Advising in Language Learning: Dialogue Tools and Context

Advising in Language Learning This page intentionally left blank Advising in Language Learning Dialogue, tools and context Edited by Jo Mynard and Luke Carson 'JSTUQVCMJTIFE2012CZ1FBSTPO&EVDBUJPO-JNJUFE 1VCMJTIFECZ3PVUMFEHF 1BSL4RVBSF .JMUPO1BSL "CJOHEPO 0YPO093/ 5IJSE"WFOVF /FX:PSL /: 64" 3PVUMFEHFJTBOJNQSJOUPGUIF5BZMPS'SBODJT(SPVQ BOJOGPSNBCVTJOFTT $PQZSJHIUª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ritish Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Advising in language learning : dialogue, tools and context / edited by Jo Mynard and Luke Carson. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-4082-7695-2 (pbk.) 1. Language and languages--Study and teaching. 2. Learner autonomy. 3. Applied linguistics. I. Mynard, Jo. II. Carson, Luke, 1976P53.457.A29 2012 418.0071--dc23 2012002049 Set in 9/13.5pt ITC Stone Serif by 35 Contents List of tables and figures List of contributors x Acknowledgements xiii Publisher’s acknowledgements xiv About the chapters in this book PART ONE 1 viii Introductory chapters Introduction xv 1 3 Luke Carson and Jo Mynard Appendix 1 Appendix 2 2 Kelly’s macro skills for language counselling 24 Kelly’s micro skills for language counselling 25 A suggested model for advising in language learning 26 Jo Mynard PART TWO 3 Dialogue 41 The skills of counselling in advising: Language as a pedagogic tool 43 Marina Mozzon-McPherson 4 Target language or L1: Advisors’ perceptions on the role of language in a learning advisory session Katherine Thornton 65 vi CONTENTS 5 Peer advising as a means to facilitate language learning 87 Shu-Hua (Vivien) Kao 6 Advising-in-action: Exploring the inner dialogue of the learning advisor 105 Tanya McCarthy PART THREE 7 Tools 127 Kaleidoscope, an online tool for reflection on language learning 129 Kenneth Kidd and Satu von Boehm Appendix 3 8 Results of questionnaire on students’ use of Kaleidoscope Attribution theory as an advising tool 147 151 David McLoughlin Vignette 1 The Wheel of Language Learning: A tool to facilitate learner awareness, reflection and action 164 Hisako Yamashita and Satoko Kato 9 Advising in context: Towards pedagogical and institutional integration 170 Hayo Reinders 10 Sharing stories: Autobiographical narratives in advising 185 Leena Karlsson Vignette 2 The portfolio: A practical tool for advising language learners in a self-access centre in Mexico 205 Sergio Valdivia, David McLoughlin and Jo Mynard PART FOUR 11 Context 211 Learner contributions in an open and distance language setting Stella Hurd and Linda Murphy 213 CONTENTS Vignette 3 The role of advising and a student tracking system in the United Arab Emirates 231 Kevin Schoepp and Steve Lydiatt Vignette 4 Chalk and cheese: Language advising in different worlds 238 Sara Cotterall Appendix 4 12 Simplified model of the language learning process Why classroom-based advising? 246 247 Luke Carson 13 Ethnographic encounters: A possible tool for advising in language learning 263 Angeles Clemente 14 Communities of practice as a source of professional development in advising for language learning 279 Azusa Kodate and Caleb Foale Conclusion 296 Luke Carson Index 300 vii List of tables and figures Tables 1 Institutions and study participants 71 2 Advising skills summary 93 3 One-on-one advising dialogue 94 4 One-on-two advising dialogue 96 5 One-on-five advising dialogue 98 6 Participants in the study 108 7 Descriptors of coded thought units 113 8 Use of Kaleidoscope and the reflection text 137 9 Questions asked of students who used Kaleidoscope 138 10 Coaching skills 166 11 Aspects of the self-directed learning process 173 12 Vocabulary learning activity 255 13 Learning and problem solving: Study and life comparisons 256 Figures 1 Framing the position of advising in language learning as a professional practice 2 Focus areas for advising in language learning 3 The Dialogue, Tools and Context Model for Advising in 4 5 14 Language Learning (Artwork by Noriko Takasago) 33 Peer-advising model for promoting learner autonomy 89 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 5 Three-step design of stimulated recall study 111 6 ALMS reflection text instructions 132 7 Tools of raising learner awareness at the beginning of the ALMS programme 134 8 The five factors of Kaleidoscope 134 9 Introductory page of the Learning History section 135 10 Dialogue page of the Personality section 136 11 The Wheel of Language Learning 165 12 Staff interface of the Student Monitoring System 175 13 My English, online self-access and ALL student interface 178 ix List of contributors Luke Carson is an Associate Professor in the Center for Language Education at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University in Japan. His research interests are cognition, meta-level thinking constructs and autonomy. Angeles Clemente is a Professor of Applied Linguistics at the State University of Oaxaca, Mexico. Her current interests are the connection of learner autonomy with individual and social agency. Sara Cotterall has been teaching and researching in the field of learner autonomy for more than 25 years. She has worked as a language teacher, learning advisor and teacher educator and researcher in New Zealand, Asia and Europe. Caleb Foale is the Director of the Self-Access Learning Centre at Hiroshima Bunkyo Women’s University in Japan. Shu-Hua (Vivien) Kao is an Assistant Professor (Department of Applied English) at the Chihlee Institute of Technology in Taiwan. Her particular interests lie in the areas of learner autonomy, classroom second/foreign language acquisition, young learners’ English learning as a foreign language, social research methods and cultural issues in relation to learner autonomy. Stella Hurd (now retired) was a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Languages at the Open University in the UK. Her research interests include learner autonomy, learner difference, learning strategies, metacognition and affect in self-access and distance language learning. Leena Karlsson is a Lecturer in English at Helsinki University Language Centre, Finland. Her special interests are learner and teacher autonomy, language counselling, learner and teacher stories, and narrative identity work and storytelling in FLE. LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Satoko Kato is a Learning Advisor