NNoU. M
7,B EMRa r1c,h 22000059
ISSN: 1816-8957
Scientific Drilling
ReportsononDeep
Deep
Earth
Sampling
and
Reports
Earth
Sampling
and Monitoring
Monitoring
Earth's Biggest Volcano:
The Hawaii Drilling Project 4
Addressing Geohazards
Through Ocean Drilling
15
Ocean Drilling Cores
Consolidated in Three
Global Repositories
31
Early Life on Earth:
Cleaverville Drilling
Project
34
In Situ Sampling of
Gas Hydrates
44
Workshop Reports:
Lake Drilling, Normal Faults,
and Hydrothermal Systems 51
Published by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program with the International Continental Scientific Drilling Program
Editorial Preface
Scientific Drilling
ISSN
Dear Reader:
Volcanoes have many stories to tell,, and their activity profoundly impacts
human life and Earth�s environment. In this issue of Scientific Drilling, a
report on the Hawaii Drilling Project highlights “hot spot” volcanism (p. 4).
A decade of planning and drilling on the island of Hawaii resulted in 3500 m
of drillcores from lava �ows piled up by the Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea
volcanic systems. Detailed analyses tell an intriguing story about the Earth�s
mantle down to 3000 km depth, and how the volcanoes, rising 10 km from
the seabed, formed over time and host an unexpected hydrogeological
system. Planned drilling in Kamchatka (p. 54) will address the source of
energy and water driving hydrothermal systems in volcanoes typical of the
Paciic Ring of Fire. And,, a report on the potential for ocean drilling to
address volcanic, seismogenic, and other geohazards is presented on p. 15.
Climate and environmental change are at the top of global research
initiatives. The environment in which life �ourished 3.2 billion years ago is
the target for drilling in northwestern Australia (p. 34). Drilling into a lake
in southeastern Europe holds the potential to recover much more recent
records of environmental evolution linked to an amazing biological
speciation (p. 51). The quest for drilling cores at high latitudess signiicantly
depends on the ability to image targets seismically (p. 40) and the ability to
cope with challenging logistics (p. 38). Gas hydrates are important components in the global carbon cycle and a potentially
ly giant hydrocarbon
resource. Technology to sample the icy gas under in situ conditions is
reported on p. 44. Lastly,
astly,
ly,, the global science community will be greatly
supported by the concentration of ocean
cean drilling
rilling cores (p. 31) in three fully
accessible international core repositories.
Taken together, the fundamental contributionss by scientiic drilling
projects to understanding
ing Earth�s environment and its immense natural
variability over geological time should leave no doubt about their importance. Unfortunately, delays in drilling platform refurbishment and repair,
and unavailability of mission-speciic
-speciic
speciic platforms�all related to an overheated
offshore and shipyard market�have caused an almost three-year-long
-year-long
year-long
-long
long
drilling hiatus during IODP�s initial ive years. Light now appears at the end
of the tunnel.. The Japanese riser drilling platform Chikyu, the U.S.-supplied
.S.-supplied
S.-supplied
.-supplied
supplied
JOIDES Resolution (following complete refurbishment of vessel, drilling
equipment, and laboratory), and mission-speciic
-speciic
speciic platforms for shallow-water coring will all be active in 2009 (see schedule on back cover). This
schedule will set a new high mark for scientiic ocean drilling activity and
provide a welcome backdrop for preparations for IODP renewal in 2013,
which will start in 2009 with a major, community-wide
-wide
wide conference (p. ��)
addressing the scientiic challenges and opportunities for ocean drilling
after 2013. The constructive interaction with ICDP and other drilling
programs, observatory science,, and environmental modeling efforts will no
doubt form the context of this major conference.
Hans Christian Larsen
Editor-in-Chief
Ulrich Harms
Editor
Front Cover: Formation of pahoehoe lava, Kilauea volcano, big island of Hawaii.
Photo: Katharine Cashman, University of Oregon. See article on p. 4.
Left inset: Assembling drill core pieces after recovery and preparations for the initial
core marking, description and optical scanning at the HSDP ield laboratory in Hilo.
(See page 4.)
2 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
1816-8957 (printed version)
1816-3459 (electronic version)
Scientific Drilling is a semiannual journal
published by the Integrated Ocean Drilling
P rog ra m ( IODP ) w it h t he I nter nat iona l
Cont inent a l S cient i f ic Dr il l i ng P rog ra m
(ICDP). The editors welcome contributions
on any aspect of scientiic drilling, including
borehole instruments, obser vatories, and
mon itor i ng ex per i ment s. T he jou r na l is
produced and distributed by the Integrated
Ocea n Dr il l i ng P rog ra m Ma nagement
International (IODP-MI) for the IODP under
the sponsorship of the U.S. National Science
Fou ndat ion , t he M i n ist r y of E duc at ion ,
Culture, Spor ts, Science and Technolog y
of Japan, and other participating countries.
T h e j o u r n a l ’s c o n t e n t i s p a r t l y b a s e d
upon research suppor ted under Contract
OCE - 0 4 32224 f rom the Nat ional S cience
Foundation.
Electronic versions of this publication and
i n for mat ion for aut hors c a n be fou nd at
ht t p://w w w.iodp.org/scient i f ic - dr illing/
and http://www.icdp-online.org/scientificdrilling/. Printed copies can be requested
from the publication ofice.
IODP is an international marine research
drilling program dedicated to advancing
scient i f ic underst a nding of t he Ea r t h
by monitor i ng a nd sa mpl i ng subsea f l o o r e n v i r o n m e nt s . T h r o u g h m u l t i p l e
drilling plat forms, IODP scientists explore
the program’s pr incipal themes: the deep
biosphere, environmental change, and solid
Earth cycles.
ICDP is a multi-national program designed to
promote and coordinate continental drilling
projects with a variety of scientiic targets at
drilling sites of global signiicance.
Publication Ofice
IODP-MI, CRIS Building-Room 05-104,
Hokkaido University, N21W10 Kita-ku,
Sapporo, 001-0021 Hokkaido, Japan.
Tel: +81-11-738-1075
Fax: +81-11-738-3520
e-mail: journal@iodp-mi-sapporo.org
url: www.iodp.org/scientiic-drilling/
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief Hans Christian Larsen
Editor Ulrich Harms
Send comments to:
journal@iodp-mi-sapporo.org
Editorial Review Board
Gilbert Camoin, Keir Becker,
Hiroyuki Yamamoto, Naohiro Ohkouchi,
Steve Hickman, Christian Koeberl,
Julie Brigham-Grette, and Maarten DeWit
Copy Editing
Glen Hill, Obihiro, Japan.
Layout, Production and Printing
Mika Saido and Renata Szarek
(IODP-MI),
and
SOHOKK AI, Co. Ltd., Sapporo, Japan.
IODP-MI
Washington, DC, U.S.A.
Sapporo, Japan
www.iodp.org
Program Contact: Nancy Light
nlight@iodp.org
ICDP
German Research Center for
Geosciences – GFZ
www.icdp-online.org
Program Contact: Ulrich Harms
ulrich.harms@gfz-potsdam.de
All igures and photographs courtesy of the
IODP or ICDP, unless otherwise speciied.
Science Reports
4
Deep Drilling into a Mantle Plume Volcano:
The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project
by Edward M. Stolper, Donald J. DePaolo, and Donald M. Thomas
Science Reports
15
Addressing Geohazards Through Ocean Drilling
by Julia K. Morgan, Eli Silver, Angelo Camerlenghi, Brandon Dugan,
Stephen Kirby, Craig Shipp, and Kiyoshi Suyehiro
Progress Reports
31
34
38
New Focus on the Tales of the Earth—Legacy
Cores Redistribution Project Completed
Clues of Early Life: Dixon Island–Cleaverville
Drilling Project (DXCL-DP) in the Pilbara Craton
of Western Australia
Complex Drilling Logistics for Lake El’gygytgyn,
NE Russia
Workshop Reports
51
54
60
News and Views
Technical Developments
40
New Seismic Methods to Support Sea-Ice
Platform Drilling
44
Wireline Coring and Analysis under Pressure:
Recent Use and Future Developments of the
HYACINTH System
Scientiic Collaboration on Past Speciation
Conditions in Lake Ohrid—SCOPSCO Workshop
Report
The Magma-Hydrothermal System at Mutnovsky
Volcano, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia
MOLE: A Multidisciplinary Observatory and
Laboratory of Experiments in Central Italy
65
News and Views
Schedules
back cover
IODP and ICDP Expedition Schedules
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 3
Science Reports
Deep Drilling into a Mantle Plume Volcano:
The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project
by Edward M. Stolper, Donald J. DePaolo, and Donald M. Thomas
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.02.2009
Introduction
Oceanic volcanoes formed by mantle plumes, such as
those of Hawaii and Iceland, strongly influence our views
about the deep Earth (Morgan, 1971; Sleep, 2006). These
volcanoes are the principal geochemical probe into the deep
mantle, a testing ground for understanding mantle
convection, plate tectonics and volcanism, and an archive of
information on Earth’s magnetic field and lithosphere
dynamics. Study of the petrology, geochemistry, and
structure of oceanic volcanoes has contributed immensely
to our present understanding of deep Earth processes, but
virtually all of this study has been concentrated on rocks
available at the surface. In favorable circumstances, surface
exposures penetrate to a depth of a few hundred meters,
which is a small fraction of the 10- to 15-kilometer height of
Hawaiian volcanoes above the depressed seafloor (Moore,
1987; Watts, 2001).
The shield volcanoes of Hawaii are enormous in
comparison to most other types of volcanoes. The average
Hawaiian volcano has a volume of 30,000–50,000 km 3
(DePaolo and Stolper, 1996; Robinson and Eakins, 2006).
By comparison, stratovolcanoes like Mt. Shasta in California,
Pacific Ocean
Hawaii
Figure 1. Map showing the boundaries of the major volcanoes of the
island of Hawaii and the locations of the HSDP pilot hole drilled in
1993, and the deep hole drilled in 1999 and 2004–2007. The red
line shows the approximate location of the shoreline of Mauna Kea
when it reached its maximum extent above sea level, at the end
of the shield-building stage about 150,000 years ago (see Fig. 6).
Subsequently, subsidence has moved the shoreline 10 –20 km
closer to the volcano summit.
4 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
or Mt. Fuji in Japan, have volumes of only 50–500 km 3 .
Hawaiian volcanoes grow upward from the ocean floor by
systematically covering their roughly conical surfaces with
new lava flows. In their main growth phase, they increase in
height at an average rate of 10–30 meters per thousand years
(DePaolo and Stolper, 1996), and their surfaces are completely
covered with new lava about every thousand years (Holcomb,
1987). The lava flows of these large volcanoes dip gently
away from the summits at angles of about 5–15 degrees
relative to horizontal (Mark and Moore, 1987). The subhorizontal orientation of the flows, and the fact that they
accumulate systematically with time just like sediments,
means that the flanks of a volcano contain an ordered history
of the volcanism that can be accessed efficiently by drilling.
The particular interest in drilling Hawaiian volcanoes is
that as they grow, they are slowly carried to the northwest by
the moving Pacific plate. Each individual volcano “sweeps”
across the top of the Hawaiian mantle plume as it forms. The
magma-producing region of the plume is roughly 100 km
wide (Ribe and Christensen, 1999), so with the plate moving
at 9–10 cm yr-1, it takes a little over one million years for a
volcano to cross the magma production region. During this
time the volcano goes through its major growth phases,
starting as a steep-sided cone on the ocean floor, growing
until it breaches the sea surface and becomes a small island,
and then continuing to grow, expand, and subside until it
becomes a massive, 100-km-wide pancake of lava and
volcanic sediment with intrusive rocks at its core. As a
volcano forms, the magma supply comes first from one side
of the plume, then the middle, and then the other side, so
sampling a stack of Hawaiian lavas provides a cross-section
through the plume. The plume itself brings up rock material
that comes from the deepest layers of the mantle (Farnetani
et al., 2002; Bryce et al., 2005; Sleep, 2006). Thus, by drilling
a few kilometers into a Hawaiian volcano, one can in theory
look 2900 km down into the Earth and (if current models are
correct) gather information about the bottom 100 kilometers
of the mantle. No other place on Earth that we know of affords
the possibly of doing this with quite the regularity that is
inherent to Hawaiian volcanoes.
In recognition of the opportunities afforded by drilling in
Hawaiian volcanoes, the Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project
(HSDP) was conceived in the mid-1980s to core continuously
to a depth of several kilometers in the flank of a Hawaiian
volcano. The Mauna Kea volcano, which makes up the north-
eastern part of the island of
Hawaii, was chosen as the
target (Fig. 1). The drill sites
A
B Downhole Temperature
Hole Design
are located within the city of
Temperature (°C)
Hilo at elevations just a few
0
10
20
40
30
50
meters above sea level. The
0
Seawater Saturated Rocks
project proceeded in three
200
Freshwater
phases of drilling. What we
Saturated Rocks
400
Core 3/15/99
refer to as “HSDP1” involved
18 5/8”
Case 3/16/99
Mixing Zone
coring a pilot hole to a depth
600
9.1 m (30 ft.)
of 1052 meters below sea
800
level (mbsl) in 1993 (Stolper
Core 3/17/99
13 3/8”
et al., 1996; DePaolo et al.,
Case 3/25/99
1000
1996). The deep drilling
Seawater
115 m (377 ft.)
Saturated Rocks 1200
project, referred to as
503 m (1650 ft.)
HSDP2, took place in two
Static Temperature
1400
Temperature
Survey
phases. In the first phase a
Core
4/4/99
Survey During Flow
9 5/8”
1600
hole was core drilled in 1999
Case 4/22/99
610 m (2000 ft.)
to a depth of 3098 mbsl
1800
(3110 m total depth; DePaolo
2000
1646 m (5400 ft.)
et al., 2001b). In the second
Core 6/6/99
7”
Case 7/18/99
phase the hole was cased
2200
1831 m (6007 ft.)
Water Entries/
(2003) and then deepened in
Permeable
2400
2004–2007 to a final depth of
Horizons
2600
3508 mbsl (3520 m total
depth). After each phase of
5”
2800
3009 m
Core 9/22/99
coring, an integrated set of
Case 8/18/03
(9872 ft.)
3000
investigations characterized
3110 m (10,201 ft.)
Core 9/06 - 3/07
the petrology, geochemistry,
3200
3518 m (11,541 ft.)
geochronology, and the
magnetic and hydrological
Figure 2. [A] Diagram showing the casing diameter in the HSDP2 hole, and the dates when coring and
properties of the cored lavas.
hole opening were done. Presently the hole is cased to a depth of 2997 mbsl, and is open below that.
[B] Temperature measured in the hole and the inferred relationships to subsurface hydrological features.
Most of the funding for this
Freshwater is shown as light blue, seawater as light green, and brackish waters as intermediate colors.
long-term
project
was
Temperature survey (red line), done while the hole was flowing and still uncased below 1820 mbsl, suggests
that water is entering the hole below ~2800 mbsl, and additional entry levels are at 2370 and 2050 mbsl.
provided by the National
Circulation of cold seawater through the section below 600 mbsl is rapid enough to cool the rocks to
Science Foundation (U.S.A.)
temperatures 15°C–20°C below a normal geothermal gradient.
through its Continental
Dynamics program, but
Kea lavas were entered, the hole would remain in Mauna Kea
critical support for drilling was received for the 1999
to total depth. The drill sites were chosen to be (1) far from
and 2004–2007 phases from the ICDP. We summarize here
volcanic rift zones to avoid intrusive rocks, alteration, and
the results of the HSDP1 and HSDP2-Phase 1 drilling
high-temperature fluids; (2) close to the coastline to miniand preliminary results of ongoing studies from the
mize the thickness of subaerial lavas that would need to be
HSDP2-Phase 2 drilling.
penetrated to reach the older, submarine parts of the volcano;
Depth (mbsl)
Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project
Site Location
and (3) in an industrial area to minimize environmental and
community impacts.
An abandoned quarry on the grounds of Hilo International
Airport was chosen as the site for HSDP2. The HSDP1 pilot
hole was located 2 km to the NNW, north of the airport,
within fifty meters of the shoreline of Hilo Bay (Fig. 1; Stolper
et al., 1996; DePaolo et al., 1996). Although the Mauna Kea
volcanic section was the primary target, the HSDP sites in
Hilo required drilling through a veneer of Holocene Mauna
Loa flows. The Mauna Kea lavas are encountered at depths of
280–245 m. Because the volcanoes are younger to the southeast, and overlap with subsurface boundaries sloping to the
southeast (Moore, 1987), it was expected that once Mauna
Drilling and Downhole Logging
The main phase of HSDP2 drilling in 1999 consisted
primarily of successive periods of coring to predetermined
depths, followed by rotary drilling to open the hole for installation of progressively narrower casing strings (Fig. 2). No
commercially available system could satisfy both the coring
and rotary drilling requirements, so a hybrid coring system
(HCS) was designed and fabricated. The HCS employed a
rotating head and feed cylinder to drive the coring string,
and it was attached to the traveling block of a standard rotary
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 5
Science Reports
Depth (mbsl)
245 m
1052 m
1079 m
3110 m
HSDP2
Phase 2
(2003-2007)
Figure 3. Lithologic column of the HSDP2 drill cores. Boundary
between Mauna Loa (ML) and Mauna Kea (MK) lavas is shown,
as well as the subaerial-submarine transition, and depths at which
the first pillow lava and the first intrusive rocks were encountered.
Patterns represent different lithologies as indicated. The total depth
of the hole is measured from a reference level 11.7 meters above sea
level; the depth scale used here is in meters below sea level (mbsl).
rig to allow core and rotary drilling from the same platform.
Core penetration rates averaged 48 m d -1 through the
subaerial section, but slowed upon entering the submarine
section, where poorly consolidated hyaloclastites (Fig. 3) led
to short bit life and poor core recovery. A 3.5-inch tricone bit,
driven by the coring unit, was used to penetrate the most
difficult portion of this interval, the only significant depth
interval where core was not recovered. Progressive induration of the hyaloclastites with depth enabled an average
penetration rate of ~25 m d -1 down to the first occurrence of
pillow basalts (1980 mbsl; Fig. 3). The opening of the hole
and setting of the casing also progressed well; the rotary
drilling penetration rate down to 1820 mbsl averaged
~46 m d -1.
After casing was set to 1820 mbsl, coring through the
alternating intervals of pillow and hyaloclastite progressed
at a slower rate than in the upper section of hole. Reduced
rates of penetration were expected due to the longer trip
6 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
time, but two additional factors contributed. In the thinly
bedded pillow lavas, the core tended to fragment as it was cut
from the formation, thus blocking the core barrel and
resulting in short core runs. Broken core fragments also
tended to drop into the drill string as the core tube was
brought to the surface. These fragments needed to be cleared
from the drill string before sending a new core tube down,
and this process typically added nearly an hour to the core
retrieval process. Higher rates of bit wear also required more
frequent trips to change the bit. In spite of these challenges,
an average penetration rate of ~21 m d -1 was maintained down
to 2986 mbsl, where a zone was encountered in which the
basalts were thoroughly broken and unstable. This broken
zone triggered some deviation of the hole from vertical and
presented additional problems with rubble caving into the
hole and threatening to jam the bottom hole assembly (BHA).
The drillers tried various strategies to deal with the caving,
but they achieved only a small amount of additional progress
before the decision was made to terminate coring operations
at a depth of 3098 mbsl and run downhole logs. The hole was
then left filled with heavy mud.
The HSDP Phase 2 drilling commenced in March to
August 2003, by first enlarging the diameter of the hole
below the 7-inch casing from 3.85-inches to 6.5-inches , and
then installing a 5-inch casing to bottom (Fig. 2). Because
the casing weight was beyond the capacity of any Hawaiibased drill rigs, a rotary rig was acquired for the project.
This “hole-opening” phase proved difficult due largely to
unexpected high formation fluid pressures. Before the start
of hole opening, the well produced artesian water at a modest
rate from depths of 2605 mbsl, 2370 mbsl, and 2059 mbsl.
However, soon after the hole was widened, strong water flow
began. As depth increased, formation pressures increased.
The peak wellhead pressure was measured at ~11 bar, and
water flow rates reached as high as 250 L s -1. Initial efforts at
controlling flow with increased mud weight were only
partially successful, as was an alternative cementing strategy.
As a result, progress for most of the hole opening was
difficult, dangerous, and slow. Eventually, after the hole had
been opened down to about 2732 mbsl, a decision was made
to allow the hole to flow freely, with periodic mud “sweeps”
conducted to ensure that cuttings were fully cleared from the
hole. This strategy was successful and the penetration rate
increased from <20 m d -1 to nearly 100 m d -1. Hole opening
then continued down to 2997 mbsl, where caving problems
were again encountered. After several attempts at drilling
through the problematic zone, each resulting in a temporarily stuck BHA, the decision was made to terminate hole
opening and to begin casing.
Challenges during the hole-opening phase continued
when improper lifting tools were used, and late in the process
a 2347-m string of 5-inch casing was dropped into the hole.
After the condition of the dropped casing was checked, it was
left in the hole. The casing was completed by threading an
additional 610-m string onto the top of the dropped casing;
the bottom of the casing was at a depth of 2997 mbsl. As the
follow-on coring work began in late 2004, we discovered that
the bottom joint of the dropped casing string had been
damaged. It was necessary, using special tools, to cut a
window through the side of the bent casing to extend the
hole. After rubble was cleared from the hole down to
3098 mbsl, coring proceeded in two stages (December 2004
to February 2005, and December 2006 to February 2007) to
a total depth of 3508 mbsl. The first coring effort averaged
only 6 m d -1 and reached 3326 mbsl. At that point the rotary
rig was sold, and a leased coring rig was used. The coring
done in early 2007 achieved about 8 m d -1, but problems with
the leased rig and exhaustion of project funds resulted in
only 180 m of additional core.
At the conclusion of HSDP2-Phase 2 drilling, the 5-inch
casing was perforated, cement was pumped into the annulus
at depth, and at 2031 mbsl, the casing was cut at 1635 mbsl
and the top section removed from the hole. The final depth of
the HSDP core hole is about 914 m less than was originally
planned in 1996, but it is still nearly twice as deep as the next
deepest core hole drilled in Hawaii (SOH-2 to 2073 m on the
Kilauea East Rift Zone; Novak and Evans, 1991).
Hydrology
Although the primary purpose of the borehole was to
document the geochemical evolution of an oceanic volcano, a
significant finding was the unexpected hydrology. The traditional view of ocean island subsurface hydrology is one of a
freshwater lens (fed by rainfall recharge) “floating” atop
saltwater-saturated rocks that extend to the island’s base.
Circulation of seawater within the basement rocks is
presumed to occur to the extent made possible by permeability and thermal conditions. The HSDP boreholes showed
that the hydrology of the island of Hawaii is considerably
more complicated and interesting. Whereas it has been
assumed that the youth of the island of Hawaii meant that
artesian aquifers, such as those arising from the buried cap
rocks on Oahu, would be absent, the borehole encountered
multiple artesian aquifers (Fig. 2). Estimated groundwater
flow through the first of these, at a depth of only 300 m, may
represent as much as a third of the rainfall recharge to the
windward mid-level slopes of Mauna Kea. The deeper
artesian aquifers have equally unexpected implications.
Some of the groundwater produced by the deep aquifers was
hypersaline, with chloride concentrations about 20% higher
than seawater. These aquifers must be isolated from ocean
water, and they may have lost 25% of their water to hydration
reactions with basalt glass. Other fluids produced by the
borehole had salinities less than half those of seawater, indicating that a connection exists between these deep confined
pillow aquifers and the basal fresh groundwater system.
Evidence for freshwater in the formation fluids was found in
the borehole to as deep as 3000 mbsl, implying that the
volume of freshwater within Mauna Kea may be ten times
greater than previously estimated.
