p o it is e ve n highe r a t 4 9 p e rc e n t o f
ho u se ho ld s. W ith su c h figu re s we a re ye t a ga in
m a d e a wa re o f the e xte n t o f ho u se ho ld
vu ln e ra b ility n a tio n wid e .
17
Access to finance
A fin a l a sp e c t o f this se c tio n is a b rie f lo o k a t
the ho u se ho ld s ’ a c c e ss to fin a n c e thro u gh
d iffe re n t sa vin gs p la n s, p riva te p e n sio n s a n d
life in su ra n c e . Sa vin gs a re o fte n e sse n tia l to
fu n d in ve stm e n ts a n d re fle c t the p o te n tia l
fo r ho u se ho ld s to stim u la te fu tu re e c o n o m ic
a c tivity. Sa vin gs, p e n sio n s a n d life in su ra n c e
a re a lso e xtre m e ly im p o rta n t sa fe ty n e ts
whic h c a n b e d ra wn u p o n in the e ve n t o f a
su d d e n sho c k, fo r e xa m p le , a d e a th in
the ho u se ho ld o r lo ss o f a jo b . Sa vin gs
th e re fo re c u sh io n vu ln e ra b ility. Ta b le 4
sho ws a c c e ss to a ra n ge o f fin a n c ia l a sse ts
fo r 2 0 0 1 .
It is e vid e n t fro m the ta b le tha t sa vin gs in a
b a n k a c c o u n t is the m o st c o m m o n fo rm o f
sa vin gs n a tio n a lly a n d a c ro ss the p ro vin c e s,
fo llo we d b y life in su ra n c e with 4 2 p e rc e n t
o f ho u se ho ld s d e c la rin g the y ha d sa vin gs in
a b a n k a c c o u n t a n d with 2 6 p e rc e n t ha vin g
life in su ra n c e in 2 0 0 1 . O n c e a ga in , la rge
d isc re p a n c ie s a c ro ss the p ro vin c e s e xist with
5 3 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g ha vin g
m o n e y in a b a n k sa vin gs a c c o u n t a s o p p o se d
to ju st o n e third o f ho u se ho ld s in Lim p o p o .
In te re stin gly, the p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s
with life in su ra n c e is sim ila r in G a u te n g a n d
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a t 2 7 p e rc e n t a n d 2 5 p e rc e n t
re sp e c tive ly. Lim p o p o , ye t a ga in , fa lls fa r
b e hin d with o n ly 1 3 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s
with life in su ra n c e .
Also o f n o te is the sign ific a n tly highe r
p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
with sa vin gs in a sto kve l (1 2 p e rc e n t), c o m p a re d
with b o th G a u te n g (6 p e rc e n t) a n d Lim p o p o
(7 p e rc e n t). Un su rp risin gly, p riva te p e n sio n s
a re m o st c o m m o n in G a u te n g (1 8 p e rc e n t),
fo llo we d b y Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l (1 1 p e rc e n t). O n ly
7 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in Lim p o p o ha ve
sa vin gs in a p riva te p e n sio n .
Fro m Ta b le 4 it is c le a r tha t a c c e ss to fin a n c ia l
a sse ts is m u c h b e tte r in G a u te n g, the m o st
e c o n o m ic a lly p ro sp e ro u s p ro vin c e , tha n it is in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l o r Lim p o p o . It a p p e a rs tha t
within the p o o re r p ro vin c e s, the c ho ic e o f
sa vin gs typ e will b e d e te rm in e d b y a va ila b le
o p tio n s. H e n c e , whe re sto kve ls a re m o re
d e ve lo p e d a n d e n tre n c he d , a s the y a re in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l, the se wo u ld b e p re fe ra b le to
wha t a re u su a lly e xtre m e ly high in te re st
b e a rin g c a sh lo a n s. In Lim p o p o , ho we ve r, the re
m a y b e fe we r o p tio n s o f sa vin g a s p a rt o f
a sto kve l with re sid e n ts p o te n tia lly ha vin g
little a lte rn a tive b u t to a c c e ss m u c h-n e e d e d
fin a n c e thro u gh a c a sh lo a n .
As with a ll the d e sc rip to rs c o ve re d in this
se c tio n we se e o n c e a ga in tha t p ro sp e c ts fo r
fu tu re e c o n o m ic o p p o rtu n itie s a n d gro wth a re
o ve rwhe lm in gly in G a u te n g, a n d e xtre m e
h o u se h o ld vu ln e ra b ilit y is p e rva sive in
Lim p o p o . The b re a d th a n d d e p th o f a c c e ss to
sa vin gs thro u gh fin a n c ia l in stru m e n ts in d ic a te s
tha t it is ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g tha t a re b e st
e q u ip p e d to m o b ilise sa vin gs fo r the p u rp o se
o f in ve stm e n t a n d a lso ha ve the gre a te st
sa fe ty n e ts in p la c e to le sse n the e ffe c ts o f
in c o m e s h o c ks . Lim p o p o is e xt re m e ly
vu ln e ra b le in this re ga rd with Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
p e rfo rm in g in te rm e d ia te ly.
Table 4: Access to Financial Assets in 2001
Savings in a
stokvel
Private
Pension
Gauteng
52.8%
6.2%
17.7%
6.7%
27.4%
KwaZulu-Natal
37.9%
12.0%
11.0%
4.0%
25.0%
Limpopo
33.4%
7.2%
7.0%
2.1%
13.0%
National
42.2%
6.9%
14.0%
5.0%
25.7%
Source: Labour Force Survey 2001
Unit trusts
Life
Insurance
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
Savings in a
bank account
18
p ro vin c e p e rfo rm s a t the m e a n in te rm s
o f m o st in d ic a to rs o f p o ve rty c o n sid e re d thu s
fa r, it is e vid e n t tha t o n this fu n d a m e n ta l
in d ic a to r o f we llb e in g, the p o p u la tio n o f
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l is se ve re ly d isa d va n ta ge d .
