Marketing town centres: Retailing and town centre management

Local Economy, Vol. 20, No. 2, 183–204, May 2005 Marketing Town Centres: Retailing and Town Centre Management GARY WARNABY*, DAVID BENNISON** & BARRY J. DAVIESy *School of Management, University of Salford **Manchester Metropolitan University Business School yUniversity of Gloucestershire ABSTRACT The role of town centre management (TCM) schemes in the UK has expanded to incorporate a more overt and explicit focus on marketing and promotion. This paper considers the marketing/promotional activities of TCM schemes in the UK. TCM schemes operate at the interface of the public and private sectors. The implications of this are discussed, including the need for a consensual approach by a wide range of urban stakeholders, and the actual activities undertaken, influenced by the funding imperative under which such schemes operate (which impacts on the feasibility of certain activities and the efforts made to evaluate them). Comparisons are drawn between specific place marketing practice by TCM schemes and wider place marketing strategies. KEY WORDS: Town centre management, place marketing, retailing, marketing communications Introduction and Context The concept of town centre management (TCM)1 has become one of the main ways in which traditional urban retail areas have attempted to counter Correspondence Address: Gary Warnaby, School of Management, University of Salford, The Crescent, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK. Email: g.warnaby@salford.ac.uk 1 Synthesising various definitions, Warnaby et al. (1998, pp. 17–18) define town centre management as, ‘the search for competitive advantage through the maintenance and/or strategic development of both public and private areas and interests within town centres, initiated and undertaken by stakeholders drawn from a combination of the public, private and voluntary sectors’. ISSN 0269–0942 Print/ISSN 1470–9325 Online ß 2005, LEPU, South Bank University DOI: 10.1080/13575270500053282 184 Gary Warnaby et al. the threat from increased retail provision in off-centre2 locations, from which it is estimated over a third of UK retail sales takes place (Birkett, 2000; Howard, 2000). Over 450 TCM schemes currently exist in the UK (Hollins, 2004). The impact – economic, social and environmental – of retail decentralisation has been extensively discussed (see Guy, 1998, for a review). In response, at the national level, government land-use policy relating to retail development since the early 1990s sought to protect the ‘vitality and viability’ (URBED, 1994) of traditional town centres, given their role in the provision of social infrastructure and cultural heritage (Guy, 1998). At the local level, it can be argued that TCM schemes are one of the prime organisational mechanisms for attempting to maintain the ‘vitality and vitality’ of retailing in the urban core. In an economic development context, Williams (1992) acknowledges an important role for retailing (and, in particular, for major retail developments), while acknowledging that in the past it has not been regarded as a particularly high priority by those responsible for the marketing of towns and cities (Williams, 1996). In an urban tourism context, retailing has been conceptualised as a ‘secondary’ element of the place ‘product’ (Jansen-Verbeke, 1986). However, this view has been contested by various authors (e.g. Getz, 1993; Shaw & Williams, 1994; Page, 1995). Indeed, Evans states that: Retailing has recently proved the most dynamic and the most important town centre activity. Although town centres contain a variety of facilities and functions, most people go to town to shop (Evans, 1997, p. 17). Given its importance to urban economies, retailing is perceived as an increasingly important factor (and even a catalyst) in urban regeneration (Building Design Partnership, 2002; Henley Centre/British Council of Shopping centres (BCSC), 2002; Jones et al., 2003). The potential contribution of retailing to the regeneration of deprived urban areas (and consequent addressing of the UK government’s ‘social inclusion’ agenda), has been considered by various authors (Guy, 2001a; West, 2002; Wrigley, 2002; Guy & Duckett, 2003; Mitchell & Kirkup, 2003). The importance of retailing to town centres in particular (Guy, 1998; URBED, 1994; Experian, 2004) and the extent of retailer provision of resource – both financial and help-in-kind to TCM schemes (Medway et al., 1999a, 1999b, 2000) – has led to an inevitable focus on retail-related issues. Indeed, the role of TCM schemes in taking prime responsibility for the marketing and promotion of the retail provision within town and city centres has been identified (Warnaby et al., 2002). The activities undertaken under the aegis of TCM schemes can be broadly classified into short-term and long-term functions (Wells, 1991; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Warnaby et al., 1998). The prime concerns of many TCM schemes (especially in their early stages) were essentially 2 Guy (1994, p. xiv) defines ‘off-centre’ as ‘any site outside the limits of a town centre or other established retail area’ Marketing Town Centres 185 ‘day to day management for immediate revenue enhancement’ (Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002, p. 21). This would have an immediate impact on the ‘shopability’ of an area, in order to remedy some of the perceived deficiencies in relation to off-centre retail provision (see McGoldrick & Thompson 1992a, 1992b; Evans, 1997). While still an important element of TCM activities, this ‘day to day management’ has to operate in conjunction with a more long term, overtly strategic perspective (Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002). This role of TCM schemes has long been recognised (Association of Town Centre Management, 1996; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Paddison, 2003; Whyatt, 2004). Indeed, the UK Association of Town Centre Management (ATCM, 1997a, 1997b) emphasises the importance of business planning for the town centre at the inception of a TCM scheme. The Henley Centre/BCSC identify two key elements ‘of the strategic vision that