Servant Leadership:
Theory & Practice
Volume 1, Issue 1, 46-52
August 2014
Are Servant Leaders Born or Made?
Victor V. Claar, Henderson State University
Lonnie L. Jackson, Henderson State University
Vicki R. TenHaken, Hope College
Abstract
This essay examines whether servant leadership is an innate personality
trait, a learned behavior, or a combination of both. Authentic servant
leadership is based on the premise of serving others and putting others’
interests before personal interests (Greenleaf, 1977). If this premise is
true, then many will be unable to practice servant leadership due to a
lack of the prerequisite attributes of a servant leader. This study begins
by discussing servant leadership as it relates to personality attributes. It
next considers the possibility that servant leadership practices and
attitudes may be formed and developed in those to whom servant
leadership does not come naturally. If so, then servant leadership may
potentially be utilized by those who are not natural servant leaders in
one of two ways. First, it is possible that one may grow into an authentic
servant leader through ongoing practice of the habits of servant leaders.
If so, this is a powerful idea. Second, it seems possible that a skillful
manager may potentially draw from the quiver of authentic servant
leadership on a situational basis. The study concludes by evaluating
each of these two possibilities.
Keywords: Servant Leadership, Authentic Leadership, Personality
Attributes, Innate Personality Traits, Learned Behavior
Many modern leadership theories have grown out of the traditional trait,
behavioral/human relations, and contingency leadership theories. Among the current
leadership theories such as adaptive, transformational, transactional, charismatic, and
others, one that is (re)gaining much attention since first being introduced in the 1970s is
that of servant leadership.
© 2014 D. Abbott Turner College of Business.
SLTP. 1(1), 46-52
ARE SERVANT LEADERS BORN OR MADE? 47
In his seminal book, Servant Leadership, Robert Greenleaf (1977), in commenting
on the lessons he took from Hermann Hesse’s Journey to the East, says: “to me, this story
clearly says that the great leader is seen as servant first, and that simple fact is the key to
his greatness” (p. 7). Greenleaf later goes on to posit that the true servant leader must be
servant first.
“It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first.
Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead. That person is
sharply different from one who is leader first, perhaps because of the
need to assuage an unusual power drive or to acquire material
possessions. For such it will be a later choice to serve-after leadership is
established….the difference manifests itself in the care taken by the
servant-first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are
being served….the natural servant, the person who is servant first, is
more likely to persevere and refine a particular hypothesis on what
serves another’s highest priority needs than is the person who is leader
first and who later serves out of promptings of conscience or in
conformity with normative expectations” (pp. 13-14).
Greenleaf assumes that most people can learn to discriminate among those who presume
to serve them and identify true servants (e.g., those who are servant first) as those they
will choose to follow.
The purpose of this study is to review servant leadership and examine how servant
leadership styles are developed and implemented. Servant leadership is a popular style of
leadership today, but how can one become a servant leader? Are servant leaders born
that way, as Greenleaf seems to imply, or can this type of leadership be developed over
time?
When servant leadership is considered in its basic form as presented by Greenleaf,
several questions need to be considered, including: Is the act of serving others something
that can be developed through practice or is it inherently a part of one’s personality? Can
putting others ahead of self truly be genuine? Can those who are not inclined toward
servant leadership nevertheless mimic that style effectively? Can actively practicing
servant leadership strategies—even if not natural at first—lead to the progressive
transformation of someone into Greenleaf’s ideal? Greenleaf believed one had to have the
desire to serve before becoming a leader to be a true servant leader, but if a leader
recognizes the limitations—or even sheer folly—of his or her current approach to
leadership, can he or she learn to become a servant leader, and thus, a more effective
leader?
There are many examples that can be considered in parallel with servant leadership.
Some of these include parenting, athletics, and even the spiritual disciplines. For
example, the best parents are the ones who become that way through the practice on a
regular basis of the activities that “good” parents do. In Christian faith communities the
believers who appear to reflect Christ most authentically are generally the ones who—
through spiritual discipline (i.e., practice)—become increasingly comfortable performing
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48 V. V. CLAAR, L.L. JACKSON, & V.R. TENHAKEN
Christ-like acts of service even if those acts do not feel right or comfortable at first. In the
same way, can a leader adopt the servant leadership behaviors and, through practice,
become a genuine servant leader? Greenleaf (1977) uses examples of Christ and faith
when describing servant leadership, indicating, perhaps, that this might be possible.
According to Sun (2013), a leader typically develops a connection with servant
leadership through self-identifying with the values and beliefs of serving. This
orientation comes from the very essence of an individual’s identity and qualities. When
servant leaders are presented with decisions and must consider whether or not to
participate in decision making in their own best interests, certain servant leadership
factors will be present to combat self-serving decisions. Sun identifies these qualities as
“calling, humility, empathy, and agape love…that servant leaders are consciously and
hence cognitively, aware of” (p. 547). These factors are intrinsic to the servant leader as
they feel a calling to serve others with humility, empathy, and agape or unconditional
love. With this in mind, to call upon servant leadership in particular situations, it would
seem the leader would need these intrinsic characteristics at the core.