H EALTH
To b e p o o r is to b e sick and no t care d fo r
To b e vulne rab le to ad ve rse e ve nts o utsid e yo ur
co ntro l
In fa c t, the a ve ra ge life e xp e c ta n c y figu re s
fo r So u th Afric a a p p e a r to h a ve little
c o rre la tio n with o u r p re vio u sly a c c o u n te d
fo r in d ic a to rs o f e c o n o m ic we llb e in g. The p rio r
c ha sm b e twe e n G a u te n g a n d Lim p o p o , o n
n e a rly a ll p re vio u s m e a su re s, a lm o st c o m p le te ly
d isa p p e a rs in this in sta n c e . In 2 0 0 1 , the
e stim a te s o f life e xp e c ta n c y in G a u te n g a n d
Lim p o p o a re a p p ro xim a te ly 5 5 .8 ye a rs a n d
5 5 .4 ye a rs re sp e c t ive ly su g g e st in g t h a t
fa c to rs d rivin g re d u c tio n s in life e xp e c ta n c y
e stim a te s stre tc h fa r b e yo n d a c c e ss to b a sic
go o d s a n d se rvic e s a n d e ve n he a lth c a re . It is
the p ro je c te d d e va sta tin g im p a c t o f H IV/ AID S
tha t is d rivin g re d u c tio n s in the se figu re s.
The fin a l in d ic a to rs o f p o ve rty in c lu d e d in this
re p o rt a re tho se re la tin g to he a lth a n d sa fe ty.
Im p r o v e d h e a lt h c o n t r ib u t e s t o w a r d s
p ro d u c tivity in the wo rkp la c e a n d e n ha n c e s
e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t.
“ A high p re va le n c e o f d ise a se a n d p o o r he a lth in a
c o u n try ha rm s e c o n o m ic p e rfo rm a n c e while
highe r life e xp e c ta n c y, a ke y in d ic a to r o f he a lth
sta tu s, stim u la te s e c o n o m ic gro wth ” (D a y a n d
G ra y 2 0 0 2 , p .4 2 8 ).
In c o n sid e rin g he a lth, o u r fo c u s is o n tra d itio n a l
in d ic a to rs o f he a lth sta tu s su c h a s life
e xp e c ta n c y a t b irth, in fa n t m o rta lity ra te a n d
H IV p re va le n c e . In a d d itio n , e stim a te s o f
tu b e rc u lo sis in c id e n c e ra te s a re in c lu d e d (d u e
to its re la tio n ship with H IV p re va le n c e ) a n d
a n e stim a te o f a c c e ss to he a lth c a re in te rm s
o f d ista n c e .
The o the r he a lth in d ic a to r sho wn in Figu re 1 8
is the IMR, whic h re fe rs to the n u m b e r o f
c hild re n le ss tha n o n e ye a r o ld who d ie in a ye a r,
20
p e r 1 0 0 0 live b irths in tha t ye a r. The IMR is
a tra d itio n a lly a c c e p te d in d ic a to r o f he a lth
sta tu s a n d a p p e a rs m o re c lo se ly re la te d to
he a lth c a re se rvic e s in So u th Afric a tha n life
e xp e c ta n c y. If the IMR is re la tive ly high, it
su gge sts tha t the le ve l o f he a lth c a re in the
re gio n e xa m in e d is n o t o p tim a l. Figu re 1 8
re ve a ls tha t b e twe e n 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 2 , the IMR
ha s d e c re a se d in G a u te n g a n d Lim p o p o .
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
The re is a d istin c t re la tio n ship b e twe e n
e c o n o m ic p e rfo rm a n c e a n d he a lth sta tu s. A
highe r life e xp e c ta n c y is a sso c ia te d with
e c o n o m ic p ro sp e rity, w hilst p o o r he a lth,
p ro xie d fo r b y the in fa n t m o rta lity ra te (IMR), is
a s s o c ia t e d w it h d e t r im e n t a l e c o n o m ic
p e r fo r m a n c e . Fig u r e 1 8 s im u lt a n e o u s ly
illu stra te s life e xp e c ta n c y fo r
Figure 18: Life Expectancy (1996 and 2001) and Infant Mortality Rate
1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 1 , a n d the IMR
(1996 and 2002) by Province
fo r 1 9 9 6 a n d 2 0 0 2 , fo r the
th re e p ro vin c e s a n d th e
70
c o u n try a s a who le .
Figu re 1 8 sho ws n a tio n a lly,
a n d fo r a ll p r o v in c e s
c o n s id e r e d , t h a t life
18
e xp e c ta n c y ha s d e c re a se d
d ra m a tic a lly fro m 1 9 9 6 to
2 0 0 1 . This d e c lin in g tre n d
in life e xp e c t a n c y o f
So u th Afric a n s is e xp e c te d
to c o n tin u e u n til the ye a r
19
2015.
The d ro p in life
e xp e c ta n c y is m o st sta rk in
Kw a Z u lu -N a t a l w it h t h e
e stim a te a t o n ly 4 9 ye a rs in
2 0 0 1 , a d ro p o f m o re tha n
1 0 ye a rs in o n ly a 5 ye a r
p e r io d . Alt h o u g h t h is
18
19
20
80
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
0
10
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
Life Expectancy - 1996
63.6
59.8
61.4
60.8
Life Expectancy - 2001
55.8
48.9
55.4
53.5
IMR - 1996
60.3
54.5
56.5
56.1
IMR - 2002
46
68
53
59
0
Source: Life Expectancy (South African Human Development Report 2003) IMR
(Day
and Gray 2002)
Life Expectancy at birth refers to the average number of additional years a person could expect to live if current mortality trends were to continue for
the rest of that person ’s life (Day and Gray 2002, p.437)
South African Human Development Report, 2003, p.26-27.