Thermal Profile
The downhole temperature profile for the HSDP2 corehole (Fig. 2) yields additional information about the subsurface hydrology of Hawaii. Within the first 200 m of the borehole, the thermal conditions were consistent with the
expected basal freshwater lens underlain by rocks saturated
with freely circulating saline water. However, at ~300 m a
temperature reversal occurs that was later demonstrated to
be the result of a ~150-m-thick freshwater aquifer confined
by multiple soil and ash layers present at the interface
between Mauna Loa lavas and late-stage Mauna Kea flows
(Thomas et al., 1996). Below the artesian fresh aquifer, the
temperature falls rapidly to ~9 °C, reflecting the presence of
an actively circulating saltwater system that draws deep,
cold sea water in through the submerged slopes of Mauna
Kea. Circulation within this system is rapid enough to
maintain a very weak temperature gradient (~7°C km -1) down
to a depth of ~1600 mbsl where the gradient begins a progressive rise to ~19 °C km -1 at 2000 mbsl. This value is to be
expected for a conductive thermal gradient (Büttner and
Huenges, 2002). Temperature measurements made below
2000 mbsl under static conditions (no internal well flow)
show a nearly constant 19 °C km -1 gradient to total depth.
Downhole temperature measurements made during and
soon after well flow show sharper temperature gradients that
are interpreted to reflect flow into or out of the formation
during drilling or production, respectively. The positive
temperature steps at permeable formations indicate entry of
warm fluids from deep within Mauna Kea’s core.
Lithologic Column
A major effort was made to characterize and catalogue the
rock core on-site. This nearly-real-time logging allowed us to
monitor the volcano structure, which helped with drilling
and allowed us to immediately start systematic sampling.
On-site activities included hand-specimen petrographic
description and photographic documentation of the recovered core. There were 389 distinguishable lithological
units identified (e.g., separate flow units, sediments, soils).
A simplified version of the lithological column is shown in
Fig. 3. A diagrammatic representation of the internal
structure of the Mauna Kea volcano in the vicinity of the drill
site (Fig. 4) helps explain the significance of the volcanic
stratigraphy.
The core was split longitudinally into a working portion
(two-thirds) to be used for analysis and an archival portion
(one-third) to be reserved for future study. A reference suite
of samples for geochemical analyses, chosen to be
representative and to cover the depth of the core at specified
intervals, was taken on-site and sent to participating
scientists. A key feature of the sampling is that a complete
suite of petrological and geochemical analyses was conducted
on these reference samples, allowing for a high level of
comparability among complementary textural, chemical,
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 7
Science Reports
and isotopic measurements. All of the data collected on-site
can be accessed at http://www.icdp-online.org/contenido/
icdp/front_content.php?idcat=714,; the data include digital
photographs of each box containing the working and archival
splits, high-resolution scans of the working split, a detailed
lithological column, and detailed descriptions of the entire
recovered core. A summary of the lithologic column from the
HSDP2 drilling follows.
Subaerial Mauna Loa lavas (surface to 246 mbsl): The lava
flows from the surface to 246 mbsl are all subaerial Mauna
Loa (ML) tholeiites, as determined by major and trace
element analyses. These flows range from aphyric to 30% (by
volume) olivine phenocrysts; the average phenocryst
abundance is ~11%. Thirty-two flow units with an average
thickness of ~8 m were identified in this depth range; and
pahoehoe flows are approximately equally abundant. A total
thickness of 2–3 m of ash, soil, and volcanic sandstone occurs
interspersed with the ML lavas. The contact between the ML
lavas and underlying subaerial Mauna Kea (MK) lavas
occurs at 246 mbsl. Lavas from the two volcanoes are
sufficiently different in chemical and isotopic compositions
that it is easy to demonstrate that there is no interfingering
of lavas from the two volcanoes, which is consistent with
subsurface structural analysis based on the age and growthrate relations between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa (DePaolo
and Stolper, 1996). Although the drill site was near that of the
pilot hole, and the depths of the ML-MK transition (275 mbsl
in the pilot hole) are similar at the two sites, the shallow
carbonates and beach deposits observed in the pilot hole
(DePaolo et al., 1996) are not present in the HSDP2 core.
NLB
NLB
A
B
C
Figure 4. [A] Reconstruction of the Mauna Kea east rift and shoreline
at about 600 ka. The shoreline was about 12–15 km NW of the drill
site, and the surface at the drill site location was at about 1500 m
water depth. Prior to the time depicted, the drill site location would
have been receiving submarine lavas from the (hypothesized)
Mauna Kea east rift. Subsequently, it was receiving mainly clastic
material derived from the shoreline. Since 600 ka there has been
about 1500 m of subsidence, so the depth in the HSDP drillcore
corresponding to this map is about 3000 mbsl. Below this depth,
the rocks encountered in the drillcore should be exclusively
submarine pillow lava. The distribution of submarine pillow lava is
based on the interpretation of Kilauea’s east rift zone bathymetry by
Moore (1996). [B] Schematic cross section from the Mauna Kea
summit through the HSDP2 drill site (in red), model for 100 ka ago:
assuming that there is no rift zone. [C] In this model the HSDP2
core hole should not have intersected any pillow lava, assuming the
presence of a rift zone, which its the observations better.
8 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Figure 5. SiO2 contents of Mauna Kea lavas and hyaloclastites plotted
versus depth below sea level in the HSDP core. Solid symbols
are glass samples, open symbols are whole rock measurements
adjusted for crystal fractionation and accumulation to MgO content
of 7% by weight. Below 1350 mbsl there is a bimodal distribution of
SiO2 concentrations indicative of two distinct magma types. Short
horizontal dashed lines separate subsections of the core where one
or the other lava type predominates. In the uppermost subaerial
portion of the core a systematic decrease in the SiO2 concentration,
representing the tholeiitic to alkaline transition, is also associated
with a pronounced decrease in the local lava accumulate rate from
-1
-1
9 m ka to 2 m ka (see Figs. 6 and 7). Data from Rhodes and
Vollinger (2004), Stolper et al. (2004), and unpublished data.
Moreover, although the number of ML flow units identified
in the HSDP2 core is similar to that in the pilot hole (thirty),
there is no one-to-one correspondence of units in the two
cores below the first few near-surface flows. Dating of the
ML section of the pilot hole core suggests that it extends
back to about 100 ka (Lipman and Moore, 1996). During this
time trace element and isotopic geochemistry show
significant changes; most of the samples from the core are
quite different from sub-aerially exposed lavas of Mauna Loa
(DePaolo et al., 2001a).
Subaerial Mauna Kea lavas (246–1079 mbsl): The upper
834 m of the MK section comprises primarily ~120 subaerial
flows of 7 m average thickness; about twenty-five percent of
these flows are pahoehoe. A total thickness of ~2 m of ash
and soil occurs within and between many flow units. Chemical
analyses (Fig. 5) demonstrate that the uppermost ~50 m of
the MK section contains interbedded nepheline-normative
(low SiO2) and hypersthene-normative lavas, marking the
end of the shield-building phase of MK’s volcanic cycle
(Rhodes and Vollinger, 2004). Deeper subaerial MK lavas
are tholeiitic with variable olivine phenoscryst content
(0–35 volume %).
Submarine Mauna Kea — dominantly hyaloclastite debris
flows (1079–1984 mbsl): An abrupt transition to the
submarine part of the MK section occurs at a depth of 1079
mbsl, marked by the occurrence of volcaniclastic sediments
and glassy lavas significantly denser than those above the
transition. Based on radiometric ages of the lavas at the base
of the nearby pilot hole, the estimated age of the
subaerial-submarine transition is ~400 ka (Sharp and Renne,
2004; Sharp et al., 1996; Fig. 6). The estimated average
subsidence rate at the drill site over this interval, ~2.5 mm y -1
(corrected for sea level variations), is similar to the current
subsidence rate in Hilo measured by tide gauges; to the
average subsidence rate for the past several tens of thousands
of years based on sediments in the pilot hole (Beeson et al.,
1996); and to the average values over 100–200 ka at several
near-shore sites around Hawaii based on the ages of drowned
coral reefs (Moore et al., 1996).
The upper 60 m of the submarine section (1079–1140 mbsl)
is different from the rest of the submarine section. This nearshore facies is an alternation of massive basalts (2–3 m
average thickness) and clastic sediments (~3 m average
thickness; dominantly basaltic hyaloclastite). These occur in
roughly equal amounts. The vesicularity of the massive
basalts in this depth range is variable but mostly lower than
the 10%–20% typical of the subaerial lavas; when combined
with the low water and sulfur contents of most glasses from
these basalts, this suggests that these massive basalts are
subaerial flows that continued past the shoreline as submarine
flows. The hyaloclastites consist of a matrix rich in glassy
fragments plus basaltic lithic clasts from <1 cm up to several
tens of centimeters in size. These clasts are similar
lithologically to the massive basaltic units, although they
are usually more vesicular. The basalts in this depth range
are highly fractured, and the hyaloclastites are poorly
indurated, leading to the poor drilling conditions described
above.
The interval from 1220 mbsl to 1984 mbsl consists of ~90%
well-indurated basaltic hyaloclastite, interspersed with ~10%
massive submarine basalts (Fig. 3). The basalts are divided
into twenty-six units with an average thickness of 3–4 m.
They are olivine phyric, and point counts and chemical
analyses indicate a systematic decrease in olivine abundance
with depth in this interval from >20% at the top to <10% at the
bottom. The vesicularity of the massive basalts in this
interval is typically <1%. Although some of these massive
basalts could be intrusives or large lithic clasts, most have
been interpreted as subaerial flows that continued past the
shoreline as submarine flows. As at the top of the submarine
section, the hyaloclastites in this deeper interval comprise a
matrix often rich in fresh glass fragments plus variably
olivine-phyric, variably vesicular basaltic lithic clasts. In
some intervals, where these volcaniclastic sediments are
bedded and/or poor in lithic clasts, they are described as
sandstones or siltstones. Analyses of water and sulfur
contents of glassy fragments in the hyaloclastites demonstrate that they have been degassed subaerially. This
composition, plus the often highly vesicular nature of the
basaltic clasts and the presence of charcoal in at least one
hyaloclastite, suggests that this thick interval of hyaloclastite
represents material transported downslope (probably by
slumping from oversteepened near-shore environments) as
the shoreline moved outward during the subaerial phase of
growth of the Mauna Kea volcano (Moore and Chadwick,
1995; Fig. 4).
NLB
Figure 6. Depth versus age for core samples from HSDP1 and
HSDP2 (data from Sharp et al., 1996; Sharp and Renne, 2004).
Horizontal solid line indicates the final bottom hole depth of 3508
meters. Dashed lines show possible age-depth relations allowed by
the data for the bottom portion of the core. Distinguishing between
the allowed models requires additional geochronological and
geomagnetic data from the lowermost portion of the core.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 9
Science Reports
Submarine Mauna Kea — dominantly pillow lavas
(1984–3098 mbsl): From a depth of 1984 mbsl to the to the
depth reached in the 1999 phase of drilling, the section is
~60% pillow basalt, with less abundant intercalated
volcaniclastic sediment (Fig. 3). Several thick intervals (up to
~100 m each) composed nearly entirely of sediment are also
present. The sediments are primarily hyaloclastite, and they
were probably transported from near-shore environments.
The pillows typically have fresh glassy margins; the average
olivine content is ~6% by volume, much lower than the average
for the subaerial MK flows. Vesicularities range up to 10%,
but the average is 1%–2%. Water contents of the glassy pillow
margins are ~0.08 wt % at 1984–2140 mbsl (consistent with
subaerial degassing), but most pillow margins from depths
>2200 mbsl have water contents of 0.2–0.8 wt %. The waterrich, deeper lavas were never degassed under subaerial
conditions and are interpreted as submarine eruptions. The
deepest ~180 m of this interval contains no hyaloclastite.
Before drilling the final 422 m (see below) it was hypothesized,
based on the presence of the 180-meter hyaloclastite-free
section, that pillow lavas would dominate the deeper sections
of the core.
Submarine Mauna Kea – the final phase of drilling
(3098–3508 mbsl): Although the final phase of drilling was
at times challenging as described above, core recovery was
close to 100%. All rocks from the final phase of drilling were
deposited below sea level; based on chemical analyses
currently available of whole rocks and glass, they have been
determined to be from the Mauna Kea volcano, On-site core
logging led to the identification of forty-four distinguishable
units (the main phase of drilling had identified 345 units).
Five lithologies were identified: pillows (~60%); pillow
breccias (~10%); massive lavas (~12%); hyaloclastites (~17%);
intrusives (~1%; these are mostly multiple, thin (down to
cm-scale) fingers of magma with identical lithologies
occurring over narrow depth intervals; see next section). As
with the shallower portions of the drill core, the rocks are
primarily tholeiitic, ranging from aphyric to highly olivinephyric lavas (up to ~25% olivine phenocrysts). Although they
are variably altered (clays, zeolites), considerable fresh glass
and olivine are present throughout this part of the core. Forty
whole-rock samples were collected as a reference suite,
processed (including the cutting of thin sections), and sent
to multiple investigators for study. Additionally, glass was
collected at roughly 3-m intervals for electron microprobe
analysis.
Although samples were continuous and consistent with
the shallower rocks from the previous phases of coring, there
are several noteworthy features of the deepest 422 m of core.
(1) Glasses from the shallower core were characterized by
bimodal silica contents (Fig. 5, a low SiO2 group (48–49 wt %),
and a high SiO2 group (51–52 wt %). Glasses from the deepest
section are essentially all in the high SiO2 group and are
somewhat more evolved (5.1–7.6 wt % MgO compared to
5.1–10.8 wt % for the glasses from the shallower portion of the
10 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
core). (2) The overall expected sequence of lithologies with
depth in the core is subaerial lava flows, hyaloclastite (formed
by debris flows carrying glass and lithic fragments from the
shoreline down the submarine flanks of the volcano), and
finally pillow lava (Fig. 4). This sequence was generally
observed in the earlier phases of drilling, and it appeared
that the deepest rocks from the 1999 phase of drilling were
essentially all formed from pillow lavas (i.e., there were no
more hyaloclastites). However, thick hyaloclastites reflecting
long distance transport from the ancient shoreline reappear
in the bottom ~100 m of the drill hole. Although it may be
coincidence, pillow breccias occur in the shallower parts of
the core from the final phase of drilling, but not in the deeper
parts in which the hyaloclastites reappear. (3) There are
three units classified as “massive” including one relatively
thick (~40 m), featureless (no internal boundaries, no
evidence of mixing or internal differentiation) moderately
olivine-phyric basalt. Their origin is unclear.
Intrusive units: Intrusive basalts are present in the deepest
portions of the core, but they are abundant nowhere;
between their first occurrence at 1880 mbsl and the bottom
of the core, they make up several percent of the core. They
are most abundant in the 2500–3100 mbsl interval, where
they constitute 7% of the core (Fig. 3). Intrusive rocks make
up a lower fraction (~1 %) of samples from the final phase of
coring than in the deeper parts of the section from the 1999
phase of drilling. It had been suggested that intrusives might
become more common the deeper the drilling, but this is not
the case at depths down to 3500 m. Individual intrusive units
typically occur as multiple, thin (up to a few centimeters
long) splays or fingers. The average olivine phenocryst
content is 4%–5%, and their vesicularities are all ≤1%. The
relationship of the intrusives to the lavas and sediments they
intrude is not firmly established, but the lobate shapes of
some of the intrusive contacts with the hyaloclastites suggest
that the latter were still soft when they were intruded.
Alteration and faulting: Basalts in the subaerial and submarine parts of the section are relatively fresh (unweathered),
based on the presence of fresh glass and olivine. Although
secondary minerals (e.g., gypsum, zeolites, clays) are
common below 1000 mbsl, they tend to be localized in
vesicles or lining fractures (Walton and Shiffman, 2003;
Walton, 2008). Olivines are often partially altered, and in
some of the subaerial lavas the matrix is clayey. The overall
fresh nature of the rocks is consistent with their low vesicularity and the low downhole temperatures (Fig. 2). The
hydrology of the drill site may also contribute to this, in that
less reactive, freshwater is present to great depth. Near the
base of the core, there is some suggestion of an increased
abundance of secondary minerals and alteration based on
hand-specimen descriptions. An interesting aspect of the
alteration is a blue coating on most fragments starting near
the depth of the subaerial-submarine transition that becomes
less apparent after several hundred meters. Another distinctive feature is a bright blue-green alteration zone extending
up to ~30 cm into hyaloclastites from intrusive contacts;
although striking when the core came out of the ground, it
faded and was difficult to distinguish within a few weeks. No
significant fault displacements were observed in the core,
but slickensides (though rare) are found throughout the
section, demonstrating that at least local relative motions
occurred in the section.
Key Petrologic, Geochemical, and
Volcanological Results
Although only preliminary results are available for the
final phase of drilling, considerable work has been completed
on the samples recovered in the two previous phases of
drilling. We summarize them briefly here, with references to
the primary publications.
Age and growth rates of Hawaiian volcanoes: Much of what
we can infer from the studies of the chemical and isotopic
composition of the lavas depends on their age. What we have
learned about the age of lavas is summarized in Fig. 6. The
deepest dated sample (at 2789 mbsl) has an age of 683±82 ka
(Sharp and Renne, 2004). Comparison with previous age and
growth rate estimates for the Hawaiian volcanoes (Moore
and Clague, 1992) indicates that the volcano lifetimes are
apparently almost four times longer than was inferred from
surface data (although very close to our predictions as laid
out in the 1991 NSF proposal). Reconciling the age data from
the core with the surface observations is a challenge still to
be undertaken, but one of the implications is that we have
been able to sample a long time period and hence have a long
record of the magma output from the Hawaiian plume.
Figures 4a and 7 show the island geography roughly 600,000
Figure 7. Map depicting the inferred geography of the island
of Hawaii at a time corresponding to about 600 ka years ago
represented by section at 3000 mbsl in the core. This map is based
on modern topography and bathymetry for the older volcanoes,
a long-term subsidence rate of 2.5 mm yr -1 for the shorelines,
subaerial slopes for the volcanoes of 5.5°, and the volcano growth
model of DePaolo and Stolper (1996). The red circle, based loosely
on the geodynamic model of Ribe and Christensen (1999), delimits
the location of the main magma-producing region in the plume,
about 100–150 km below the Earth’s surface. Inside this circle melt
fractions are relatively large, and the magma compositions produced
are tholeiitic; outside, the magma production is minimal, and the
magma compositions are alkalic.
years ago as reconstructed from the HSDP age data and the
models of DePaolo and Stolper (1996). To date, we have had
difficulty in reconciling the growth history of the volcanoes
with what is known of the Pacific plate velocity over the
plume, both its speed and direction (DePaolo et al., 2001a).
Based on the ages of the older islands and seamounts in the
Hawaiian chain, the long-term inferred velocity of the plate is
about 8.6 cm yr -1. Modern GPS measurements suggest a
present-day plate velocity of 7 cm yr -1. Moore and Clague
(1992), on the basis of their growth model, suggested that
the volcanoes on the island of Hawaii were moving over the
plume at a velocity of 13 cm yr -1 or more! So far, we have been
able to make a reasonable fit to the age data with a velocity of
10 cm yr -1, but this model can probably only be tested by
drilling in other volcanoes.
Lava stratigraphy and volcano evolution: Excluding the
abrupt change from the Mauna Loa lavas at the top of the
core to the Mauna Kea lavas that extend over most of the
length of the core, there is considerable evidence of chemical
and isotopic heterogeneity in the recovered lavas
(Figs. 5 and 8). The data provide critical insights into plume
structure and the time dependence of magma generation
over much of the lifetime of the Mauna Kea volcano. Two key
results are described here. (1) The coring captured in detail
the termination of the shield-building phase of the Mauna
Kea volcano at about 150–300 ka, which is characterized by
a shift from tholeiitic to alkaline magmas and a drastic
slowing of eruption rate (Figs. 5 and 6). These changes
reflect a shift in degree and depth of melting as the volcano
passed from the center to the exterior of the melt-producing
region of the mantle plume (Fig. 7). (2) The Mauna Kea
section is characterized by a bimodal distribution of SiO2
contents in the lavas of the main, shield-building phase of the
volcano, with both abrupt and continuous transitions between
the two magma types occurring in the section (Fig. 5). The
bimodal compositional distribution has never previously
been observed in Hawaii, and since these major element
characteristics are correlated with isotopic ratios, they
indicate a bimodal distribution of source components. In a
potentially major paradigm shift, these results may suggest
that the mantle source materials in the Hawaiian plume are
not peridotite (i.e., olivine-rich) as generally thought, but
rather pyroxene-rich lithologies that straddle a thermal
divide.
Geochemical structure of the Hawaiian mantle plume: The
HSDP geochemical data can be interpreted in terms of the
geochemical structure of the Hawaiian plume. The continuous nature of the HSDP core, with the implied continuous
monitoring of the lava output from the volcanoes, has dictated
that we develop models for the plume behavior just below the
lithosphere and for how magma is collected from the plume
melting region and supplied to an individual volcano. These
models can be constrained by the volume and volume-age
structure of the Hawaiian volcanoes and by available
geodynamic models for the Hawaiian plume (DePaolo and
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 11
Science Reports
Stolper, 1996; DePaolo et al., 1996; Ribe and Christensen,
1999; DePaolo et al., 2001a; Bryce et al., 2005). Systematic
variability in Hawaiian lavas with depth (age) in the drillcore
can be attributed to structure in the plume, and one of the
interesting results is that there is such structure even though
melting within the plume represents only the innermost
third or so of the plume radius (Fig. 8). The data show that
there is radial geochemical zoning of the melting region of
the plume in terms of He, Pb, Nd, Sr and Hf isotopes
(Blichert-Toft et al., 2003; Eisele et al., 2003; Kurz et al., 2004;
Bryce et al., 2005). This geochemical structure represents
the hot core of the plume and does not reflect entrainment of
ambient lower or upper mantle. The radial component of the
geochemical structure of the plume represents the vertical
structure at the thermal boundary layer from which the
plume originates (Fig. 9). In the case of Hawaii, all of the
A
lavas are derived from melting of mantle that originates from
within 20–50 km of the base of the mantle (Farnetani et al.,
2002). One of the most striking characteristics of the HSDP
data is that a high 3He/4 He anomaly (R/Ra > 16) is nested
within the core of the melting region of the plume and is
much larger in amplitude and much smaller in diameter than
the Nd, Sr and Hf anomalies (Fig. 8). A 3He anomaly
apparently has a different origin than the other anomalies
and is restricted to the lowermost 10–20 km of the mantle
plume source. The helium signal is therefore likely to come
either directly from the Earth’s core via leakage across the
core-mantle boundary, or from a dense layer separating the
main mantle from the outer core (Bryce et al., 2005).
Thermal history, hydrology, lithification, and alteration
geochemistry: As noted above, one of the unexpected features
of the HSDP drill site is the low temperature at depth (Fig. 2).
The temperature profile requires that cold seawater (or
deeply penetrating basal groundwater) be circulating
through the volcanic pile even at depth greater than 3 km.
Moreover, as emphasized above, there are pressurized
aquifers near the bottom of the hole.
Studies of alteration minerals in the hyaloclastites have so
far indicated that the mineral phases represent low temperatures of alteration less than 50°C, which is consistent with
B
Figure 8. Isotopic composition of [A] He and [B] Nd in HSDP lavas
plotted versus age. The ages were assigned using the model of
DePaolo and Stolper (1996) and are consistent with the measured
ages (Fig. 6). During the period of time represented by the core
samples (ca. 600 ka to 150 ka), the summit of the Mauna Kea
volcano moved from a position close to the center of the plume
melting region (depicted in Fig. 7) to a position close to the edge of
the melting region. The systematic shift of isotopic ratios shows that
there is radial structure within the plume. The isotopic variations are
more dramatic; near the center of the plume they are much different
from mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) values and indistinguishable
from them at the edge of the melting region (data from Kurz et al.,
1996, 2003). The Nd isotopic variations are subtle but consistently
different from MORB values (data from Bryce et al., 2005).
12 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Figure 9. Schematic drawing showing the relationship between
the central axis of a cylindrical mantle plume and the base of the
mantle (from Bryce et al., 2005). The He and Nd isotopic ratio versus
age data shown in Fig. 8 may represent a detailed vertical section
through the lowermost 20–50 km of the mantle. In this interpretation,
the high-3He signal is confined to the extreme base of the mantle
3
and suggests that the He signal may be associated with a basal,
high-density mantle layer, or the outer core. The igure also depicts
heterogeneities within the axial region of the plume.
the measured temperature profile (Walton and Shiffman,
2003). Hence the temperatures in this section have always
been low. The alteration mineralogy of glass in pillow rinds
and pillow breccias is similar to that of hyaloclastites.
