Foreigners, Pharaonic Egypt

1 Foreigners, Pharaonic Egypt KATE LISZKA Ancient Egypt was located at the crossroads between Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean. This location favored the development of a multicultural society. Although foreigners lived, worked, and traveled in Egypt throughout its history, monumental Egyptian records often project an ethnocentric attitude. If Egyptians commonly held ethnocentric attitudes, as HERODOTUS reported (Histories esp. 2.41–3), there may have been a strong compulsion for foreigners to acculturate to Egyptian standards. Foreigners who wanted to be accepted into elite or bureaucratic positions actively espoused Egyptian behaviors and material culture in public spheres. The extent to which first generation foreigners mentally acculturated cannot be known. Most foreigners adopted Egyptian material culture and behaviors within a generation or two, except in a few notable cases (Schneider 2010: 144 ff.; see ACCULTURATION). Nonetheless, the influence of several external cultures contributed to important developments in Egyptian society over time. For example, Egyptians adopted foreign technology like cylinder seals, glass technology, and the horse and chariot, and foreign gods like Astarte, Ba’al, and ANAT. Egyptians understood foreigners in two distinctly different ways: stereotypically or individually. The stereotypes of foreigners were prominent elements in the Egyptian conceptualization of the world. The Hymn to Amun-Re and the Hymn to the Aten state that Egyptian gods created both Egyptians and foreigners with distinct characteristics: “Their tongues differ in speech, Their characters likewise; Their skins are distinct, For you distinguished the peoples.” Minimally, the Egyptians recognized three main groups of foreigners bordering Egypt: Asiatics to the northeast, Nubians to the south, and Libyans to the west. Each of these races assumed stereotypical costumes and physical appearances in Egyptian depictions of the world (Figure 1). Egypt and pharaoh represented order (MAAT) in the center of their universe, while foreigners symbolized a manifestation of chaos (isft). The pharaoh must literally and figuratively defeat chaos to maintain kingship. Traditional smiting scenes and battle scenes in monumental art figuratively show the triumph of maat over isft, in the depiction of pharaohs conquering foreign peoples. Images of foreigners are often depicted in places over which the pharaoh would stand or walk regularly: under the window of appearance, on the floor of palatial buildings, on the soles of king’s shoes, on footstools, etc. Standing on these images served as a metaphorical expression of subduing chaos, and would magically achieve the same end. Execration texts similarly served as magical tools to protect Egypt from foreigners. Found on figurines or broken pots, these texts include extensive inscriptions of foreign names and locations in geographic order, which also demonstrate that Egyptians had a detailed knowledge of the outside world (see EXECRATION TEXTS). Egyptians also depicted foreigners in ways that emphasized their individuality. In stories like Sinuhe, the Doomed Prince, and the Letter of Wenamun, foreigners appear as individualized characters with whom the Egyptian protagonists interact (see LITERATURE AND POETRY, PHARAONIC EGYPT). Non-literary texts (e.g., letters, biographies, and administrative documents) frequently mentioned foreigners and exhibited a detailed knowledge of foreign lands. Although Egyptians considered themselves superior to foreigners, and Egypt superior to foreign lands, as we see in monumental inscriptions, Egyptians treated the other great nations as equals in international correspondence, such as the AMARNA LETTERS. Many foreigners lived and worked in Egypt. The WILBOUR PAPYRUS and other documents note foreigners living in towns of various sizes, and mention towns with foreign names. International communities were present in Egypt, but The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 2710–2713. © 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15162 2 Figure 1 Egyptians, Asiatics, Libyans, and Nubians as based on images in the Tomb of Seti I, KV 17. After Rosselini (1832, pls. 155–6). the most extensive evidence for them dates to the Late Period (664–332 BCE), such as the Greek trading colony of NAUKRATIS (see COLONIZATION, GREEK), and the Jewish military colony at Elephantine (see ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI). Foreigners played a significant part in Egypt’s military forces throughout its history. Many foreigners initially came to Egypt for jobs as mercenaries or members of the royal bodyguard (e.g., Spalinger 2005: 264 ff.). These military units are often depicted in ethnic dress during official processions. Nubians held these positions in great numbers throughout Egyptian history. The number of mercenaries drawn from the Libyans, Asiatics, and SEA PEOPLES increased during the New Kingdom (1550–1069). Greek, Carian, Phoenician, Jewish, and Aramean mercenaries were introduced in the Saite Period (664–525) (see ARMY, PHARAONIC EGYPT; MERCENARIES). Foreigners