Definition obtained from the South African Health Review (Day and Gray 2002, p.437)
19
H IV/ AID S p re va le n c e ra te s (a m o n g wo m e n
21
su rve ye d a t a n te -n a ta l c lin ic s ) a s we ll a s the
in c id e n c e o f Tu b e rc u lo sis o r TB (whic h re fe rs
to the n u m b e r o f c a se s o f the c o n d itio n re p o rte d
to the D e p a rtm e n t o f H e a lth p e r 1 0 0 0 0 0
22
p o p u la tio n fo r tha t ye a r ) wa rra n t fu rthe r
a tte n tio n a n d a re illu stra te d in Figu re 1 9 . TB
a n d H IV a re two o f the m o st d e va sta tin g
d ise a se s in the c o u n try a n d ha ve b e e n
d u b b e d the “ d e a d ly p a ir ” b e c a u se the y a re
kn o wn fo r a c tiva tin g a n d re a c tiva tin g e a c h
o t h e r. Ac c o rd in g t o t h e So u t h Afric a n
D e p a rtm e n t o f H e a lth, it ha s b e e n re ve a le d tha t
H IV
in c re a se s the c ha n c e o f re a c tiva tin g
d o rm a n t TB in fe c tio n fro m 1 0 p e rc e n t to
23
5 0 p e rc e n t d u rin g a p e rso n ’ s life p e r ye a r.
m in d tha t the re a l in c id e n c e o f TB m a y e ve n
b e highe r tha n tha t e stim a te d , d u e to lo w
d e te c tio n ra te s in m a n y ru ra l a re a s with p o o r
la b o ra to ry se rvic e s a n d / o r o ve ra ll lo w he a lth
26
se rvic e u tiliz a tio n ra te s. It is the re fo re p o ssib le
tha t the p a rtic u la rly lo w ra te s re p o rte d in
Lim p o p o , whic h is m a in ly ru ra l, a re in fa c t
gre a tly u n d e re stim a te d .
A sim ila r p a tte rn ho ld s fo r H IV p re va le n c e .
Figu re 1 9 c le a rly sho ws a n in c re a se in the
p re va le n c e o f H IV in fe c te d in d ivid u a ls fro m
1 9 9 6 to 2 0 0 1 . The in c re a se in the p re va le n c e
ra te is d istin c tly la rge r in G a u te n g a n d Kwa Z u lu N a ta l tha n it is in Lim p o p o , a n d fo r tha t m a tte r
the c o u n try a s a who le . This c le a rly in d ic a te s
tha t G a u te n g a n d Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a re m o re
su sc e p tib le to the H IV/ AID S p a n d e m ic a n d its
d e va sta tin g c o n se q u e n c e s. H e a lth o u tc o m e s in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l se e m b le e k. The p ro vin c e is
sa d d le d with high le ve ls o f TB in c id e n c e a n d
H IV p re va le n c e , a n d a n IMR e stim a te la rge r
tha n the n a tio n a l a ve ra ge .
In te re stin gly, Lim p o p o , the p o o re st p ro vin c e o n
a lm o st a ll o the r m e a su re s o f p o ve rty, ha s
p e rfo rm e d re la tive ly we ll in te rm s o f o u r
c ho se n he a lth in d ic a to rs. Eve n if the d a ta is
p o o rly c a p tu re d fo r this p ro vin c e , it se e m s
p o ssib le tha t its d e e p ly ru ra l n a tu re a n d the
re la tive “ iso la tio n ” o f its p o p u la tio n fro m the
m a in stre a m e c o n o m y, m a y in fa c t b e shie ld in g it
In te rm s o f the TB in c id e n c e ra te , Figu re 1 9
c le a rly illu stra te s a n in c re a se in a ll the
p ro vin c e s c o n sid e re d fro m 1 9 9 9 to 2 0 0 1 .
This in c re a se is strikin gly e vid e n t in G a u te n g
whe re TB in c id e n c e ro se fro m
Figure 19: Tuberculosis Incidence (1999 and 2001) and HIV Prevalence
2 2 3 .5 in 1 9 9 9 to 3 4 6 .7 in
24
(1996 and 2001) by Province
2 0 0 1 . Fu rthe rm o re , the TB
in c id e n c e ra te in Kwa Z u lu N a ta l m im ic s tha t o f the
500
40
c o u n try a s a who le a n d is
450
35
su b sta n tia lly highe r tha n tha t in
400
30
G a u te n g a n d Lim p o p o . This
350
su gge sts tha t the re a re o the r
25
300
p ro vin c e s in the c o u n try with
250
20
a highe r TB in c id e n c e ra te tha t
200
15
a r e d r ivin g t h e n a t io n a l
150
a ve r a g e . Sp e c ific a lly, t h e
10
100
W e ste rn Ca p e h a d a TB
5
50
in c id e n c e ra te o f ju st o ve r 8 0 0
0
0
in 2 0 0 1 . This c a n b e e xp la in e d
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
b y the c o a sta l n a tu re o f the
223.5
386.4
109.1
359.6
TB-1999
25
346.7
436.4
187.2
425.7
TB-2001
p ro vin c e a n d a lso p o ssib ly in
15.5
19.9
7.9
14.1
HIV-1996
p a rt to b e tte r c a p tu re d d a ta . In
29.8
33.5
14.5
24.8
HIV-2001
fa c t, it is im p o rta n t to b e a r in
Source: Day and Gray 2002
21
22
23
24
25
26
The definition of HIV prevalence in this context refers to the percentage of women surveyed testing positive for HIV (Day and Gray, 2002, p.449).
Definition obtained from the South African Health Review (Day and Gray 2002, p.443)
Department of Health: Statistical Notes, July 2000.
Source: Day and Gray, 2002, p.445; Note: The data provided on TB incidence is not a trend because the incidence rates tend to fluctuate from year
to year.
According to the South African Human Development Report (2003), the highest TB incidence rates historically occur in the coastal provinces
because they experience higher levels of humidity as compared to the rest of the country.