A unique aspect of studying alteration of the HSDP core is
that the age and stratigraphic position of the samples are
known, and the temperature measurements can be used to
reconstruct the thermal history. By systematically sampling
down the core it is possible to reconstruct the time and temperature of both the alteration of the rocks and the microbial
activity (Walton, 2008). Most other situations require study
of samples with unknown temperature history or do not preserve the stages of progressive alteration and infection that
can be observed in the HSDP core. The alteration process
may be significant in understanding the reactions and compositional exchange between seawater and basalt glass at
low temperatures, thereby providing an analogue system for
the early history of fluids that circulate through mid-ocean
hydrothermal systems. Signs of microbial involvement in the
alteration process are evident as filamentous channels in
glass, but only within a restricted portion of the core between
about 1080 mbsl and 1460 mbsl (Walton and Schiffman, 2003;
Walton, 2008; Fisk et al., 2003). This re-striction suggests
that microbes infected the hyaloclastites early in their history
but are not very active at present.
Summary
The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project drilled and cored
two holes in Hilo, Hawaii, the deeper reaching a depth of
3508 mbsl, and it retrieved a total of 4600 meters of rock core
(525 meters from the Mauna Loa volcano and the remainder
from the Mauna Kea volcano). The Mauna Loa core extends
the continuous lava stratigraphy of that volcano back to
100 ka and reveals major changes in lava geochemistry over
that time period. The Mauna Kea core spans an age range
from about 200 ka to perhaps 700 ka, and when combined
with surface outcrops, it provides a 700-kyr record of the lava
output from a single volcano. During the time covered by the
lavas from the core, the volcano drifted some 60–80 km
across the melting region of the Hawaiian mantle plume, and
therefore the HSDP rock core provides the first systematic
cross-sectional sampling of a deep mantle plume. The
geochemical characterization of the core, which involved an
international team of forty scientists over a period of fifteen
years provides information about mantle plume structure
and ultimately about the deepest parts of the Earth’s mantle.
The study of the lava core (which still continues) has provided
unprecedented information about the internal structure of a
large oceanic volcano and the time scale over which volcanoes grow. The hole also provides an intriguing glimpse of a
complex subsurface hydrological regime that differs greatly
from the generalized view of ocean island hydrology.
Drilling conditions were favorable in the subaerial parts of
the volcanic section, where coring was generally fast and
efficient. The submarine part of the lava section, made up
primarily of volcanogenic sediments and pillow lavas, proved
considerably more difficult to drill. Some of the difficulties
and considerable additional expense were due to pressurized
aquifers at depth and a few critical mistakes made while
setting casing. Even with the more difficult conditions, the
project retrieved about 2400 meters of nearly continuous
core from the submarine section of Mauna Kea. Overall, the
HSDP project was highly successful even though the original
target depth was about 20% deeper than the final hole depth.
As expected, the project results answer several important
questions about oceanic volcanoes, mantle plumes, and
ocean island water resources, but they raise many more that
might be addressed with further moderate-depth drilling in
other Hawaiian volcanoes.
Acknowledgements
The project and the U.S. investigators were funded by the
Continental Dynamics Program of the U.S. National Science
Foundation (EAR-9528594 to E.M. Stolper, EAR-9528544 to
D.J. DePaolo, and EAR-9528534 to D.M. Thomas), with additional funds for core drilling provided by the International
Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP). Non-U.S.
investigators participated with support from their respective
institutions and national funding agencies. The authors
would like to acknowledge the critical role played by Mike
Garcia in supervising the core logging and other on-site core
characterization activities.
References
Beeson, M.H., Clague, D.A., and Lockwood, J.P., 1996. Origin and
depositional environment of clastic deposits in the Hilo drill
hole, Hawaii. J. Geophys. Res.
Res., 101(B5):11617–11629,
doi:10.1029/95JB03703.
Blichert-Toft, J., Weis, D., Maerschalk, C., Agranier, A., and Albarède,
F., 2003. Hawaiian hot spot dynamics as inferred from the
Hf and Pb isotope evolution of Mauna Kea volcano. Geochem.
Geophys. Geosyst., 4(2): 8704, doi:10.1029/2002GC000340.
Bryce, J., DePaolo, D.J., and Lassiter, J., 2005. Geochemical structure
of the Hawaiian plume: Sr, Nd and Os isotopes in the 2.84
km HSDP-2 core of Mauna Kea volcano. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst., 6: Q09G18, doi:10.1029/2004GC000809.
Büttner, G., and Huenges, E., 2002. The heat transfer in the region of
the Mauna Kea (Hawaii)—constraints from borehole
temperature measurements and coupled thermo-hydraulic
modelling. Tectonophysics, 371:23–40, doi:10.1016/S00401951(03)00197-5.
DePaolo, D.J., and Stolper, E.M., 1996. Models of Hawaiian volcano
growth and plume structure: Implications of results from
the Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project. J. Geophys. Res.,
101:11643–11654, doi:10.1029/96JB00070.
DePaolo, D.J., Bryce, J.G., Dodson, A., Shuster, D.L., and Kennedy,
B.M., 2001a. Isotopic evolution of Mauna Loa and the chemical structure of the Hawaiian Plume. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst., 2(7):41–43.
DePaolo, D.J., Stolper, E.M., and Thomas, D.M., 1996. The Hawaii
Scientific Drilling Project: Summary of preliminary results.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 13
Science Reports
GSA Today, 6(8):1–8.
DePaolo, D.J., Stolper, E.M., and Thomas, D.M., 2001b. Deep drilling
into a Hawaiian volcano. EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union.,
82(149):154–155.
Eisele, J., Abouchami, W., Galer, S.J.G., and Hofmann, A.W., 2003.
The 320 kyr Pb isotope evolution of Mauna Kea lavas
recorded in the HSDP-2 drill core. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst., 4(5): 8710, doi:10.1029/2002GC000339.
Farnetani, C., Legras, G.B., and Tackley, P.J., 2002. Mixing and deformation in mantle plumes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 196:1–15,
doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00597-0.
Fisk, M.R., Storrie-Lombardi, M.C., Douglas, S., Popa, R., McDonald,
G., and Di Meo-Savoie, C., 2003. Evidence of biological
activity in Hawaiian subsurface basalts. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst., 5:1103, doi.10.1029/2002GC000387.
Holcomb, R.T., 1987. Eruptive history and long-term behavior of
Kilauea Volcano. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1350:261–350.
Kurz, M.D., Curtice, J., Lott III, D. E., and Solow, A., 2004. Rapid
helium isotopic variability in Mauna Kea shield lavas from
the Hawaiian Scientific Drilling Project. Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst., 5:Q04G14, doi:10.1029/2002GC000439.
Lipman, P.W., and Moore, J.G., 1996. Mauna Loa lava accumulation
rates at the Hilo drill site: Formation of lava deltas during a
period of declining overall volcanic growth. J. Geophys. Res.,
101(B5):11631–11641, doi:10.1029/95JB03214.
Mark, R.K., and Moore, J.G., 1987. Slopes of the Hawaiian Ridge. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1350:101–107.
Moore, J.G., 1987. Subsidence of the Hawaiian Ridge. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Pap., 1350:85–100.
Moore, J.G., and Chadwick, W.W., Jr. 1995. Offshore geology of Mauna
Loa and adjacent areas, Hawaii. In Rhodes, J.M., and
Lockwood, J.P. (Eds.), Mauna Loa Revealed: Structure,
Composition, History, and Hazards, Washington, D.C.
(American Geophysical Union), 21–44.
Moore, J.G., and Clague, D.A., 1992. Volcano growth and evolution of
the island of Hawaii. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 104: 1471–1484,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<1471:VGAEOT>2.3.CO;2.
Moore, J.G., Ingram, B.L., Ludwig, K.R., and Clague, D.A., 1996.
Coral ages and island subsidence, Hilo drill hole. J. Geophys.
Res., 101:11599–11605, doi:10.1029/95JB03215.
Morgan, W.J., 1971. Convection plumes in the lower mantle. Nature,
230:42–43, doi:10.1038/230042a0.
Novak, E.A., and Evans, S.R., 1991. Preliminary results from two scientific observation holes on the Kilauea East Rift Zone.
Geotherm. Resour. Counc. Trans., 15:187–192.
Rhodes, J. M., and Vollinger, M.J., 2004. Composition of basaltic lavas
sampled by phase-2 of the Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project:
Geochemical stratigraphy and magma types. Geochem.
Geophys. Geosyst., 5:Q03G13, doi:10.1029/2002GC000434.
Ribe, N.M., and Christensen, U.R., 1999. The dynamical origin of
Hawaiian volcanism. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 171:517–531,
doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(99)00179-X.
Robinson, J.E., and Eakins, B.W., 2006. Calculated volumes of individual shield volcanoes at the young end of the Hawaiian Ridge.
J. Volc. Geotherm. Res., 151:309–317, doi:10.1016/j.
jvolgeores.2005.07.033.
Sharp, W.D., and Renne, P.R., 2004. The 40 Ar/39 Ar dating of core
recovered by the Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project (phase
2), Hilo, Hawaii. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 6(4):Q04G17,
14 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
doi:10.1029/2004GC000846.
Sharp, W.D., Turrin, B.D., Renne, P.R., and Lanphere, M.A., 1996.
The 40 Ar/39 Ar and K/Ar dating of lavas from the Hilo 1-km
core hole, Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project. J. Geophys.
Res., 101:11607–11616.
Sleep, N.M., 2006. Mantle plumes from top to bottom. Earth-Sci. Rev.,
77:231–271, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.03.007.
Stolper, E.M., DePaolo, D.J., and Thomas, D.M., 1996. The Hawaii
Scientific Drilling Project: Introduction to the special section. J. Geophys. Res., 101:11593–11598, doi:10.1029/
96JB00332.
Stolper, E.M., Sherman, S., Garcia, M., Baker, M., and Seaman, C.,
2004. Glass in the submarine section of the HSDP2 drill
core, Hilo, Hawaii. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 5: Q07G15,
doi:10.1029/2003GC000553.
Thomas, D.M., Paillet, F., and Conrad, M., 1996. Hydrogeology of the
Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project borehole KP-1: 2.
Groundwater geochemistry and regional flow patterns. J.
Geophys. Res., 101:11683–11694, doi:10.1029/95JB03845.
Walton, A.W., 2008. Microtubules in basalt glass from Hawaii
Scientific Drilling Project #2 phase 1 core and Hilina slope,
Hawaii: evidence of the occurrence and behavior of endolithic microorganisms. Geobiology, 6:351–364, doi:10.1111/
j.1472-4669.2008.00149.x.
Walton, A.W., and Schiffman, P., 2003. Alteration of hyaloclastites in
the HSDP2 Phase 1 drill core: 1. Description and paragenesis. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 5:8709, doi.10.1029/
2002GC000368.
Watts, A.B., 2001. Isostasy and Flexure of the Lithosphere. Cambridge,
UK (Cambridge University Press), 458p.
Authors
Edward M. Stolper, Division of Geological and Planetary
Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
Calif., 91125, U.S.A., email: ems@caltech.edu
Donald J. DePaolo, Department of Earth and Planetary
Science, University of California, Berkeley, and Earth
Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory,
Berkeley, Calif., 94720, U.S.A.
Donald M. Thomas, Center for Study of Active Volcanoes,
University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo,
Hawaii, 96720, U.S.A.
Web Links
http://hawaii.icdp-online.org
http://www.icdp-online.org/contenido/icdp/front_content.
php?idcat=714
Science Reports
Addressing Geohazards Through Ocean Drilling
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.01.2009
by Julia K. Morgan, Eli Silver, Angelo Camerlenghi, Brandon Dugan,
Stephen Kirby, Craig Shipp, and Kiyoshi Suyehiro
Introduction
Natural geohazards, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and volcanic collapse, are of immediate
societal concern. In an oceanic setting (Fig. 1), all are capable
of generating tsunami that threaten coastal zones at distances
of many thousands of kilometers. This power and its effects
were forcefully shown by the giant earthquake (M
Mw 9.2)) and
tsunami of 26 December 2004 off the coast of northern
Sumatra. Smaller magnitude submarine earthquakes and
landslides occur with shorter recurrence intervals and the
capability of tsunami generation, creating
ing hazards for local
coastal communities as well as for offshore industry and
infrastructure. At the other end of the scale, the geologic
record suggests that less common, large-volume volcanic
collapses and extraterrestrial meteorite and comet impacts
in ocean basins have the potential to initiate tsunami of
extraordinary power that can threaten huge sections of
coastlines with growing populations. These events also
disperse enormous volumes of ash, steam, and ejecta into the
atmosphere, with short- and long-term consequences,
including climate change. All of these processes,, which have
operated throughout the Earth’s
’ss history,, are instrumental in
shaping the Earth system today. However, they are characteristically dificult to predict, and viable risk assessment
and hazard mitigation depend on a clearer understanding of
the causes, distributions, and consequences of such natural
events.
Understanding the spatial and temporal variability of
submarine geohazards, their physical controls, and their
Figure 1. Geologic settings in which oceanic geohazards may
be generated.
societal effects requires a diverse array of observational
techniques. Ocean drilling can be a key element in understanding oceanic geohazards, given that the submarine
geologic record preserves structures and past evidence for
earthquakes, landslides, volcanic collapse, and even bolide
impacts. This record can be read and interpreted through
drilling, coring, in situ characterization, observatory studies,
monitoring, and laboratory studies to provide insight into
future hazards and associated risks to society.
With these concerns and opportunities in mind, an
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) workshop on
oceanic geohazards was held at McMenamins Edgeield,
outside Portland, Oregon (U.S.A.)
.S.A.)
S.A.)
.A.)
A.)
.)) on 27–30 August 2007.
A primary objective of the workshop was to document how
scientiic oceanic drilling could provide fundamental information on the frequency and magnitudes of these destructive
events, ass well as provide scientiic insights into their
variability and underlying physics. The workshop was
attended by eighty-nine scientists from eighteen countries,
who were charged with the following goals: (1) establish the
state of knowledge regarding conditions and distribution of
catastrophic geohazards; (2) deine key unresolved scientiic
questions relating to geohazards; (3) formulate realistic
science plans to answer them; (4) evaluate the tools and
technologies available for geohazards study; (5) identify
potential drilling targets for speciic hazardous phenomena;
and (�) enhance international collaborations and stimulate
proponent teams to develop competitive IODP proposals.
Participants contributed to the workshop through oral and
poster presentations, white paper preparation, proposal and
Bolide Impact
- Major tsunami!
- Earthquakes
- Landslides
- Ejecta of rock, melt,
dust, vapor
Glacier
Delta
Rift & Transform Margins
- Moderate earthquakes
- Submarine/subaerial landslides
- Volcanic eruptions, ash, gases
- Debris flows, turbidity currents
- Tsunami
Subduction Margins
- Large earthquakes
- Submarine/subaerial landslides
- Explosive eruptions, lahars
- Debris flows, turbidity currents
- Tsunami
Oceanic Volcanoes
- Submarine/subaerial landslides
- Debris flows, turbidity currents
- Volcanic eruptions, ash, gases
- Earthquakes
- Tsunami
Passive Margins
- Submarine landslides
- Debris flows, turbidity currents
- Shoreline subsidence, retreat
- Modest earthquakes
- Tsunami
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 15
Science Reports
Submarine Landslides
Submarine landslides occur at a wide range of scales and
settings. They often comprise distinctive mass transport
deposits recognized on the sea�oor or in seismic re�ection
proiles (Fig. 2). Small-scale
-scale
scale submarine landslides are
relatively frequent.. They have displaced oil rigs, damaged
pipelines, broken deep-sea communication cables (Piper et
al., 1999), and, in a few cases, damaged segments of coastline
(Longva et al., 2003; Sultan et al., 2004). Large and small
events along coastal zones also create local, destructive
tsunamis (Lee et al., 2003;; Tappin et al., 2001).
A range of conditions and triggers has been implicated in
the initiation of submarine landslides; these depend on
geologic setting, slope evolution, and tectonic and volcanic
activity. Earthquake triggering of landslides is well-known;;
A
Head
Scarp
MASS TRANSPORT
DEPOSIT
Rotated
Slide
Blocks
Slump
Blocks
1.4
U1324
B
Debris
Flows
Incre
asing
Intern
al Dis
rupti
Debris Apron &
Turbdity Flows
on
1.6
U1323
they can produce tsunami much larger than predicted for the
earthquake. As a dramatic reminder, more than 1�00 people
died in 1998, when the M 7.0 Sissano earthquake in Papua
New Guinea triggered a massive submarine landslide, generating a tsunami that inundated a small stretch of coastline
(Synolakis et al., 2002). In North America, a large earthquake in eastern Canada in 1929 triggered the Grand Banks
landslide, turbidity �ow, and tsunami that resulted in twentynine deaths and substantial coastal damage (Whelan, 1994).
The possible role of co-seismic landsliding in generating a
local tsunami in Hawaii in 1975 is still debated (Lander and
Lockridge, 1989; Ma et al., 1999). Some of the largest
submarine landslides, however, have occurred on relatively
aseismic passive margins. The best known example is the
Storegga slide on the mid-Norwegian
-Norwegian
Norwegian margin (Fig. 3), which
disrupted 90,000 km 2 of the continental slope about 8100
years ago (Solheim et al., 2005). Although the cause of this
slide is still debated, it is thought to have produced tsunami
inundations in Norway, Iceland,, and the British Isles
(Bondevik et al., 1997). Hypothesized triggers include local
�uid
overpressures,
groundwater
seepage forces, and storm-induced
wave-action. Sea level or sea temperatures may also cause slope failure
through gas hydrate dissociation or
dissolution, which can release free gas
to the atmosphere (Bünz et al., 2005;
1 km
Mienert et al., 2005). This process its
into the more general “Clathrate Gun
Hypothesis”, relating methane release
and global climate change (Kennett et
al., 2000).
U1322
899-1 (proj. ~ 1300 m north)
“concept” presentations, focused breakout discussions, and
open plenary discussions.
TWT (s)
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.2
1.4
NE
SW
U1324
S10
S20
1.6
S30
C
1 km
Dista
l Lev
ee
Hemipelag
ic Drape
U1323
East Levee
TWT (s)
1.8
S40-1
2.0
S50-1
Seafloor
S10
Southwest Pass Canyon
Slope Failure 2
U1322
S10
S20
Slump Blocks
S20
S30
S30
S40-2
S40-3
Slope Failure 1B
S50-2
Slope Failure 1A
S60-1
S80
Top Blue
West Levee
Core
S80
S50-3
S70-3
S80
Top Blue
2.2
Ursa Canyon
S60-3
Blue Unit
East Levee
Base Blue
2.2
SW
Base Blue
NE
Figure 2. [A] Schematic diagram of a mass transport deposit. [B] Seismic cross-section showing
stacked submarine slides/slumps within the Ursa region of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Some of
the failures show low-amplitude, discontinuous reflections; others show distinct dipping reflectors
suggesting block rotation. [C] Interpreted cross-section identifying key lithologic units and features. Blue Unit is a sand-prone layer. B and C modified from Flemings et al. (2006).
16 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
To date, there are no known examples of medium- to large-sized submarine mass movements where the geometry, in situ stresses and pressures
have been characterized prior to,
during, and after the failure. Thus, it is
still unclear how and why failures
initiate where and when they do, and
what governs their subsequent �ow
behaviors. For example, some landslides disintegrate rapidly, transitioning
into debris �ows, avalanches,, and
turbidity currents, whereas others
remain cohesive, undergoing incremental down-slope creep and deformation, with impacts on their tsunamigenic behavior. The Storegga landslide
is one of the best-characterized
examples (Solheim et al., 2005); borings
and in situ measurements have been
col-lected inside and outside of the landslide body which,, along with
geophysical surveys and seabed
characterization, have served to deine
15°W
5°W
5°E
15°E
65°N
55°N
15°W
5°W
Storegga tsunami deposits
Location of stimulated time series
5°E
Run-up of tsunami deposits
Figure 3. Map of the Storegga Slide off the Norwegian coast. Blue
dots show where tsunami deposits have been studied. Numbers
show elevation of the deposits above the contemporary sea level.
Red dots show approximate position of the time series. Figure from
Bondevik et al. (2005).
and constrain geotechnical parameters, their lateral variability, and slope failure potential. Similar approaches can be
used in other settings to further evaluate speciic hypotheses and models (Fig. 4). Some speciic questions are
outlined below..
Does flow focusing cause lateral pressure variations and
failure? Two-dimensional modeling of the New Jersey continental slope suggests that lateral �uid �ow in permeable
beds under differential overburden stress produces �uid
pressures that approach lithostatic stress where overburden
is thin (Dugan and Flemings, 2000). This transfer of pressure
may drive slope failure at the base of the continental slope,
demonstrating that permeability, depositional history, and
�uid �ow are important controls on slope stability. IODP
Expedition 308 (Fig. 2) tested this hydrogeologic model in a
region subject to overpressure and slope failure (Flemings
et al., 200�). Similar �uid �ow and failure processes might
occur due to glacial loading of permeable sediments or in
temperate passive margins with high volumes of terrigenous
sediment. As the setting for such failures is robust, it is
critical that this model be further tested and validated to
investigate for which margin architectures and stratigraphic
settings it is applicable.
How important are strong ground motions for triggering
landslides compared with pre-conditioning or other mechanisms? Earthquakes can increase pore pressure within slope
sediments, locally accelerate sediment, or create oversteepened surfaces ultimately driving failure. Although the mechanisms relating earthquakes and slope failure are conceptually understood, drilling is necessary to measure sediment
properties to understand how they will respond to strong
ground motions. Drilling can provide insights into the most
likely modes of failure, the regions most prone to failure, and
the potential for slope failure to create a tsunami.
How do methane emissions relate to submarine landslides
during rapid climatic changes? Methane emissions from gas
hydrate dissociation induced by bottom water warming are
thought to occur primarily via submarine slides (Bünz et al.,
2005, Mienert et al., 2005). Carbon isotope chemistry, assemblages of benthic calcareous foraminifera, or other
(micro)biological indicators living close to paleo-slide heads
could be used as a local proxy for massive paleo-methane
seeps (Panieri, 2003;; Sen Gupta et al., 1997). Such proxies
need to be tested by drilling where the history of oceanographic changes is well known and there is a record of submarine slope failure.
Can deep sea megaturbidites and shallower marine deposits
be produced by tsunami? Megaturbidites in deep-sea
-sea
sea basins
have been explained as the result of submarine landslides
and particle resuspension due to tsunami-induced bottom
shear stress in deep and shallow water (Cita and Aloisi, 2000;
Hieke, 2000;; Pareschi et al., 200�a). The study of megaturbidites through ocean drilling, especially those deposited in
historical times, will permit their correlation with known
earthquakes and tsunami and resolve the cause-effect
relationships.
Subduction Zones
ones
Figure 4. Summary of slope processes that may contribute to failure,
generating landslides, debris flows, and tsunami (from Camerlenghi
et al., (2007), courtesy Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and
the International Centre for Geohazards (ICG).
Subduction zones rank at the top of all classes of plate
boundaries in the destructive power of shallow offshore and
near-shore earthquakes, explosive eruptions of arc volcanoes, and the tsunami that such events spawn. As sea�oor
displacements and tsunami generation scale with shallow
moment release, shallow interplate earthquakes have the
highest capacity to produce damaging regional and oceancrossing tsunami. Drilling in subduction systems can have
multi-hazard payoffs, as the marine sedimentary record also
reveals slumps and turbidites caused by large earthquakes
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 17
Science Reports
A
100 km
WGS 1984 UTM Zone 10
OSU Active Tectonics Lab
B
100 km
WGS 1984 UTM Zone 10
OSU Active Tectonics Lab
C
D
100 km
100 km
WGS 1984 UTM Zone 10
OSU Active Tectonics Lab
WGS 1984 UTM Zone 10
OSU Active Tectonics Lab
Figure 5. Holocene rupture lengths of Cascadia great earthquakes from marine and onshore paleoseismology. Four panels showing rupture
modes inferred from turbidite correlation, supported by onshore radiocarbon data: [A] full rupture, represented at all sites by twenty turbidites;
[B] mid-southern rupture, represented by three events; [C] southern rupture from central Oregon southward represented by eight events;
[D] southern Oregon/northern California ive events. Southern rupture limits vary, as indicated by white dashed lines. Recurrence intervals for
each segment are shown, and include all full margin events as well as those exclusive to that segment. Rupture terminations are approximately
located at three forearc structural uplifts: Nehalem Bank (NB), Heceta Bank (HB), and Coquille Bank (CB). Paleoseismic segmentation is also
compatible with latitudinal boundaries of episodic tremor and slip events (Brudzinski and Allen, 2007), shown by white dashed lines (adapted
from Goldinger et al., 2008).
that may augment tsunami run-ups. Moreover, tephra deposits from explosive eruptions provide a record for dating
earthquake-triggered turbidites and re�ect eruptive histories of dangerous explosive arc volcanoes that are vital for
volcano hazard appraisal.
