Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cities
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
Town centre management models: A European perspective
Jose Andrés Coca-Stefaniak a,*, Cathy Parker b, Simon Quin c, Roberto Rinaldi d, John Byrom e
a
School of Creative Enterprise, London College of Communication, University of the Arts London, Elephant & Castle, London, England
Institute of Place Management, Manchester Metropolitan University Business School, Manchester, England
Association of Town Centre Management, London, England
d
Department of Business Economics, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
e
School of Management, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
b
c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 May 2008
Received in revised form 2 December 2008
Accepted 14 December 2008
Available online 22 January 2009
Keywords:
Town centre management
SME retail
Europe
a b s t r a c t
Town centre management (TCM) has evolved considerably over the last 25 years in terms of both its purpose and methods. Whilst most reviews of TCM to date have focused on its development within the
Anglo-Saxon world (typically North America and the United Kingdom), comparatively little attention
has been given to other models of place and town centre management that have emerged across Europe.
This paper seeks to redress the balance by exploring the relevance of other models from a number of
European countries, which were researched using a case study approach and conceptualised within a
framework which seeks to classify TCM schemes by their funding sources and structural formality. It
is argued that, despite their lower budgets or lack of formal recognition, other models of TCM such as
informal place management schemes or hybrids of formal and informal TCM schemes can often be just
as effective in delivering positive outcomes for urban communities.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
It has become commonly accepted that places, however broadly
or narrowly defined, need to be managed actively (Oc and Tiesdell,
1998; McGill, 1998; Symes and Steel, 2003; van Dijk, 2006; Seisdedos, 2008) to ensure their sustainability (Girardet, 2006). This is in
line with Elkington’s (1994) conceptual ‘‘triple bottom line” principle of economic, social and environmental performance. Nowhere
is this more apparent than at the level of individual towns and cities – in spite of the abundance of definitions that this process has
generated in the urban management literature (Mattingly, 1994) –
as growing megacities compete for prosperity on a global scale
(Marcuse and Van Kempen, 2000) whilst striving to retain a local
identity (Borja and Castells, 1997; Czarniawska, 2002).
Over the last quarter of a century, TCM has emerged as a practical response to the complexities of urban revitalisation (Page and
Hardyman, 1996) at the local level with valuable contributions
through area-based marketing (Stubbs et al., 2002; Warnaby
et al., 2005), sustainable development (Banister, 1998), the engagement of disadvantaged socio-economic groups (Woolley, 2000;
Guy and Duckett, 2003), frameworks for place making and regeneration (Otsuka and Reeve, 2007a) and the development of inte-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0207 514 6942.
E-mail addresses: a.coca@lcc.arts.ac.uk (J.A. Coca-Stefaniak), c.parker@mmu.ac.
uk (C. Parker), simon.quin@atcm.org (S. Quin), robertorinaldi@email.it (R. Rinaldi),
john.byrom@utas.edu.au (J. Byrom).
0264-2751/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cities.2008.12.001
grated area-based public–private sector partnerships (Jones et al.,
2003; Lloyd et al., 2003: de Nisco et al., 2008).
Against this backdrop, we present an overview of how TCM has
evolved in Europe in the recent past. By taking a pan-European perspective, this study seeks to widen previous debates – generally
centred around British perspectives of the concept – by exploring
parallels in the development of TCM across different national contexts, as suggested by Reeve (2004), following a transnational comparative study approach.
In the next section, the concept of TCM, first in the British context and then in its different European derivations, is considered.
Following this, models of TCM are considered and a matrix containing European TCM schemes is presented. This matrix (after
Medway et al., 2006), seeks to elucidate the contribution of various
types of schemes (including, for example, informal SME retailer-led
schemes) to the future of TCM in the UK and continental Europe.
The matrix is utilised, in the following section, to illustrate specific
case studies of individual schemes from Italy, Spain, the UK and
Austria which were informed by questionnaires translated into
four languages and answered by practising town centre managers.