Day and Gray, 2002, p.443
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
H o we ve r, the ga in s in G a u te n g a re m o re
m a rke d in d ic a tin g tha t he a lth c a re se rvic e s
ha ve im p ro ve d sign ific a n tly in this p ro vin c e .
In c o n tra st, the IMR ha s in c re a se d in Kwa Z u lu N a ta l fro m 5 4 .5 d e a ths p e r 1 0 0 0 live b irths
to 6 8 d e a ths p e r 1 0 0 0 live b irths. O n c e a ga in
it se e m s tha t the im p a c ts o f H IV/ AID S is
d rivin g this tre n d , a n d fa r o u twe ighin g a n y
p o ssib le im p ro ve m e n ts in he a lth c a re se rvic e s
in this p ro vin c e .
20
Figure 20: Cumulative Distribution of Time Taken to Reach a
Clinic by Province in 2001
120.0%
100.0%
80.0%
60.0%
40.0%
20.0%
0.0%
0-14
15-29
30-44
45-59
60+
Gauteng
46.2%
83.8%
95.8%
97.5%
99.3%
KwaZulu-N
21.3%
63.0%
84.8%
92.0%
99.4%
Limpopo
22.8%
59.3%
81.0%
87.5%
99.6%
National
36.3%
71.8%
87.5%
92.2%
99.4%
Source: Labour Force Survey 2001
to so m e e xte n t fro m the sp re a d in H IV/ AID S.
W he n c o n sid e rin g a c c e ss to he a lth c a re
se rvic e s, ho we ve r, the p ro vin c e o n c e a ga in
p e rfo rm s p o o rly.
Figu re 2 0 illu stra te s a c c e ss to he a lth c a re se rvic e s
in te rm s o f the c u m u la tive d ista n c e to a c lin ic ,
m e a su re d a s tim e ta ke n to re a c h a c lin ic .
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
It is e vid e n t fro m Figu re 2 0 tha t a p p ro xim a te ly
4 6 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g a re
within 1 5 m in u te s re a c h o f a c lin ic , in d ic a tin g
tha t a c c e ss to he a lth c a re in te rm s o f d ista n c e
is m u c h b e tte r in G a u te n g tha n it is in the
o the r p ro vin c e s c o n sid e re d . The d o m in a n c e o f
this p ro vin c e ho ld s. In te rm s o f re la tive “ q u a lity ”
o f he a lth c a re a c c e ss b e twe e n Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
a n d the Lim p o p o , d o m in a n c e d o e s n o t ho ld
a s the lin e s fo r the se p ro vin c e s in te rse c t.
Lim p o p o fa irs slightly b e tte r in te rm s o f c lo se
a c c e ss with 2 3 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s b e in g
within 1 5 m in u te s o f a c lin ic a s o p p o se d to
2 1 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l.
27
Day and Gray, 2002, p.473
In te rm s o f fu rthe r d ista n c e s, ho we ve r, Kwa Z u lu N a ta l fa irs m a rgin a lly b e tte r with, fo r e xa m p le ,
6 3 p e rc e n t o f its ho u se ho ld s b e in g within
3 0 m in u te s o f a c lin ic a s o p p o se d to 5 9 p e rc e n t
o f Lim p o p o ’ s h o u s e h o ld s . Fu rt h e rm o re ,
a p p ro xim a te ly 7 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d 1 2 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s
in Lim p o p o re q u ire m o re tha n a n ho u r to re a c h
a c lin ic . The se a re q u ite c le a rly in d ivid u a ls
fro m ru ra l a re a s. O n this m e a su re , Kwa Z u lu N a ta l p e rfo rm s re la tive ly p o o rly a n d b e lo w the
n a tio n a l a ve ra ge , n o d o u b t c o n trib u tin g to the
high IMR d isc u sse d a b o ve .
In a d d itio n , it is in te re stin g to n o te tha t in
te rm s o f m e d ic a l p ra c titio n e rs p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
p o p u la tio n , in 2 0 0 1 , the re we re a p p ro xim a te ly
1 2 .2 d o c to rs (m e d ic a l p ra c titio n e rs) p e r
1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p o p u la tio n in Lim p o p o , whilst in
G a u te n g a n d Kw a Z u lu -N a ta l th e re w e re
a p p r o xim a t e ly 2 8 . 7 a n d 2 2 . 3 d o c t o r s
27
re sp e c tive ly fo r e ve ry 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le .
21
It is im p o rta n t to highlight tha t So u th
Afric a ’ s c rim e ra te s a re a m o n gst
the highe st in the wo rld a n d the re
a re
n o n e who a re shie ld e d fro m
28
its e ffe c ts.
Fu rthe rm o re , vio le n t
c rim e s c o m m it t e d a g a in st
ho u se ho ld m e m b e rs c a n ha ve d ire
c o n se q u e n c e s fo r tha t ho u se ho ld ,
a n d c a n o fte n c a u se vu ln e ra b le
h o u se h o ld s to b e c o m e p o ve rty29
stric ke n . Co n ve rse ly, it is p o ssib le
tha t in d ivid u a ls who a re livin g in
p o ve rty, m ight re so rt to c o m m it
c rim e s a s a live liho o d stra te gy, thu s
e n ge n d e rin g a vic io u s c yc le o f p o ve rty
a n d c rim e .
Figure 21: Crimes committed against households in Rural and Urban Areas
by Province in 1997
30.0%
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
5.0%
0.0%
Gauteng
Kw aZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
Urban
24.0%
21.1%
6.2%
22.1%
Rural
16.5%
19.3%
13.2%
18.1%
Source: Statistics South Africa Victims of Crime Survey, 1998
Crim e s c a n b e d e fin e d a s b e in g c o m m itte d
a ga in st ho u se ho ld s o r in d ivid u a ls. W e re p o rt
so m e sta tistic s he re fro m the Vic tim s o f Crim e
30
Su rve y 1 9 9 8 a s fin a l in d ic a to rs o f p o ve rty fo r the
c o u n try a n d a c ro ss the thre e se le c te d p ro vin c e s.