Modern contingency theory of leadership implies that leaders can identify with
several different leadership styles and call on a particular style as events occur, but
someone who identifies with the servant leader style will still have a heart for service to
others as a core attribute regardless of the leadership style used (Sun, 2013). Northouse
(2013) asserts that servant leadership can sometimes seem counterintuitive because the
two concepts appear to be in conflict: servant and leader. Northouse explains that this
seemingly inverse relationship creates a distinctive viewpoint. Servant leaders are
concerned about their followers and put them first, assisting with personal development
and inspiring them to take on responsibilities and personal growth.
Russell and Stone (2002) suggest that “if countless individuals transform into
servant leaders, infinitely more people would benefit. Servant leadership offers the
potential to positively revolutionize interpersonal work relations and organizational life.
It is a concept that longs for widespread implementation” (p. 154). Servant leadership
appears to offer a leader style that is appealing to followers and organizations, so what
needs to be understood in order to practice servant leadership? Washington, Sutton, and
Feild (2006) suggest one of the Big Five personality factors, agreeableness, is an essential
element of the personality of servant leaders, as well as the leader’s integrity and
empathy toward others. These factors seem to correlate with Greenleaf’s view of the
servant leader and the focus on service above self.
Though we revisit it later, it is worth noting at this point that servant leaders are not
only the servants of their employees or customers. The “serving” that servant leaders
perform also serves the organization. This view of servant leadership coincides with Jim
Collins’ concept of “Level 5” leaders who have great personal humility and focus on
achieving organizational purposes without concern for personal recognition.
Reinke (2004) suggests that leadership goes beyond personality characteristics or
qualities to create connections and build relationships between leaders and followers.
Certainly, servant leadership appears to fit this model of connectedness rather than a
transactional relationship. Reinke also points out as these relationships are developed
© 2014 D. Abbott Turner College of Business.
ARE SERVANT LEADERS BORN OR MADE? 49
among followers and leaders in the servant leader model, this lends itself to optimally
functioning teams within an organization. Other outcomes include improving trust,
empowerment, and performance of the organization. As leaders attempt to build trust
among followers, an open, transparent relationship between leader and followers will be
vital to continued success.
Joseph and Winston (2005) suggest that improving trust among leaders and
followers will increase the potential for success of an organization. As servant leadership
is considered and the ways this leadership style can be put into practice, trust appears to
be one critical factor. Joseph and Winston discovered a positive, direct relationship
between servant leadership, trust, and the perceptions of followers. “Managers and
leaders can improve organizational performance through practice of servant leadership
behaviors that increase trust in the manager and in the organization” (Joseph & Winston,
2005, p. 16).
In assessing servant leadership as a potential leadership style, as well as the specific
habits of servant leaders, it is important for leaders to understand and evaluate the
characteristics of this leadership style. Liden, Wayne, Zhao, and Henderson (2008, p.
162) identify nine dimensions of servant leadership:
1. Emotional healing
2. Creating value for the community
3. Conceptual skills
4. Empowering
5. Helping subordinates grow and succeed
6. Putting subordinates first
7. Behaving ethically
8. Relationships
9. Servanthood
These nine dimensions can serve as an outline of factors to consider practicing in order to
improve servant leadership abilities. Liden, et al. (2008) posit that “servant leadership
may enhance both job performance and commitment to the organization and …leaders
may inspire followers to take an active role in serving the community in which the
organization is embedded…creating a culture of serving others, both within and outside
the organization” (p. 174). This seems to present an opportunity for leaders to enhance
performance and collaboration through the practice of servant leadership.
Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) suggest a measurement model for servant
leadership by focusing on eight factors of servant leadership similar to the nine
dimensions presented by Liden, et al. (2008). The factors used by Dierendonck and
Nuijten include: empowerment, accountability, standing back, humility, authenticity,
courage, forgiveness, and stewardship. The authors posit that their model can measure
both “servant” and “leader.” This can be crucial for leaders as they attempt to implement
“best practices” of servant leadership.
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50 V. V. CLAAR, L.L. JACKSON, & V.R. TENHAKEN
In order for leaders of organizations to utilize servant leadership and improve on
those particular characteristics related to service, there will be a need to understand this
style of leadership. Organizations struggle to identify leaders and sustain leadership.
Peterson, Galvin, and Lange (2012) posit that “practitioners would also benefit from a
better understanding of what leads to servant leadership. That understanding would help
in leader selection processes, as organizations attempt to determine who is more likely to
display behaviors consistent with servant leadership, and would help organizations plan
for how such leadership might be encouraged among incumbent executives” (p. 566-67).
The Problem of Trust
If the trust of one’s followers is a key factor in effective servant leadership as several
authors indicate, this would seem to imply that one cannot move in and out of being a
servant leader. Trust is built up over time and, once lost, is very difficult to regain.