The purpose of this is to establish whether it offers a useful and
workable tool for academics and practitioners. The final section
outlines how TCM might best evolve into the future.
Defining town centre management
In the early days of its development in the United Kingdom,
TCM was seen primarily as a response to external factors and
J.A. Coca-Stefaniak et al. / Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
consisted of ‘‘a comprehensive response to competitive pressures,
which involves development, management and promotion of both
public and private areas within town centres, for the benefit of all
concerned” (Wells, 1991, p. 24). Guy suggested a more specific vision of this role, with TCM incorporating:
‘‘many of the hitherto usually separate concerns of town planning, leisure, public health and publicity departments. Secondly,
it implies a co-operative rather than confrontational relationship with the private sector”
(Guy, 1993, p. 36)
Other (British) authors have built on this to suggest a more strategic marketing facet to TCM. For instance, Warnaby et al.’s widelycited definition suggests that it involves:
‘‘the search for competitive advantage through the maintenance
and/or strategic development of both public and private areas
and interests within town centres, initiated and undertaken
by stakeholders drawn from a combination of the public, private and voluntary sectors”
(1998, pp. 17–18)
More recently, the concept of TCM has also been defined
through the pivotal strategic management role that each town centre manager plays in:
‘‘gathering and sharing market information, enabling stakeholders to work together in the strategic planning process, setting
up formal and informal communication and social networks
between partners, training the town’s stakeholder employees
to implement the regeneration strategy and maintain a marketing orientation, and evaluating success, in order to both motivate all involved and to assess progress”
(Whyatt, 2004, p.
352)
In the UK, the Association of Town Centre Management (ATCM)
– the leading body representing town centre management
schemes across the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland
with 550 members in 2008 – defines (town/city) centre management as:
‘‘a co-ordinated pro-active initiative designed to ensure that our
town and city centres are desirable and attractive places. In
nearly all instances the initiative is a partnership between the
public and private sectors and brings together a wide-range of
key interests”
(nd, unpaginated)
Parallel to the development of TCM in the United Kingdom, similar initiatives began to arise in Spain (AGECU, nd; Martı́n Rojas,
1997; Dirección General de Comercio Interior, 1998; Sánchez del
Rı´o, 2001), Italy (Moras et al., 2004; Zanderighi, 2004; Codato
et al., 2005), Sweden (Sandahl and Lindh, 1995; Forsberg et al.,
1999; Svenska Stadskärnor, nd), Austria (Stadtmarketing Austria,
nd), France (Cossardeaux, 1999), Norway (Norsk Sentrumsforum,
2008), Belgium (AMCV, nd), Germany (BCSD, nd) and other European countries. Although there was much in common with the
UK factors initiating TCM, e.g. the need to revitalise town centres
which faced decline due to the emergence of alternative retail formats such as out-of-centre and edge-of-centre shopping centres
and retail parks (Dawson and Burton, 1999), the means to achieve
this were altogether different. Unlike in the UK, most Spanish, Italian and French TCM schemes, for example, were led from the outset by small and medium sized independent retailers (Molinillo
Jiménez, 2001). This led to a greater focus on retailing, customer
service and the development of local trade associations. Although
a single generally accepted definition is yet to be agreed upon in
Spain following various attempts at the local and regional levels
(e.g. Pascual, 1995; Frechoso Remiro, 2000; Torres Outón, 2005),
the concept of centros comerciales urbanos or centros comerciales
abiertos first coined by Castresana (1999) – both of which can be
translated as ‘‘retailer-led town centre management schemes” –
75
has been defined geographically and functionally (i.e. in terms of
retailing) as:
‘‘[a scheme aimed to manage] retail outlets in a section of the
town or city, normally bound by a number of streets, which
tends to coincide with the historical old town where, traditionally, street markets existed and, therefore, most trade used to
take place outdoors”
(translated from Vilariño et al., 2002,
p. 35).