Figu re 2 1 sho ws the p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s
tha t e xp e rie n c e d a t le a st o n e c rim e in 1 9 9 7 ,
in c lu d in g live sto c k the ft, in u rb a n a n d n o n -u rb a n
31
a re a s.
It c a n b e se e n t h a t n a t io n a lly
a p p ro xim a te ly 1 in 5 ho u se ho ld s in d ic a te d
ha vin g b e e n the vic tim o f a t le a st o n e c rim e
in 1 9 9 7 with c rim e slightly m o re wid e sp re a d
in u rb a n a re a s. Urb a n G a u te n g fa re s the wo rst
in te rm s o f in c id e n c e o f ho u se ho ld c rim e
fo llo we d b y u rb a n Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. Crim e ra te s,
ho we ve r, a re highe r tha n the n a tio n a l a ve ra ge
in ru ra l Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. In te rm s o f the typ e
o f h o u se h o ld c rim e , ‘ h o u se b re a kin g a n d
b u rgla ry ’ is the m o st c o m m o n c rim e c o m m itte d
o n ho u se ho ld s in G a u te n g, Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d
the c o u n try a s a who le . Lim p o p o p e rfo rm s b y
fa r the b e st, with b o th ru ra l a n d u rb a n c rim e ra te s
fa llin g we ll b e lo w the n a tio n a l a ve ra ge s. In this
p ro vin c e , the m o st c o m m o n c rim e c o m m itte d
a ga in st a ho u se ho ld is ‘ the ft o f live sto c k ’
e m p ha sisin g the ru ra l n a tu re o f Lim p o p o .
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
In te rm s o f c rim e s c o m m itte d a ga in st in d ivid u a ls,
the p a tte rn o f in c id e n c e b y p ro vin c e ho ld s.
In 1 9 9 7 the p ro p o rtio n o f in d ivid u a ls who
in d ic a te d tha t the y we re the vic tim o f a t le a st
o n e c rim e a ga in st the ir p e rso n wa s 1 4 .9 p e rc e n t
in G a u te n g, 1 2 .5 p e rc e n t in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d
6 .3 p e rc e n t in Lim p o p o . N a tio n a lly, the figu re
32
la y c lo se st to G a u te n g a t 1 4 .6 p e rc e n t . Fo r the
p ro vin c e s e xa m in e d , the m o st c o m m o n typ e
o f c rim e wa s ‘ the ft o f p ro p e rty ’ . It is in te re stin g
to n o te tha t in Lim p o p o a n d Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
the se c o n d m o st p re va le n t typ e o f c rim e
c o m m itte d o n in d ivid u a ls wa s a ssa u lt (whic h is
in lin e with the n a tio n a l a ve ra ge ). In G a u te n g,
ho we ve r, the se c o n d m o st p re va le n t typ e o f
c rim e c o m m itte d o n a n in d ivid u a l wa s c o rru p tio n
fo llo we d b y fra u d .
Asid e fro m the p a in a n d lo ss su ffe re d b y vic tim s
o f c rim e , the thre a t o f c rim e c re a te s a n
e n viro n m e n t u n c o n d u c ive t o p ro d u c t ive
33
a c tivity. Fu rthe rm o re , a high c rim e e n viro n m e n t
is like ly to d isc o u ra ge in ve stm e n t a n d stifle
34
lo n g-te rm gro wth in So u th Afric a . It is p la u sib le
tha t su c h lim ita tio n s to gro wth m ight hin d e r
p o ve rty a lle via tio n e ffo rts.
Demombynes and Ozler , 2002
May, 2000, p.133
Statistics South Africa.Victims of Crime Survey 1998.
The Victims of Crime Survey 1998 defines household crimes as those crimes committed against the household, for example, theft of property from a
dwelling. Individual crimes are those crimes committed against the individual, for example, pickpocketing or sexual offences. (Statistics South Africa
1999, pp16-18)
Statistics South Africa Victims of Crime Survey, 1998
Note: Results from the 1999 World Bank Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Area large firm survey (manufacturing firms) which involved 325 firms,
indicated that 94% of firm CEO 's rated crime and theft as the major obstacle to firm growth (Lewis, 2002).
Demombynes and O zler , 2002
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
CRI M E
22
Figure 22: Access to Assets and Services by Province in 2001
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
CO N CLU SI O N
This re p o rt ha s c o n sid e re d a ra n ge
Electricity for lighting
100.0%
o f in d ic a to rs o f we llb e in g, re fle c tin g
80.0%
Electricity for cooking
Flush toilet or chemical toilet
o n m a n y o f the d im e n sio n s o f
60.0%
p o ve rty. Co m p a riso n s ha ve b e e n
40.0%
m a d e a c ro ss 3 p ro vin c e s c ho se n a s
20.0%
p ro xie s fo r d iffe re n t le ve ls o f in tra 0.0%
Piped water
Refuse removal by local authority
c o u n try livin g sta n d a rd s, with shifts
in p o ve rty m e a su re s a n a lyse d o ve r
t i m e . Li n k s b e t w e e n a s s e t
Telephone in home or household has
o wn e rship , la b o u r m a rke t sta tu s
Formal housing
cell phone
a n d fo o d se c u rity a re e vid e n te m p ha siz in g the stru ggle s in c o m e Refrigerator
p o o r ho u se ho ld s fa c e to m e e t the ir
b a sic n e e d s. O n the se m a rke rs,
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
National
G a u t e n g c le a r ly o u t p e r fo r m s
Kw a Z u lu -N a t a l w h ic h c le a r ly
o u tp e rfo rm s Lim p o p o . The ra n kin g
p ro vin c e ha s a re la tive ly high n u m b e r o f
o f p ro vin c e s, ho we ve r, is n o t a s ro b u st whe n
ho u se ho ld s livin g in fo rm a l d we llin gs a n d with
e xa m in in g o the r fo rm s o f p o ve rty su c h a s p o o r
te le p ho n e s. Altho u gh it p e rfo rm s b e st in te rm s
h e a lth a n d sa fe ty. Fu rth e rm o re , o n tw o
o f re frige ra to r o wn e rship , 4 in 1 0 ho u se ho ld s
fu n d a m e n ta l livin g sta n d a rd s m e a su re s – the
in this re la tive ly we ll-o ff p ro vin c e d o n o t p o sse ss
p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s livin g in fo rm a l
this b a sic a sse t. Lim p o p o a n d Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l fa ir
d we llin gs a n d p ro p o rtio n o f ho u se ho ld s with
sign ific a n tly wo rse o n a lm o st a ll m e a su re s,
a c c e ss to p ip e d wa te r – Lim p o p o , the p ro vin c e
e xc e p t in the c a se o f fo rm a l ho u sin g in Lim p o p o ,
with the highe st in c o m e p o ve rty, a p p e a rs to ha ve
with figu re s riva llin g tho se o f G a u te n g. It is q u ite
a highe r sta n d a rd o f livin g tha n Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l.