contribute to the long-term competitiveness and differentiation of the town centre’ – managing occupier mix, and promotional & marketing activities. They argue that . . . a successful town needs to have the right mix of social, civil, residential and leisure facilities. Successful retail destinations, in particular, need the right mix of outlets and anchor stores (Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002, p. 22). The increasing homogeneity of town centres, arising from the ubiquity of the multiple retailer (see O’Brien & Harris, 1991; Brown, 1992; Evans, 1997; New Economics Foundation, 2004) has meant that the importance of marketing and promotion in differentiating urban retail provision has increased. TCM schemes have long been active in this area,3 and the importance of marketing and promotion is well attested in the literature (e.g. ATCM n/d a, 1994, 1996, 1997b; ATCM/Oxford Brookes University, 1995; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Paddison, 2003). Indeed, it can be argued that competition for individual town centres is not only confined to off-centre retail provision, but also to those neighbouring town centres that are developing such strategies themselves, thereby raising the competitive stakes more generally. Certainly, the already strong town and city centres in the UK appear to be getting stronger (Hillier Parker 2000, 2001; Experian, 2004). Consequently, competition for retail spending among towns and cities in the UK will further intensify, thus making the retail-oriented marketing role of TCM schemes even more important into the future. 3 Stubbs et al. (2002) identify various promotional and marketing activities that TCMs may undertake. They divide these activities into three broad categories: ‘footfall builders’ (intended to bring an increased number of customers into the town); ‘awareness builders’ (aiming to improve potential customer awareness of what the town has to offer); and ‘participation building activities’ (designed to increase support for the TCM scheme by demonstrating the applicability and relevance of the TCM concept to town centre stakeholders, and retailers in particular). The importance of this latter activity in terms of marketing the concept of TCM to what may be termed ‘internal’ audiences (comprising various urban stakeholders) in order to increase participation and minimise ‘free-riding’ is also emphasized by Forsberg et al. (1999). 186 Gary Warnaby et al. Marketing Urban Places: Theoretical Considerations In seeking to market the town centre retail provision TCM schemes interact with other bodies responsible for strategic development and marketing (Warnaby et al., 1998; 2002). Thus, TCM marketing activities will have to be planned and implemented within the context of wider place marketing strategies. The marketing of urban places over the last 30 years has been characterised by increased sophistication and professionalism (Wilkinson, 1992; Griffiths, 1998; Ward, 1998) as urban places have had to become more entrepreneurial in the face of an increasingly competitive environment (Kotler et al., 1993, 1999; Ward, 1998; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 27) define urban place marketing as: . . . a process whereby urban activities are as closely as possible related to the demands of targeted customers so as to maximise the efficient social and economic functioning of the area concerned in accordance with whatever goals have been established. There is a degree of consensus in the literature that the operationalisation of the marketing concept within this context requires modification of general marketing theory and techniques if it is to be effective (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Ashworth, 1993; Corsico, 1993; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). This need arises from the specific characteristics of urban places. The complexity of the urban place product (and consequent difficulties in its definition and delimitation), is a key theme in the literature (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a, 1990b, 1994; van den Berg et al., 1990: Ashworth, 1993; Paddison, 1993; van den Berg & van der Meer, 1993; Ward & Gold, 1994; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Van den Berg & Braun (1999) identify ‘three levels’ of urban place marketing. The first level comprises the individual urban goods and services. The second level comprises clusters of related services. The third level constitutes the urban agglomeration as a whole, which (unlike the previous categories) may not in itself be a well-defined product and is, consequently, open to various interpretations. This third level is mainly concerned with identity and image building for the urban place as a holistic entity (van den Berg & Braun, 1999). The specific activities of TCM schemes in marketing the town centre retail provision could be regarded as occurring at the second level, and thus contributing to the third level. Another distinguishing feature of urban places relates to their governance. Short & Kim (1999) identify a ‘political economy’ perspective as a key theme in the literature, reflecting the complexities of the organisational mechanisms for urban place marketing. The most important organisational mechanism whereby entrepreneurial place marketing activities are planned and implemented is public–private sector partnership agencies (Peck & Tickell, 1994; Paddison, 1997; Hubbard & Hall, 1998). TCM schemes are no different in this regard, with a partnership being the most Marketing Town Centres 187 common organisational form (URBED, 1997; Warnaby et al., 1998; Whyatt, 2004), with the potential problems that this entails.4 The need for urban place marketing to be informed by a strategic perspective is a recurring theme (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a, 1994; van den Berg et al., 1990; Ave, 1993; Corsico, 1993; Fretter 1993; Kotler et al., 1993, 1999; van den Berg & van der Meer, 1993; Fitzsimons, 1995; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Figure 1 outlines indicative strategic market planning processes from two of the key texts – Ashworth & Voogd (1990a) and Kotler et