In spite of this spatial definition of a typical TCM scheme, the
conceptual description of this management model would not be
complete without reference to the importance of the high level
of cooperation that must exist between retailers, other small businesses in the service sector (e.g. restaurants, cafes, entertainment
outlets, and so forth) and local authorities. It is through such cooperation that the model can achieve its full potential in terms of the
facilitation of an integrated approach to the management of public
and private space through effective public–private partnerships
(Rovira Lara, 2000).
In line with this philosophy, a similar model of retailer-led TCM
has emerged in Italy under the name of centro commerciale naturale, which has been defined as:
‘‘an aggregation of small sized retail shops located in a homogeneous area of the historic city centre that, through a proper
company scheme, position themselves in a privileged position
with the town council for the development of common strategies . . . not only from the commercial competitiveness point
of view, but above all from that of the peculiarity of the retail
framework to safeguard and valorise, through the reinforcement of the business structure, the urban places of interaction,
liveability and socio-environmental balance”
(translated
from Valente, 2004, p. 894)
Unlike its Spanish and Italian counterparts, the French TCM
model, reported by Molinillo Jiménez (2001), based originally on
the Vitrines de retailer-led formula (e.g. Vitrines de Mulhouse – the
Retailers of Mulhouse), relies on the creation of a public–private
partnership to finance the position of the town centre manager.
This hybrid model has been linked by Cossardeaux (1999) to a
‘‘French variation of the British town centre management model”
(translated from Molinillo Jiménez, 2001, p. 34).
Overall, there are various major themes that are common across
the European definitions of TCM reviewed above – a common purpose, working in partnership and the presence of a mix of stakeholders (both public and private). However, differences are
clearly apparent between the UK definitions of TCM and the
French, Italian, and Spanish ones. The continental European approaches are dependent upon the involvement of retailers and
other town centre small businesses, with the aggregation of these
businesses being the major objective. This is in contrast to the UK
approach, which typically makes explicit reference to the building
of competitive advantage for town and city centres (e.g. through
better quality of life for residents, diversity in the retail and leisure
offer, attractions for visitors, etc.) being the raison-d’être for TCM.
Models of town centre management
Whilst a review of the different definitions of TCM is helpful in
establishing the various European interpretations of the concept
and its current state of development (in light of the fact that a formal definition does not exist in many countries), it tells us little
about the structure and operations of TCM. These are now
reviewed.
Warnaby et al. (1998, p. 19) ‘‘believe that the criteria of organizational structure and resource are central to a proper understand-
76
J.A. Coca-Stefaniak et al. / Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
ing of the initiation and development of town centre management
schemes”. Furthermore, Warnaby et al. (1998) examine a temporal
dimension as important in the initiation and development of TCM
schemes, and identify four stages. The first is the conception stage,
where the idea of having a TCM scheme is mooted. This is followed
by the infancy stage. Here the local authority typically plays the
leading role. The third stage is the growth stage where an ad hoc
partnership manages the scheme. The last stage, maturity, will
see the creation of a formal partnership where the influence of
the private sector may predominate.
The TCM typology developed by Warnaby et al. (1998) is built
from the experience of UK towns and cities and therefore may
not explain the development of TCM schemes in Europe and beyond. Furthermore, Warnaby et al.’s (1998) stages of development
do not always ‘hold true’ outside of the UK where the TCM initiative frequently starts from a small retailer-led scheme (e.g. Spain
or Italy) or from a strong formal public–private partnership (e.g.
Sweden).
Reeve (2004) presents some interesting criticisms of British
TCM schemes. Referring to the public–private partnership aspect
of TCM, for example, he notes, ‘‘there are concerns that TCM is driven by commercial values, and is acquiring powers that are not as
democratically accountable as those traditionally held by local
authorities” (Reeve, 2004, p. 134). Reeve contends that private sector business interests, especially those of the leading multiple
retailers, have lobbied for a new urban management approach
which is ‘‘more responsive to its interests” (p. 135).