re m a rka b le a n d e n c o u ra gin g tha t so m a n y
d we llin gs in the Lim p o p o a re b u ilt o f b ric ks o r
The figu re s in this se c tio n c o a le sc e m a n y o f the
c o n c re te , a ltho u gh the d iffe re n c e in q u a lity o f
in d ic a to rs we ha ve c o n sid e re d a n d sho w c le a rly
the se ho m e s a n d tho se in G a u te n g will b e sta rk.
the re la tive we a lth d o m in a n c e o f G a u te n g b u t
In fa c t, Lim p o p o with the lo we st G D P p e r c a p ita
a lso the flu c tu a tio n s in the re la tive p e rfo rm a n c e
ha s gre a te r a c c e ss to p ip e d wa te r a n d e le c tric ity
o f Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l a n d Lim p o p o . Fo r e a c h o f
fo r lightin g tha n Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l in d ic a tin g tha t
the in d ic a to rs, the d ista n c e fro m the c e n tre
b a sic livin g c o n d itio n s a re in so m e in sta n c e s
m e a su re s the p e rc e n ta ge a c c e ss in te rm s o f tha t
su p e rio r in this p ro vin c e . The la c k o f in c o m e in
sp e c ific in d ic a to r. Fo r e xa m p le , in
Figure 23: Education, Employment, Food Security, Health and Safety by Province
te rm s o f e le c tric ity fo r c o o kin g,
a p p r o xim a t e ly 2 5 p e r c e n t o f
% ag e d 2 0 m
oorr e w i t a
h t rm
ci o rh i g h e r
100%
ho u se ho ld s in Lim p o p o , 4 8 p e rc e n t
o f ho u se ho ld s in Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l
80%
a n d 7 3 p e rc e n t o f ho u se ho ld s in
60%
L i ef e x p ea cn tc ya s p r o p
t i oo rn o f a v e r a g e l i f e
% em
ployed
e x p et ca n c y o f u- pmipdedr l en ci o m
e co u t r i e s
G a u te n g ha ve a c c e ss to e le c tric ity
40%
fo r c o o kin g p u rp o se s. Fu rthe rm o re ,
20%
the d ista n c e s b e twe e n the p ro vin c ia l
0%
lin e s s h o u ld a ls o b e n o t e d
a s in d ic a to rs o f the e xte n t o f
% n o vt i c t i omfp e r s o n cairlm ec o mmi t t e dg a i n s t y o u
d iffe re n tia l a c c e ss.
% hgi h l y sl l keid w eo r sk
(1997)
In 2 0 0 1 , G a u te n g, a lm o st e n tire ly
u rb a n , p e rfo rm e d p a rtic u la rly we ll in
t e r m s o f t h e p r o p o r t io n o f
h o u se h o ld s w it h p ip e d w a t e r,
sa n ita tio n , e le c tric ity a c c e ss a n d
re fu se re m o va l. Fu rthe rm o re , the
% i n d i v i d iuna lhso eu hs o l de lsd o mo r n ee rv h u n g r y
Gauteng
K w a Z uN
l ua- t a l
L i mp o p o
Nation
23
In te rm s o f e d u c a tio n a l a c hie ve m e n ts a n d
e c o n o m ic o p p o rtu n itie s, the ra n kin g o f the
p ro vin c e s is m o re sta b le . Altho u gh the re ha ve
b e e n im p ro ve m e n ts in e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t
thro u gho u t the c o u n try o ve r the in te r-c e n sa l
p e rio d , a m e re 2 1 p e rc e n t o f Lim p o p o re sid e n ts
a ge d 2 0 o r highe r ha d c o m p le te d gra d e 1 2 o r
stu d ie d fu rthe r in 2 0 0 1 . In d ivid u a ls in G a u te n g
a re the m o st e d u c a te d , highly skille d , m o st like ly
to ha ve a se c u re jo b , a n d a s a re su lt ha ve
im p ro ve d a c c e ss to fin a n c e s. Fu rthe rm o re , o u r
a n a lysis ha s sho wn tha t e m p lo ye d in d ivid u a ls in
G a u te n g a re a lso e xp e c te d to e a rn the highe st
a ve ra ge in c o m e s. In 2 0 0 1 , the p ro p o rtio n o f the
wo rkin g p o o r in Lim p o p o e xc e e d e d tho se in
Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l fo r e ve ry lo w e a rn in gs lin e
c ho se n , whic h in tu rn e xc e e d e d tho se in
G a u te n g. In c re a se s in u n e m p lo ym e n t we re
fo u n d a c ro ss a ll p ro vin c e s, b u t Lim p o p o
e xp e rie n c e d the gre a te st rise . The situ a tio n is
d ire , a s c a n b e se e n in the d ia gra m with o n ly
4 6 p e rc e n t o f tho se willin g a n d a b le to wo rk,
fin d in g e m p lo ym e n t in 2 0 0 1 .