at Kanda Institute of Foreign Languages (KIFL) in Tokyo, Japan. Her special interests are incorporating life coaching skills into language advising and advisor training. She is currently responsible for a project to establish a self-access learning center for adult language learners at KIFL. Kenneth Kidd is a Lecturer in English at Helsinki University Language Centre, Finland. Azusa Kodate is a Learning Advisor at Hiroshima Bunkyo Women’s University Self Access Learning Centre, Japan. Her interests are independent learning, language learning advising and professional development. Steve Lydiatt holds a PhD in Educational Psychology from the University of California, Santa Barbara. He has been a teacher, a school psychologist and a university professor in special education. Presently he is a professor in the College of Education at Zayed University in Dubai. Tanya McCarthy is a Learning Advisor at Kanda University of International Studies in Japan and advises/teaches in courses related to self-directed language learning. Her main research interests are self-access, curriculum development, materials development and self-directed professional development. David McLoughlin teaches at Meiji University in Tokyo, Japan. His areas of interest are attribution research and learner development. Marina Mozzon-McPherson is Head of the Department of Modern Languages at the University of Hull in the UK. Her areas of specialisation are autonomy and advising, communities of practice and learning communities. She has published extensively in the field of autonomy and advising. Linda Murphy is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Languages at the Open University, UK and a member of the regional academic staff based at Oxford. Her research focuses on skills and attributes required for effective distance language teaching and on development of teaching and learning strategies for autonomous distance language learning. Jo Mynard is the Director of the Self-Access Learning Centre and Assistant Director of the English Language Institute at Kanda University of International Studies in Japan. Her research interests are self-access language learning, learner autonomy, computer-assisted language learning and sociocultural theory. xi xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Hayo Reinders is Head of Learner Development at Middlesex University in London. He is also Editor of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, and Convenor of the AILA Research Network for CALL and the Learner. His most recent books are on teacher autonomy, teaching methodologies and second language acquisition and he edits a book series on “New Language Learning and Teaching Environments” for Palgrave Macmillan. Kevin Schoepp is the Director of Educational Effectiveness at Zayed University. He has Masters degrees in TESL and Educational Technology along with an EdD in Education Leadership from the University of Calgary. His professional interests include student success, outcomes-based assessment and faculty retention. Katherine Thornton has an MA in TESOL and works as a Learning Advisor at Kanda University of International Studies in Chiba, Japan. Her research interests include discourse analysis in language learning advising and the role of learner beliefs in self-directed learning. Sergio Valdivia was a specialist in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and Self-Access Centre Adviser/Instructor at USBI-Xalapa Self-Access Centre at the University of Veracruz in Mexico. His research interests included learner autonomy, learners’ affective domain and Self-Access Language Learning. Sadly, Sergio passed away in 2010. Satu von Boehm is a Lecturer in English at Helsinki University Language Centre, Finland. Hisako Yamashita is a Chief Learning Advisor at Kanda Institute of Foreign Languages, Japan. Her special interests are learner autonomy, language advising and Learning Advisor training. Acknowledgements Firstly, we would like to thank Professor Christopher Candlin, without whom this book would never have been written. He encouraged us to embark on the project initially and then supported us throughout the process by offering sound advice and honest feedback at various stages. Thanks to Professor Candlin, we were exposed to a wider body of literature on which to draw when writing the introduction. We would also like to thank each of the authors for their significant contributions. As we worked on this book over the past couple of years, we have constantly felt privileged to be able to work with such experienced and dedicated professional educators from various parts of the world. Finally, we would like to thank the people who have given us assistance and feedback, specifically on our introduction and on the Dialogue, Tools and Context Model that ties the book together. Particular thanks go to Junko Baierschmidt, James Carson, Mary Carson, Lucy Cooker, Scott Crowe, Yuki Hasegawa, Frank Johnson, Neil Johnson, Yumiko Kawamoto Carson, Satoko Kato, Elizabeth Lammons, Tanya McCarthy, David McLoughlin, Bob Morrison, Tim Murphey, Philip Murphy, Diego Navarro, Gary Ockey, Hisako Yamashita, Keiko Takahashi, Katherine Thornton, Michael Torpey, Atsumi Yamaguchi and Sergio Valdivia (who sadly passed away in 2010). Sergio would have been so proud to see the completion of what he always referred to as “our book” which is how we hope learning advisors around the world will view it. Jo Mynard and Luke Carson (editors), Japan 2011 Publisher’s acknowledgements W e are grateful to the following for permission to use copyright material: Appendix 1, p. 24, from Kelly, R., ‘Language Counselling for Learner Autonomy’, from Pemberton, R., Li, E. S. L., Or, W. W. F. and Pierson, H. D., Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning (Hong Kong University Press, 1996); Figure 6, p. 132, Figures 7 and 8, p. 134, Figure 9, p. 135 and Figure 10, p. 136 courtesy of Autonomous Learning Language Modules (ALMS) at Helsinki University Language Centre; Figure 11 on p. 165 adapted from Whitworth, L., Kimsey-House, H., Kimsey-House, K. and Sandahl, P., Co-Active Coaching: New Skills for Coaching People Toward Success in Work and Life (Davies-Black Publishing, 2007). A new edition is available from Nicholas Brealey Publishing as Co-Active Coaching, 3e: Changing Business, Transforming Lives (2011); Figure 12, p. 175 and Figure 