Zanderighi (2004) explores the different urban models of governance that exist within the Italian context and identifies two macro
models. The first, a centralised commercial management model, is
typified by the presence of a real estate interest. It replicates the
management of a traditional shopping mall (i.e. the scheme can
control the tenant mix and offers, under contract, and provides
some collective services, such as cleaning or marketing). An example of this type of governance model would be the West End in
London, which is managed by the Shaftesbury Estate. The second
is a network model, where the governance of the scheme is much
less structured, as it is brought about by a dialectic process and a
shared vision. There are two practical aspects of this dichotomy:
the latter model is associative in nature (it needs group oriented
behaviours), but it suffers from the problem of ‘free-riders’ (Briffault, 1999; Forsberg et al., 1999); whilst the former has a contractual nature in which some or all of the support and funding is
obligatory. By exploring the Italian context, Zanderighi (2004) recognises that, given the individuality of each city centre, a ‘ready
made’ TCM model is unlikely to work in a given location. Nevertheless, analysis of the governance of TCM structures can provide
some guidelines in starting and developing initiatives.
With the advent of the business improvement district (BID)
concept – a funding mechanism for town centre management first
developed in North America (Hoyt and Gopal-Agge, 2007) and
based on mandatory contributions from businesses located in an
area which go towards its management and maintenance – within
the UK, a matrix of urban management schemes has been developed by Medway et al. (2006) (see Fig. 1). In common with Warnaby et al. (1998), Reeve (2004) and Zanderighi (2004) a key
component of the Medway et al. (2006) matrix is the identification
of who (the public or private sector) is funding the scheme. The
other continuum used to develop the matrix is the degree of formality inherent in the scheme’s structure (following Reeve,
2004). Whilst the matrix is concerned specifically with the classification of UK TCM schemes, the addition of the formal/informal
continuum allows for the inclusion of any urban management
scheme. In order to establish the applicability of the Medway
et al. (2006) matrix in a European context, we present four case
studies from various schemes across Europe that illustrate each
of the matrix’s quadrants (see Fig. 2). The cases were chosen for
their ability to provide both contrasts and similarities with respect
to the management of the urban fabric (Hartley, 2004).
The private-informal scheme: Cesena, Italy
Cesena has a population of 92,000 inhabitants and is situated in
the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. CesenaInCentro was
created as a small retail-led TCM scheme in 2003, in a similar
EXTENT OF FORMALITY
SECTORAL AFFILIATION
FORMAL
VOLUNTARY / COMMUNITY LED
SCHEMES
PU
PUBLIC
LIMITED
COMPANY
PRIVATE
INFORMAL
TRADER ASSOCIATION LED
SCHEMES
CHAMBER OF
COMMERCE
LE
LED SCHEMES
Fig. 1. A structural matrix of UK urban management source: adapted from Medway et al. (2006).
77
J.A. Coca-Stefaniak et al. / Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
Formal TCM
schemes
Salzburg (AUT)
Terrassa (ESP)
Public
funding
Private
funding
Ludlow (UK)
Cesena (IT)
Informal TCM
schemes
Fig. 2. Classification of European TCM schemes source: adapted from Medway et al. (2006).
fashion to other TCM schemes in Southern Europe such as Granollers in Spain (Coca-Stefaniak et al., 2005) or Novi Ligure in Italy
(Coca-Stefaniak et al., 2008), which reflects the utilitarian approach
to TCM that appears to prevail in these countries. CesenaInCentro
was established to counteract the growing trend of reduced footfall
in the town centre attributed to the growth of large out-of-town
shopping centres and the development of other city centres located
nearby. The project was a result of a strategic alliance between
Cesena’s small local retailers and two of Italy’s largest national retail trade associations – ConfCommercio and Confesercenti. Today, it
encompasses the city’s historic centre, which is enclosed by 14th
century walls and includes a limited traffic zone. CesenaInCentro
prides itself on its bottom-up approach to decision-making.