With the exceptions of subduction zones in Japan (Ando,
1975), and perhaps those in the Mediterranean Sea, the
historical record of subduction earthquakes, explosive
volcanic eruptions, and tsunami is too short to be truly useful
in quantitative earthquake and tsunami hazard assessment.
Onshore geological investigationss of the Holocene record of
coastal uplift and subsidence, shoreline tsunami deposits,
liquefaction
efaction
faction effects, and terrestrial landslides have extended
the historical record for tsunamigenic earthquakes for some
subduction systems. A prime example is the Paciic Northwest of the U.S. and southwestern
ern Canada, where paleoseismic investigations conirmed the giant earthquake of 2�
January 1700 recorded by its tsunami in Japan (Atwater et
al., 2005;; Satake et al., 199�),
1996), and they also identiied other
late-Holocene earthquakes (Atwater, 1987). However, the
onshore record of such earthquakes is limited by removal of
these deposits through coastal and near-coastal erosion.
Shallow piston coring of turbidites in submarine canyon
levees and trench deposits have identiied additional
Holocene events (Fig.
Fig. 5; Goldinger et al., 2003,, 2008),
permitting a statistical record of earthquake size and
history that has been used for probabilistic earthquake
hazard assessment by the U.S. Geological Survey. More
complete IODP drilling of deeper turbidite deposits could
extend this record into the Pleistocene or earlier.
18 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
Depth (km)
Depth (km)
Characterizing the behavior of subduction zones throughout the seismic cycle is fundamental to understanding
seismic hazards and earthquake mechanics. This effort ties
in well with ongoing seismogenic
eismogenic zone
one investigations, and
in particular, NanTroSEIZE
Kumano Forearc
Plate interface
Inputs and initial
(Fig. �), which represents a
faulting sites
Basin sites
and megasplay sites
phased drilling program with
C0002
C0001
Seafloor
C0003
2
2
C0004 & C0008
an ultimate goal of sampling
Forearc basin
C0006 & C0007
4
4
the seismogenic zone directly
(Kinoshita et al., 2008;;
t
en
m
6
6
DÊcolle
Accretionary prism
Tobin and Konishita, 2007).
lt
u
fa
lay
8
8
asp
g
t
Seismicity,
ground
defors
e
ru
c
M
anic
ting oce
Subduc
mation,
and
geochemical
and
10
10
�uid
�uxes
appear
to
vary
face
inter
12
12
Plate
throughout the seismic cycle
Line 5
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
in response to stress and strain
Distance from deformation front (km)
evolution, and they can be
Figure 6. IODP NanTroSEIZE drill sites deining a “distributed observatory” to study the seismogenic zone.
monitored through borehole
Sites drilled during 2007–2008 Stage 1A are shown in solid colors, and are preparatory to much deeper
planned drilling that will sample the splay faults and plate boundary seismogenic zone. Modified from
installations (Brown et al.,
Kinoshita et al. (2008); seismic data from Park et al. (2002).
2005). If earthquake recur-
rence intervals are long, it is unreasonable to monitor the
entire seismic cycle in one location. However, observations
along comparable margins at different points within their
seismic cycles could be integrated to reconstruct processes
active throughout a generic seismic cycle, and extrapolated
to predict the behavior of speciic margins. Comparative
studies (Kanamori, 1972) along margins like the Nicaragua
margin that produce tsunami earthquakes�and even those
margins that do not�can test whether precursory behaviors
differ in these settings and are indicative of their tsunamigenic behavior.
Four key
ey questions associated with subduction zone
geohazards that can be addressed by ocean drilling relate to
characterizing and quantifying earthquake magnitude,
frequency, and tsunamigenic potential.
drilling area shows evidence for recent slumping and active
splay faulting across older more seaward faults (Moore et al.,
2007), suggesting co-seismic slip may propagate from the
décollement zone all the way to the sea�oor. Similar geometries are observed along other subduction margins, and
they may contribute to the generation of devastating tsunami
during major earthquakes. Possible evidence for active slip
on such a splay fault during the 2� December 2004 Sumatra
earthquake comes from tsunami arrivals on the coastline
earlier than expected for a fault source on the main interplate thrust (Plafker et al., 200�), one of several hypotheses
currently being tested (Fig. 7) by new surveys over the
Sumatra margin (Henstock et al., 200�; Mosher et al., 2008;;
Plafker et al., 200�).
Rupture to toe - effect of landward vergence?
Forearc basin
What is the long-term record of the size, distribution, and
frequency of plate-boundary earthquakes in a subduction zone?
Dating turbidite deposits obtained by drilling can provide
information about the chronology of triggering earthquakes,
as well as information about event sizes and distributions.
Thus, drilling can provide a much longer record than
historical and instrumental data have to date. Potentially,
such records contain fundamental information about
seismicity rate, maximum event magnitude, and primary
parameters needed to assess the probabilistic earthquake
hazard in a given subduction zone. Moreover, seismic
moment release tends to be heterogeneous, and in some
well-characterized systems such as northeast Japan, earthquake slip recurs on consistent segments of the subduction
boundary over decades to centuries. As the underlying
physics behind locations and sizes of such “asperities” is not
known, quantitative probabilistic earthquake hazard analysis
is more appropriately based on resolving the spatial and
temporal record of subduction events, a task that requires
ocean drilling.
What factors control the global variability in seismicity rate
and maximum earthquake magnitudes? The existence and
rate of backarc spreading, the thickness of the incoming
sediment layer, plate convergence rate, dip of the subducting
plate, width of the seismogenic zone, interplate stresses, and
the ability of rupture zones to coalesce, all need to be evaluated carefully. Within the seismogenic zone, it is critical to
understand the physical, chemical,, and hydrogeological
properties, as well as thickness and geometry of the slip
zone. These goals are among the key objectives of the current
IODP NanTroSEIZE drilling program (Kinoshita et al.,
2008).
How are plate boundary motions partitioned among interplate thrust faults and splay faults, and how does this partitioning affect the tsunamigenic potential? Seismic re�ection proiles reveal splay faults that diverge from the basal thrust,
with considerable cumulative sea�oor displacement (Fig. �).
Seismic imaging over the Nankai Margin in the NanTroSEIZE
**
Outer ridge
Trench
** ** ***
* * * * * * * * * * * ** * *
Rupture inhibited by high fluid pressures (Moore and Saffer, 2001)
Forearc basin
**
Outer ridge
Trench
* ** **** ** **
Rupture along splay fault (Park et al., 2002)
Forearc basin
**
Outer ridge
***
***
**
Trench
Figure 7. Alternative models for forearc fault architecture that
accommodated rupture during the great Sumatra earthquake, and
implications for tsunami generation. Figure courtesy of S. Gulick, N.
Bangs, and J. Austin.
What physical processes control the onset of slow (tsunami)
earthquakes? Some earthquakes launch destructive tsunami
far in excess of their moment magnitudes. Such tsunami
earthquakes (Kanamori, 1972) include the devastating 189�
Sanriku-oki earthquake in northeastern
ern Japan, the Mw 8.5
earthquake of 194� off Unimak Island in Alaska, and the
northern rupture zone of the 2004 Sumatra earthquake
(Stein and Okal, 2005). The
he sources for earthquake and
tsunami may lie beneath the outer prism at very shallow
depths. Further studies must also be carried out to test the
hypothesis that sediments might play a role in slow earthquake ruptures (Kanamori, 1972), as some documented
examples occur in sediment-starved settings such as
Nicaragua (McIntosh et al., 2007). Drilling strategies will
require exploring the structure and properties of the most
frontal portions of the prisms, with comparisons to subduction systems that do not to produce slow earthquakes.
Volcanic Processes
Many oceanic and coastal volcanoes (e.g.,
e.g., in Hawaii, the
Canary Islands, and Alaska)) show evidence of large-scale
�ank collapse (Coombs et al., 2007;; Masson et al., 2002;
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 19
Science Reports
Moore et al., 1989, 1994; Urgeles et al., 1999) and occasionally
abortive slope failure (Day et al., 1997). Enormous debris
ields composed of volcanic blocks and far-�ung turbidite
deposits occur most prominently around the Hawaiian
oceanic island volcanoes (Fig. 8A). Modeled tsunami for
such intraoceanic landslide sources produce enormous wave
heights that can devastate coastlines around the entire ocean
basin (Satake et al., 2002).. They may also deposit marine
coral deposits high on the nearby volcano �anks (McMurtry
et al., 2004). Large-scale slope failure also may be accompanied by explosive volcanic eruptions that release large
quantities of ash and vapor into the atmosphere, with shortand long-term detrimental effects on climate and society.
Immediate hazards include airborne lateral blasts, columncollapse pyroclastic �ows, ashfall, respiratory hazards,
terrestrial dome-collapse pyroclastic �ows, debris �ows, and
lahars (Herd et al., 2005;; Saito et al., 2001). Explosive
xplosive
submarine eruptions pose unknown risks to nearby communities, as they can generate tsunami with shallow eruptions,
but also release density currents and ash plumes (Belousev
et al., 2000; Fiske et al., 1998; White et al., 2003). The
he far-�ung
materials generated by explosive eruptions are often the
unique keys to recognizing and dating such events, providing
important constraints on source, magnitude, and frequency
(Fig. 8B).
(Coombs et al., 2007;; Le Friant et al., 2004; Pareschi et al.,
200�b). Although smaller in scale than Hawaiian landslides,
such events can cause tsunami that will impact nearby shorelines with little warning. A tsunami from Mt. Etna would
strike eastern Mediterranean coasts very quickly (Fig. 9;;
Pareschi et al., 2007). The explosive eruption of Krakatau
volcano, Indonesia in 1883 produced a far-�ung tsunami and
caused untold damage. Smaller volcanic failures at island arc
volcanoes, such as at Oshima-Oshima Island in the Japan
Sea (1741) and Ritter Island in the Bismarck volcanic arc of
New Guinea (1888), are more frequent and invariably produce regionally destructive tsunami (Day et al., 2005).
In some settings, the �anks of active volcanoes also
exhibit slow outward �ank displacements. This is best documented in Hawaii, where the south �ank of Kilauea volcano
is moving seaward at rates up to 10 cm y -1 (Denlinger and
Okubo, 1995; Owen et al., 2000). Such volcanic spreading is
primarily gravitationally driven but is also in�uenced by
magmatic pressures and/or hot cumulates at depth that push
the �ank outward (Clague and Denlinger, 1994;; Swanson
et al., 197�). Slip is modeled to occur along a décollement that
lies near the base of the volcanic ediice (Fig. 10), a geometry
analogous to subduction, with a frontal accretionary prism of
volcanic-lastic strata (Morgan and Clague, 2003;; Morgan et
al., 2000, 2003). Seaward slip is punctuated by large earthScars in the subaerial and submarine slopes of silicic volquakes (up to M 8) that may trigger coseismic slumping
canoes�such as Mt. Etna in Sicily, Kiska, Tanaga, and
(Lipman et al., 1985; Ma et al., 1999). “Silent” slip events also
Augustine in Alaska, and Montserrat in the West Indies�
have been recognized, with apparently periodic recurrence
and interpreted debris deposits attest to past slope failures
and offshore slip surfaces (Brooks et al., 200�;; Cervelli et al.,
2002). The irst geodetic study over
ODP
Kilauea�s submarine south �ank now
Nu'uanu
Site 1223
A
100 km
conirms offshore fault slip, which
produces vertical �ank displacements up to 5 cm y -1 (Fig. 10;; Phillips
Kaua'i
Wailau
et al., 2008). However, the
he temporal
and mechanical relationships among
Oahu
slow slip, seismic slip, and large scale
Hana
Moloka'i
�ank failure in Hawaii are still very
poorly known.
Lana'i
South Kaua'i
Mau'i
B
Site
1223
Highly reflective, continuous horizons
interpreted as turbidites
TWTT (s)
TWTT
(s)
Wai'anae
5.8
6.0
Laupahoehoe
Hawai'i
Clark
1&2
Alika
1&2
ODP Core
200-1223-3X-2
Hilina
South
Kona
Punalu'u
Ka Lae
105
up
C
100
95
100 km
90
85
cm
volcaniclastic
siltstone/tuff
bioturbated
claystone
6.2
Figure 8. [A] Landslides and slumps around Hawaii (mapped by Moore et al., 1989 and more recent
work from Tom Sisson). Red outlines debris avalanche ields; blue outlines slumps; islands are in gray.
Location of seismic line and ODP Site 1223 indicated in white. Bathymetry from Eakins et al. (2004).
[B] Portion of reflection profile across ODP drill site, showing multiple reflective turbidite horizons.
[C] Representative drill core from ODP Site 1223, showing volcaniclastic sandstone/tuff unit
overlying bioturbated claystone, with intervening erosional boundary. Figures B and C modified from
Shipboard Scientific Party (2003).
20 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
In general, the direct causes of
volcano �ank motions and failures
are not well understood. Below are
four key
ey questions associated with
volcanic geohazards that can be
addressed by ocean drilling and
relate to understanding the nature
and controls on �ank mobility and
stability, and the triggering mechanisms.
What conditions and/or triggers
lead to large-scale flank collapse in volcanic settings? Potential causes for
volcano �ank deformation and collapse include the presence of weak or
depth (km)
overpressured lithologies,
thermal pres-surization of
groundwater or gas, and
unique
volcano-tectonic
forcing (Elsworth and Day,
1999; Elsworth and Voight,
1995; Iverson, 1995; Reid,
2004;; Voight and Elsworth,
1997). Accelerations induced by earthquakes or
explosive eruptions may
serve as triggers. The types
and scales of slope failures
and their tsunamigenic
potential depend on these
para-meters, the structure
Figure 9. Maximum wave crests heights predicted by a scenario of a tsunami generated by the flank collapse
of Mt. Etna in the eastern Mediterranean (after Pareschi et al., 2006b). Blue lines are arrival times, in seconds,
and stratigraphy of the ediof the first tsunami maximum.
ice, and the rheology of the
failed
material.
Thus,
What is the interplay between volcano growth and collapse?
addressing this question requires direct sampling and meaLandsliding and �ank collapse occur throughout their
surement of the �anks to constrain subsurface stress, pore
evolution. Recent seismic and stratigraphic evidence suggest
pressure, temperature, �uid chemistry, and composition, as
that �ank failures are commonly buried by subsequent
well as their spatial and temporal variability. Additionally,
volcanic materials (Morgan et al., 2003). Thus, to better
core records may resolve linkages between eruptive and
understand the growth and evolution of oceanic volcanoes,
�ank failures and provide information about emplacement
ocean drilling must be combined with geophysical surveys
mechanisms and rheology.
to constrain internal structure, composition and stratigraphy. In this way, we can begin to reconstruct volcanic
What are the frequencies, magnitudes, and distributions of
history, estimate the volumes of past and incipient failures,
large volcanic landslides? As the historic record of volcanic
and improve models of collapse effects (e.g.,
e.g., tsunami,
collapses is short, statistical data must be acquired through
landslide run-outs, etc.).
high resolution sampling of distal landslide deposits (e.g.,
turbidites, Fig. 8C)
C)) to constrain event frequency and size and
Other Active Tectonic Settings
to correlate these deposits regionally and globally (Shipboard
Scientiic Party, 2003). Ash stratigraphy offers great promise,
Marine crustal earthquakes occur in a range of
especially where on-land ash units have been ingerprinted
non-subduction and non-volcanic settings, including rifted
and dated and can be correlated with offshore deposits.
margins, transform margins, and the occasional intra-plate
or passive margin setting. These events tend to be relatively
What causes/enables rapid volcano flank motion, and what
small, but can reach magnitudes of �–8. Often, the sources
are the hazard implications? The deep-seated causes for �ank
and precise mechanisms of these earthquakes are unclear.
spreading, as observed in Hawaii, will be dificult to constrain
Although earthquake damage may be local, the hazards can
through ocean drilling alone. However, drilling offers the
be great, as they are unexpected and commonly ampliied by
only means to test interpretations for �ank structure that
secondary events (e.g., tsunami, landslides, coastal collapse).
controls deformation, and
to constrain the properties
NW
SE
of the materials involved.
Upper Flank
Outer Bench
Midslope Basin
Hilina
= 5 cm y
5 km
Fault Zone
no V.E.
Additionally,
offshore
Data Model
0
geodetic and seismic moniaccreted
2
volcaniclastic
toring are crucial for underFlank Hawaiian
zone of
strata
Toe
triggered
Moat
4
standing modes of �ank
seismicity
modeled
slow
slip
6 magma
deformation and identifying
planes
storage
precursory phenomena in
décollement
8
Ocean Crust
-10
0
10
20
30
40
different settings. Such
Distance from Shoreline (km)
efforts are now in their
Figure 10. Cross-section through Kilauea’s active submarine flank (after Morgan et al., 2003). Flank is forced
nascent stages (Phillips et
seaward by gravitational spreading, resulting in frontal sediment accretion and bench uplift. Aseismic slip
along the active décollement (in red) can account for vertical displacement recently measured along the
al., 2008).
distal flank (data from Phillips et al., 2008). Aseismic slip may be accommodated in part by repeated slow
earthquakes, which are modeled to occur at or near the décollement plane and are associated with triggered
microseismicity (after Brooks et al., 2006).
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 21
Science Reports
San
Sta Barbara
And
rea
s
Fau
l
t
GOL
North
America
Los Angeles
Channel Islands Thrust
PV
ult
Fa
lem
nC
Sa
SCI
u
Fa
te
en
LK
EK
lt
CC
30M
40M
San Diego
NC
BR
SSB
San
Pacific
What are the potential earthquake and related hazards in
active non-subduction settings? Ocean drilling offers the
opportunity to constrain the types of hazards that exist in
non-subduction settings, by testing structural and stratigraphic interpretations for the margins, including the
frequency, timing, and rates of fault slip. For example, are
there linkages between earthquakes and triggered mass
�ows or slope failures and tsunami? Additionally, drilling
these settings will contribute to other fundamental issuess
about active rift and transform structure and processes,
sedimentation, and linkages to climatic events and paleoceanography.
Ensenada
Isid
ro
t
ul
Fa
Figure 11. Geology, bathymetry, and topography of the California
Borderlands, showing representative geologic hazards and features (igure courtesy of Mark Legg). Volcanic features (red) include
Emery Knoll (EK), Catalina Crater (CC), Navy Crater (NC), and South
San Clemente Basin (SSB). Tectonic features (black) include Santa
Catalina Island (SCI), Lasuen Knoll (LK), and Palos Verdes (PV).
Potentially tsunamigenic landslides (blue): Fortymile Bank (40M),
Thirtymile Bank (30M), and Goleta Slide (GOL).
In addition, these sources have produced some of the most
destructive historic geohazard events in terms of casualties
and effects on populated coastal communities. Examples
include the 1755 Lisbon earthquake (M >~8) and tsunami
that resulted in 40,000–60,000 casualties (Gracia et al.,
2003); the 1908 Messina Strait earthquake (M ~7–7.5) and
tsunami causing 60,000 or more casualties (Amoruso et al.,
2004; Billi et al., 2008);; and the 373 BCE earthquake and
tsunami, which completely destroyed the classical city of
Helike on the southwestern
ern shore of the Gulf of Corinth
(Liritzis et al., 2001).
Young oceanic rift environments (e.g., the Gulf of Corinth)
can produce up to M ~6–7 earthquakes that can trigger
submarine landslides and tsunamis, as well as liquefaction
and coastal failure. These processes are enabled by high
sedimentation rates and steep fan delta slopes and faulted
margins (Bell et al., 2008; McNeill et al., 2005). However, the
high sedimentation rates provide a unique opportunity for
drilling to unravel the tectonic and hazard history and to link
it to the historic record. Oceanic transform margins, such as
the California Borderlands (Fig. 11; Legg et al., 2007) and
the North Anatolian Fault crossing the Sea of Marmara, are
also subject to intermittent earthquakes, commonly with
complex mechanisms. Irregular sea�oor and oversteepened
slopes can create additional risks, as earthquakes can trigger
submarine landslides and tsunami that impact nearby populated regions (e.g., southern California or western Turkey;
Borrero et al., 2004; McHugh et al., 200�).
The knowledge of geohazards in these settings is very
incomplete. The following are two key
ey questions that can be
addressed by ocean drilling..
22 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
Can the history of past earthquakes be extracted from the
sedimentary record? High sedimentation rates in some
settings preserve high-resolution records of local
earthquake-generated turbidite-homogenite units. These
event deposits may have recognizable characteristics
distinct from other sedimentary units. Careful dating of
seismoturbidites can provide event ages and recurrence
intervals. Such a record of seismoturbidites has been
extracted from the Sea of Marmara for the last 1� ka,
validating the approach and revealing unrecorded events
that must be accounted for in probabilistic earthquake risk
assessment (McHugh et al., 200�; Sari and Cagatay, 200�).
Similar records may be reconstructed in other settings for
which the historic record is limited, but earthquakes and
associated hazard risks are high.
Bolide Impacts
Major bolide impacts, while infrequent, rank as potentially the most devastating of all geohazards, with the
capability of wiping out civilization as we know it (Chapman,
2004; Chapman and Morrison, 1994; Collins et al., 2005).
Representative examples include Meteor Crater in Arizona
and Chicxulub Impact Crater in Mexico (Fig. 12), which
approximately
roximately
oximately deinee the known size extremes on Earth
(<100 m to >300 km in diameter). Currently about 175 impact
craters are recognized on Earth, of which about one-third
-third
third
are no longer visible at the Earth�s surface due to erosion or
post-impact burial. Local effects of impact include ejecta
deposition, airblasts, thermal radiation, seismic shaking,
and tsunami. Global effects include thermal infra-red pulses,
dust in the atmosphere, climatically active gases, acid
trauma, and biological turn-over (Gulick et al., 2008;; Ivanov
et al., 199�; Koeberl and MacCleod, 2002; Pierazzo et al.,
1998; Robertson et al., 2004; Toon et al., 1997). Tsunami are
the most immediate hazard, with large regional effects.
For example, a 400-m
-m
m asteroid hitting the Atlantic could
produce basin-wide run-ups of >�0 m (Ward and Asphaug,
2000), although actual run-ups
-ups
ups may be lessened by shallow
continental shelves (Hofman et al., 2007; Korycansky and
Lynett, 2005;; Weiss and Wünneman, 2007)..
The best-known
-known
known impact crater is Chicxulub, which struck
the Yucatan penisula ~�5 Ma (Alvarez et al., 1980; Gulick et
al., 2008;; Hildebrand et al., 1991; Morgan et al., 1997). Of an
estimated impact energy of 2 x 10 23 J (~100 million atomic
bombs), only one percent was converted to tsunami and
hurricane force winds (Pope et al., 1997). The remainder
caused melting, vaporization, and ejecta. Deep-sea cores
reveal evidence for large impacts in the form of tektites, ash,
and dust (MacLeod et al., 2007;; Norris et al., 1999),, indicating
the extraordinary reach of impact ejecta. Drilling through
these well-preserved deposits in the ocean basins can yield
valuable constraints on the energies and chemical signatures
associated with such impacts and the associated hazards
(Gohn et al., 2008;; Morgan et al., 2005; Pope et al., 1997)..
One can also recognize sharp contrasts in biota before and
after an event, indicating dramatic changes in environment
induced by long-term climatic changes (Gulick et al., 2008;;
MacLeod et al., 2007; Pope et al., 1997)..
drilling-obtained constraints on impact structure and
distribution of deposits can be used to calibrate models,
which are used to understand the impact process and the
associated hazards.
Overarching Scientific Questions That Can
Be Addressed by Ocean Drilling
The topical review provided by the IODP Geohazards
Workshop revealed a number of common themes and
problems for which ocean drilling is ideally suited.