13, p. 178 courtesy of Hayo Reinders; various extracts in Chapter 13 from Clemente, A. and Higgins, M., Performing English With A Postcolonial Accent: Ethnographic Narratives From Mexico (The Tufnell Press, 2008). In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so. About the chapters in this book T he main body of chapters and vignettes (shorter chapters) in this book are divided according to the three parts of the Dialogue, Tools and Context Model described in Mynard’s chapter. The intention is not to suggest that these factors be treated in isolation, but rather to emphasise that each of the factors is important. The chapters themselves demonstrate the interplay between all three factors within the model. For example in Leena Karlsson’s chapter, the tool is the starting point for the advising process. Learners in Finland write their learner histories which stimulate inner dialogue while examining their beliefs about learning. These beliefs are then further explored in discussions with an advisor. In Kevin Schoepp and Steve Lydiatt’s vignette, the sociocultural context is taken as a starting point as the authors discuss tools and approaches to advising that will target the needs of a student population in the UAE. Not all of the chapters discuss all three elements of the model, but it could be argued that attention to the third factor could facilitate the advising process. For example, in her chapter Katherine Thornton examines the language discourses of advising (L1 or TL) as perceived by practitioners in Japan. Context may influence the way advising is operationalised, yet a focus on dialogue and tools can overcome some challenges and facilitate meaningful interactions. Thornton suggests a number of tools that could facilitate dialogue with learners with limited TL language skills in order for the process to be meaningfully negotiated in the TL. Part 2: Dialogue Chapters in this section focus on learner-advisor dialogue, learner-learner dialogue and also internal dialogue and features examples from the UK, Japan and Taiwan. The first chapter is by Marina Mozzon-McPherson who draws on skills used in counselling practices and suggests how they might be applied when advising language learners. The intention behind this exploration is xvi ABOUT THE CHAPTERS IN THIS BOOK to inform the training and development of professional learning advisors. The author makes the point that it is the advisor’s skilled use of discourse that promotes the learners’ thinking processes and gradually guides them to being able to manage their own learning. Katherine Thornton’s chapter examines the differences in views that practising learning advisors have on whether the advisory sessions should take place in the target language or the mother tongue. The author looks at ways in which advising sessions occurring in the target language can be scaffolded to maximise learner outcomes. Shu-Hua Kao examines dialogue between tertiary education-level peers who give language-learning advice to each other at an institution in Taiwan. The author presents a semester-long research programme investigating the effects of peer advising (defined as “students helping students”) (Diambra and Cole-Zakrzewski, 2002, p. 56) in the tutors’ (more experienced learners) learning and in the tutees’ (less experienced learners) learning. Tanya McCarthy uses stimulated recall to explore an advisor’s inner thoughts, problem-solving and decision-making processes. She identifies through case study research some of the main factors influencing the decision-making process. This has potential applications for professional development for learning advisors. Part 3: Tools Chapters and vignettes in part three highlight tools – cognitive, theoretical, practical (Mynard, this volume) or a combination – that are used by advisors and learners in order to facilitate the advising process. This section features examples from Finland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand and Thailand. Kenneth Kidd and Satu von Boehm describe how virtual advising environments have been used to encourage learners to think about their needs and goals before meeting with a learning advisor. The authors describe a project in Finland where a virtual tool is integrated into advising sessions. The authors describe an action research study investigating learners’ perceptions on the effectiveness of the online tool for self-reflection. David McLoughlin draws on attribution theory research to investigate the way in which individuals identify causes for their learning successes or failures. Attributions that individuals make can have psychological, behavioural and performance consequences. In this chapter, the author examines how the principles of attribution theory can be employed in the advising process. By helping students to reflect on past performance and to make accurate and adaptive attributions, educators can increase the likelihood of them persisting in their learning. ABOUT THE CHAPTERS IN THIS BOOK Hisako Yamashita and Satoko Kato focus on the importance of reflective processes in advising and then describe a tool that was adapted from a life coaching activity. The tool (the “Wheel of Language Learning” or WLL) encourages learners to reflect deeply on different elements of the language-learning process and to notice links between these elements. The tool also facilitates monitoring and self-evaluation, and can trigger positive future actions. Hayo Reinders describes language advisory programmes in two countries (Thailand and New Zealand) and shows how institutions have implemented different systems to integrate advisory services both pedagogically and institutionally within the wider language support context. The author describes how educators and administrators in both situations identify students in need of support, how the system complements existing language classes, and how staff monitor and assess student progress. Leena Karlsson takes an autobiographical reflexive approach to learning and teaching foreign languages. The author describes how the advising dialogue is used as a story-telling tool and can shed light on the subjective dimensions of language learning and experiences. By sharing narrative accounts of key episodes between one learner and her advisor, the author investigates emotional aspects of the learning experience. Sergio Valdivia, David