Although CesenaInCentro does not charge membership fees,
contributions from its members represent 30% of its annual budget. The remaining funding is provided in equal measure by the
Cesena Town Council and its Chamber of Commerce. The funding
is not ‘ring fenced’ in any way, which allows for a greater degree
of autonomy and flexibility in the organisation of TCM activities,
which are aimed at promoting the local economy as well as cultural events. CesenaInCentro has taken an activity-led approach to
TCM that has been targeted at, and supported by, the town’s various stakeholder groups. However, non-contributing businesses
(‘free-riders’) remain a problem that may have to be addressed
through a progressive formalisation of the scheme and the
appointment of a dedicated town centre coordinator in the
future.
The public-formal scheme: Terrassa, Spain
Situated in the north-eastern Spanish region of Catalonia and 30
kilometres from Barcelona, Terrassa’s history stretches back to the
Roman Empire where it played an important role as a trading post.
In the 19th century Terrassa became known as a leading textile
manufacturing centre. This industry prevailed as a key economic
driver for the area until the 1970s and left many well preserved
heritage landmarks such as textile mills, mill workers’ residential
districts and fine Modernist buildings. The decline of the textile
industry in the late 20th century led to diversification of the economy of Terrassa towards one that was more service-based.
Today, Terrassa has a population of 200,000 distributed across
36 urban neighbourhoods. However, like many other Spanish urban centres, Terrassa began to experience the homogenising forces
of globalisation in the early 1990s, with the development of several
off-centre supermarkets and shopping malls. This had a detrimental effect on smaller retail businesses based in the city centre and
signalled a progressive change in the shopping habits of the area’s
residents in a similar manner to nearby Granollers (Coca-Stefaniak
et al., 2005). In view of this, Terrassa City Council, the Generalitat de
Cataluña (Catalan Autonomous Regional Government), the Terrassa
Chamber of Commerce, and the Terrassa Retail Trade Association
signed a joint agreement in 1999 to create a TCM scheme for the
economic revitalisation of the historic town quarter of Terrassa.
The scheme was named Comerç Terrassa Centre and was implemented across an area of the city that has a population of 13,000
and 1257 businesses. Forty-one per cent are in the hospitality
sector and a further 40% are retail outlets. The initiative started
with an annual budget of €150,000, with the Terrassa Retail Trade
Association (a not-for-profit organisation) as lead partner
contributing just under 50% of the funding. Other funding partners
included Caixa Terrassa (a local financial institution with privatepublic capital), which provides a venue for meetings and a small
financial contribution, as well as public sector partners such as
the Generalitat de Cataluña, the Terrassa City Council and the
Terrassa Chamber of Commerce, whose contributions represented
40%, 8% and 2%, respectively.
The Comerç Terrassa Centre initiative was embedded in a much
wider strategy for the urban revitalisation of the city centre, led
by Terrassa City Council with a total budget of €4,720,000. This became the first building block towards a wider initiative called Terrassa Centre – a public–private partnership established in 2006
(with a majority of combined capital and resources from the public
sector) with the aim of providing an integrated management service to all the socio-economic stakeholders of Terrassa’s historic
centre. Following the early successes of the Comerç Terrassa Centre
initiative, it soon became apparent that an improved (regenerated)
area would not only result in a higher level of physical urban
attractiveness and economic activity but also higher maintenance
and operational costs. In order for these improvements to become
sustainable, it was necessary for the business community to increase its involvement in the decision-making surrounding future
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J.A. Coca-Stefaniak et al. / Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
plans for the town centre through the Terrassa Centre public–private partnership.
The scheme continues to make progress towards its objective of
100% private sector funding by 2012. Nonetheless, major challenges still remain including the presence of ‘free-rider’ businesses.
Despite the partnership’s best efforts to secure payment of membership fees from all businesses in the town centre, the proportion
of ‘free-riders’ currently stands at 50%. Although current legislation
in Catalonia does not allow for the implementation of compulsory
membership levy initiatives such as the BID model, steps are being
taken in this direction by local authorities and the Generalitat de
Cataluña in order to establish the amendments required to Catalan
law to enable the implementation of this model. In the meantime,
the hybrid model pursued by Terrassa Centre is recognised as being
one of the most innovative currently in operation in Spain.