Prominent among these are to constructdetailed
construct detailed stratigraphic
records that will help to establish links between event
distribution and recurrence, source, and intensity of
hazardous events and associated risks.. Another theme is to
characterize in situ properties and processes that govern
unstable sea�oor motions.
What are the frequency, spatial distribution, and magnitude
of impact events, and what effects did they have on global
environment and biota? What are the impact process and
resulting structure, and how can these be used to calibrate
models? The Earth has a 40% chance per 100 years of getting
hit by a Meteor Crater-sized
-sized
sized bolide, and to our knowledge
has been struck with at least three Chicxulub-sized
-sized
sized bolides
in the last two billion years, and with innumerable smaller
ones, many of which are no longer recognizable (Grieve,
1998). Given the rarity of impacts, however, drilling offers
the only direct means to investigate the internal structure
and associated deposits generated by such an event. Drilling
ejecta both nearby
by and far from known impact sites will help
to understand the effects of impacts of varying size.
Additionally, drilling is necessary to document changes in
biological diversity, both locally and globally. Finally,
W
Chicx-03A
A
peak ring
1
2
dipping reflector
3
-04
icx 03
P-2
ICD
Ch
Depth (km)
Chicx-04A
0
What are the frequencies, magnitudes, and distributions of
geohazard events? The assessment of natural hazards and
related risks requires information about event sizes, distributions, and recurrence intervals. These data can only be
obtained through distributed drilling integrated with highresolution stratigraphy and geochronology. The potential of
this approach has been shown through stratigraphic studies
of the Madeira Abyssal Plain (Fig. 13;; Weaver, 2003). To date,
only a few large-scale events (e.g., Storegga slide) have been
dated with suficient accuracy. Many medium- and smallsized submarine slides have been imaged in detail, but
accurate dating is still lacking. Dating of turbidites offshore
of the Cascadia margin has provided a compelling record of
repeating earthquakes throughout the Holocene (Goldinger
et al., 2003, 2008), however similar data are lacking for the
deeper record and for most
center of crater
other
subduction
zones.
New ICDP hole
E
Turbidites of volcanic origin and
0
B
ash deposits can also provide a
record of recurring landslides
1
and explosive eruptions, but
these deposits are incompletely
characterized. The study of
2
known impact deposits is
low-frequency reflector (melt?)
necessary to develop a clearer
5.5 km s-1
set of guidelines for distin3
guishing proximal and distal
5.75 km s-1
impact deposits in the stratigraphic record. A more complete
4
inventory of impact events in
the geologic record will
Chicx-10 5
ultimately allow an assessment
of recurrence intervals.
Figure 12. Seismic proile across Chicxulub, Mexico impact crater showing proposed drilling transect
combining ocean and continental drilling. Drilling objectives include 1) earliest Tertiary sediments
to document the resurgence of life, 2) impact-induced megabreccia and potential exotic organisms,
3) impact morphometric features, such as a peak ring, to constrain their origins, and 4) lithology of the
melt sheet to differentiate among impact models (modiied after Morgan et al., 2007). Inset shows gravity
data over Chicxulub, revealing distinct crater structure and proposed IODP/ICDP drill sites (gravity image
courtesy of Pilkington and A.R. Hildebrand).
Can the tsunamigenic potential of past and future events be
assessed? The tsunamigenic
potential of sea�oor deformation is a function of a number of
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 23
Science Reports
different parameters. The most critical ones relate to the
pre-failure, failure,, and early post-failure behavior of the
deforming mass, as these in�uence the magnitudes, rates,
and areas of sea�oor displacement. Additionally, the geometry of subsurface structures and source mechanisms will
control the deformation. Constraining the geomechanical
properties and associated �ow laws requires drilling and coring, in situ geotechnical measurements, and dedicated laboratory analyses. Extrapolating these results across broad
regions requires 3D characterization of the deposits and
underlying structure, as well as identiication of past failure
zones. Finally, the tsunamigenic potential will need to be
evaluated through modeling, constrained by detailed
observations.
Do precursory phenomena exist, and can they be recognized?
In order to improve our predictive capability we need to
determine which transient signals might indicate imminent
sea�oor deformation (Fig. 14). Transient physical parameters
deemed to be important include pore pressure, pore �uid
chemistry, temperature,, and sea�oor deformation.
Microseismicity could indicate incipient failure or
concurrent “silent” slip. In situ monitoring will be critical for
A
B
Volume (km3 myr-1)
5000
4
4000
B
3000
Site 950
2000
5
1000
A
What are the roles of preconditioning vs. triggering in rapid
seafloor deformation? Preconditioning includes changes in
physical properties and mechanical differences that occur
between quasi-stable submarine slopes prior to failure.
Examples include the development of weak materials,
elevation of pore pressures, gas hydrate formation, structural geometry, fault development, and volcanism. Triggering
mechanisms initiate the failure and may include seismic
events, migration and pressurization of pore �uids, destabilization of gas hydrates, volcanic activity, and storms. Both
sets of properties and processes must play a role in the onset
of sea�oor deformation, but their relative importance will
vary from place to place. Knowledge of the range of material
properties and potential triggering mechanisms in each
geologic setting will be critical to assessing associated
2
2
4
1
3
4
5 6
9
7 8
10 1112 141516
13
17
Age in Myr (not linear)
Site 951
4
20 turbidites
30 turbidites
3
Age (Myr)
Individual Turbidite Thickness (m)
6
1 2
5
8
10
12
14
2
16
1
0
18
1 2
3
4
5 6 10 11 13 14 15
78
16
Age in Myr (not linear)
20
5
Site 952
4
3
What are the physical and mechanical properties of materials
prone to failure? Subduction megathrusts, submarine
landslides, and volcanic detachments are often localized at
distinct stratigraphic levels, which must deine “weak”
horizons prone to failure. The physical and mechanical
properties of these units strongly in�uence the mode of
failure; their depths and distributions control the failure
volume. Passive margins in glaciated settings tend to develop
a compositional layering that may localize slip. In other
settings, rapid sedimentation, differential burial and
diagenesis, and overpressures can create weak layers.
Recognition of critical horizons and conditions that may
promote localized failure requires drilling and geotechnical
characterization (Fig. 14), as well as laboratory studies of
slip behavior and evolving rheology under speciic loading
conditions (e.g.,
e.g., earthquake shaking, pore pressurization,
etc.).
0
20 turbidites
30 turbidites
3
0
recognizing and correlating precursory phenomena;;
it should include seismometers, submarine geodetic observatories, pressure sensors, and �ow meters installed at
critical intervals. Increased strain rates, enhanced �uid �ow,
and geochemical transients may be inverted to resolve the
deformation source and mechanism (Brown et al., 2005).
And inally, in situ data can be integrated through predictive
modeling to better understand their linkages to hazards.
22
150 100 50
Interval (kyr)
CC
20 turbidites
30 turbidites
40°
2
30°
1
950
Madeira
1 2 3 4 5 6 910 1112 13 14
7 8
15
Age in Myr (not linear)
16
20°
Shipbased Coring & Logging
952
MAP
Canary
Basin
0
Iberia
Azores
951
Borehole Installations
Canary
Islands
Cabled Instrument Arrays
Cape
Verde
Basin
-30°
In situ Properties & Processes
- Document physical properties
- Constrain shear strength/rheology
- Monitor pore pressures, etc.
- Compare failed and unfailed regions
Africa
Loading
-20°
-10°
0°
Figure 13. [A] Graphic representation of thickness and frequency
of emplacement of organic turbidites in ODP drill sites 950, 951,
and 952 (Northwest African Continental Margin). Each turbidite is
represented by a vertical bar, and the thickness of the turbidite is
shown on the vertical axis. Ages in Ma are given along the horizontal
axis, and the separation between ticks on this axis reflects the
number of turbidites deposited in that interval. [B] Summary of
frequency-magnitude data through time for the data set shown in A.
[C] Location map for study (modiied from Weaver, 2003).
24 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
Precursory Phenomena, e.g.
- Fluid transients, etc.
- Seafloor deformation
- Physical properties changes
- Microseismicity
Figure 14. Schematic diagram of ocean drilling and borehole
observatories to sample and measure in situ physical properties and
mechanical state, and monitor transient phenomena that may be
precursory to failure in actively deforming regions.
geohazards. Ocean drilling and observatory installations
can measure critical physical properties and record transient
phenomena that might distinguish between these two contributions in a range of settings.
Technological Opportunities and
Requirements for Geohazards Studies
Site Surveys: Standard site surveys for geohazard objectives can provide two types of information:
(1) Deinition
ition of the geophysical, stratigraphic, and structural framework of the area capable of generating the geohazard. Swath bathymetry and acoustic backscatter imagery
are necessary to identify morphological features,, associated
suricial deposits,, or subsurface structure (i.e.,
e., for placement of boreholes or observatories).
).. Seismic re�ection proiling, particularly in 3D, serves to constrain the internal
structural and stratigraphic architecture of the region with
which to interpret past events and their temporal and spatial
distribution.
(2) Pinpointing
ing the exact locations for future drilling and
assessing
ing what knowledge would be gained at each site.
Information can be gleaned from high-resolution sea�oor
acoustic images coupled with 3D seismic re�ection images
to identify re�ections and impedance contrasts that might
indicate target horizons, fault traces, or �uid pathways.
Submersible dives can provide detailed information at the
proposed point of entry, including local �uid or heat �ow
data.
Drilling and Coring: IODP operations provide some
standard tools and capabilities, which can be utilized for
geohazards studies. In some cases, integrated shorelinecrossing structures, such as Chicxulub crater, can also
beneit from joint IODP–ICDP efforts.
Logging-while-drilling (LWD) tools are available for typical IODP drilling conditions.. These routinely include gamma
ray, resistivity, neutron density, porosity, and pressure-whiledrilling. Although the costs and technologic requirements
for LWD are high compared to wireline logging, this approach
offers two key advantages in unstable materials consistent
with geohazards.. (1) Rapid
apid sampling allows for evaluation of
more pristine sedimentary intervals and assures data collection regardless of borehole stability.. (2) The
he availability of
real-time logs permits rapid assessment of lithologic environments and conditions.
In situ geotechnical tools are used routinely in the geotechnical community and should become an integral part of
IODP geohazards investigations. These tools can make discrete measurements from the sea�oor to tens of meters
depth or deeper depending on the strength of the sediment.
Penetration probes (e.g.,
e.g.,
g., Davis-Villinger Temperature
Pressure Probe (DVTPP) and Temperature-Two-Pressure
(T2P))) can be used to evaluate in situ �uid pressure and sediment properties such as hydraulic conductivity and coeficient of consolidation. Moreover, implementation of existing
tests, such as cone penetration tests (CPT), will greatly
improve the quality of data near the sea�oor, where wireline
and LWD tools do not provide robust data. CPTs collect information on lithology, frictional and cohesive strength, and in
situ pressure. Additional modules can be incorporated in
CPTs to constrain formation resistivity, natural gamma radiation, and formation velocity. Incorporating these types of
measurements into IODP operations would increase the
quality of petrophysical data of near-surface sections prone
to failure.
Development and application of certain in situ tools could
greatly expand understanding of in situ pressures and stress.
Pore pressure can be measured with downhole tools (DVTPP,
T2P) or with instrumented boreholes such as Circulation
Obviation Retroit Kits (CORKs).. Vertical
ertical stress can be evaluated from density data. Horizontal stress has not been measured within DSDP/ODP/IODP, but should be pursued to
obtain more reliable estimates of failure potential.
In situ strength should be measured and can be evaluated
with fracture tests. Large-scale hydrologic tests can also
help to up-scale the core measurements. These tests include
injection tests, slug tests, and cross-borehole tracer studies.
Heterogeneous deposits may require new drilling technologies or the use of multiple coring devices, in particular
to recover loose or chaotic materials. Recent advances in
core catcher technology are compatible with the typical
IODP drilling hardware and could be readily adapted.
Overpressured settings common to unstable sediments have
been successfully drilled by IODP (e.g., Expedition 308) and
are routinely drilled by industry. In near-surface settings,
overpressure can be monitored and evaluated through measurement-while-drilling (MWD) and/or LWD operations to
assess risk prior to coring operations. When exploring
deeper, overpressured targets, riser drilling with the
DV Chikyu can provide the borehole control to prevent borehole collapse or blowout.
Complete characterization of the geotechnical properties
(strength, permeability, compressibility, rheology) of
slide-prone layers and bounding strata requires combined
logging, coring, and shore-based studies. Reliable
geotechnical data can be integrated with geophysical data
to extrapolate the interpretations from the borehole to a
local or regional scale. All coring activities will also require
long-term onshore testing to deine the requisite material
properties. As the laboratory studies are integral to the
overall scientiic
tiic objectives, reliable means to support the
shore-based laboratory component should be included in
the planning.
Borehole Observatories and Cabled Arrays: Technological
al
advances in borehole observatories and offshore cabled
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 25
Science Reports
arrays allow critical real-time data acquisition. Sub-sea�oor
failure may be preceded by precursory surface deformation
or microseismicity, which must be monitored locally (Fig. 14).
Cabled ocean bottom seismometer (OBS) arrays lasting
from weeks to months can be coupled with long-term
sea�oor geodetic observatories or transponder-based
acoustic GPS, sea�oor pressure sensors,, and �ow meters to
detect transient signals. Local physical property changes
may also indicate internal deformation and can be monitored
through changes in pressure or acoustic travel time (Fig. 14).
Such real-time in situ data sets provide necessary constraints
on the depths, rates, and modes of sub-sea�oor deformation,
for predictive purposes and for drilling future boreholes.
Real-time monitoring is particularly valuable during the
late stages of the failure process, if that can be determined.
During this period, properties are rapidly changing, offering
the unique opportunity to capture the failure event including
pre-, syn-, and post-event transients. The logic of this
approach is quite obvious in subduction zones, which is
understood in the context of the seismic cycle,, but
ut the same
approach is transferable to other settings in which unstable
failure processes are anticipated (for
for example, gravitationally
driven landslides on continental margins or volcanic ediices).
)..
In each environment, a combination of surface and subsurface
sensors and monitoring strategies are required to provide
suficient constraints on long-term build-up
-up
up of strain (preconditioning) and transient events that might signal the onset of
instability and hazardous conditions (triggers). In all cases,
multiple co-located data sets must be collected to obtain
necessary information about the underlying physics of the
system, as well as to constrain complex numerical models to
address the underlying driving processes. In fact, such
modeling is ideally carried out prior to observatory
emplacement to ensure that the observations are well located
and of suficient accuracy to address the critical scientiic
questions being posed.
Ocean drilling also offers the exciting potential to develop
offshore tsunami warning facilities. Presently, warnings of
earthquake-generated tsunami are issued by authorities
based on seismic data monitored by regional or global seismic
networks. The veriication of tsunami warnings is made by
monitoring tsunami heights along the coast with tide gauges.
However, the lack of accurate knowledge of sea�oor motions
can lead to over- or under-estimations of wave height.
Moreover, in many cases coastal detections of tsunami
heights occur too late to issue warnings. If direct sea�oor
motions can be detected through monitoring of sea�oor
pressures, these data may be transmitted to shore more
quickly than teleseismic data, which can be critical for local
tsunami targets. Such data also offer the potential for
predicting tsunami direction and magnitude well before
coastal impact. Making information available in real time
will require buoy telemetry or cabled networks, both
expensive technologies. However, the costs of such
26 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
installations must be balanced against the risks and
consequences of not having on-site monitoring.
Concluding Remarks
The productive discussions during the IODP Geohazards
Workshop
orkshop led to several consensus points among the participants. One of the most important is a mandate to include
geohazards in future science plans for IODP. Presently,
geohazards are included only as peripheral objectives in the
Initial Science Plan for IODP, although several IODP efforts
already address critical geohazards concerns (e.g.,
NanTroSEIZE). A directed geohazards component of IODP
would strongly complement those of other research entities,
including various national hazards programs. Scientiic
drilling can provide critical ground truth to test models and
hypotheses and to assess risks and associated geohazards.
Participants also noted the outstanding opportunities to
mitigate and reduce the impacts of oceanic geohazards
through improved warning systems, effective coastal evacuation plans, and infrastructural modiications, using actual
data that allowss rigorous risk assessment. For success,
however, regional surveys and core analyses must be combined with in situ monitoring through cabled observatories
or buoyed telemetry to obtain meaningful data in real time.
Finally, it was agreed that IODP now has the opportunity
to deine and engage in future research directions that will
have clear relevance to all of society, because the impacts of
oceanic geohazards are immediate and consequential and
represent a clear danger to life on Earth..
Acknowledgements
Financial support for the workshop and participant costs
were
ere provided by IODP, MARGINS, InterMARGINS, and
ESF. We are also very appreciative of contributions and
suggestions provided by workshop participants, and in
particular, in their preparation of igures. Reviews by C.
Koeberl and two others, as well the editors of Scientiic
Drilling, improved the clarity and balance of this report.
Finally, we thank McMenamins Edgeield for their hospitality
and for providing excellent free musical entertainment for
the duration of the workshop.
References
Alvarez, L.W., Alvarez, W., Azaro, F., and Michel, H.V., 1980.
Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous–Tertiary
extinction.. Science, 208:1095–1108,
:1095–1108,
1095–1108, doi:10.112�/science.
208.4448.1095.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L., Neri, G., Orecchio, B., and Scarpa, R.,
2004.. Recent seismic
eismic activity
ctivity of the Messina Straits area,
rea,
Italy, and the magnitude
agnitude 7, 1908 Messina earthquake.
arthquake.. EOS,
OS,
Trans. Am.
m. Geophys.
eophys. Union
nion, 85(47),
(47), Fall Meet.. Suppl.,
uppl.,
Abstract S52A-03.
Ando, M.,, 1975. Source mechanisms and tectonic signiicance of historical earthquakes along the Nankai Trough, Japan.
Tectonophysics, 27:119–140, doi:10.101�/0040-1951(75)
90102-X.
Atwater, B.F., 1987.. Evidence for great Holocene earthquakes along
the outer coast of Washington State.. Science, 23�:942–944,
:942–944,
942–944,
doi:10.112�/science.23�.4804.942.
Atwater, B.F., Musumi-Rokkaku, S., Satake, K., Tsuji, Y., Ueda, K.,
and Yamaguchi, D.K.,, 2005. The orphan tsunami of 1700::
Japanese clues to a parent earthquake in North America.
U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., Report P 1707, 133 pp.
Bell, R.E, McNeill, L.C., Bull, J.M., and Henstock, T.J.,, 2008. Active
faulting within the offshore western Gulf of Corinth, Greece:
Implications for models of continental rift deformation.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 120:15�–178, doi:10.1130/B2�212.1.
Belousev, A., Voight, B., Belousova, M., and Muravyev, Y.,, 2000.
Tsunamis generated by subaquatic volcanic explosions:
unique data from 199� eruption in Karymskoye Lake,
Kamchatka, Russia. Pure Appl. Geophys., 157:1135–1143,
doi:10.1007/s000240050021.
Billi, A., Funiciello, R., Minelli, L., Faccenna, C., Neri, G., Orecchio,
B., and Presti, D., 2008.. On the cause of the 1908 Messina
tsunami, southern Italy.. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35:L0�301,
:L0�301,
L0�301,
doi:10.1029/2008GL033251.
Bondevik, S., Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C., Mangerud, J., Dawson, A., and
Svendsen, J.-I.,, 2005. The Storegga Slide tsunami�
comparing ield observations with numerical simulations.
Mar.
Petrol.
Geol.,
22:195–208,
doi:10.101�/j.
marpetgeo.2004.10.003.
Bondevik, S., Svendsen, J.I., Johnsen, G., Mangerud, J., and Kaland,
P.E.,, 1997. The Storegga tsunami along the Norwegian
coast, its age and run-up. Boreas, 2�:29–53.
Borrero, J.C., Legg, M.R., and Synolakis, C.E.,, 2004. Tsunami sources
in the Southern California Bight. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
31:L13211,
:L13211,, doi:10.1029/2004GL020078.
Brooks, B.A., Foster, J.H., Bevis, M., Frazer, L.N., Wolfe, C.J., and
Behn, M.,, 200�. Periodic slow earthquakes on the �ank of
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 24�:207–21�,
doi:10.101�/j.epsl.200�.03.035.
Brown,, K.M., Tryon, M.D.,, DeShon, H.R.,, Dorman, L.M.,, and
Schwartz, S.Y.,, 2005. Correlated transient �uid pulsing and
seismic tremor in the Costa Rica subduction zone. Earth
Planet.
Sci.
Lett.,
238:189–203,
doi:10.101�/j.
epsl.2005.0�.055.
Brudzinski, M.R., and Allen, R.M., 2007.. Segmentation in episodic
tremor and slip all along Cascadia.. Geology, 35:907–910,
:907–910,
907–910,
doi:10.1130/G23740A.1.
Bünz, S., Mienert, J., Vanneste, M., and Andreassen, K.,, 2005. Gas
hydrates at the Storegga Slide: Constraints from an analysis
of multicomponent, wide-angle seismic data. Geophysics,
70:19–34, doi:10.1190/1.2073887.
Camerlenghi, A., Urgeles, R., Ercilla, G., and Bruckmann, W., 2007.
Scientiic ocean
cean drilling behind the assessment of
geo-hazards from submarine slides. Sci.. Drill.., 4:45–47.
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.4.14.2007.
Cervelli, P., Segall, P., Johnson, K., Lisowski, M., and Miklius, A.,,
2002. Sudden aseismic fault slip on the south �ank of Kilauea
volcano. Nature, 415:1014–1018, doi:10.1038/4151014a.
Cita, M.B.,
.B.,
B.,
.,, and Aloisi, G.,, 2000. Deep-sea tsunami deposits triggered
by the explosion of Santorini (3500 y BP), eastern
Mediterranean. Sed. Geol., 135:181–203, doi:10.101�/
S0037-0738(00)00071-3.
Chapman, C.R., 2004.. The hazard of near-Earth asteroid impacts on
Earth.. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 222:1–15,
:1–15,
1–15, doi:10.101�/j.
epsl.2004.03.004.
Chapman, C.R., and Morrison, D., 1994.. Impacts on the Earth by
asteroids and comets: assessing the hazard.. Nature,
3�7:33–40,
:33–40,
33–40, doi:10.1038/3�7033a0.
Clague, D.A., and Denlinger, R.P.,, 1994. Role of olivine cumulates in
destabilizing the �anks of Hawaiian volcanoes. Bull.
Volcanol., 5�:425–434, doi:10.1007/BF00302824.
Collins,, G.S.,, Melosh,, H.J., and
nd Marcus,, R.A.,, 2005.. Earth impact
effects program: a web-based computer program for
calculating the regional environmental consequences of a
meteoroid impact on Earth.. Meteor.. Planet.. Sci..,
40:817–840.
:817–840.
817–840.
Coombs, M.L., White, S.M., and Scholl, D.W.,, 2007. Massive ediice
failure at Aleutian arc volcanoes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
25�:403–418, doi:10.101�/j.epsl.2007.01.030.
Day, S.J., Carrecedo, J.C., and Guillou, H.,, 1997. Age and geometry of
an aborted rift �ank collapse: the San Andres fault system,
El Hierro, Canary Islands. Geol. Mag.., 134(4):523–537.
Day, S., Silver, E., Ward, S., Gary, H., Amelia, L., and Llanes-Estrada,
P.,, 2005. Comparison of the submarine 1888 Ritter and the
subaerial 1980 Mount St. Helens debris avalanche deposits..
EOS,
OS, Trans. Am.
m. Geophys.
eophys. Union
nion, Fall Meeting Suppl.,
Abstract V13F-01.
Denlinger, R., and Okubo, P.,, 1995. Structure of the mobile south
�ank of Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. J. Geophys. Res.,
100:24499–24507.
Dugan, B.,, and Flemings, P.B.,, 2000. Overpressure and fluid
luid flow
low in
the New Jersey continental
ontinental slope:
lope: implications
mplications for slope
lope
failure
ailure
and
cold
old
seeps.
eeps.
Science,
289:288–291,
doi:10.112�/science.289.5477.288.
Eakins, B., Robinson, J.E.,, Kanamatsu, T.,, Naka, J.,, Smith, J.R.,,
Takahashi, E.,, and Clague, D.A.,, 2004. Hawaii�s Volcanoes
Revealed. U.S. Geol. Surv. Invest. Ser. I-2809.