McLoughlin and Jo Mynard describe how portfolios can be used to support and scaffold advising sessions at a university in Mexico. Portfolios are used as a tool for learners to reflect upon their own individuality and on their private route to learning. They are also an effective way to introduce some uniformity into an independent study programme. Part 4: Context Chapters included in this section are concerned with personal context, physical context and the contextual practices as they relate to advising in language learning (ALL). Part 4 features examples from the UK, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand and the United Arab Emirates. Stella Hurd and Linda Murphy write about individual differences in language learning in open and distance language-learning settings. The authors discuss the contributions learners bring to their language-learning experience with particular reference to the context of Open and Distance Language Learning in the UK. In their vignette, Kevin Schoepp and Steve Lydiatt describe the contextual factors which have led to particular approaches to advising male Emirati college students learning English in the United Arab Emirates. The authors describe the role of a university’s Weekly Progress Report (WPR), xvii xviii ABOUT THE CHAPTERS IN THIS BOOK which is the early warning system for the identification of at-risk students at the university, and the advising practices at the institution. Sara Cotterall explores the role that context played in advising sessions conducted at a university in New Zealand and at a Centre for Independent Language Learning in Japan. In this vignette, the author contrasts aspects of the relationship between advisor and learner in the two settings, the role that language learning played in the learners’ lives, and learners’ expectations of the sessions. Luke Carson focuses on the classroom context as a potential setting for advising in his chapter. By advising learners in a classroom environment, an educator can activate existing learner schema and epistemological knowledge, and participants can benefit from the duration, timing and frequency of adviser and advisee interactions. The author provides a practical example of how aims of advising, and advising processes can be implemented in a university course context. Angeles Clemente discusses contextual features of the learning situation and how the learners exercise their agency to use it for their own learning purposes in her chapter. Using concepts such as imagined communities and safe houses and drawing upon the author’s ethnographic work in Mexico, the author illustrates and discusses different elements (e.g. strategies, assumptions and experiences) that language learners use and create to facilitate their language learning. These are some of the elements that language-learning advisors should be aware of and explore in their dialogues with learners. Azusa Kodate and Caleb Foale examine the significance of an emergent community of practice for learning advisors and their professional development. The authors discuss the way in which informal collaboration acted as an important catalyst in enhancing advising skills. They also consider the ways that interactions outside formal professional development and training structures can play a role in shaping attitudes, and mediating perceptions of advising practices. The authors place particular emphasis on the way that a community of practice forms and is shaped, developed and maintained through the collaboration of its members. Reference Diambra, J.F. and Cole-Zakrzewski, K.G. (2002) Peer advising: Evaluating effectiveness. NACADA Journal, 22(1), 56–64. PART ONE Introductory chapters This page intentionally left blank CHAPTER 1 Introduction Luke Carson and Jo Mynard A s advising in language learning (ALL) is a relatively new area of applied linguistics, in this general introduction we attempt to address some relevant questions: n What is ALL? n How has ALL been influenced by the field of counselling? n To what extent should ALL involve directive and non-directive approaches? n What is the relationship between ALL and learner autonomy? n How is ALL different from language teaching? n What is the role of the learning advisor? The field of ALL emerged around twenty years ago in order to meet individual, institutional and professional language-learning needs (Rubin, 2007). Although relatively little has been written about ALL, it is becoming established as a professional field in academic institutions around the world. Much of the discussion about ALL thus far has emerged from the literature connected with language learner autonomy and self-access language learning. We would like to add to this body of knowledge and make a case to establish ALL as a field of professional practice in its own right. After providing a broad definition of what we see ALL as being, we explore how it has been influenced by humanistic counselling. From this position we explore other schools of counselling and other kinds of advising and discuss the nature of these fields and these approaches in relation to ALL, particularly the extent to which schools of counselling advocate directive or non-directive approaches. Finally, we define the role and context of the practitioners – the (language) learning advisors – by examining the aims, practices, skills, locations and discourses of ALL. 4 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS This book contains a collection of chapters where authors around the world explore research and practice in ALL. We have positioned each contribution within a proposed model incorporating “dialogue”, “tools” and “context”. The model draws on the theoretical perspectives of constructivism and sociocultural theory (the model and the underpinning theoretical framework is discussed in Mynard’s chapter). Part 1: What is advising? Terms and definitions The term “advising” itself has actually been much discussed in the literature of language learner autonomy and self-access language learning and it is the overarching term we use in this book. This then allows us to use the companion terms “advisor” and “advisee”, and to avoid other perhaps more loaded terms such as those offered by Riley, “counselor, helper, facilitator, knower, mentor, consultant” (Riley, 1997, p. 115). Some existing studies refer to “language