The public-informal scheme: Ludlow, United Kingdom
Ludlow lies just east of the Welsh border and is one of Britain’s
finest medieval towns. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the
town served as the administrative capital of Wales, attracting
numerous wealthy and influential new residents, and during the
18th century it succeeded in sustaining a prominent role as a regional centre and fashionable resort. By the late 19th and early 20th
centuries Ludlow’s popularity had waned with the impact of the
agricultural depression and two World Wars. Today it is the main
administrative and service centre for South Shropshire and its
main centre of employment.
Ludlow was the first British town to achieve Cittàslow recognition in 2003. Cittàslow is an international network of small towns
(less than 50,000 inhabitants) that share the same philosophy –
to pursue a sustainable form of eco-government at the local level
(Knox, 2005). The Cittàslow initiative was created originally in Italy
and has strong links with the Slow Food movement (Mayer and
Knox, 2006). The Ludlow Cittàslow strategy has provided a framework, in conjunction with other policies such as Local Agenda 21,
for improvements to be made in areas such as infrastructure, urban
fabric, local products, hospitality and environmental issues. This
overarching framework has allowed the development of a plan
for a place management initiative designed by the local community for all the different stakeholders of Ludlow. The initiative follows the principles of social entrepreneurship in a somewhat
unique fashion, with the on-going support of the local authority.
The authority adopted a visionary organic approach to growth,
foreseeing that the initial informal structure may, in time, develop
into a more formal scheme with legal recognition and statutes.
Ludlow was selected as one of eight pilots across England in the
Agora programme led by Manchester Metropolitan University
Business School and the Association of Town Centre Management,
which was funded by the European Social Fund’s Equal programme. The Agora programme was designed to support community-led approaches to town centre management. The Ludlow
Agora project adopted the following strategic objectives:
To improve open spaces in the town centre.
To set up a social enterprise organisation to manage the town
centre.
To instigate a ‘pride-of-place’ community-led initiative.
Ludlow Town Council and its Cittàslow Ludlow Committee are
the lead partners in the embryonic Ludlow Agora TCM scheme.
The Cittàslow Ludlow Committee consists of: South Shropshire District Council’s Conservation, Planning, Regeneration and Environment departments, the Ludlow Marches Market Town Initiative,
Ludlow 21, Ludlow Chamber of Trade and Commerce, Churches To-
gether, Age Concern, Ludlow Assembly Rooms, the Civic Society,
the Youth Forum, and representatives from the community at
large. Businesses wanting to become a member of the scheme
are required to subscribe to the Cittàslow ethos. They must also
undertake to become actively involved in the local community,
taking responsibility for matters such as the cleanliness of the area
around their premises and supporting initiatives such as the
Christmas lights, ‘Late Night Ludlow’ and other events. By operating its TCM scheme through the principles of social enterprise,
Ludlow is taking a decisive step towards involving the community
as active stakeholders. This is considered to be an effective and
genuine way of improving the town’s vitality and viability in terms
of improved quality of life, community empowerment, the robustness of decision-making, place attachment, place identity and community pride.
The private-formal scheme: Salzburg, Austria
Located in western Austria and with a population of 150,000,
Salzburg has been inexorably linked with art and music as a result
of being the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in 1756. Its
annual ‘Salzburg Festival’ takes place in July and August. The city’s
location, at a crossroads between Germany, Italy, France and Hungary, has enabled it to prosper as a retail and tourist destination.
With its high amount of retail floorspace per capita, Salzburg has
the biggest sales turnover in Austria, although the city centre has
had to compete with large off-centre retail developments, including low-price factory outlets.