al. (1999). A crucial element is the articulation of a vision, which according to Fretter (1993, p. 165) should provide ‘a clear understanding of what is desirable, of what you want to achieve’. The development of the vision should be inclusive and participative (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Fretter, 1993; Schmidt, 1993), although one of the urban stakeholders may need to take a lead in the process (Fretter, 1993; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Linked to this need for vision is what van den Berg et al. (1997) and van den Berg & Braun (1999, p. 995) have termed ‘organizing capacity’, defined as . . . the ability to enlist all actors involved and, with their help, to generate new ideas and to develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fundamental developments and create conditions for sustainable development. Van den Berg & Braun state that an effective local government alone is not enough to develop organising capacity, arguing that ‘strategic networks’ involving both public and private sector actors, are equally important. The need for integration between these various actors leads van den Berg & Braun to conclude that an ‘integral vision and strategy’ is crucial in order to eliminate any inconsistencies in policy making. The iterative and ongoing nature of the strategic planning of urban place marketing is emphasised by both Ashworth & Voogd (1990a) and Kotler et al. (1999). The vision and strategy has to be developed with a view to what is possible and desirable, hence the importance of the audit process in the early stages of the process (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Schmidt, 1993; Kotler et al., 1999). Here, the principles of market segmentation, targeting and positioning are crucial (Fretter, 1993; Kotler et al., 1993, 1999), especially if a differentiated market position is to be achieved. 4 There have been a number of critical assessments of the partnership modus operandi. Partnerships, despite variations in size, number and organisation, usually represent a narrow range of local interests (Peck, 1995), and in particular the privileging of a businessled agenda (Sadler, 1993). Peck (1995) and Peck & Tickell (1994) have cast doubts on the longevity of partnership agencies, arguing that many may turn out to be transient in nature because of the tensions between the various members. Bassett (1996) argues that many partnerships are built on a rather fragile consensus and continue to exist by avoiding hard choices that may prove divisive. Thus, the policies and actions of partnership organisations may be reduced to the level of ‘the lowest common denominator’ (Peck & Tickell, 1994, p. 261), increasing the potential of ‘overpromising and underdelivering’ (Wilkinson, 1992, p. 210). 188 Gary Warnaby et al. PLACE AUDIT To ‘understand accurately what the community is like and why’ using SWOT analysis VISION & GOALS Should consider: (1) the unique combination of attraction factors that the place should concentrate on; (2) the target markets of the urban place; (3) the long-term and shortterm goals; (4) the operative prerequisites for the vision Once vision is agreed, specific objectives must be set STRATEGY FORMULATION For each potential strategy, two questions must be asked: ‘What advantages do we possess that suggest we can succeed with the strategy?’ ‘Do we have the resources required for successful implementation of the strategy?’ ACTION PLAN To make the strategy meaningful. For each action, must consider: Who is responsible? How the action is to be implemented? How much the action will cost? The expected completion date. IMPLEMENTATION & CONTROL Set up a ‘planning team’ to convene at regular intervals to review progress against goals Source: Adapted from Kotler et al. (1993, 1999). ANALYSIS OF MARKETS Functions of the urban place are commodified (i.e. treated as a set of products) & positioned in relation to competitors Actual and/or potential users of the place product are segmented & targeted Accomplished through a process of auditing FORMULATION OF GOALS & PLANNING STRATEGIES Various policy goals may exist: Conservational; Stimulational; Integrational DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL MARKETING MIX Comprising: Promotional measures; Spatial-functional measures; Organisational measures; Financial measures ELABORATION & EVALUATION Phased implementation of geographical mix elements, incorporating both evaluation and elaboration/refinement Source: Adapted from Ashworth & Voogd (1990a). Figure 1. Indicative planning processes for urban place marketing Marketing theory states that the market position is a function of the combination and interaction of the various elements of the marketing mix (e.g. Jobber, 2001; Doyle, 2002), defined as, ‘the set of controllable tactical marketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants in the target market’ (Kotler et al., 2001, p. 97). While a number of different conceptualisations of the constituent elements of the marketing mix have Marketing Town Centres 189 been proposed (Baker, 2000, provides a review), the most commonly used is the 4Ps framework – comprising product, price, promotion and place. However, the aforementioned need for the modification of general marketing theory to accommodate the specific characteristics of urban places is nowhere more apposite than the marketing mix. In this specific context Kotler et al. (1999, 154) identify the following ‘four aspects of place development’ – urban design, infrastructure, basic services and attractions – and also emphasise the critical importance of appropriate place image (i.e. promotion). Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 31) are more explicit in their use of the term ‘marketing mix’, proposing in this context a ‘geographical marketing mix’ comprising promotional measures, spatial-functional measures, organisational measures and financial measures. Doyle (1994) argues that the design of the marketing mix is central to marketing management as it will determine success (or otherwise) in the chosen market(s). The determination of success through evaluation and control of the implementation process comprises the final stage of the urban place marketing processes for both Kotler et al. (1999) and Ashworth & Voogd (1990a). The remainder of this article investigates the perceptions of marketing and the use of marketing tools by TCM schemes in the UK, considering the extent to which the practice of marketing in this specific context reflects urban place marketing practice. The research reported here is part of a wider study in which various public and private sector stakeholder types with potential responsibility for the marketing of urban retail provision were surveyed. As such, it contributes to the existing literature on both town centre management and retail-related place marketing by providing a national perspective. Most existing studies in this aspect of marketing are case-study based, with an inevitably narrower spatial scope. Results relating to other stakeholders, and the interaction between stakeholder types with regard to their participation in retail-related urban place marketing activity are reported by Warnaby et al. (2002, 2004). Research Design The first stage of this research consisted of ‘non-standardised’ semistructured interviews with four town centre managers (see Healey & Rawlinson, 1994). The managers interviewed represented a variety of different TCM organisational structures, including private companies limited by guarantee, public–private partnership agencies, and local authority dominated schemes. These schemes also ranged from those that were well established and recognised as demonstrating good practice, to one that had only just been established at the time of the research. These exploratory interviews sought to identify (i) the extent of respondents’ knowledge and understanding of marketing concepts; (ii) the processes by which marketing/promotional activities were planned and 190 Gary Warnaby et al. implemented; and (iii) the specific activities undertaken. The interviews all took place in respondents’ offices and were taped and transcribed. The interview data were analysed using the template analysis technique (see Crabtree & Miller, 1999; King, 1998). These interviews identified various themes that were investigated more generally in the second stage of the research. The second stage comprised a postal questionnaire administered to town centre managers in those urban shopping destinations classified as sub-regional and above in the Management Horizons Europe UK Shopping Index (MHI) 1998–1999 (MHE, 1998) which had a TCM scheme. In total, 155 such respondents were identified. Respondent details were obtained from the UK Retail Directory 2002, supplemented by the ATCM ‘Directory of Managed Towns’ (ATCM, 1999, which was somewhat dated at the time of the research), and by personal knowledge of the locations of individual town centre managers. Of the 155 possible respondents, 53 questionnaires were returned, constituting a 34% response rate. This compares favourably with the 30% figure that Saunders et al. (2000) consider to be a ‘reasonable’ response rate for a postal survey. The data were analysed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software. Results Understanding and Perceptions of the Marketing Concept In the qualitative stage, most respondents freely admitted their ignorance of many marketing concepts. As one stated: [Most town centre managers] are not actually from a marketing background, or if they are, they don’t do just marketing. . . So somewhere along the line, as well as being an environmental and a regeneration expert, and a funding expert, and a partnership management expert and all the rest of it, you are also a marketeer. . . So we often find ourselves in a situation where we have this responsibility, without actually any professional kind of background at all. (TCM no. 1) Indeed, some of the town centre managers interviewed emphasised that marketing skills and knowledge were not a part of their initial remit, but have grown in importance as a more ‘strategic’ dimension to their scheme has developed. The development of marketing in many established town centre management schemes has been gradual and, as a result, their marketing remit had often developed in a haphazard way. Notwithstanding this, town centre managers interviewed appeared to be effective marketers for their particular schemes and towns. A recurring theme in the interviews was that fact that lack of specific marketing knowledge could be overcome by the fact that sophisticated marketing activities were not necessarily appropriate or desirable. Indeed, the personal qualities of the individual were often regarded as more important than formal qualifications in marketing or related areas. Marketing Town Centres 191 Respondents often regarded themselves as facilitators of marketing activities: ‘I would be the one who starts off the idea and hopefully other people will carry it through’ (TCM no. 3). Actual implementation may occur through the efforts of other town centre stakeholders, especially those responsible for the management of individual urban goods and services, such as retailers and shopping centre managers, who comprise the first level of urban place marketing (van den Berg & Braun, 1999). However, the town centre manager may retain a coordinating (although not an executive) role. Thus, there is some evidence of a holistic perspective occurring not only at the third level of place marketing (i.e. urban place image strategies etc), but also in relation to the coordination of activities relating to the ‘cluster of related services’ that constitutes the overall retail provision within a town centre. Here, it is likely that this will fall within the remit of town centre managers (Warnaby et al., 2002), who often defined this remit in terms of its complementarity to the work of other local agencies: So, I think what city centre management tends to get left with are the bits that nobody else does. What we do, is, either identify that there’s a requirement or fill a gap. You know, we wouldn’t do it if it wasn’t necessary, if it didn’t provide any long-term benefit. (TCM no. 1) Thus, a town centre manager may interact with representatives from a number of other urban marketing