advising” (Mozzon-McPherson, 2001, p. 7; Reinders, 2008, p. 13) rather than the word order that we have decided to use which is “advising in language learning.” These collocations are almost synonymous, but we (the editors) favour the latter because the advising process may incorporate attention to factors that are not only related to language as we will discuss later in this introduction. The term “language advising” runs the risk of being interpreted in a very narrow sense, particularly by readers and students new to this field (i.e. being limited to the mechanics of language), rather than following the actual practices of those advisors who encompass in their work all the elements involved in assisting language learners with enhancing their learning processes. We believe educators in the field would generally be in agreement that a (language) learning advisor is an educator who works with (usually individual) learners on personally relevant aspects of their language-learning development. Thus, advising in language learning involves the process and practice of helping students to direct their own paths so as to become more effective and more autonomous language learners. What we mean by a “good language learner” and how learners can be assisted in achieving this goal will vary from context to context and individual to individual, as the various contributions to this book will show. It is important to note that different languages and different learning cultures render the term “advising” and “advisor” in differing ways. For example, the term counsellor is used in the Finnish institution described in chapter 7 by Kidd and von Boehm, and also in chapter 10 by Karlsson. The Spanish term asesor INTRODUCTION translated locally as “counselor” is normally used in the Mexican institution referred to in the vignette by Valdivia, McLoughlin and Mynard, but we have translated it as advisor/advising for consistency. Despite this variation, there is consistency in all the contributions in this book in that the central goal is that of fostering learner autonomy. Advising in language learning as a professional practice The fields of counselling, guidance and professional advising in other fields (e.g. finance, academia) are all developing their own practices and discourses depending on the institutional context, theoretical approach and political dimensions (Silverman, 1997). ALL is also developing its own set of practices and discourses and is emerging as a separate field of professional practice. The type of discourse employed in ALL is an example of what Candlin and Maley (1997) define as interdiscursivity which is “. . . the use of elements from one discourse and social practice which carry institutional and social meanings from other discourses and other social practices” (Candlin and Maley, 1997, p. 212). ALL, as a new profession, has drawn to some extent on existing discourse practices from counselling and will continue to be informed by other fields as it develops. A new order of discourse (Carter, 2004) is now emerging. Other examples of discourse specific to emerging fields of counselling were observed by Candlin and Lucas (1986) in the field of family planning counselling, and also by Sarangi (2002) in the area of genetic counselling. Figure 1 depicts how the field of ALL is Discourses and practices fram other fields Humanistic Counselling Advising in Language Leaming Language Teaching Discourses and practices from other fields FIGURE 1 Framing the position of advising in language learning as a professional practice 5 6 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS currently situated and how it may be informed by discourses and practices from other professional fields. What is clear is that ALL, as an emerging field, is in the process of defining itself. While there is some consensus among the practitioners about its aims, there is still some flux whereby practitioners in different contexts may use different terminologies, which at times may imply different practices. This is not unusual in other developing fields; even the field of counselling, for example, is still relatively new and does not have one agreed theory (Silverman, 1997). Indeed, even as the field becomes more established, there is unlikely to ever be one definition because theories and practices naturally vary because of the range of contextual factors necessarily involved (Silverman, 1997). A field which incorporates contested definitions has its advantages; it can, and does, lead to innovation. At the same time, this may create difficulties in regard to describing best practices within the field. To address this issue, we attempt in this book to unify the field in terms of its general aims and understandings, but also to illustrate, through the various contributions, the innovative manner in which advisors around the world are working with learners and researching the practice of ALL. We believe firmly that despite the inevitable variety of approaches to ALL, there are benefits to be gained through discussing and agreeing on what may be the central foundations, principles, practices and issues in the field, in order to inform new educators and researchers, and also to guide future innovation and research. Part 2: Examining other relevant fields Counselling The field of counselling has significantly influenced the field of ALL so it is important to explore it in this Introduction. One definition of counselling that is often referred to is as follows (provided by the British Association of Counselling): . . . the skilled and principled use of relationships which develop self-knowledge, emotional acceptance and growth, and personal resources. The overall aim is to live more fully and satisfyingly. Counselling may be concerned with addressing and resolving specific problems, making decisions, coping with crises, working through feelings and inner conflicts, or improving relationships with others. The counsellor’s role is to facilitate the client’s work in ways that respect the client’s values, personal resources, and capacity for self-determination. (British Association for Counselling, 1986) INTRODUCTION Silverman (1997) notes that in this definition, a counsellor is characterised as an “enabler” (p. 5) and that the client takes an active rather than passive role in the process. There are, of course, other definitions and, as Bond