The lin ks b e twe e n fo o d se c u rity a n d e a rn in gs a n d
e m p lo ym e n t p o te n tia l a re c le a r with G a u te n g
o n c e a ga in p e rfo rm in g b e st a n d Lim p o p o wo rst.
Eve n so , the p e rc e n ta ge o f in d ivid u a ls livin g in
ho u se ho ld s whic h in d ic a te d tha t the y ‘ se ld o m o r
n e ve r ’ ha d a p ro b le m sa tisfyin g the ir fo o d
n e e d s is lo w fo r a ll p ro vin c e s. In G a u te n g, 3 in 1 0
ho u se ho ld s in d ic a te d tha t the y ‘ so m e tim e s, o fte n
o r a lwa ys ’ ha d d iffic u ltie s o b ta in in g su ffic ie n t
fo o d . In Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l this figu re s sta n d s a t
4 in 1 0 a n d in Lim p o p o a n e xc e e d in gly
c o n c e rn in g 6 in 1 0 .
Altho u gh o n the e c o n o m ic in d ic a to rs a n
e xtre m e ly b le a k p ic tu re o f the p ro sp e c ts o f the
Lim p o p o is d e ve lo p e d , in te rm s o f he a lth a n d
sa fe ty, this p ro vin c e p e rfo rm s re la tive ly we ll. O n
life e xp e c ta n c y m e a su re s, it ra te s o n a p a r with
G a u te n g, w ith Kw a Z u lu -N a ta l p e rfo rm in g
e sp e c ia lly p o o rly. H IV p re va le n c e is sign ific a n tly
lo we r. In te rm s o f e xp o su re to c rim e , in d ivid u a ls
a n d ho u se ho ld s in this p ro vin c e to o a re le a st
e xp o se d . It a p p e a rs the n tha t the d e e p ly ru ra l
n a tu re o f the p ro vin c e a n d p e rha p s its high
d e gre e o f e xc lu sio n fro m the m a in stre a m
e c o n o m y o f the c o u n try, m a y b e in su la tin g it fro m
so m e o f the d e va sta tin g e ffe c ts o f the H IV
p a n d e m ic . D e c lin e s in life e xp e c ta n c y a n d
in c re a se s in H IV p re va le n c e fo r a ll the p ro vin c e s
p a in t a wo rryin g p ic tu re o f the fu tu re .
Fro m the a b o ve it is c le a r tha t a n y a n a lysis o f
p o ve rty in So u th Afric a , sho u ld c o m b in e b o th the
sta n d a rd in c o m e a p p ro a c h to p o ve rty with
a p p ro p ria te m e a su re s o f the a sse ts o wn e d a n d
se rvic e s a c c e sse d b y the p o p u la c e . The se la tte r
in d ic a to rs a re vita l m a rke rs fo r the d e gre e
a n d e xte n t o f ‘ e n title m e n t d e p riva tio n ’ in the
so c ie ty. This p a rtic u la r sta tu s re p o rt ha s c ho se n
a p ro vin c ia l c o m p a riso n a s a p o in t o f c o n tra st,
a ltho u gh it sho u ld b e n o te d tha t o the r
c o va ria te s su c h a s ra c e a n d ge n d e r o f
ho u se ho ld he a d , lo c a tio n a n d m e a n ye a rs o f
sc ho o lin g o f a ho u se ho ld , c o n tin u e to re m a in
im p o rta n t p re d ic to rs o f a sse t p o ve rty a n d
se rvic e s d e p riva tio n . Ultim a te ly tho u gh, the
re p o rt ha s a tte m p te d to p ro vid e a p o st-a p a rthe id
sn a p sho t o f so m e the a d va n c e s tha t ha ve
b e e n m a d e in a sse t o wn e rship a n d se rvic e s
p ro visio n to p o o r ho u se ho ld s. The y re fle c t
sim u lta n e o u sly, o n the a d va n c e s tha t ha ve b e e n
m a d e in c e rta in re sp e c ts, a n d the sign ific a n t
c ha lle n ge s tha t la y a he a d fo r this so c ie ty.
A
A POVERT
POVERTY
Y ST
STA
ATTUS
US REPORT
REPORT
the Lim p o p o b e c o m e s e vid e n t, ho we ve r, whe n
c o n sid e rin g a c c e ss to b a sic a sse ts su c h a s
te le p ho n e s a n d re frige ra to rs, fo r whic h fe we r
tha n 1 in 3 p o sse ss the fo rm e r a n d o n ly 4 in 1 0 , the
la tte r. This la c k o f in c o m e is fu rthe r e m p ha siz e d
whe n c o n sid e rin g the lo w u sa ge ra te o f
e le c tric ity fo r c o o kin g re la tive to lightin g, a n d
re la tive to tha t o f Kwa Z u lu -N a ta l. In te rm s o f
c ha n ge s o ve r tim e , the a n a lysis b a se d o n c e n su s
d a ta in d ic a te d tha t im p ro ve m e n ts ha ve b e e n
m a d e in te rm s o f a c c e ss to a sse ts a n d se rvic e s,
p a rtic u la rly with re ga rd to the u se o f flu sh o r
c he m ic a l to ile ts a n d the a va ila b ility o f e le c tric ity
fo r lightin g p u rp o se s, o n a n a tio n a l le ve l.
Mo re o ve r, ge n e ra lly the p ro vin c e with the la rge st
b a c klo gs in 1 9 9 6 , ha d m a d e the gre a te st
p ro p o rtio n a l ga in s b y 2 0 0 1 .
24
REFEREN CES
Bhorat, H. & Hodge, J. 1999, “Decomposing Shifts in
Labour Demand in South Africa ”, South African Journal
of Economics, Vol 67(3).
Bhorat, H., Leibbrandt, M., Maziya, M., van der Berg, S.
& Woolard, I. 2001, Fighting Poverty: Labour Markets
and Inequality in South Africa, UCT Press, Lansdowne.