Elsworth, D., and Day, S.J.,, 1999. Flank collapse triggered by intrusion: the Canarian and Cape Verde archipelagoes. J. Volc.
Geotherm.
Res.,
94:323–340,
doi:10.101�/S03770273(99)00110-9.
Elsworth, D., and Voight, B.,, 1995. Dike intrusions as a trigger for
large earthquakes and the failure of volcano �anks..
J. Geophys. Res., 100:�005–�024, doi:10.1029/94JB02884.
Fiske, R.S., Cashman, K.V., Shibata, A.,, and Watanabe, K.,, 1998.
Tephra dispersal from Myojinsho, Japan, during its shallow
submarine eruption of 1952-1953. Bull. Volcanol.,
59:2�2–275, doi:10.1007/s004450050190.
Flemings, P.B., Behrmann, J.H., John, C.M., and the Expedition 308
Scientists,, 200�. Proc. IODP 308: College Station,, Texas
exas
(Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Management
International, Inc.),, doi:10.2204/iodp.proc.308.200�.
Gohn, G.S., Koeberl, C., Miller, K.G., Reimold, W.U., Browning, J.V.,
Cockell, C.S., Horton, J.W.,, Jr., Kenkmann, T., Kulpecz, A.
A.,, Powars, D.S., Sanford, W.E., and Voytek, M.A., 2008..
Deep drilling
rilling into the Chesapeake Bay impact
mpact structure.
tructure..
Science, 320:1740–1745,
:1740–1745,
1740–1745, doi:10.112�/science.1158708.
Goldinger, C., Hans-Nelson, C.,, Johnson, J.E.,, and Shipboard
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 27
Science Reports
Scientiic Party,, 2003. Holocene earthquake records from
the Cascadia subduction zone and northern San Andreas
Fault based on precise dating of offshore turbidites. Ann.
Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 31:555–577, doi:10.114�/annurev.
earth.31.100901.14124�.
Goldinger, C., Nelson, C.H., Morey, A., Johnson, J.E., GutierrezPastor, J., Eriksson, A.T., Karabanov, E., Patton, J., Gracia,
E., Enkin, R., Dallimore, A., and Dunhill, G., 2008.. Turbidite
event
vent history:
istory: methods
ethods and implications
mplications for Holocene
paleoseismicity
aleoseismicity of the Cascadia subduction
ubduction zone.
one. USGS
Professional Paper 1661-F, 178 p.,
.,, in preparation..
Gracia, E., Danobeitia, J., Verges, J., and PARSIFAL Team, 2003..
Mapping active faults offshore Portugal (3� degrees N-38
degrees N): implications
mplications for seismic hazard assessment
along the southwest Iberian margin.. Geology, 31:83–8�,
:83–8�,
83–8�,
doi:10.1130/0091-7�13(2003)031<0083:MAFOPN>2.0.CO;2.
Grieve, R.A.F., 1998. Extraterrestrial impacts on earth: the evidence
and the consequences. Geol.. Soc.,
.,, London Spec. Publ.
Publ.,
140:105–131.
:105–131.
105–131.
Gulick, S., Barton, P.J., Christeson, G.L., Morgan, J.V., McDonald, M.,
Mendoza-Cervantes, K., Pearson, Z.F., Anush, S., Urrutia,
J., Vermeesch, P.M., and Warner, M.R.,, 2008. Importance of
pre-impact crustal structure for the asymmetry of the
Chicxulub impact crater. Nat.. Geosci.
Geosci., 1:131–135,
doi:10.1038/ngeo103.
Henstock, T.J., McNeill, L.C., and Tappin, D.R.,, 200�. Sea�oor morphology of the Sumatran subduction zone:: surface rupture
during megathrust earthquakes? Geology, 34:485–488,
doi:10.1130/2242�.1.
Herd, R.A., Edmonds, M., and Bass, V.A.,, 2005. Catastrophic lava
dome failure at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat. J. Volc.
Geotherm.
Res.,
148:234–252,
doi:10.101�/j.
jvolgeores.2005.05.003.
Hieke, W.,, 2000. Transparent layers in seismic re�ection records from
the central Ionian Sea (Mediterranean):: evidence for
repeated catastrophic turbidite sedimentation during the
Quaternary.
Sed.
Geol.,
135:89–98,
doi:10.101�/
S0037-0738(00)000�5-8.
Hildebrand, A.R., Penield, G.T., Kring, D.A., Pilkington, M.,
Zanoguera, A.C., Jacobsen, S.B., and Boynton, W.V., 1991.. A
possible Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary impact crater on
the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.. Geology, 19:8�7–871,
:8�7–871,
8�7–871,
doi:10.1130/0091-7�13(1991)019<08�7:CCAPCT>2.3.CO;2.
Hofmann,, K., Wünnemann,, K., and Weiss,, R., 2007.. Oceanic impacts
mpacts
�types
types
ypes and characteristics of induced water waves.. 38th
Lun. Planet. Sci. Conf., League City, Texas, 12–1�
–1�
1� March
2007, abstract
bstract �158�.
Ivanov, B.A., Badukov, D.D., Yakovlev, O.I., Gerasimov, M.V., Dikov,
Y.P., Pope, K.O., and Ocampo, A.C., 199�.. Degassing of sedimentary rocks due to Chicxulub impact: hydrocode
ydrocode and
physical simulations. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap.,
307:125–140.
:125–140.
125–140.
Iverson, R.M.,, 1995. Can magma-injection and groundwater forces
cause massive landslidess on Hawaiian volcanoes? J. Volc.
Geotherm.
Res., ��:295–308, doi:10.101�/0377-0273
(94)000�4-N.
Kanamori, H.,, 1972. Mechanism of tsunami earthquakes. Phys. Earth
Planet. Int., �:34�–359, doi:10.101�/0031-9201(72)90058-1.
Kennett, J.P., Cannariato, K.G., Hendy, I.L., and Behl, R.J.,, 2000.
28 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
Carbon isotopic
sotopic evidence
vidence for methane
ethane hydrate
ydrate instability
nstability
during
uring Quaternary interstadials.
nterstadials. Science, 288:128–133,
doi:10.112�/science.288.54�3.128.
Kinoshita, M., Tobin, H., Moe, K.T., and the Expedition 314 Scientists,,
2008. NanTroSEIZE Stage 1A: NanTroSEIZE LWD transect.
IODP Prel. Rept., 314. doi: 10.2204/iodp.pr.314.2008.
Koeberl,, C.,, and MacLeod, K.,, 2002.. Catastrophic events
vents and mass
ass
extinctions:
xtinctions: impacts
mpacts and beyond.
eyond.. Geol. Soc. Am., Spec.. Pap.,
.,
356, 74� pp.
Korycansky, D.G., and Lynett, P.J., 2005.. Offshore breaking of impact
tsunami: the
he Van Dorn effect revisited.. Geophys. Res. Lett.,
32:L10�08,
:L10�08,
L10�08, doi:10.1029/2004GL021918.
Lander, J.F.,, and Lockridge, P.A.,, 1989. United States Tsunamis
sunamis.
Publication 41-2. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Lee, H.J., Kayen, R.E., Gardner, J.V., and Locat, J.,, 2003. Characteristics
of several tsunamigenic submarine landslides. In Locat,, J.,
and Mienert, J. (Eds.),
Eds.),
.),, Submarine Mass Movements and
Their Consequences, Dordrecht (Kluwer Academic
Publishers), 357–3��.
Le Friant, A., Harford, C.L., Deplus, C., Boudon, G., Sparks, R.S.J.,
Herd, R.A., and Komorowski, J.C.,, 2004. Geomorphological
evolution of Montserrat (West Indies): importance
mportance of �ank
collapse and erosional processes. J. Geol. Soc. London,
1�1:147–1�0, doi:10.1144/001�-7�4903-017.
Legg, M.R., Goldinger, C., Kamerling, M.J., Chaytor, J.D., and
Einstein, D.E.,, 2007. Morphology, structure and evolution of
California continental borderland restraining bends.. Geol.
Soc. Spec.. Publ.., 290:143–1�8, doi:10.1144/SP290.3.
Lipman, P.W., Lockwood, J.P.,, Okamura, R.T.,, Swanson, D.A., and
Yamashita, K.M.,, 1985. Ground deformation associated
with the 1975 magnitude-7.2 earthquake and resulting
changes in activity of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Pap. Rep. P 1276, 45 pp.
Liritzis, I., Katsanopoulou, D., Soter, S., and Galloway, R.B., 2001.. In
search of ancient Helike, Gulf of Corinth, Greece.. J. Coast.
Res., 17:118–123.
:118–123.
118–123.
Longva, O., Janbu, N., Blikra, L.H., and Bøe R.,, 2003. The 199�
Finneidfjord slide: sea�oor failure and slide dynamics. In
Locat,, J., and Mienert, J. (Eds.),
Eds.),
.),, Submarine Mass Movements
and Their Consequences, Dordrecht (Kluwer Academic
Publishers), 531–538.
Ma, K.-F., Kanamori, H., and Satake, K.,, 1999. Mechanism of the 1975
Kalapana Hawaii earthquake, inferred from tsunami data.
J. Geophys. Res., 104:13153–131�7, doi:10.1029/1999JB
900073.
MacLeod, K.G., Whitney, D.L., Huber, B.T,.
,.. and Koeberl, C., 2007..
Impact and extinction in remarkably complete CretaceousTertiary boundary sections from Demerara Rise, tropical
western North Atlantic. GSA Bull., 119:101–115.
:101–115.
101–115.
Masson, D.G., Watts, A.B., Gee, M.J.R., Urgeles, R., Mitchell, N.C.,
Le Bas, T.P., and Canals, M.,, 2002. Slope failures on the
�anks of the western Canary Islands. Earth-Sci.. Rev..,
57:1–35, doi:10.101�/S0012-8252(01)000�9-1.
McHugh, C.M.G., Seeber, L., Cormier, M.-H., Dutton, J., Cagatay, N.,
Polonia, A., Ryan, W.B.F., and Gorur, N.,, 200�. Submarine
earthquake geology along the North Anatolia Fault in the
Marmara Sea, Turkey: a model for transform basin sedimentation.. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 248:��1–�84, doi:10.101�/j.
epsl.200�.05.038.
McIntosh, K.D., Silver, E.A., Ahmed, I., Berhorst, A., Ranero, C.R.,
Kelly, R.K., and Flueh, E.R.,, 2007. The Nicaragua Convergent
Margin:: seismic re�ection imaging of the source of a
tsunami earthquake. In Dixon,, T., and Moore,, J.C. (Eds.),
ds.),
),,
The Seismogenic Zone of Subduction Thrust Faults, New York
(Columbia
Columbia University Press),
),, 257–287.
McMurtry, G.M., Fryer, G.J.,, Tappin, D.R.,, Wilkinson, I.P.,, Williams,
M.,, Fietzke, J.,, Garbe-Schoenberg, D.,, and Watts, P.,, 2004.
Megatsunami deposits on Kohala volcano, Hawaii, from
�ank collapse of Mauna Loa. Geology, 32:741–744, doi:
10.1130/G20�42.1.
McNeill, L.C., Cotterill, C.J., Henstock, T.J., Bull, J.M., Stefator, A.,
Collier, R.E.L., Paptheodorou, G., Ferentinos, G., and Hicks,
S.E.,, 2005. Active faulting within the offshore western Gulf
of Corinth, Greece: Implications for models of continental
rift deformation. Geology, 33:241–244, doi:10.1130/
G21127.1.
Mienert, J., Vanneste, M., Bunz, S., Andreassen, K., Ha�idason, H.,
and Sejrup, H.P.,, 2005. Ocean warming and gas hydrate stability on the mid-Norwegian margin at the Storegga Slide.
Mar.
Petrol.
Geol.,
22:233–244,
doi:10.101�/j.
marpetgeo.2004.10.018.
Moore, G.F., Bangs, N.L., Taira, A., Kuramoto, S., Pangborn, E., and
Tobin, H.J., 2007. Three-dimensional splay fault geometry
and implications for tsunami generation. Science, 318:1128,
doi: 10.112�/science.1147195.
Moore, J.G., Clague, D.A.,, Holcomb, R.T.,, Lipman, P.W.,, Normark,
W.R.,, and Torresan, M.E.,, 1989. Prodigious submarine landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge. J. Geophys. Res.,
94:174�5–17484, doi:10.1029/JB094iB12p174�5.
Moore, J.G., Normark, W.R., and Holcomb, R.T.,, 1994. Giant Hawaiian
landslides. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 22:119–144,
doi:10.114�/annurev.ea.22.050194.001003. [First sentence
of volcanic processes]
Morgan, J., Christeson, G., Gulick, S., Grieve, R., Urrutia, J., Barton,
P., Rebolledo, M., and Melosh, J.,, 2007.. Joint IODP/ICDP
scientiic drilling of the Chicxulub impact crater. Sci. Drill.,
4:42–44.
Morgan, J., Warner, M., and the Chicxulub Working Group, 1997.. Size
and morphology of the Chicxulub impact crater. Nature,
390:472–47�,
:472–47�,
472–47�, doi:10.1038/37291.
Morgan, J., Warner, M., Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., Gulick, S., Christeson,
G., Barton, P., Rebolledo-Vieyra, M., and Melosh, J., 2005.
Chicxulub crater seismic survey prepares way for future
drilling.. EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 8�:325–328,
ISSN: 009�-3941.
Morgan, J.K., and Clague, D.A.,, 2003.. Volcanic spreading on Mauna
Loa volcano, HI: evidence
vidence from accretion, alteration, and
exhumation of volcaniclastic sediments. Geology,
30:411–414,
doi:10.1130/0091-7�13(2003)031<0411:
VSOMLV>2.0.CO;2.
Morgan, J.K., Moore, G.F.,, and Clague, D.A.,, 2003. Slope failure and
volcanic spreading along the submarine south �ank of
Kilauea volcano, HI. J. Geophys. Res., 108(B9):2415,
doi:10.1029/2003JB002411.
Morgan, J.K., Moore, G.F.,, Hills, D.J.,, and Leslie, S.C.,, 2000.
Overthrusting and sediment accretion along Kilauea's
mobile south �ank, Hawaii: evidence
vidence for volcanic spreading
from marine seismic re�ection data. Geology, 28:��7–�70,
doi:10.1130/0091-7�13(2000)28<��7:OASA AK>2.0.CO;2.
Mosher, D.C., Austin, J.A., Jr., Fisher, D.,, and Gulick, S.P.,, 2008.
Deformation of the northern Sumatra accretionary prism:
evidence for strain partitioning from high-resolution seismic
re�ection proiles and ROV observations.. Mar.. Geol..,
252(3-4):89–99,
(3-4):89–99,
3-4):89–99,
):89–99,
89–99, doi:10.101�/j.margeo.2008.03.014.
Norris, R.D., Huber, B.T., and Self-Trail, J.M.,, 1999. Synchroneity of
the K-T oceanic mass extinction and meteorite impact::
Blake Nose, western North Atlantic. Geology, 27:419–422.
Owen, S., Segall, P., Lisowski, M., Miklius, A., Denlinger, R., and
Sako, M.,, 2000. Rapid deformation of Kilauea volcano: global
positioning system measurements between 1990 and 199�..
J.
Geophys.
Res.,
105:18983–18998,
doi:10.1029/
2000JB900109.
Panieri, G., 2003. Benthic foraminifera response to methane release
in an Adriatic Sea pockmark.. Riv. Ital. Paleontol. Strat.
Strat.,
109:549–5�2.
:549–5�2.
549–5�2.
Pareschi, M.T., Boschi, E., and Favalli, M.,, 200�a. The lost Tsunami.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 33:L22�08, doi:10.1029/200�GL027790.
Pareschi, M.T., Boschi, E., and Favalli, M.,, 2007. Holocene tsunamis
from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli Neolithic
communities..
Geophys.
Res.
Lett.,
34:L1�317,
doi:10.1029/2007GL030717.
Pareschi, M.T., Boschi, E., Mazzarini, F., and Favalli, M.,, 200�b.
Large submarine landslides offshore Mt. Etna. Geophys.
Res. Lett., 33:L13302, doi:10.1029/200�GL02�0�4.
Park, J.-O., Tsuru, T., Kodaira, S., Cummins, P.R., and Kaneda, Y.,,
2002. Splay fault branching along the Nankai subduction
zone. Science, 297(5584):1157–11�0.
(5584):1157–11�0.
5584):1157–11�0.
):1157–11�0.
1157–11�0. doi:10.112�/science.
1074111.
Phillips, K.A., Chadwell, C.D., and Hildebrand, J.A.,, 2008. Vertical
deformation measurements on the submerged south �ank
of Kilauea volcano, Hawai'i reveal sea�oor motion associated
with volcanic collapse. J. Geophys. Res., 113:B0510�,
doi.10.1029/2007JB005124
Pierazzo, E., Kring, D.A., and Melosh, H.J.,, 1998.. Hydrocode simulation of the Chicxulub impact event and the production of climatically active gases. J. Geophys. Res., 103:28�07–28�25,
:28�07–28�25,
28�07–28�25,
doi:10.1029/98JE0249�.
Piper, D.J.W., Cochonat, P., and Morrison, M.L.,, 1999. The sequence
of events around the epicentre of the 1929 Grand Banks
earthquake: initiation
nitiation of debris �ows and turbidity current
inferred from sidescan sonar. Sedimentology, 4�:79–97,
doi:10.104�/j.13�5-3091.1999.00204.x.
Plafker, G., Nishenko, S., Cluff, L., and Syahrian, M.,, 200�. The
cataclysmic 2004 tsunami on NW Sumatra; preliminary
evidence for a near-ield secondary source along the western
Aceh Basin. Seism. Res. Lett., 77:231.
Pope, K.O., Baines, K.H., Ocampo, A.,, and Ivanov, B.A., 1997.. Energy,
volatile production, and climatic effects of the Chicxulub
Cretaceous/Tertiary
impact.
J.
Geophys.
Res.,
102:21�45–21��4,
:21�45–21��4,
21�45–21��4,
4,, doi:10.1029/97JE017434.
Reid, M.E.,, 2004. Massive collapse of volcano ediices triggered by
hydrothermal
pressurization.
Geology,
32:373–37�,
doi:10.1130/G20300.1.
Robertson,, D.S., McKenna,, M.C., Toon,, O.B., Hope,, S., and
Lillegraven, J.A., 2004.. Survival in the irst hours of the
Cenozoic. GSA
SA Bull.., 11�(5):7�0–7�8,
(5):7�0–7�8,
5):7�0–7�8,
):7�0–7�8,
7�0–7�8, doi:10.1130/
B25402.1.
Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009 29
Science Reports
Saito, T., Eguchi, T., Takayama, K., and Taniguchi, H.,, 2001.. Hazard
predictions for volcanic explosions. J. Volc. Geotherm. Res.,
106:39–51, doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00265-1.
Sari, E., and Cagatay, M.N.,, 2006.. Turbidites and their association
with past earthquakes in the deep Cinarcik Basin of the
Marmara Sea. Geo-Mar. Lett., 26:69–76, doi:10.1007/
s00367-006-0017-3.
Satake, K., Shimazaki, K.,, Tsuji, Y.,, and Ueda, K.,, 1996. Time and size
of a giant earthquake in Cascadia inferred from Japanese
tsunami records of January 1700. Nature, 379:246–249,
1996, doi:10.1038/379246a0.
Satake, K., Smith, J.R., and Shinozaki, K.,, 2002. Three-dimensional
reconstruction and tsunami model of the Nuuanu and Wailau
giant landslides, Hawaii.. In
n Takahashi, E., Lipman, P.W.,
Garcia, M.O., Naka, J., and Aramaki, S. (Eds.),, Hawaiian
Volcanoes – Deep Underwater Perspective. Am. Geophys. Un.
Geophys.. Monogr.. 128
128, 333–346.
Sen Gupta, B.K., Platon, E., Bernhard, J.M., and Aharon, P., 1997.
Foraminiferal colonization of hydrocarbon-seep bacterial
mats and underlying sediment, Gulf of Mexico slope.
J. Foramin. Res., 27:292–300.
:292–300.
292–300.
Shipboard Scientiic Party,, 2003. Site 1223. In Stephen, R.A.,
Kasahara, J., and Acton, G.D. (Eds.),, Proc. ODP, Init. Repts.,
200. College Station, Texas
exas (Ocean Drilling Program),,
1–159, doi:10.2973/odp.proc.ir.200.103.2003.
Solheim, A., Bryn, P., Sejrup, H.P., Mienert, J., and Berg, K.,, 2005.
Ormen Lange�an integrated study for the safe development
of a deep-water gas ield within the Storegga Slide Complex,
NE Atlantic continental margin; executive summary. Mar.
Petrol. Geol., 22:1–9, doi:10.101�/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.001.
Stein, S., and Okal, E.A.,, 2005. Speed and size of the Sumatra earthquake. Nature, 434:581–582, doi:10.1038/434581a.
Sultan, N., Cochonat, P., Canals, M., Cattaneo, A., Dennielou, B.,
Ha�idason, H., Laberg, J.S., Long, D., Mienert, J., Trincardi,
F., Urgeles, R., Vorren, T.O., and Wilson, C.,, 2004. Triggering
mechanisms of slope instability processes and sediment
failures on continental margins: a geotechnical approach.
Mar. Geol., 213:291–321, doi:10.101�/j.margeo.2004.10.011.
Swanson, D.A., Dufield, W.A., and Fiske, R.S., 197�.. Displacement of
the south �ank of Kilauea volcano: The result of forceful
intrusion of magma into the rift zones.. U.S. Geol.. Surv.. Prof..
Paper 963, 1–30.
Synolakis, C.E., Bardet, J.-P., Borrero, J.C., Davies, H.L., Okal, E.A.,
Silver, E.A., Sweet, S., and Tappin, D.R.,, 2002. The slump
origin of the 1998 Papua New Guinea tsunami. Proc. Roy..
Soc. London A
A, 458:7�3–789, doi:10.1098/rspa.2001.0915.
Tappin, D.R., Watts, P., McMurty, G.M.,, Lafoy, Y., and Matsumoto, T.,,
2001. The Sissano, Papua New Guinea tsunami of July 1998
– offshore evidence of the source mechanism. Mar. Geol.,
175:1–23, doi:10.101�/S0025-3227(01)00131-1.
Tobin, H., and Kinoshita, M.,, 2007. The IODP Nankai Trough
Seismogenic Zone Experiment. Sci. Drill.,, Spec. Ed.
1:39–41.
39–41.
–41.
41..
Toon, O.B., Zahnle, K., Morrison, D., Turco, R.P., and Covey, C., 1997..
Environmental perturbations caused by the impacts of
asteroids and comets.. Rev..
Geophys.., 35:41–78,
:41–78,
41–78,
doi:10.1029/9�RG03038.
Urgeles, R., Masson, D.G., Canals, M., Watts, A.B., and Le Bas, T.,,
1999. Recurrent large-scale landsliding on the west �ank of
30 Scientific Drilling, No.7, March 2009
La Palma, Canary Islands. J. Geophys. Res., 104:25331–25348,
doi:10.1029/1999JB900243.
Voight, B., and Elsworth, D.,, 1997. Failure of volcano slopes..
Geotechnique, 47:1–31.
Ward, S.N., and Asphaug, E., 2000. Asteroid impact tsunami:
A probabilistic hazard assessment. Icarus, 145:�4–78.
Weaver, P.P.E., 2003 Northwest African continental margin: history
of sediment accumulation, landslide deposits, and hiatuses
as revealed by drilling the Madeira abyssal plain.
Paleoceanography, 18(1):1009, doi:10.1029/2002PA000758.
Weiss, R., and Wünnemann, K., 2007. Large waves caused by oceanic
impacts of meteorites. In Kunda, A. (Ed.), Tsunami and
Nonlinear Waves. Berlin-Heidelberg (Springer), 235–2�0.
Whelan, M., 1994. The night the sea smashed Lord's Cove. Canad.
Geograph., 114(�):70–73.
White, J.D.L., Smellie, J.L., and Clague, D.A., 2003. A deductive
outline and topical overview of subaqueous explosive
volcanism. In White, J.D.L., Smellie, J.L., and Clague, D.A.
(Eds.), Explosive Subaqueous Volcanism, Am. Geophys. Un.
Monogr. 140, Washington, DC (American Geophysical
Union), 1–20.