mentions, “at the international level there is a definite tendency to make the term counselling all-encompassing, in order to accommodate diversity of cultures and practice” (Bond, 2000, p. 18). Definitions provided by the American Counseling Association (formerly the American Association for Counseling and Development – AACD), for instance, highlight a strong multicultural dimension. There are different theoretical approaches that guide counselling (Nelson-Jones, 2008), and in the following sections we will examine just two counselling theories out of many. Counselling theories possess basic underlying assumptions, client behaviours, and ways in which a counsellor helps clients to benefit from the process (Nelson-Jones, 2008). A school of counselling is formed when similar counselling theories are grouped together (Nelson-Jones, 2008). There are three main schools; the psychodynamic school where approaches tend to emphasise unconscious influences and with helping clients to exercise conscious control over their lives; the humanistic school which is based on humanism and is concerned with human potential and self-actualisation; and the cognitive behavioural school which is concerned with changing behaviours. Person-centred counselling Person-centred counselling is an example of humanistic counselling and is the theory that is referred to most frequently in the ALL literature. There are three fundamental principles of person-centred counselling, which are respect, empathy and genuineness (Egan, 1994; Mozzon-McPherson, this volume; Rogers, 1951). The underlying goal of person-centred counselling is to develop and maintain effective self-concept (Colledge, 2002). This theory of counselling is largely non-directive, i.e. concerned with the development of self-knowledge where the counsellor takes an unobtrusive role. In ALL, when drawing on the principles of person-centred counselling, the learning advisor is concerned with self-actualisation, personal fulfilment and autonomy and not just with the person’s language-learning aims. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) CBT is concerned with the ways in which people act, sometimes erroneously, based on their interpretations of experiences (Beck et al, 1990; Colledge, 7 8 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS 2002). CBT works in an experiential sense through the practical correction of unwanted behaviours and beliefs, by providing the client with an understanding of these behaviours and beliefs, and the opportunity to remediate them. Although this kind of therapy has successfully helped clients overcome problems such as depression, anxiety disorders and personality disorders, it might be worth exploring further to inform ALL practice, particularly if the learner is attempting to overcome a behavioural issue that is impeding language learning, for example, expressing self-defeating behaviour, or being very dependent (see McLoughlin, this volume). Counselling and advising in language learning Some practitioners within the field of ALL use the term “counsellor” and “counselling” to describe their practice, but we (the editors) find this particular use of the terms problematic for three reasons. Firstly, the image that the term “counselling” evokes is usually connected with overcoming conflict, pain and personal struggles and also that of working with a trained and certified counsellor. In our mind language learning is a complex, lengthy process, but is not usually associated with the same kinds of personal difficulties or inner conflicts. However, this does not imply a separation of cognitive and emotional realms; the advising in language-learning process, with the learner at the centre, is often concerned with individual affective issues such as lack of motivation or confidence that can negatively impact learning. The second problem we have with adopting the term “counsellor” within the field of ALL is that although language educators may at times draw on some of the skills of counselling, they are not trained therapists and cannot be expected to be able to offer the kind of specialist help that counsellors do. Therefore, we feel that a distinct term is needed. The third problem that we have with using the term “counsellor” in ALL is that mainstream theories of counselling tend to advocate a nondirective approach and, as we will explain in more detail later in this introduction, ALL sometimes requires the explicit giving of information or of interventions such as strategy training, however this information may be provided in non-directive ways (the issue of directiveness is discussed in the following section). This does not fit with most definitions of counselling. Similar tensions exist in some specialist areas of counselling, for example in HIV counselling (Silverman, 1997) in family planning counselling (Candlin and Lucas, 1986) and in genetic counselling (Sarangi, 2002). INTRODUCTION Directive and non-directive approaches The degree of directiveness that a learning advisor should employ is an area that has caused dilemmas amongst practitioners. On the one hand, the aim of ALL is to promote learner autonomy and encourage learners to solve their own language-related issues. On the other hand, a learning advisor is a trained expert in language learning and has a wealth of experience related to resources, activities and strategies that could be of great benefit to the learners. It is useful to examine the literature in other helping professions in order to inform the practice of ALL. Usually humanistic counselling is associated with a non-directive approach. Alternatively, CBT explicitly includes advice-giving when giving constructive assignments to clients (Bond, 2000). Bond (1990) suggests that advice-giving could be practised in conjunction with counselling if the aim is to facilitate self-knowledge. It may even be unethical to withhold crucial information in certain circumstances (Feltham, 1995). HIV counselling, as previously mentioned, is a specialist area of counselling that may incorporate more directive interventions. Bor, Miller and Goldman (1992) list the six aims of HIV test counselling which are mainly related to helping clients to identify their own concerns. The aims also include giving information about “personal, social, psychological and legal implications of being diagnosed either HIV positive or HIV