Bhorat, H. & O osthuizen, M. 2003, Inflation and the
Poor, Unpublished Paper, DPRU.
Demombynes, G. & Ö zler, B. 2002, Crime and Local
Inequality in South Africa, World Bank Working Paper
No. 2925, Available [online]:
http:/ / econ.worldbank.org/ view.php?id=21897
Accessed 28/ 07/ 2004.
Department of Health. 2000, HIV\AIDS and
Tuberculosis The Deadly Pair, Statistical Notes, Vol.2,
No. 18, Available [online]:
http:/ / www.doh.gov.za/ facts/ index.html. Accessed
21/ 06/ 2004.
Day, C & Gray, A.. 2002, South African Health Review ,
Health Systems Trust, Pretoria.
Lewis, J. 2002, Promoting Growth and Employment in
South Africa, Africa Region Working Paper series 32,
The World Bank.
May, J. 2000, Poverty and Inequality in South Africa:
Meeting the Challenge , David Philip Publishers, Cape
Town.
A
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POVERTY
Y ST
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US REPORT
REPORT
McKenzie, D. 2003, Measuring Inequality with Asset
Indicators, BREAD Working Paper No. 042,
Available[online]:
http:/ / www.cid.harvard.edu/ bread/ abstracts/ 042.htm
Accessed 28/ 07/ 2004.
Moser, C. 1996, Confronting Crisis: A summary of
Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in
Four Poor Urban Com m unities, Environmentally
Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs
Series No.8, Washington: The World Bank.
Sen, A. 1999, Development as Freedom , Anchor Books:
A Division of Random House, Inc, New York.
South African Reserve Bank (SARB). 2001, Q uarterly
Bulletin December 2001 , No 222, South African
Reserve Bank, Pretoria.
Statistics South Africa, 1996, Census.
Statistics South Africa, 1997, O ctober Household
Survey
Statistics South Africa, 1998, Unemployment and
employment in South Africa, Available [online]:
http:/ / www.statssa.gov.za/ publications/ publicationse
arch.asp . Accessed 28/ 07/ 2004.
Statistics South Africa. 1999. Statistical Release P0341,
Victims of Crime Survey 1998. Available [online]:
h t t p : / / w w w . s t a t s s a . g o v . z a / d e fa u lt 3 . a s p .
Accessed 04/ 06/ 2004.
Statistics South Africa. 2000, Measuring Poverty in
South Africa, Statistics South Africa, Pretoria.
Statistics South Africa, 2001a, Labour Force Survey
(September)
Statistics South Africa, 2001b, Census.
Statistics South Africa, 2003a. Statistical Release
P0302, Mid-year estimates 2003
Statistics South Africa, 2003b. Statistical Release
P0441, Gross Domestic Product
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
1997, Human Development Report, O xford University
Press, New York.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
2003, South Africa Human Development Report,
O xford University Press Southern Africa, Cape Town
World Bank. 2000, World Development Report 2000/
2001, Attacking Poverty, O xford University Press,
New York. (Chapter 1. The Nature and Evolution of
Poverty p15)
World Bank. 2002, World Development Indicators
2002, The World Bank, United States of America.
World Bank. 2004, World Development Report 2004:
M ak in g Se rv ic e s W o rk f o r Po o r Pe o p le ,
A Copublication of the World Bank and O xford
University Press, Washington.
O
TH
ER
ES
TL
I
T
E
BL
A
L
AI
AV
The Post-Apartheid South African Labour M arket:A Status
Report
Prepared by Laura Poswell
The labour market often lies at the centre of South Africa ’s numerous
economic growth and policy challenges. These relate to issues such
as skills constraints, unemployment, emigration and the impact of
HIV/ AIDS. The aim of this publication is to collate and crystallise the
key research that has been undertaken in these diverse areas.
Ultimately it is hoped that the publication serves as a useful reference
document for policy makers, unionists and other individuals and
institutions interested in the detailed workings of the South African
labour market. While clearly not exhaustive, this status report does
attempt to cover a wide set of labour market issues.
Price: R30.00
The Status Report on: The Post-Apartheid South African Labour
Market is available from our offices at:
Development Policy Research Unit
University of Cape Town
Private Bag
Rondebosch, 7701
Tel: +27 21 650-5705
Fax: +27 21 650-5711
Fighting Poverty: Labour M arkets and Inequality in South Africa
by Haroon Bhorat, Murray Leibbrandt, Muzi Maziya, Servaas van der Berg
and Ingrid Woolard
Unquestionably, poverty and inequality are among the major challenges
that face South Africa today. In this well-researched, comprehensive
volume, the authors:
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Use new techniques to measure and analyse household
inequality and poverty in South Africa
!
Analyse the nature and functioning of vulnerability in the
labour market
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Explore the links between labour market participation and
household poverty and inequality
!
Investigate current social and labour market policies
!
Examine the implications of current anti-poverty policies
and strategies
An exciting aspect of this ground-breaking work is the proposals for the
development of new and effective strategies and policies to fight poverty
in South Africa.
Price: R100.00
“This study uses current methods in modern labour economics, deploys
them on appropriate South African data sets, and answers questions on
which previously we had limited knowledge, or in some cases, none at all.
We regard this volume as the major reference work on labour markets,
poverty and inequality in South Africa.”
Gary Fields and Erik Thorbecke, Cornell University
Fighting Poverty: Labour Markets and Inequality in South Africa is
available from our offices:
Development Policy Research Unit
University of Cape Town
Private Bag
Rondebosch, 7701
Tel: +27 21 650-5705
Fax: +27 21 650-5711
Pro vince s
of
So uth Africa
Limpopo
Mpumalanga
Northern Cape
Gauteng
Free State
Eastern Cape
Wes tern Cape
Nata
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KwaZ ulu-Nat
Cover Photographs: Courtesy of Neil van Niekerk – http://www.planetneil.com/township/photos3.html & b.ontong • Design & Layout: b. e. ontong
Westt PProvince
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rovince
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