stakeholders (such as tourism promotion organisations, local authority economic development departments and urban regeneration agencies) in order to market the town or city (Warnaby et al., 2002). This interaction and cooperation was both formal (through town centre steering groups etc) and, equally importantly, informal. One town centre manager (TCM no. 2) articulated that there were ‘unwritten rules’ governing ‘how far one does and doesn’t go’ in terms of encroaching on others’ remits. However, all respondents in the research emphasised the importance and effectiveness of these links. This has resonance with one of the key themes in the wider city marketing literature – namely the variety of stakeholders with potential marketing responsibility (e.g. Wilkinson, 1992; Bassett, 1996; Paddison, 1997; van den Berg & Braun, 1999), and the need for their coordination through an effective urban administration and/or strategic network in order to develop organising capacity (van den Berg & Braun, 1999).5 This variety of stakeholders 5 The importance of an effective local public administration identified by van den Berg & Braun (1999) was borne out in this specific context. Despite the differing organisational structures of the four urban places in the qualitative stage of the research, in all places the local authority wielded considerable influence. In two of the partnerships the town centre manager was formally employed by the local authority, and in the company limited by guarantee the town centre manager was initially employed by the local authority. In the schemes constituted as partnerships the local authority had significant representation on steering groups, and in the TCM scheme constituted as a limited company the local authority provided ‘heavy support’ in financial terms. 192 Gary Warnaby et al. stresses the importance of a consensual approach to planning and implementing place marketing activity (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Fretter, 1993; Kotler et al., 1993, 1999; Schmidt, 1993). The Marketing Planning Process The importance of interaction between urban stakeholders was highlighted in the quantitative research – 98% of respondents stated that they worked with other town centre organisations and agencies to develop marketing activities. Such collaboration is mirrored within TCM schemes themselves. Town centre managers interviewed generally report to a steering group comprised of town centre stakeholders from both private and public sectors (see ATCM, 1997a). The expectations of senior managers and/or the TCM partnership steering group defined the nature of TCM’s role in marketing the town or city, with many town centre managers charged with the delivery of specific activities: I am more of a co-ordinator. My background is inward investment and dealing with businesses, so they see me more as establishing strategies, going out and getting sponsorships, you know, working with businesses on a day-today sort of level. (TCM no. 3) The quantitative research indicated that TCM scheme steering groups were intimately involved in planning marketing activities in 46% of respondent schemes. Even more important were specific marketing subgroups, usually of 3–6 people charged with the planning of specific activities such as seasonal promotional campaigns. Fifty four percent of respondents indicated the involvement of such groups in the marketing planning and implementation process. The existing TCM literature stresses the importance of business planning (ATCM, n/d b, 1996, 1997a, 1997b; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Whyatt, 2004). This was borne out by respondents in the qualitative stage, who indicated that the planning of marketing activities was done on an annual cycle within the context of the wider business planning process. TCM business plans typically relate to activities such as infrastructure and streetscape improvements (identified by Paddison, 2003, as an important element of TCM activities), as well as marketing and promotion. This formalised approach was substantiated in the quantitative stage, with 91% of respondents stating that they had a business plan, and all of these respondents indicated that marketing activities were implemented as part of the business plan. Moreover, 49% of respondents indicated that they implemented marketing activities in addition to those included in their business plan. This is perhaps a reflection of a state of affairs where efforts at securing funding may be dedicated to specific initiatives (see Medway et al., 1999), and which may be quite opportunistic and speculative, as is often the case in urban place marketing more Marketing Town Centres 193 generally (Harvey, 1987, 1989; Peck & Tickell, 1994; Griffiths, 1998). Despite this, most respondents in the quantitative research felt that their planning processes were robust – 68% ‘disagreed’ or ‘strongly disagreed’ with the statement: In my organisation the planning process is ad hoc and not very systematic. Funding (or lack thereof) is a perennial problem to town centre managers. In the quantitative research, 92% of respondents ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: Financial/budgetary constraints affect my organisation’s marketing activities. As one respondent stated: I don’t think anything is actually built into the costs with town centre management, because its up to you to go out and find the money for it [TCM activities]. (TCM no. 1). Indeed, problems of gaining support and funding for marketing activities have implications for what can and cannot be done. This is a consequence of the existing voluntary funding mechanisms for TCM. An issue influencing the effectiveness of marketing activities developed through voluntary collaboration – which was articulated by most respondents in the qualitative research – is the problem of ‘free riding’. Organisations who ‘free-ride’ do not contribute to collective activities, but take the benefits from them (for a wider discussion of free-riders in TCM schemes see Forsberg et al., 1999). This was regarded as ‘inevitable’ (TCM no. 2). Thus, the funding imperative impacts significantly on the process of planning marketing activities in this specific context, as in urban place marketing more generally. Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 31) state that ‘financial measures’ are of ‘considerable importance’, thereby warranting their inclusion as an element of the geographical marketing mix, and indeed, much of the time of town centre managers is devoted to increasing funding contributions, particularly from private sector urban stakeholders (Paddison, 2003). The implications for the actual activities undertaken (and the methods by which these activities are evaluated) are discussed below. Marketing Activities For all respondents in the qualitative research, there was evidence of attempts to influence areas of the marketing mix, such as the ‘product’ (in terms of, for example, developing the retailer mix and other urban services and amenities) and ‘place’ (in terms, for example, of measures to improve accessibility to and around the town centre). Paddison (2003) highlights the role of the town centre manager in lobbying for capital improvements in the town centre (in the form of infrastructural enhancements) and attracting inward investment. Such activities are inevitably more strategic in their orientation (Building Design Partnership, 2002; Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002; Paddison, 2003), as the process of change may be long and drawnout (Paddison, 1993), possibly involving, for example, land use planning 194 Gary Warnaby et al. processes (see Ashworth & Voogd, 1988). Furthermore van den Berg et al. (1990) contend that any resulting implications of change for the totality of the place must be considered. These activities broadly equate to Ashworth & Voogd’s (1990a) ‘spatial/functional measures’ of the geographical marketing mix, and all of Kotler et al.’s (1999) ‘four aspects of place development’ to some extent. However, the focus of much ‘marketing’ activity was on the ‘promotion’ element of the marketing mix (using the 4Ps categorisation). Fill (2002, p. 11) defines promotion as ‘being responsible for the communication of the marketing offer to the target market’. This can be accomplished by a range of techniques, the most important of which are advertising, sales promotion, public relations, sales force and direct marketing – referred to collectively as the ‘marketing communications mix’ (Kotler, 2003). The use of marketing communications by town centre managers was investigated more generally in the quantitative stage. Table 1 indicates the most commonly used marketing communications activities. The most commonly used marketing communications activities were leaflets and other promotional literature (a form of direct marketing), events and festivals and local/regional press advertising. Local/regional radio advertising, the internet and public relations were also commonly used. All these activities can be, to a greater or lesser extent, specifically targeted towards consumers at the local and regional level who are the potential shoppers in the town centre. There was evidence of the integration of activities. For example, events and festivals would be advertised in local media and, moreover, this advertising may be used to lever editorial coverage in local media vehicles. Indeed, the Table 1. Use of marketing communications activities by TCM schemes Marketing communications activity Leaflets & other promotional literature Events & festivals Local/regional press advertising Local/regional radio advertising Internet Public relations Local/regional outdoor advertising Direct marketing Trade shows & exhibitions National/international press advertising Local/regional TV advertising National/international outdoor advertising National/international TV advertising Number of respondents using (n ¼ 53) 51 51 50 44 42 39 28 22 18 14 13 9 6 Marketing Town Centres 195 Table 2. Town centre managers’ perceived importance of target audiences Target audience Local/regional general public (n ¼ 51) Local/regional media (n ¼ 48) Local/regional large businesses (n ¼ 49) Local/regional SMEs (n ¼ 48) Local/regional landlords/property owners (n ¼ 49) National/international large businesses (n ¼ 35) National/international landlords/ property owners (n ¼ 33) National/international media (n ¼ 30) National/international SMEs (n ¼ 29) National/international general public (n ¼ 31) Very important Important Fairly important Not important 45 38 30 28 26 4 7 14 13 17 2 2 4 6 4 – 1 1 1 2 16 8 4 7 13 8 6 6 9 8 5 8 6 11 8 8 13 5 7 2 importance of the general public (at local/regional spatial scales) is emphasised when respondents were asked about who they perceived as the target audiences for their marketing communications activities (see Table 2). Table 2 indicates the importance of local/regional audiences generally, and the most commonly used communications activities are tailored towards these audiences (particularly the local/regional general public and media). Communications activities aimed at national/international audiences are very much of secondary use. The use of direct marketing and attendance at trade shows and exhibitions is perhaps indicative of the involvement of town centre managers in the attraction of (particularly retail) inward investment in conjunction with other urban stakeholders (for a specific example of this see Warnaby, 2000). Town centre managers’ perceived importance of these various marketing communications activities reflects their actual usage and is shown in Table 3 – here, local/regional press advertising, leaflets & other promotional literature and events & festivals. Of more secondary importance were public relations and local/regional radio advertising. This focus on promotion could be regarded as something of a paradox. For TCM schemes, the development of ‘marketing’ activities is regarded as a manifestation of a more strategic orientation (Page & Hardyman, 1996; Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002; Warnaby et al., 2002), yet the actual activities undertaken are often overtly promotional, which is regarded as more tactical in its orientation (Biggadike, 1981). Notwithstanding this, promotional activities can be planned strategically (Betts et al., 1995; Pickton & Broderick, 2001; Fill, 2002) utilising the concept of integrated marketing 196 Gary Warnaby et al. Table 3. Perceived importance of marketing communications activities by TCM schemes (number of respondents indicating an activity as ‘Very important’) Marketing communications activity Local/regional press advertising Leaflets & other promotional literature Events & festivals Public relations Local/regional radio advertising Internet Local/regional outdoor advertising Direct marketing Local/regional TV advertising Trade shows & exhibitions National/international press advertising National/international outdoor advertising National/international TV advertising Number of respondents (n ¼ 53) 33 31 30 23 22 12 12 12 6 5 2 2 1 communications6 (IMC), and as a consequence can contribute to TCM marketing objectives, as identified by Stubbs et al. (2002). The setting of objectives is a fundamental element in the urban place marketing planning processes (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Kotler et al., 1999), outlined in Figure 1. Figure 2 highlights how the most commonly used promotional activities identified in this research can contribute to objectives aimed at what Stubbs et al. (2002) termed ‘external’ target audiences. External TCM objectives can be defensively oriented (i.e. retaining existing retail spend) or more developmental (i.e. attracting new customers to the town centre), and many of the promotional methods mentioned above can achieve both. Figure 3 highlights how the most commonly used promotional activities identified in this research can contribute to marketing to ‘internal’ TCM target audiences (Stubbs et al., 2002), namely, those stakeholders and groups within the town who may support the TCM scheme (in order to minimise the problem of free-riding). Indeed, the fact that a number of different communications activities can contribute to the same objective 6 While integrated marketing communications has been variously defined (e.g. Betts et al., 1995; Kotler et al., 2002), Pickton & Broderick (2001, p. 66) simplify the concept by defining it as ‘the process of integrating all the elements of the promotional mix’. They go on to identify various characteristics of IMC. These include: (i) clearly identified communications objectives (which are consistent with other organisational objectives); (ii) a planned approach which covers the full extent of marketing communications activities in a coherent and synergistic way; (iii) a focus on a range of target audiences; (iv) the management of all forms of contact between the organisation and its audiences; and (v) the effective management and integration of all promotional activities and people involved. Marketing Town Centres 197 NATIONAL/ INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING LOCAL/REGIONAL ADVERTISING INTERNET ATTRACTING NEW CUSTOMERS LEAFLETS & OTHER PROMOTIONAL LITERATURE EVENTS & FESTIVALS RETAINING EXISTING RETAIL SPEND PUBLIC RELATIONS TRADE SHOWS & EXHIBITIONS DIRECT MARKETING Figure 2. Contribution of main marketing communications activities to ‘external’ TCM objectives suggests the potential for a more integrated approach to the planning of marketing communications activities in order to optimise their utility (and minimise duplication). There are, inevitably, specific contextual issues that exacerbate some of the inherent difficulties in implementing an IMC approach (which are discussed more generally by Fill, 2002), which include the coordination of a wide range of urban stakeholders and possible funding discontinuity, as mentioned above. Evaluation The importance of evaluating marketing (and indeed, all TCM activities) against the objectives and goals set for them was recognised by respondents. Indeed, the use of key performance indicators (KPIs) by TCM schemes is widespread (Hogg & Medway, 2000), as an attempt to indicate their value to urban stakeholders. Eighty-one percent of respondents regarded the evaluation of marketing activities as an essential 198 Gary Warnaby et al. NATIONAL/ INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING LOCAL/REGIONAL ADVERTISING INTERNET RAISING AWARENESS LEAFLETS & OTHER PROMOTIONAL LITERATURE EVENTS & FESTIVALS RAISING PARTICIPATION & FUNDING PUBLIC RELATIONS TRADE SHOWS & EXHIBITIONS DIRECT MARKETING Figure 3. Contribution of main marketing communications activities to ‘internal’ TCM objectives part of the planning process.7 Seventy-five percent of respondents claimed regularly to monitor key performance indicators.8 However, 80% of respondents felt that evaluative measures could be more rigorously applied.9 The financial imperative does affect marketing evaluation and, as a consequence, much of the assessment of the effectiveness of marketing activities is ad hoc and anecdotal. Lack of resource for evaluation was an issue for all respondents in the qualitative stage of the research. Of course, the difficulties of isolating the impact and effectiveness of marketing (and especially promotional) activity in general is well recognised (e.g. Pickton & 7 That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: Evaluating marketing activities is an essential part of the planning process. 8 That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: We regularly monitor and evaluate certain key performance indicators. 9 That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: We need to be more rigorous in evaluating marketing activities. Marketing Town Centres 199 Broderick, 2001; Fill, 2002). These difficulties were fully appreciated by respondents interviewed: How do you actually, physically measure it? If I were to say, ‘We spent £4000 on that, what did we get back?’ Because this is one of the arguments that people put up, and they say, ‘Well, we put the festival on, how much more business did it actually bring in?’ I can’t measure that. (TCM no. 3) Discussion The activity scope of TCM schemes is generally conceptualised as comprising both short-term, janitorially-oriented activities (relating to the day-to-day management of the town centre), and long-term, more strategically oriented activities relating to future development (Wells, 1991; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Warnaby et al., 1998; Henley Centre/ BCSC, 2002). Marketing and promotion is regarded as an element of these more strategic activities. However, this arguably simplifies a more complex reality. Taking elements of the marketing mix as identified in the context of urban places (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Kotler et al., 1999), and comparing with the more traditional marketing context – the 4Ps of product, price, promotion and place – then the issue of the need for modification of traditional marketing theory (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Ashworth, 1993; Corsico, 1993; van den Berg & Braun, 1999) becomes very clear. ‘Promotion’ is arguably relatively straightforward, equating to ‘promotional measures’ (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a) and developing an appropriate place image (Kotler et al., 1999). Beyond this however, the picture is more complicated. ‘Product’ in this context can refer to Ashworth & Voogd’s (1990a) ‘spatialfunctional’ measures and, to a greater or lesser extent, all of Kotler et al.’s (1999) ‘four aspects of place development’ – urban design, infrastructure, basic services and attractions. Indeed, it could be argued that in this context the traditional ‘product’ and ‘place’ elements of the marketing mix are conflated as some aspects normally associated with ‘place’, such as accessibility and availability (Jobber, 2001), become ‘product’ issues (e.g. urban design, infrastructure) when the product is itself a place. As a result of the attenuated process of product development in this context (Paddison, 1993), possibly involving the land-use planning system (Ashworth & Voogd, 1988), and having to take into account the impact of development on the urban place as a whole (van den Berg & Braun, 1999) because of its inherent holism (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990b), then the influence of the town centre manager is constrained. Paddison (2003) recognises this in emphasising the town centre manager’s role in lobbying for infrastructural enhancements and inward investment. The town centre manager’s role is most likely not an executive one, but much more a facilitating and coordinating one – as was emphasised by respondents in this research. 200 Gary Warnaby et al. Indeed, the extent and perceived importance of the interaction between town centre managers and other urban marketing stakeholders to plan and implement marketing activities emphasises the importance of Ashworth & Voogd’s (1990a) ‘organisational measures’ in the marketing mix. This research highlights the nature of this interaction, which can be at an interagency level (i.e. between the TCM scheme and other urban marketing organisations) and at an intra-agency level (i.e. where an individual town centre manager has to work with the TCM scheme steering group, which most likely is the body that formally sanctions his or her activities, and also with smaller marketing working parties responsible for the planning of specific activities). These issues are discussed in more detail by Warnaby et al. (2002). The traditional marketing mix element of ‘price’ is, arguably, not relevant in this context – a TCM scheme has no influence over the price of goods from/admission to individual urban goods and services (comprising van den Berg & Braun’s, 1999, first level of urban place marketing). However, this research has indicated that ‘financial measures’ (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a) are of critical importance in determining what can and cannot be achieved. Referring to the temporal dimension of TCM activities, all these aspects can be regarded as having short term (tactical) and long term (more strategic) dimensions. ‘Promotion’ can relate to both specific initiatives (as noted above), as well as to longer term campaigns focusing more overtly on image building and developing the market position of the town centre as a whole. ‘Product’ developments relating to infrastructure development etc can be very long term and strategic in their orientation, affecting the fundamental nature of the town centre. However, day-to-day ‘product’ dimensions, such as maintenance of basic services and attractions (Kotler et al., 1999) still need to be implemented, and these janitorial tasks are important ongoing aspects of TCM activity. Ashworth & Voogd’s ‘organisational measures’ can refer to both day-to-day working relationships (i.e. intra agency dynamics) as well as relationships between different urban agencies and organisations relating to the longer term strategic development of the town centre (i.e. more likely to encompass inter agency dynamics). ‘Financial measures’ can relate to both long and short term issues. Funding from TCM schemes can be divided into two kinds (Medway et al., 1999a) – ‘freestanding’ (i.e. relating to the provision of core funding, often used to pay salaries and ongoing costs of the TCM scheme), and ‘ring-fenced’ (i.e. provided for the duration of specific initiatives only). The search for both types of funding is a significant element of a town centre manager’s job (Paddison, 2003), and as this research shows, one which impacts directly on the nature of the marketing activities undertaken. However, the recent introduction of legislation to permit Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) in the UK, could possibly alleviate some of the problems relating to elements of the marketing mix in this context. A BID allows for the creation of a town centre company that can levy an Marketing Town Centres 201 additional tax on businesses within a specific urban boundary in order that services in that area can be improved in a sustainable manner, 10 and the ATCM is currently piloting BIDs in 22 locations in the UK (Johnson & Reilly, 2004). Many TCM schemes in the UK are actively considering the formation of BIDs in their location (Hollins, 2004), and the scope of BIDs for formalising organisational and funding mechanisms for individual TCM schemes will, arguably have significant implications for the range of their activities, including marketing. 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