Authors
Julia K. Morgan, Department of Earth Science, Rice
University, �100 Main Street, Houston, Texas,
exas, 77005, U.S.A.,
.S.A.,
S.A.,
.A.,
A.,
.,,
e-mail: morganj@rice.edu.
Eli Silver, Earth and Planetary Sciences Department,
University of California at Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, Calif.,
alif.,
950�4, U.S.A.,
.S.A.,
S.A.,
.A.,
A.,
.,, e-mail: esilver@pmc.ucsc.edu.
Angelo Camerlenghi, ICREA, c/o GRC Geociences
Marines, Facultat de Geologia, Universitat de Barcelona,
Spain, e-mail: acamerlenghi@ub.edu.
Brandon Dugan, Department of Earth Science, Rice
University, �100 Main Street, Houston, Texas,
exas, 77005, U.S.A.,
.S.A.,
S.A.,
.A.,
A.,
.,,
e-mail: dugan@rice.edu.
Stephen Kirby, Western Earthquake Hazard Team, United
States Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS 977,
Menlo Park, Calif.,
alif., 94025,, U.S.A.,
.S.A.,
S.A.,
.A.,
A.,
.,, e-mail: skirby@usgs.gov.
Craig Shipp, Geohazards Assessment and Pore Pressure
Prediction Team, Shell International Exploration and
Production,, Inc., 200 North Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas,
77079, U.S.A.,
.S.A.,
S.A.,
.A.,
A.,
.,, e-mail: Craig.Shipp@shell.com.
Kiyoshi Suyehiro, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science
and Technology, Japan, e-mail: suyehiro@jamstec.go.jp.
Progress Report
New Focus on the Tales of the Earth—Legacy Cores
Redistribution Project Completed
by John Firth, Lallan Gupta, and Ursula Röhl
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.03.2009
Scientiic drilling for marine cores began in 19�8 under
the auspices of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP), whose
initial discoveries included salt domes on the sea �oor and
formation of oceanic crust by sea-�oor spreading along the
mid-ocean ridges rift zone. Analyses of cores in various
laboratories all over the world provided key information
toward a better understanding of Earth�s past, present, and
future including the geology of the sea �oor, evolution of the
Earth, and past climatic changes. With an eye towards future
development of analytical tools for core-based research, it
was important to maintain cores in as close to their original
condition as possible for the years to come. This led to the
establishment of large repositories curating cores at 4ºC,
conducting sub-sampling, and facilitating non-destructive
observation of cores while following well-deined curation
policies.
Collection management of scientiic ocean drilling cores
has always been a shared responsibility. Beginning with
DSDP, drill cores from the world�s oceans were all stored in
the United States and separated geographically into two
regions. The East Coast Repository (ECR) at Lamont-Doherty
Geological Observatory in Palisades, New York was
A
B
C
responsible for taking care of cores from the Gulf of Mexico,
Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean (loosely deined as south of
�0°S latitude) and their peripheral seas, whereas the West
Coast Repository (WCR) at Scripps Institution of
Oceanography in San Diego, California was responsible for
cores from the Paciic and Indian Oceans and their peripheral
seas. At the end of ifteen years of DSDP operations in 1983,
the 9� km of recovered core were almost evenly split between
the two DSDP repositories.
With the advent of the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP),
the WCR was completely illed. The Gulf Coast Repository
(GCR) was built at Texas A&M University in College Station
to store new cores from the Paciic and Indian Oceans, and
ECR continued to set up new core storage available for its
portion of the globe. A satellite repository of the GCR at the
New Jersey Geological Survey/Rutgers University stores
land-based cores from ODP Legs 150X and 174AX drilled
from 1993 through 1997; these are scientiically related to
the ODP Leg 150 and 174A marine cores taken off the New
Jersey margin. In 1994, space at the ECR was becoming
limited, and the international partners of ODP requested a
new repository in Europe, closer to many of the scientists
D
E
G
H
I
F
The New Repositories in Action: [A] The 5.5-m-high movable core racks in the BCR (© MARUM). [B] On-shore core description and sampling
party for IODP Expedition 307 at the BCR (© IODP-BCR). [C] IODP Expedition 310 (“Tahiti Sea Level”) Onshore Science Party at BCR: cores
laid out in the reefer before the splitting, analyses, and sampling started. (© IODP-ESO). [D] First legacy cores arrive at the KCC (© IODP-JPIO).
[E] IODP NanTroSEIZE Stage 1A core sections (© IODP-JPIO). [F] Sampling of the NanTroSEIZE Stage 1A cores at the KCC (© IODP-JPIO).
[G] New high density core racks in the GCR for storage of the oldest DSDP cores beginning with Leg 1 (© IODP-USIO).[H] Legacy core being reanalyzed with newly developed digital imaging system for the JOIDES Resolution, in the new GCR lab facility (© IODP-USIO). [I] New GCR sampling
station with automated sample bagging machine (© IODP-USIO).
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 31
Progress Report
outside of North America. The Bremen Core Repository
(BCR) in Bremen, Germany thus began operations by taking
over the ECR�s Atlantic/Southern Ocean responsibilities
starting with ODP Leg 151.
After twenty years of ODP operations, another 222 km of
core had been collected, with the ECR containing roughly
75 km, the WCR still at roughly 50 km, the GCR at 120 km,
and the BCR at 75 km. These DSDP and ODP cores are now
referred to as ‘legacy� cores.
In the early phase of the Integrated Ocean Drilling
Program (IODP) in 2004, several new developments along
with concerns of the scientiic community provided an
impetus to re-evaluate the core storage strategy for both
legacy and new cores.
The oldest cores stored at the WCR and ECR were in
relatively less demand by the international scientiic
community than the more recent cores at the GCR and BCR.
This re�ects a normal trend for all cores, where the greatest
usage in terms of sampling usually occurs within the irst
ive years, after which usage steadily declines. The cost of
maintaining these low-usage core collections at their original
locations was quite high compared to the cost of the more
recent collections, simply because of the need to pay for
rental space, utilities for cold storage, and complete core
sampling labs and staff at these facilities. It was apparent
that combining these old collections with the newer ones
would reduce costs.
In early 2005 the BCR collection was moved from the
former harbor area of Bremen to the MARUM–Center for
Marine Environmental Sciences building on the campus of
Bremen University. The new core reefer in the MARUM
building and additional laboratory and ofice space greatly
facilitate core sampling and analysis. The infrastructure of
the MARUM and of the Faculty of Geosciences, University
of Bremen, features a unique
set of high capacity faci90°N
lities, for both the initial
handling and for highly
sophisticated analyses of
60°N
EUROPE
ASIA
BCR
marine sediments, including
three XRF core scanners
30°N
and an X-ray CT scanner.
AFRICA
The new BCR has approxi0°
mately tripled the capacity
KCC
of the old facility.
Core Center, or KCC, in June 2006) on the Monobe campus
of the university in Nankoku City, Japan. The center has a
movable rack system for core storage, a number of large
liquid N2 freezers for the storage of microbiological and
hydrate samples, and a large set of state-of-the-art analytical
equipment including X-ray CT and XRF core scanners.
Curation of the IODP and legacy cores at KCC is managed by
JAMSTEC, while the analytical facility is maintained through
collaboration of the university and JAMSTEC.
Texas A&M University committed to ensuring greater
core storage capacity and to creating a shore-based analytical laboratory facility adjacent to the GCR as part of its contribution to the IODP. The laboratory space was used in 2007
and 2008 for development of new shipboard analytical tools
for the newly refurbished DV JOIDES Resolution, and it is
ready for installation of its irst instrument, an XRF core
scanner, in the spring of 2009. The GCR has nearly 100 km of
additional core storage capacity, contains some additional
oceanographic cores, and serves also as the core storage site
for the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth project of
the International Continental Scientiic Drilling Program
(ICDP).
IODP became a multi-platform operation with the
construction of the DV Chikyu and with the conception of
ECORD´s Mission Speciic Platforms (MSP) for drilling
projects not achievable using either the U.S. non-riser DV
JOIDES Resolution or Japan�s riser DV Chikyu.
The addition of analytical facilities complementing the
core repositories was an important advancement for improving service to the community. For example, the facilities can
be utilized to complete analytical work not carried out on
board. MSPs are normally not equipped with the laboratory
facilities that scientists are accustomed to on other IODP
drilling vessels. The Onshore Science Party (OSP) at BCR
takes place after MSP offshore operations (which capture, at
Core Redistribution
NORTH
AMERICA
KCC
BCR
GCR
AFRICA
GCR
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
INDIAN
OCEAN
30°S
In April 2004, JAMSTEC
(Japan
Agency
for
Marine-Earth Science and
Technology) and Kochi
University established a
new marine core research
center (nicknamed Kochi
GREENLAND
60°S
90°S
0°
30°E
60°E
90°E
120°E
150°E
180°
150°W
120°W
90°W
60°W
Figure 1. Map of geographic distribution of ocean drilling cores at the KCC, GCR, and BCR.
32 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
30°W
0°
a minimum, mostly ephemeral properties) are completed.
At the OSP in Bremen, cores are split and scientists have
their irst opportunity to study, analyze, and sample the cores
in detail. The utilization of the facility for personal research
also provides the advantage of minimal deterioration in the
core sample quality, which would otherwise be a concern
(e.g., contamination and rise in temperature during shipment of samples from a repository to a researcher�s laboratory) especially for microbiological research.
All of these new developments were discussed among the
Implementing Organizations (IOs), their funding agencies,
and Integrated Ocean Drilling Program–Management
International (IODP-MI). Consequently a decision was made
that the storage of cores from the world�s oceans should now
re�ect the three-way partitioning of drilling responsibilities
in the new program. A project was approved and funded to
close the ECR and WCR, consolidate their cores with those
of the BCR and GCR, and re-distribute the collections among
the three primary repositories to a new geographic system
that is fairly balanced in terms of volume of core material,
and which would include future IODP cores. After two years
of work, about two-thirds of the DSDP/ODP core collection
(>200 km) were moved, and the ECR and WCR were both
oficially closed on 30 September 2008. In addition, the irst
phase of IODP drilling recovered more than 15 km of new
cores between 2004 and 2008. The current status of all
scientiic ocean drilling cores at the three IODP repositories
(Fig. 1) is as follows:
• The GCR stores cores from the Pacific Ocean plate,
the Southern Ocean south of 60 ° S latitude (except
Kerguelan Plateau), the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. It presently houses over 109 km of core.
• The BCR stores cores from the North and South Atlantic,
the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and the Arctic
Ocean. It now houses over 140 km of core.
• The KCC stores cores from the Indian Ocean and
marginal seas, as well as from the western and northern
marginal seas of the Paciic region, deined by the plate
boundaries that extend from the Aleutian Trench to the
Macquarie Ridge. It now houses over 85 km of core.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all of our staff at the GCR, WCR,
ECR, BCR, and KCC for the smooth team effort across continents in eficiently getting through this enormous piece of
work in less time while reducing the risk for the cores
involved. Thanks in particular go to: Gar Esmay, Bruce
Horan, Susan Andershock, Yasmin Yabyabin, Helene Gould,
Steven Prinz, Roy Davis, Ted Gustafson, Phil Rumford,
Walter Hale, Alex Wülbers, Holger Kuhlmann, Vera Lukies,
Toshio Hisamitsu, and Satoshi Hirano.
Authors
John Firth, IODP-USIO, 1000 Discovery Drive, College
Station, Texas 77845, U.S.A., e-mail: firth@iodp.tamu.edu.
Lallan Gupta, IODP-JPIO, Kochi Institute for Core Sample
Research, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and
Technology (JAMSTEC), B200 Monobe, Nankoku, Kochi
783-8502, Japan, e-mail: gupta@jamstec.go.jp.
Ursula Röhl, Bremen Core Repository (BCR), MARUM�
Center for Marine Environmental Sciences at Bremen
University, Leobener Strasse, 28359 Bremen, Germany,
e-mail: uroehl@marum.de.
Related Web Links
DSDP: http://www.deepseadrilling.org
ODP: http://www-odp.tamu.edu
IODP: http://www.iodp.org
SEDIS: http://sedis.iodp.org/front_content.php
BCR: http://marum.de/en/IODP_Core_Repository.html
ECORD: http://www.ecord.org
GCR: http://iodp.tamu.edu/curation/gcr/index.html
KCC: http://www.kochi-core.jp/en/index.html
Rutgers Satellite Repository: http://geology.rutgers.edu/
corerepository.shtml
ICDP-SAFOD: http://safod.icdp-online.org
Access
data
and
samples:
http://www.iodp.org/
weblinks/Tasks-Scientists/Request-Access-to-Samples/
This new disposition of cores not only renders a change of
locations, but also provides an opportunity to extend the usefulness of even the oldest drill cores by making them easily
available to new non-destructive analytical systems that did
not exist when many of these cores were irst obtained.
Therefore, the consolidation of old and new cores from similar regions within three well-balanced core storage and analytical facilities around the world is intended to enhance the
use of this vast and still growing collection. After completion
of this gigantic moving project, the curatorial staff at all
three repositories are now ready to provide improved service
to the international scientiic community, including that in
the Asia-Paciic region.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 33
TechnicalReport
Progress
Developments
Clues of Early Life: Dixon Island–Cleaverville Drilling Project
(DXCL-DP) in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia
by Kosei E. Yamaguchi, Shoichi Kiyokawa, Takashi Ito, Minoru Ikehara,
Fumio Kitajima, and Yusuke Suganuma
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.04.2009
Introduction
The Pilbara Craton in NW Australia (Fig. 1) exposes one
of the well-preserved
-preserved
preserved and least metamorphosed greenstone
belts in the Archean. Greenstone belts are normally
composed of a complex amalgam of meta-basaltic and
meta-sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks of the greenstone belts are good targets to search for clues of early
Earth's environment and life.
In recent years, several scientiic drilling programs
(e.g.: Archean Biosphere Drilling Project (ABDP), Ohmoto
et al., 200�; Deep Time Drilling Project (DTDP), Anbar et al.,
2007, Kaufman et al., 2007; PDP: Pilbara Drilling
Project, Philippot et al., 2007) were successfully completed
in the western Pilbara area, where 3.5, 2.9, 2.7,, and 2.5 Ga
sedimentary units were drilled. However, there is a huge
time gap in the samples drilled by ABDP and DTDP that
represents middle Archean time , between 3.5 Ga and
2.9 Ga (i.e.,, ~�00 Ma, equivalent to the duration of the entire
Phanerozoic). The Cleaverville-Dixon Island area of the
coastal Pilbara terrain (Fig. 1) is suited to illing
ing in the
missing record. It contains well-preserved volcanosedimentary sequences (Cleaverville Group dated at 3.2 Ga)
where hydrothermal vein systems, organic-rich siliceous
sedimentary rocks, and iron-rich sedimentary rocks are
developed (Kiyokawa et al., 200�). Such geological materials
may be used to reconstruct past submarine hydrothermal
1 km
Cleaverville
Beach
CL1, 2
DX
activity and its in�uence on biological activity. Indeed, some
attempts have been made to answer the key questions.
However, the surface outcrops in this area are generally
weathered to variable degrees; thus they are apparently not
suitable for geo-biological and geochemical studies which
require unaltered original chemical/isotopic compositions
from the time of their formation in the middle Archean.
Consequently,, we carried out the “Dixon Island - Cleaverville
Drilling Project (DXCL-DP)”, to obtain “fresh” samples from
the sedimentary sequences in the Cleaverville�Dixon
Island area.
Scientific Objectives and Methods
The most important objective of the DXCL-DP is to understand the nature of the middle Archean (3.2 Ga) marine
environment in�uenced by hydrothermal activity, through
detailed
ed and systematic study of fresh drill core samples.
This objective has been pursued through (a) detailed stratigraphy of the whole section, (b) inorganic geochemistry of
sedimentary rocks, (c) organic geochemistry of carbonaceous sedimentary rocks (i.e.,, characterization of the
carbonaceous materials including insoluble macromolecular
matter), (d) study of “microfossils”, (e) geochemistry
(including stable isotopes) of sulide in sedimentary rocks,
and (f) paleomagnetic study on oriented core samples in
order to explore the presence and direction of the geomagnetic ield in the early Earth. Various geochemical investigations of shales and cherts are used (e.g., major, minor,
trace, and rare earth element geochemistry; C org, N, S, and
Fe isotope geochemistry, etc.) to fully extract the information
from samples and to understand the in�uence of submarine
hydrothermal activity on the biological and chemical ingerprints. From these data we intend to determine the original
environmental information at the time of deposition.
Drilling Targets and Geological
Background
Cleaverville
Pilbara
Australia
Perth
Figure 1. Aerial photo showing locations of drilling sites CL1, CL2,
and DX for DXCL-DP in Cleaverville, northwestern coast of Pilbara
district, Western Australia. Coordinates of the DX site are 20 °39'21"S
and 117 º 00'04"E. Aerial photo is taken from “Google Earth” (http://
earth.google.com/).
34 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Our drilling targets were deeply
ly buried organic-rich black
cherts and black shales of the Dixon Island Formation (DIF)
and Snapper Beach Formation (SBF) (Fig. 2). Both formations belong to the 3.2 Ga Cleaverville Group and are exposed
along the coasts of the Cleaverville area and Dixon Island.
The Cleaverville Group is a well-preserved submarine
sequence affected only by low-grade metamorphism
(prehnite-pumpellyite facies) without intensive deformation
Cleaverville Group, Pilbara Supergroup
varicolor chert
“Snapper
Beach
Formation”
gray chert
CL1
CL2
“Dixon
Pillow
Basalt”
black chert
pillow basalt
DX
“Dixon
Island
Formation”
A
Fe-rich chert
black chert
highly altered zone,
with hydrothermal
chert veins
Figure 2. Stratigraphic column of the 3.2-Ga Cleaverville Group of the
Pilbara Supergroup. Names of the Snapper Beach and Dixon Island
Formations are provisional. Modiied after Kiyokawa et al., 2006.
(Kiyokawa et al., 2002). It is composed of volcanic rock units
and chemical-volcano-sedimentary sequences. Interpretation
of its depositional settings diverges among rift, horizontal
tectonics, accreted oceanic crust, or accreted immature
island arc (Hickman, 1983; Van Kranendonk et al.,, 2006).
B
Figure 3. Photographs of drilling sites for DXCL-DP. [A] CL1 and CL2,
and [B] DX.
and 52 º dip to the northwest for the DX site. Orientations of
the core samples were taken using “Ezy-Mark” oriented
system (2iC Australia Pty Ltd). As a cooling media during
drilling, freshwater was used at CL1 and CL2 sites, and
seawater at DX site; for both, partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide lubricant was added. A summary of information on
drilling sites (core length, direction, bedding, etc.) is
presented in Table 1. Stratigraphic columns of CL1, CL2, and
DX are shown in Fig.. 4,, and an
n example of drillcore (DX) in a
core tray is shown in Fig.. 5.
The ~350-m-thick
-m-thick
m-thick
-thick
thick DIF in the lower part of the Cleaverville
Group consists mainly of highly siliciied volcanic-siliceous
sequences that contain apparent microbial mats and
fossilized bacteria-like
-like
like
ike structures within black chert and
also includes a komatiite-rhyolite sequence bearing hydrothermal veins. The >300-m-thick
-m-thick
m-thick
-thick
thick SBF in the upper part of the
Cleaverville Group contains a thick unit of reddish shale,
CL1.. The CL1 drill core (��.1 m long; Fig. 4), covering the
bedded red-white cherts,, and a banded iron formation. It also
lower part of the SBF, consists of two units: black shale and
contains chert fragments bearing pyroclastic beds bearing
reddish shale. The black shale unit was subdivided into ive
chert fragments (Kiyokawa et al., 200�). We selected two
subunits (BS1 to BS5).
5). BS1 (39.4–45 m) consists of highly
coastal sites at the eastern part of the Cleaverville Beach for
fragmented but organic-rich massive and laminated black
drilling (Fig. 3). The first
irst site (CL1
CL1 and CL2)) was intended to
shales.. BS2 (49–�2 m) and BS3 (71–88 m) subunits consist
drill through the lower part of the SBF (distance between
of massive and partly laminated black shales. BS4 (92–94 m)
holes is �0 m along the core dip direction), and the other is
and BS5 (99–105 m) subunits consist of organic-rich massive
the DX site which was targeted to
Table
1.
Summary
of
logistical
information
on DXCL-DP drill cores.
drill the upper DIF.
DXCL-DP Drill Core
Drilling Results
DXCL-DP was successfully
completed in summer 2007 after
continuous drilling from 31 July to
10 August. The orientation of the
core, being perpendicular to the
bedding plane, is 52 º dip to the
southwest for the CL1 and CL2 site
Drilling Site
CL1
CL2
DX
Latitude
117°01'28.8"
117°01'20.1"
117°00'05.9"
Longitude
20°39'06.7"
20°39'35.0"
20°39'43.6"
Depth to Start Drilling
39.4 m
47.6 m
47.7 m
Depth to Finish Drilling
105.3 m
92.0 m
148.3 m
Total Drill Core Length
66.1 m
44.4 m
100.15 m
Stratigraphic Thickness
40.7 m
27.3 m
61.5 m
Core Directon
160°
159°
315°
Dip
52°
50°
52°
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 35
Progress Report
black shale with some ine sandstone layers. The laminated
yellowish-brown
-brown
brown rock (WY), black shale (BS),, and reddish
black shales with pyrite nodules occur at the deepest (but
shale (R) units. Boundaries between each units are highly
stratigraphically the uppermost) part. This unit partly
fragmented. The WY unit, containing laminated white chert,
contains graded thin sandstone beds with cross lamination.
is highly weathered. The BS unit was subdivided into ive
The reddish shale unit is either mostly fragmented laminated
subunits, BS1 to BS5.
5. Each unit mainly consists of massive
red-brown-black shale (44–49 m and �2–71 m) or
black shale with well-laminated black shale and silt bed, and
well-laminated reddish to black shale (8�–88 m and 95–99 m).
contains some ine sandstone with cross lamination. The R
The uppermost section down to 53 m depth
pth is strongly
unit was also subdivided into ive subunits (R1 to R5),
5),, which
fragmented. Changes of the bedding orientation occurred
red at
consist of reddish massive shale, white chert, and massive
et al. Fig. black-gray-red
4
54–57 m, �0–�2 m, 72–75 m, 80–84 m, and 89–92 m depthYamaguchi
and well-laminated
shale. The color changes
ranges that are accompanied by fragmentation of the rocks.
between red and brown
rown
own are gradual. The CL2 drillcore is
generally more fragmented than CL1 and DX drillcores.
CL2.. The CL2 drill core (44.4 m long; Fig. 4), covering
Bedding orientation slightly changes at 75–7� m depth and
Yamaguch
the lowest part of the SBF, consists of three units: weathered
81–82 m depth.
CL1
40
CL2
DX
50
60
DX.. The DX drill core (100.2 m long; Fig. 4), covering the
upper part of DIF, consists of four units: highly fragmented/
deformed and well-laminated black shale (�9–88 m, with
disturbance at 85–88 m); well-laminated black shale with
pyrite lamina (88–149 m; a partly yet highly deformed section
at 101–110 m; see Fig. 5) with several cm-thick pyrite veins
and 10–50-cm-thick
-cm-thick
cm-thick massive sulides at 138–139 m and
144–149 m depth ranges; massive and inely-laminated black
shale; and reddish shale (110–118 m) units associated with
70
Depth [m]
80
90
100
110
weathered rocks
120
black shales
laminated black shales
with pyrite laminations
130
140
150
Figure 4. Integrated stratigraphic columns for CL1, CL2, and DX in
DXCL-DP based on fine-scale visual inspection of the drillcores.
Note that the upper ~40-m sections of cores (highly-weathered by
recent oxidation) were not sampled.
36 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Figure 5. Representative drillcores (DX) in a core tray. Tray length is
approximately 1 m. Modern-weathering-free black shales preserve
pyrite laminations and pyrite nodules.
Progress Report
deformed/fragmented zones. The normal dip of the DX
drillcore is approximately 50 º. Gradual changes in the dip
orientation are observed at the 110–123 m depth range that
exhibit a few meter-scale open folds. The uppermost ~70 m of
the drillcore DX is generally highly weathered. Its upper part
(47.9–59 m) is massive and reddish, the middle part (59–63 m)
contains bleached materials, and the lower part (63–69 m) is
red but preserves the chilled margin structure of pillow
basalts.