also participated in international trade. Many international merchants traveled to the Egyptian borders to trade with Egypt (see TRADE, PHARAONIC EGYPT). Tribute scenes found in monuments and in private tombs of the New Kingdom depict foreigners bringing the characteristic products of their lands to pharaoh and other officials (see TRIBUTE). Foreigners are found in many different occupations in Egypt, such as farmers, laborers, priests, cooks, barbers, shipbuilders, coppersmiths, artists, musicians, etc. In the Ramesside Period (ca. 1295–1069), approximately half of the royal cup-bearers were Asiatics. Bilingual scribes and interpreters were essential for international correspondence, trading missions, and military expeditions. Several foreigners were powerful doctors or magicians. Foreigners also occasionally attained high positions in the Egyptian bureaucracy. The Nubian Seneb was a seal-bearer in the Old Kingdom (2686–2125). People from PUNT worked in the royal palace during the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650). The Asiatics Aperel and Paser acted as viziers for Amenhotep III and Sety I respectively in the New Kingdom. The Syrian Bey rose to the 3 position of Great Chancellor, possibly because his sister, Sutailja, was the mother of the sickly, adolescent king SIPTAH (1194–1188). Many foreigners in Pharaonic Egypt were also brought into the country as prisoners of war (see PRISON, PRISONERS). They made up the majority of slaves in Egypt. These people traditionally worked as forced, unskilled laborers. Many of these slaves were considered the property of pharaoh, temple estates, or private people. If prisoners had a special skill, like cooking, making wine, or cutting hair, they were assigned to positions that suited their talents. Prisoners of war and slaves were also sometimes freed through adoption by their owner, a royal edict, or marriage to an Egyptian (see SLAVERY, PHARAONIC EGYPT). Occasionally, Egypt was ruled by pharaohs who were of foreign origin or whose ancestry included non-Egyptians. During the New Kingdom, Egyptian pharaohs often took foreign wives in diplomatic marriages. The tombs of some of these wives were found at Thebes and Medinet Gurob. Manfred Bietak also suggested that the palace containing the Minoan bull-leaping reliefs at Avaris belonged a foreign wife. These women sometimes produced heirs to the throne. For example, TUTANKHAMUN’s mother Kiya may have been MITTANI. In the 13th Dynasty (1773–1650), kings Amenemhet VI, Hornedjheritef, and Khendjer were called “The Asiatic.” During the Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550), the HYKSOS – a name derived from the Egyptian phrase “rulers of foreign lands” – controlled the northern half of Egypt. In the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 1069–747), dynasties of Libyan origins ruled from various Egyptian cities simultaneously. The country was then reunified by the Kushite king PIY (PIANKHY), who initiated the 25th Nubian Dynasty (747–664). The Persians controlled Egypt on two occasions, the First Persian Period (the 27th Dynasty, 525–359) and the Second Persian Period (343–332). In 332, ALEXANDER III, THE GREAT conquered Egypt, bringing a Hellenistic government and society to an already multicultural country. SEE ALSO: Canaan; Ethnicity, Egypt; Foreigners, Greece and Rome; Hittite, Hittites; Kushite Period, Egypt; Late Period, Egypt; Libya and Libyans; New Kingdom, Egypt; Nubia; Persians in Egypt; Ptolemy I Soter; Race and racism; Saite Period, Egypt; Second Intermediate Period, Egypt; Third Intermediate Period, Egypt. REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Bresciani, E. (1997) “Foreigners.” In S. Donadoni, ed., The Egyptians: 221–53. Chicago. Cohen, R. and Westbrook, R. (2000) Amarna diplomacy: the beginnings of international relations. Baltimore. Davies, W. V. and Schofield, L., eds. (1995) Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant: interconnections in the second millennium BC. London. Johnson, J., ed. (1995) Life in a multi-cultural society: Egypt from Cambyses to Constantine and beyond. Chicago. Kemp, B. (2006) Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization. London. Liverani, M. (1990) Prestige and interest: international relations in the Near East ca. 1600–1100 B.C. Padua. Loprieno, A. (1988). Topos und Mimesis: zum Ausländer in der ägyptischen Literatur. Wiesbaden. Moran, W. (1992) The Amarna Letters. Baltimore. Mysliwiec, K. (2000) The twilight of ancient Egypt. Ithaca. Oren, E., ed. (1997) The Hyksos: new historical and archaeological perspectives. Philadelphia. Redford, D. (1992) Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in ancient times. Princeton. Schneider, T. (2010) “Foreigners in Egypt: archaeological evidence and cultural context.” In W. Wendrich, ed., Egyptian Archaeology: 143–63. London. Smith, S. T. (2003) Wretched Kush: ethnic identities and boundaries in Egypt’s Nubian empire. London. Spalinger, A. J. (2005) War in ancient Egypt. London. Ward, W. (1994) “Foreigners living in the village.” In L. H. Lesko, ed., Pharaoh’s workers: the villagers of Deir el Medina: 61–85. Ithaca.