Robert Bruce Shaw (1997) says one key component of trust in a leader is the belief that
he or she truly cares about constituents as people, not just what they can do for the leader
or the organization. As the old adage goes, “people don’t care how much you know until
they know how much you care.” This conviction reinforces Greenleaf’s assumption that
followers can discriminate among leaders who truly want to serve and those who merely
acquire the impression of serving to achieve other goals. If a leader rises to power using a
more traditional leadership style and then decides to become a servant leader, it will in all
likelihood take some time for followers to learn to trust that his or her transformation is
real and lasting and not simply a manipulation to improve productivity or the leader’s
organizational performance.
Recent empirical evidence illustrates the significance of trust as it relates to servant
leadership, suggesting that trust may be either a natural outgrowth of servant leadership,
or an essential element that requires nurturing on the part of the leader. Chatbury, Beaty,
and Kriek (2011) discover significant trust among low-level employees and their
managers in the presence of servant leadership. Sendjaya and Pekerti (2010) examine
whether servant leadership is an antecedent of trust, finding that servant leadership is a
significant predictor of trust. What is especially fascinating is that Sendjaya and Pekerti
go on to itemize a list of specific behaviors that a leader can utilize to strengthen trust:
behaviors that seem to increase trust include articulation of a shared vision, rolemodeling, appearing concerned for others and respectful of them, and acting in a manner
consistent with verbally articulated ideals.
Given the rising concern regarding corporate leaders making selfish decisions for
personal benefit while risking harm to the organization, it would behoove organizations
to encourage the practice of servant leadership. So what are organizations to do if they
desire to instill a culture of servant leadership? First, it would seem that those
organizations desiring to be led by servant leaders should screen for these traits in the
selection process. If being a servant first is an important component in true servant
leadership, the best way to build an organization of servant leaders would be to hire
people to be leaders who already have a desire to serve others.
To continuously reinforce the importance of servant leadership as the preferred
leadership style within the organization and to institutionalize it within the organization’s
© 2014 D. Abbott Turner College of Business.
ARE SERVANT LEADERS BORN OR MADE? 51
culture, organizations must then also evaluate managers on aspects of servant leadership
in performance reviews, rewarding and promoting those who are the best examples of the
servant leader. If non-servant leaders are performing in managerial positions within the
organization, it must be recognized that – even with a deep personal desire to change
one’s leadership style – it will take time for such an individual to transform from a
traditional leadership style to one that is truly accepted by followers as a servant leader.
This will likely be a long and difficult process, depending on the extent of the leader’s
“non-servant” behavior in the past. This being said, organizations (and individual
managers) can and should invest in development programs that help those with a true
aspiration to become a servant leader to do so. Servant leadership development training
would be particularly valuable for new managers or high potential professionals within
the organization who have not yet developed a leadership style.
Through the continuous practice of serving behaviors in a leader’s decision making
and organizational interactions, even those who are not the natural “servant first” ideal of
Greenleaf’s may, given time, gain the trust of their constituents – provided these
behaviors are seen as sincere and permanent.
Concluding Reflections
We would like to think that the practice of authentic servant leadership need not be
limited to only those naturally gifted along the nine dimensions of servant leadership
articulated by Liden, et al. (2008). Were this the case, then an organization in search of
such leaders would face considerable competition to land qualified applicants from what
is likely a relatively small pool. And, as we discuss above, the hiring process would
necessarily be an endeavor with high explicit and implicit costs. Hiring such a person
would require two steps. In the first, an organization would need to identify the servant
leader they desire. But even once hired, it could take many years for that person to earn
the trust of the individuals throughout.
An alternative possibility is that a given manager or leader might occasionally try to
mimic the traits of a servant leader when a particular circumstance seems suitable, and
use other strategies in other situations. Here we see little hope. This notion cannot be
reconciled with the significant role of trust in the relationship between the leader and
those he or she leads in the servant leadership model. A manager who constantly shifts
gears between “servant” leader and other leader styles erodes and compromises the
usefulness of the servant leader style.
In contrast, we see great hope in the idea of the servant leader who is formed by past
experiences, the mentors he or she seeks and follows, and the daily practice of the habits
of a true servant leader. Even if someone is not yet a genuine servant leader, anyone who
possesses a sincere desire to have the heart of a servant leader – to lead as other servant
leaders – has the potential to lead through service.
Of course, this is not the only path to servant leadership. Inasmuch as one of
Greenleaf’s key insights is that servant leaders are those who come to the realization that
the best way they can serve is to lead, it seems entirely likely that both avenues to
SLTP. 1(1), 46-52
52 V. V. CLAAR, L.L. JACKSON, & V.R. TENHAKEN
authentic servant leadership are open to those inclined to follow them: while one may
learn to serve by leading, another may indeed also learn to lead through serving.
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© 2014 D. Abbott Turner College of Business.