In 2003, and following a number of previous attempts at revitalising the city centre led by its own small and medium-sized retailers, the Tourismusverband Salzburger Altstadt (TSA, Salzburg Old
Town Tourism Association) was founded as a public body, following a vote by potential members. Today, the TSA city centre management scheme is operated by Altstadt Salzburg Marketing GmbH
(ASMG). It is a limited company with shares held by the TSA
(49%), Salzburg City Cooperative (33.6%) and retail trade associations (17.3%). Therefore, although TSA is a public body which
works in close cooperation with Salzburg City Council, 57% of the
scheme’s core funding comes from the private sector using a
scheme similar to the BID model. Compulsory business membership fees are in place and the scheme also charges a business tax
levy, which is raised by the City Council and passed on to TSA.
The scheme is governed by an executive committee comprising
20 members. All strategic decisions are made by this committee
through submissions from its managing director. Whilst Salzburg
City Council holds four permanent seats on the committee, their
members do not have voting rights on financial issues. TSA also
prides itself on its inclusiveness, with all business sectors fully represented in the scheme’s decision-making at executive level,
although it is yet to engage actively with the area’s residents.
TSA faces many of the challenges of similar schemes (BIDs) operating in the UK and the USA. These include pressure from retailers
and other businesses for a return on investment from their membership fees; and their desire to see that the scheme responds to
the increasing competition from out-of-town factory shopping
centres.
Discussion and conclusions
The preceding case studies have shown that the structural matrix of UK urban management is also directly applicable as a tool to
classify and analyse TCM schemes across other European settings.
The axes of funding sources and the degree of formality are key
components of the TCM schemes under study, regardless of
location, purpose and degree of retailer involvement. Through
J.A. Coca-Stefaniak et al. / Cities 26 (2009) 74–80
the presentation of case study evidence, the variety of definitions
and models outlined in this paper suggest that TCM, far from
reaching a stage of homogenisation, after more than a quarter of
a century of existence; continues to grow in an organic fashion.
Rather than passing through defined stages (Warnaby et al.,
1998), the structure and resourcing of the partnerships considered
here change with time. For example, Cesena now has a not-forprofit limited company structure (a Società Consortile Cooperativa
in the Italian legal framework), which is led by a board of trustees
elected by members of the scheme.
From the cases presented, town centre management remains a
‘‘response to competitive pressures” (Wells, 1991, p. 24) or the
delivery of local solutions to local problems, whilst, at the same
time, being cognisant of the role of global trends in consumer
behaviour, trade and the environment (Fernández Güell, 2006).
Such trends can challenge the sense of identity of entire cities like
Barcelona or Madrid (Luna-Garcia, 2003). The growth of new retailing formats (for instance those located out-of-town or edge-oftown) and changes in consumer behaviour were all common competitive pressures facing our case study schemes. One of the strategic assets of traditional town and city centres is their
uniqueness (Charlesworth, 2005; Landry, 2008). Therefore it is
important that TCM schemes promote and develop this asset.
There may well be innate dangers in the spread of ‘good practice’
if it serves to standardise the activity of TCM. We believe the
matrix shown in Fig. 2 is a useful tool in promoting analysis and
reflection. Rather than adopting a ‘one size fits all’ approach, it
allows for a more nuanced approach to TCM scheme development.
Whether TCM schemes can evolve to tackle the competitive
pressures of tomorrow remains to be seen. Issues such as climate
change (Betsill and Bulkeley, 2002), the widening gap between rich
and poor (Atkinson and Bridge, 2005), human migration (Penninx
et al., 2004), and rising levels of obesity (Ellaway et al., 2005) are
already affecting European towns and cities. Nevertheless, it is only
in Ludlow, one of our four case studies, that one can see any evidence of the TCM scheme attempting to widen its remit into issues
such as improving quality of life and addressing environmental
issues.