negative” (Bor, Miller and Goldman, 1992, p. 64). Provision of information is not considered to be the role of a counsellor in other humanistic counselling situations and Silverman (1997) notes that the presence of informationgiving is something that distinguishes HIV counselling from other kinds of counselling. Later in his book, Silverman (1997) presents a conversation analysis of transcripts from HIV counselling sessions. Silverman found that the counselling sessions included advice-giving as one way in which skilled counsellors approach delicate topics with clients. There was, however, sometimes resistance by the clients to advice given by the counsellors. Acceptance of advice was more successful when a counsellor ensured that the advice was first grounded in the client’s perspective, or “by packaging a piece of advice as a question about the client’s perspective” (Silverman, 1997, p. 152). Maynard (1991) suggests alluding to advice without explicitly offering it. He terms this kind of subtle intervention as a perspective display device (Maynard, 1991). There are certainly applications for the field of ALL here. Through a combination of non-directive and appropriately introduced directive interventions, a learner can be supported in their autonomous learning endeavours. 9 10 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS In an early study by Candlin and Lucas (1986), similar tensions existed for family planning counsellors in Hawaii. The counsellors wanted to take a non-judgmental stance ensuring clients made their own decisions, yet the counsellors had a responsibility to inform clients of birth control options and risks. Through discourse, the counsellors skilfully (and unconsciously) offered non-directive advice. The researchers observed that the counsellors negotiated an appropriate place on a continuum where Pole A was concerned with educating and offering choice and Pole B was directing and prohibiting. Depending on one’s interpretation, advice-giving might be considered to be a subtle feature of counselling. For example, common features of counselling discourse, according to Feltham (1995) are persuasion and influence. These are non-directive methods, yet can influence the client. Examples given by Feltham (1995, p. 18) are: “You might want to consider the advantages of doing X” “If you want to achieve your goals, then you had better do Y” Learning advisors also give suggestions, often subtly, when working with language learners. For example, in a study by Mynard (2010), which analysed the comments made by learning advisors on students’ self-directed language-learning modules, 15 per cent of the comments were categorised as “giving input” and most of these were examples of suggestions such as the following: “It is probably worth deciding which ones are most important for you to focus on first” “How about setting yourself a weekly target?” Guidance Guidance is a term often associated with counselling and is defined by Bond as being “like a signpost, pointing out different possible routes and helping someone to select their own destination and way of getting there” (2000, p. 26). The use of the term guidance has become well established in some fields of counselling, for example, in educational settings. It is possible that the term developed as an alternative to counselling when there is a need for intervention as counselling is mainly seen to be non-directive. Bond (2000) also uses HIV counselling as an example of what he calls “guidance” when a directive intervention is required. Silverman (1997) uses the term “advicegiving” and cites the following examples from his data: INTRODUCTION n we would strongly encourage . . . n we would suggest . . . n the recommendation is . . . n the first preference is . . . Some fields have incorporated the term “guidance” into the job title, for example career guidance counsellor, marriage guidance counsellor, school guidance counsellor, where the counselling sessions may involve a combination of directive and non-directive counselling methods: . . . the potential directiveness of guidance is reduced by the use of counselling skills to maximise client choice . . . the use of counselling skills helps to make even a directive form of guidance quite different from merely telling someone what they should do, or should not, do. (Bond, 2000, p. 28) Directive guidance, or advice-giving, does occur in ALL. For example, in Mynard’s (2010) study, six per cent of the learning advisors’ comments were categorised as either “telling” or “requesting” and included the following examples: . . . you need to narrow your focus. You need to decide how you will choose new vocabulary to learn. Please think more about your evaluation. Taken out of context, these directives seem strong, however, they were accompanied by other encouraging comments which softened them, like this extract shows: I’m glad you were able to do some vocabulary study this week, but you’re right that you need to do more than just this. You still need to rewrite the Big Goal and some other areas of your learning plan. Professional advising in other fields While “guidance” is a more directive term than “counselling”, the term “advising” is usually interpreted as being more directive still. The word “advising” most commonly suggests an imparting of knowledge, or a transference of information from an expert to a decision-maker. The degree of directiveness depends on the field, but the title “advisor” is usually given to someone who is a field expert employed to provide answers and expertise to clients. Consider the following professions: financial advisor, tax advisor, legal advisor, national security advisor. To take one example, financial 11 12 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS advising is generally where a financial expert imparts knowledge and makes recommendations to clients about finance-related matters. The counselling role (as it was defined earlier in this introduction) is almost certainly completely absent. There are also examples of less-directive types of professional advising involving advice-giving in conjunction with counselling. One example of a less-directive type of professional advising practice is academic advising. Academic advising is the process of helping students to clarify and achieve their life and career goals (National Academic Advising Association [NACADA], 2003). Academic advisors have expert knowledge in the institutional systems students need to succeed in their career paths, and what avenues of support are available for students facing academic difficulty. However, the advisor tends to assume the role of enabler in addition to the role of provider of information (NACADA, 2003). Life coaching is another emerging field, which places a focus on enhancing life experiences and personal growth. According to the British Association of Coaching (2011), the process is results-driven, collaborative, and focuses on finding solutions. The extent to which the practices of (language) learning advisors will draw on skills from counselling, guidance, coaching or professional advising will depend on the context (Kato and Sugawara, 2009). It will also depend on a learner’s particular circumstance, for example, language proficiency level, purpose of the session, or a student’s emotional state (McCarthy, 2010). In other words, just as is the case with the field of counselling, ALL has core aims and practices, but the practice may have within it, a variety of approaches. Part 3: The role of the learning advisor In this section, we explain learner autonomy and also examine how a learning advisor’s role is different from a teacher’s role. We describe what a learning advisor actually does to promote autonomy and help learners to become better language learners. What is learner autonomy? In the twenty-five years or more that definitions of learner autonomy have been debated, some degree of consensus has emerged (Benson, 2009). For example, educators would generally be supportive of Little’s (1991) INTRODUCTION assertion that learner autonomy is a psychological and cognitive capacity for meaningful learning. In addition, it is generally accepted that being an autonomous learner involves taking charge of one’s own learning (Holec, 1981). Promoting learner autonomy in students as part of language instruction has now become mainstream, particularly in higher education, for three main reasons: ideological, psychological and economic (Ciekanski, 2007). Ideological factors can be summarised as the right for an individual to make personally relevant choices. Psychological factors can be defined as beliefs about learning, i.e. that we learn better when we are taking charge of our learning. Economic factors relate to the idea that it is more efficient if individuals learn how to become lifelong learners rather than require continuous instruction (which is more expensive to provide). Benson (2009) notes the worldwide trend of educational institutions to prepare learners for the new global economy and observes how employers are coming to expect employees to be able to “train and re-train themselves” (Benson, 2009, p. 24). He pursues the argument (influenced by the work of Lantolf and Pavlenko, 2001) that “. . . second language learners are already autonomous in important ways and that it is part of our role as teachers to support their autonomy as far as we are able by creating the conditions in which it can flourish” and that we educators should “help students learn to lead the kinds of lives that they wish to lead, rather than fit them out with the skills and attributes that society demands of them” (Benson, 2009, p. 26). It is also important to consider how language learning is viewed in different communities and how this might impact our attempts to promote learner autonomy (Esch, 2009). Ways of defining the role of the learning advisor So far we have argued that a learning advisor is a professional language educator who works with language learners in order to promote learner autonomy. Some might question the need for the job title of “learning advisor” when promoting learner autonomy might be considered to be one of the things that a teacher does. Why not call it teaching? We acknowledge that there may be some degree of overlap depending on the context, learning goals, needs of the students and personality and teaching/advising style of the teachers and learning advisors. In this section we will explore the role of the learning advisors in more depth. There are a number of ways that we can examine the role, but in this introduction, we will focus on five of them; aims, practices, skills, location, and discourse. 13 14 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS Aims A language teacher’s central goal for his or her students is likely to be to develop mastery in the language-related areas for the purposes of completing a pre-determined syllabus and associated assessment. Depending on a particular course and context, it may be possible to promote autonomy and address individualised learning needs to a certain extent, but this will usually be while operating within the constraints of a curriculum. There may also be other limitations due to class size, institutional factors, or an emphasis on examinations. In addition, the degree of success with promoting autonomy in class also depends on teaching style and beliefs, and the knowledge and training a teacher has in how to promote language-learning processes (Vieira, 2003; Rubin, Chamot, Harris and Anderson, 2007). The learning advisor’s central goal, in contrast, is the development of learner autonomy which includes fostering the ability in learners to identify language needs and personalise the learning experience by selecting approProtedt priate resources, planning, monitoring and evaluating ongoing language learning. ALL facilitates individually tailored learning experiences that are “responsive rather than directive” (Benson, 2011, p. 191) and enable learners to become more autonomous and aware. Figure 2 illustrates the main focus areas that a learning advisor is likely to need to be able to deal with in advising sessions. The majority of the work is likely to be related to the language-learning process and with promoting learner autonomy, but it may also, at times, be focused on language development and on individual and personal factors such as affect, motivation and anxiety. Practices Practices in everyday life is a concept that Goffman (1959) compared to a theatrical performance. The “performances” that learning advisors and Language leaming process Individual factors Language development FIGURE 2 Focus areas for advising in language learning

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