In his review of TCM in the UK, Reeve (2004, p. 137) commented
that ‘‘retail interest has tended to dominate many schemes” and
the TCM schemes in Cesena, Terrassa, and Salzburg are certainly
focussed upon activities of benefit to the retail sector. Nevertheless, there are wider benefits to other stakeholders, such as, for
example, the regeneration and maintenance of an historic area as
apparent in the protection of local Catalan heritage in Terrassa
(see also Otsuka and Reeve, 2007b). It should also be noted that
this article is limited to the experience of four centres. There are
other published accounts that describe the societal benefits of
other retail-led or focussed TCM schemes (for example, the case
of Granollers as documented by Coca-Stefaniak et al., 2005). This
demonstrates the value of adopting a case-study approach when
researching TCM. An analysis of the distinguishing elements of
each situation, and comparison with a wide range of case study
examples, may help to find the best town centre solutions. ‘‘Asking
the question, what is good TCM? requires research capable of capturing long-term achievements and trends, and comparing places
with one another” (Reeve, 2004, p. 146).
In the future, the question of what makes good place management may be more apt, as, internationally, there are a number of
other approaches to the management of urban areas, such as Business Improvement Districts, Community Business Centres, Neighbourhood Renewal Schemes, Suburban Centre Improvement
Schemes, Mainstreet Programmes, Market Town Inititatives, Business Area Improvement schemes and Trade Improvement Zones.
In addition, to these more ‘formal’ schemes, there are likely to be
hundreds of thousands of informal and voluntary groups, across
79
the world trying to make places better. For example, Keep Australia
Beautiful has been presenting its ‘Tidy Town’ Awards for 40 years.
What started as an award for environmental cleanliness has now
expanded in scope to recognise community sustainability, environmental stewardship, heritage protection and uniqueness.
Conceptually, it might well be the case that the time has come
for TCM to reinvigorate itself by continuing (or in some cases, starting) to look outwards rather than inwards and learn from developments in place management (Stuart-Weeks, 1998; Walsh, 2001).
Far from being a break-away philosophy of how to manage towns
and cities, place management shares common roots with TCM,
although it tends to have more flexibility in terms of the area that
it can be implemented in. Places can be as big or as small as their
inhabitants define them (Hull et al., 1994; Jorgensen and Stedman,
2006), because the boundaries of these areas are often set by
inhabitants themselves rather than by a public body or institution.
This flexibility, driven by the direct empowerment of the communities that reside in a given locale (Boyce, 2000), has often resulted
in place management models being particularly successful at managing the needs of disadvantaged groups in both rural and urban
environments. Indeed, the organic modularisation of areas offered
by place management, where the boundaries of a place can grow or
shrink to reflect the feelings and needs of its stakeholders, would
appear to be one of its key contributions to delivering services to
those that live or work in those locations, or visit them.
The inherent flexibility afforded by place management, both
philosophically and in practical terms, would not only allow TCM
to offer better value to its stakeholders but, just as importantly,
it would encourage a larger degree of cross-pollination of the
profession from other fields such as shopping centre management, neighbourhood management, community planning, social
entrepreneurship, tourism, marketing, retailing and local
government.
Crucially, through its emphasis on engendering a sense of
belonging amongst communities and stakeholders, a place management approach to TCM could encourage greater participation
of people (including the young, the elderly, immigrants, and socio-economically disadvantaged groups) in decision-making processes which affect their area and others beyond it. In turn, as
boundaries grow with a greater feeling of belonging to regions or
countries, rather than just a neighbourhood or town, decisionmaking would also benefit from a higher level of robustness at regional and national levels as more people understood the consequences of local interventions for the socio-economic fabric of a
town’s catchment area and its wider region.
The matrix utilised in this paper offers any type of place management scheme, both established and nascent, from any country,
a way to analyse the distinguishing elements of their situation and
to learn from both similar and different cases. This recognises that
TCM is ‘‘not a solution which merely needs to be given the right
tools” (Reeve, 2004, p. 146). We believe trends in globalisation,
which may also affect TCM itself, in terms of homogenising the
concept or its definition, should be resisted from within the profession so as to prevent the adoption of ‘me too’ approaches that could
ultimately lead to the increased standardisation of places.
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