Summary
“Dixon Island–Cleaverville Drilling Project (DXCL-DP)”
was successfully completed in summer 2007. Three holes
were cored, the CL1 and CL2 cover the Snapper Beach
Formation, while the DX drillcore covers the Dixon Island
Formation, both of which belong to the Cleaverville Group.
The CL1 and CL2 drillcores consist mainly of organic-rich
massive black shales with little cross-laminated ine
sandstone, and the DX drillcore contains very inely
laminated black shales with lamination and veins of pyrite
and weathered pillow basalt. These sulide-containing black
shales are not found anywhere in surface outcrops. It is the
irst discovery of these geological units.
A systematic combination of geological, sedimentological,
geochemical, and geobiological approachess to the drillcore
samples will be applied to obtain critical information on the
characteristics of the samples and to understand the in�uence
of submarine hydrothermal activity on the biological and
chemical ingerprints.. From
rom these we intend to reconstruct
the environmental conditions at the time of deposition.
Acknowledgements
s
We thank A.H. Hickman, M. Nedachi, T. Urabe, M.
Doepel, K. North, K. McLeod, G. McLeod, and J. Williamson
for their suggestions and help throughout the course of the
drilling project. We thank GSWA Shire of Roebourne for permission for drilling in the Pilbara coast. This research was
inancially supported by grants-in-aid from the Japanese
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology (MEXT, Grantss �14340153 and 1825300�) and
by the Nippon Steel Corporation.
Kiyokawa, S., Ito., T., Ikehara, M., and Kitajima, F., 200�. Middle
Archean volcano-hydrothermal sequence: Bacterial
microfossil-bearing 3.2 Ga Dixon Island Formation, coastal
Pilbara terrane, Australia. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, 118:3–22, doi:10.1130/B25748.1.
Kiyokawa, S., Taira, A., Byrne, T., Bowring, S., and Sano, Y., 2002.
Structural evolution of the middle Archean coastal Pilbara
terrain,
Western
Australia.
Tectonics,
21:1–24,
doi:10.1029/2001TC00129�.
Ohmoto, H., Watanabe, Y., Ikemi, H., Poulson, S.R., and Taylor, B.E.,
200�. Sulphur isotope evidence for an oxic Archaean atmosphere. Nature, 442:873–87�, doi:10.1038/nature05044.
Philippot, P., Van Zuilen, M., Lepot, K., Thomazo, C., Farquhar, J., and
Van
Kranendonk,
M.J.,
2007.
Early
Archaean
microorganisms preferred elemental sulfur, not sulfate.
Science, 317:1534–1537, doi:10.112�/science.11458�1.
Van Kranendonk, M.J., Hickman, A.H., Smithies, R.H., Williams,
I.R., Bagas, L., and Farrell, T.R., 200�. Revised
lithostratigraphy of Archean supracrustal and intrusive
rocks in the northern Pilbara Craton, Western Australia.
Geological Survey of Western Australia. Record 200�/15,
p. �3.
Authors
Kosei E. Yamaguchi, Precambrian Ecosystem Laboratory,
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
(JAMSTEC), 2-15 Natsushima, Yokosuka, Kanagawa,
237-00�1, Japan, and NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI),
Present address: Department of Chemistry, Toho University,
2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan,
e-mail: kosei@chem.sci.toho-u.ac.jp.
Shoichi Kiyokawa, Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Kyushu University, �-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka
812-8581, Japan.
Takashi Ito, Faculty of Education, Ibaraki University, 2-1-1
Bunkyo, Mito, Ibaraki 310-8512, Japan.
Minoru Ikehara, Center for Advanced Marine Core
Research, Kochi University, 200 Monobe, Nankoku, Kochi
783-8502, Japan.
Fumio Kitajima, Department of Earth and Planetary
Sciences, Kyushu University, �-10-1 Hakozaki, Fukuoka
812-8581, Japan.
Yusuke Suganuma, Ocean Research Institute, University
of Tokyo, 1-15-1 Minamidai, Nakano, Tokyo 1�4-8�39,
Japan.
References
Anbar, A.D., Duan, Y., Lyons, T.W., Arnold, G.L., Kendall, B., Creaser,
R.A., Kaufman, A.J., Gordon, G.W., Scott, C., Garvin, J., and
Buick, R., 2007. A whiff of oxygen before the Great Oxidation
Event? Science, 317:1903–190�, doi:10.112�/science.
1140325.
Hickman, A.H., 1983. Geology of the Pilbara Block and Its Environs.
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Bulletin 127, 2�8 p.
Kaufman, A.J., Johnston, D.T., Farquhar, J., Masterson, A.L., Lyons,
T.W., Bates, S., Anbar, A.D., Arnold, G.L., Garvin, J., and
Buick, R., 2007. Late Archean biospheric oxygenation and
atmospheric evolution. Science, 317:1900–1903.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 37
Progress Reports
Complex Drilling Logistics for Lake El’gygytgyn, NE Russia
by Julie Brigham-Grette and Martin Melles
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.05.2009
Introduction
Lake El’gygytgyn was formed by astrophysical chance
when a meteorite struck the Earth 100 km north of the Arctic
Circle in Chukotka 3.6 Myrs ago (Layer, 2000) on the
drainage divide between the Arctic Ocean and the Bering
Sea. The crater measures ~18 km in diameter and lies nearly
in the center of what was to become Beringia, the largest
contiguous landscape in the Arctic to have escaped continental scale glaciation. Within the crater rim today, Lake
El’gygytgyn is 12 km in diameter and 170 m deep,, enclosing
350–400 m of sediment deposited since the time of impact
(Gebhardt et al., 2006). This setting makes the lake ideal for
paleoclimate and impact research.
Deep Drilling Initiation
After several years of preparation, pre-site survey work,
and arduous logistical planning, Lake El’gygytgyn is now
the focus of a challenging interdisciplinary multi-national
drilling campaign as part of the International Continental
Scientiic Drilling Program (ICDP). With drilling initiated in
late fall 2008, the goal is to collect the longest time-continuous
record of climate change in the terrestrial Arctic and to
compare this record with those from lower latitude marine
and terrestrial sites to better understand hemispheric and
global climate change. Coring objectives include replicate
overlapping lake sediment cores of 330 m and 420 m length
at two sites (D1 and D2,, Fig. 1) near the deepest part of the
A
B
2 km
l
l
C
lake. Coring will be continued 300 m (D1) and 100 m (D2)
into the underlying impact breccia and brecciated bedrock in
order to investigate the impact process and the response of
the volcanic bedrock to the impact event. One additional
land-based core (site D3,, Fig. 1)) measures ~200
200 m in lake
sediments now overlain by frozen alluvial sediments on the
lakeshore;; D3 will allow a better understanding of sediment
supply to the lake and spatial depositional heterogeneity
since the time of impact. Drilling of the primary D1 and D2
sites will take place from February to the middle of May
2009 using the lake ice as a drilling platform. The project
uses
es a new Global Lake Drilling 800m (GLAD800) system
modiied for extreme weather conditions by Drilling,
Observation and Sampling of the Earths Continental Crust
(DOSECC). Moreover, the science and logistics involves
close cooperation with the Russian Academy of Sciences
(Far East Geological Institute-Vladivostok; and Northeastern
ern
Interdisciplinary Scientiic Research Institute-Magadan)
and Roshydromet�s Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute
(AARI), St. Petersburg.
Pilot Cores and Initial Results
The impetus for deep drilling at Lake El�gygytgyn is
largely based on ield and laboratory studies carried out over
the past decade. Seismic work in the lake and morphostratigraphic work in the catchment and surrounding region
conirmed that the lake record is undisturbed, without
evidence of glaciation or desiccation (Niessen et al., 2007;
Glushkova and Smirnov, 2007). Short sediment cores demonstrated the sensitivity of this lacustrine environment to
record high-resolution climatic change across NE Asia at
millennial timescales (Brigham-Grette et al., 2007; Melles
et al., 2007; Nowaczyk et al., 2007; Fig. 2). Documenting the
dynamics and controls on the lake�s seasonal ice cover (Nolan
and Brigham-Grette, 2007) has been key to understanding
lake circulation and has been critical to developing safety
plans for ice thickening and engineering prior to drilling
from the lake�s frozen surface.
Logistical Challenges
Figure 1. [A] Digital elevation model, [B] drill site locations, projected
onto a panoramic view of Lake El’gygytgyn in May facing north,
[C] location of Lake El’gygytgyn at 67.5 o N and 172o E, ~100 km north
of the Arctic Circle in Chukotka, northeastern Russia (base map
courtesy of Arctic Climate Impact Assessment).
38 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Lake El�gygytgyn is located 255 km inland from the
village of Pevek on the coast of the East Siberian Sea.. Because
there are no roads to the lake,, maritime
aritime shipments with the
drilling system, fuel, mud, drill pipe, etc. need to be delivered
in the open water season by barge through the Bering Strait
Institute (AARI),, the Northeastern Interdisciplinary
Scientiic Research Institute (Russian Academy of Sciences),,
and the Far East Geological Institute (FEGI, Vladivostok)..
References
Figure 2. The new “Russian”GL AD assembled and modified by
DOSECC in Salt Lake City in consultation with Alex Pyne (Antarctica
Research Center, New Zeland).
by way of Vladivostok. Traversing the DOSECC drill rig and
all supplies, pipe,, and equipment from Pevek to Lake
El�gygytgyn requires a 3�0-km overland bulldozer-supported trek after the rivers and tundra are well frozen
and can sustain heavy loads. Most of the ield party will reach
the lake by helicopter out of Pevek.
Winter Drilling
Drilling in the extreme cold, darkness, and isolation of the
Arctic required that the drilling system be completely
enclosed and outitted with a reliable heating system and
adequate power and backup systems. Moreover, the drill
system was designed to rest on a steel sledge for relocation
and for cold air to circulate underneath the rig (to
to prevent
melting).
).. Crew changes and the transportation of cores from
the rig on the lake ice to the science camp on the shore will
be done in an enclosed personnel carrier. The drill sites on
the lake ice are being carefully engineered for load requirements of 1.5 m of ice achieved by clearing snow and �ooding
the ice over an area of about 100 m in diameter. These drill
pads and the road back to camp will be monitored continuously for cracks and wear. The sediment cores will be
processed for whole-core physical properties and will be
stored at the lake in a temperature-controlled
-controlled
controlled container until
they are �own to Pevek and staged for airfreight to
St. Petersburg and later trucked to the University of Cologne
for core opening and study by the international team. The
archive halves of the core will go to LacCore, University of
Minnesota.
Acknowledgements
The Lake El�gygytgyn Drilling Project is an international
effort funded by ICDP, the U.S. National Science Foundation
Division of Earth Science and Ofice of Polar Programs
(NSF/EAR/OPP), the Federal Ministry for Education and
Research (Germany),, the Alfred Wegener Institute,
GeoForschungsZentrum, the Russian Academy of Sciences
Far Eastern
ern Branch, the Arctic and Antarctic Research
Brigham-Grette, J., Melles, M., Minyuk, P., and Scientiic Party, 2007.
Overview and signiicance
igniicance of a 250 ka paleoclimate
aleoclimate record
ecord
from El�gygytgyn Crater Lake, NE Russia.. J. Paleolimnol..,
37:1–1�, doi: 10.1007/s10933-00�-9017-�.
Gebhardt, A.C., Niessen, F., and Kopsch, C., 200�. Central ring
structure identiied in one of the world�s best-preserved
impact craters, Geology, 34:145–148, doi:10.1130/G22278.1.
Glushkova, O.Y., and Smirnov, V.N.,, 2007. Pliocene to Holocene
geomorphic evolution and paleogeography of the
El�gygytgyn Lake region, NE Russia, J. Paleolimnol
nol.,
37:37–47,
:37–47,
37–47, doi:10.1007/s10933-00�-9021-x.
Layer, P.W., 2000. Argon-40/argon-39 age of the El�gygytgyn impact
event, Chukotka, Russia.. Meter.. Planet.. Sci.., 35:591–599.
Melles, M., Brigham-Grette, J., Glushkova, O.Y., Minyuk, P.S.,
Nowaczyk, N.R., and Hubberten, H.W., 2007.. Sedimentary
geochemistry of a pilot core from Lake El�gygytgyn�a
sensitive record of climate variability in the East Siberian
Arctic during the past three climate cycles.. J. Paleolimnol..,
37:89–104, doi:10.1007/s10933-00�-9025-�.
Niessen, F., Gebhardt, A.C., and Kopsch, C., 2007. Seismic investigation of the El�gygytgyn impact crater lake (Central
Chukotka, NE Siberia): preliminary results.. J Paleolimnol.
nol..,
37:49–�3, doi:10.1007/s10933-00�-9022-9.
Nolan, M., and Brigham-Grette, J.,, 2007. Basic hydrology,
ydrology, limnology,
imnology,
and meteorology
orology
rology of modern Lake El'gygytgyn, Siberia.
Siberia
J. Paleolimnol.., 37:17–35, doi:10.1007/s10933-00�-9020-y.
Nowaczyk,, N.R., Melles,, M., and Minyuk, P., 2007. A revised age
model for core PG1351 from Lake El�gygytgyn, Chukotka,
based on magnetic susceptibility variations correlated to
northern hemisphere insolation variations. J Paleolimnol..,
37:�5–7�, doi:10.1007/s10933-00�-9023-8.
Authors
Julie Brigham-Grette, Department of Geosciences,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. 01003, U.S.A.,
e-mail: juliebg@geo.umass.edu.
Martin Melles, Institute of Geology and Mineralogy,
University of Cologne, Zuelpicher Str. 49a D-50�74 Cologne,
Germany, e-mail: mmelles@uni-koeln.de.
Related Web Links
DOSECC: http://www.dosecc.org/html/glad800.html
El'gygytgyn Drilling Project: http://elgygytgyn.icdp-online.
org
Photo Credits
Fig. 1: [A] photo by Conrad Kopsch, AWI;; [B] photo by Volker
Wennrich, University of Cologne;; [C] base map courtesy of
Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
Fig. 2: photo by David Zur, DOSECC
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 39
Technical Developments
New Seismic Methods to Support Sea-Ice Platform Drilling
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.06.2009
by Marvin A. Speece, Richard H. Levy, David M. Harwood,
Stephen F. Pekar, and Ross D. Powell
Introduction
Over-Sea-Ice Seismic Surveys
The ANtarctic geological DRILLing Program (ANDRILL)
is currently a consortium of ive nations (Germany, Italy,
New Zealand, the United Kingdom,, and the United
d States of
America).. By
y drilling, coring and analyzing stratigraphic
archives along the Antarctic continental margin,, ANDRILL
pursues its primary goal of better understanding
ing the role the
Antarctic cryosphere plays in the global climate system
(Harwood et al., 200�). The ANDRILL drilling system was
developed to operate on both ice shelf and sea-ice platforms
(Harwood et al., 200�; Falconer et al., 2007; Naish et al., 2007;
Florindo et al., 2008). While thick multiyear sea ice provides
stable and safe drilling platforms, identifying drilling targets
in regions where these sea-ice conditions occur can be
problematic due to a paucity of marine seismic re�ection
data because near-constant
-constant
constant sea ice limits ship access (Fig. 1).
In response to this problem ANDRILL developed new
over-sea-ice seismic methods to extend seismic re�ection
data coverage to regions of multiyear sea ice.
Previous over-sea-ice seismic experiments had limited
success due to (1) poor source coupling caused by thin sea
ice, (2) source-induced
-induced
induced ice �exural modes that cause coherent
noise, which is dificult to remove from data, and (3) source
bubble-pulse effects caused by explosive seismic sources
placed in the water column (Cobb, 1973; Cook, 1973; Mertz,
1981; McGinnis et al., 1985; Davy and Alder, 1989; Rendleman
and Levin, 1990; Barrett et al., 2000; Bannister and Naish,
2002; Horgan and Bannister, 2004). During the austral
spring-summer of 2005, approximately 28 km of over-sea-ice
seismic re�ection data were recorded in McMurdo Sound,
Antarctica (Fig. 2) for ANDRILL�s Southern McMurdo
Sound (SMS) Project (Harwood et al., 2004). ANDRILL
developed seismic survey techniques for the SMS Project
that improved the quality of over-sea-ice seismic data
(Betterly et al., 2007). A Generator-Injector (GI) air gun was
used as the seismic source (Fig. 3A). Single air-gun-source
marine seismic surveys typically use a GI technique, in
which a secondary air pulse is injected into the primary air
pulse on a short time delay. The injection of the secondary
air pulse dampens the generation of the bubble pulse. The GI
air gun was lowered into the water column via holes drilled
through the sea ice. The GI air gun minimized the source
bubble effects that plagued previous over-sea-ice experiments in the Antarctic. Moreover, a �0-channel seismic snow
streamer consisting of vertically oriented gimbaled
geophones with 25-m takeout spacing was employed to aid
rapid data collection (Fig. 4).
Figure 1. Location of key geographical features in southern McMurdo
Sound, plus inset of Antarctica. The volcanic centers of Erebus (E),
Terror (T), Bird (B), Discovery (D), and Morning (M) are annotated.
The location of the two completed ANDRILL drill holes, AND-1B
(McMurdo Ice Shelf), and AND-2A (Southern McMurdo Sound
Project) are shown. The dashed line indicates the approximate
margin of multiyear sea ice. Regions targeted for possible future
drilling from sea-ice platforms include Offshore New Harbor (ONH)
and Mackay Sea Valley (MSV). Also shown are the locations of
previous stratigraphic drill holes (DVDP, CIROS, MSSTS, and CRP).
(Modified after ANDRILL International Science Proposal, 2003;
NASA MODIS image I.D.: Antarctica.A2001353.1445.250m).
40 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
A ski-mounted insulated hut (the Thunder-Sled) housed
the recording equipment and the GI air gun (Fig. 4). The
interior of the hut was divided into two rooms. The forward
room was devoted to the GI air gun. Data recording instruments and the GI air-gun shot control were located in the
rear room of the hut. Batteries,, recharged by solar panels
placed on the outer walls of the hut, supplied power for the
recording and GI air-gun instrumentation. A propane heater
fed by external tanks heated the recording room.
A single 210-in 3 GI air gun was suspended from a motorized
winch. Compressed air for the air gun was stored in cylinders that were fed by a gasoline powered Bauer drive air
compressor. A kerosene heater in the air-gun room and
periodic injection of antifreeze kept the GI air-gun system
from freezing.
A
B
Figure 2. [A] Map of the 2005 SMS seismic survey location. The light black lines indicate existing marine seismic data (PD-90-46, PD-90-01/02, and
IT-91-70), and the red lines show the location of the 2005 Southern McMurdo Sound (SMS) seismic survey (ATS-05-01 and ATS-05-02). Existing
stratigraphic drill holes are labeled MSSTS-1, CIROS-1, and AND-2A in red (after Betterly et al., 2007). Dashed blue line shows the approximate
extent of the 2005 ice breakout. [B] A fence diagram of PD-90-46 (single-channel marine proile), ATS-05-01, and ATS-05-02 (multichannel SMS
2005 seismic proiles) viewed from south to north. Horizontal values on ATS-05-01 and ATS-05-02 are Common MidPoint (CMP) locations. The
spacing between CMP locations is 12.5 m. Horizontal locations on PD-90-46 are shot locations with spacing of 45 m. Each proile shows 1.5 s and
200 ms automatic gain control applied to these data. Colored lines overlie seismic reflectors that represent disconformities that record the advance
and retreat of glaciers after the Harwood et al. (2004) interpretation.
The snow streamer consists of ive cable sections with
twelve takeouts per cable section. A single geophone was
attached at each takeout every 25 m along the cable (Fig. 3B).
The geophones are constructed using 30-Hz velocity sensors
that are 3�0° roll gimbaled and have a 180° pitch tolerance.
Each gimbaled geophone weighs approximately 1 kg. The
cable sections have a central Kevlar stress member attached
to a stainless steel cable connection. The cables are designed
to remain �exible in extreme cold, and all connections are
waterproof and designed to withstand a load of 13,000
,000
000 N.
Special sleds were built for each cable connection to reduce
the amount of drag friction from the ice and snow surface
and to protect the cable heads. The streamer was pulled
A
B
behind the source/recording hut,, and a load cell was placed
between the hut and the streamer to monitor load on the
streamer (Fig. 3C).
The signal to noise ratio was increased during windy conditions by repeating air-gun shots (stacking) at each source
location, then summing the shots. Seismic acquisition could
be carried out in higher wind conditions if the wind blew
inline, because the gimbaled geophones have a smaller proile in this direction,, so wind-generated
-generated
generated noise is minimal.
Snow drifting was only a problem after major storms
requiring the snow streamer to be dug out. Generally, the
snow streamer could be removed from small snow drifts by
C
Figure 3. [A] Generator-Injector (GI) air gun being deployed through an auger hole in 6-m-thick sea ice; [B] Gimbaled geophone and the snow
streamer cable; [C] Load cell attached to the back of the Thunder Sled and connected to a tow cable for the snow streamer (photos by R. Levy).
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 41
Technical Developments
Figure 4. Images showing vehicles and
sleds in operational position. The Thunder
Sled consisted of a plywood hut mounted
on a Komatik sled. The hut was separated
i n to t w o ro o m s , o n e f o r t h e a i r- g u n
system and one to contain data recording
equipment (photo by M. Buchanan). Left
corner the diagram showing the setup
of the over-sea-ice system during data
acquisition. Black triangles represent
shot locations; green triangles represent
geophone locations. The source spacing
was 10 0 m, and the receiver spacing
was 25 m. The source-to-near-geophone
i n te r va l wa s 2 5 m . S h o t h o l e s we re
prepared by the drill vehicle, and the
60-channel snow streamer with gimbaled
geophones was towed behind the source/
recording vehicle.
pulling it forward with a negligible force observed on the
load cell.
pelagic sediment. Future coring of these recent sediments
could provide a high-resolution Quaternary climate record.
The GI air gun provided good source coupling and minimized the source bubble effects and �exural mode problems
seen in previous over-sea-ice experiments in polar regions.
By extending the interpretations from nearby marine seismic
surveys south to a region of thick multiyear sea ice, ANDRILL
scientists were able to plan a safe location of the SMS Project
drill site.
Future Plans
Additional Successful Surveys
During the austral summer 2007, a Vertical Seismic
Proile (VSP) survey was conducted at the newly drilled SMS
Project borehole. The SMS Project drill core recovered a
thick succession of lower Miocene, middle Miocene, and
Pliocene to Recent sedimentary rock (Florindo et al., 2008).
The VSP survey used a GI air-gun source and demonstrated
that high-quality borehole seismic data can be collected in a
sea-ice environment. These data were collected using a
three-component clamped geophone and a single near-offset
source location. This is the irst successful VSP survey conducted from a sea-ice platform using a GI air gun.
In addition, during the austral spring-summer 2007,
ANDRILL collected approximately 20.5 km of high-quality
seismic re�ection data in Granite Harbor on the coast of
southern Victoria Land. The Mackay Sea Valley (MSV;; Fig. 1)
is a deep trough likely formed beneath Granite Harbor by
previous expansion of the Mackay Glacier. This seismic
survey�s intent was to image recent sediment layers that
accumulated in the MSV after it had been eroded and last
occupied by the ice sheet. The MSV seismic survey incorporated and reined techniques of over-sea-ice seismic data
collection that had been used previously during the ANDRILL
SMS seismic site survey. The MSV seismic survey was
successful in locating a thin succession of low-amplitude
re�ections atop the higher-amplitude granite basement
re�ections in the deepest parts of the valley (Fig 5). The
low-amplitude re�ections are likely caused by layers of
42 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
During the austral spring-summer 2008, an over-sea-ice
multi-channel seismic re�ection survey will be conducted in
Offshore New Harbor (ONH; Fig. 1) to investigate the
stratigraphic and tectonic history of westernmost Southern
McMurdo Sound during the Greenhouse World (Eocene)
into the start of the Icehouse World (Oligocene). This planned
seismic survey will use over-sea-ice seismic methods
employed successfully by ANDRILL�s 2005 SMS and 2007
MSV surveys. A new seismic recording sled with a larger air
compressor, larger air tanks, and improved air-gun winch
system is being built to improve the speed and eficiency of
data collection.
Acknowledgements
Prior ANDRILL drilling and site survey activities were
supported by a multinational collaboration comprising four
national Antarctic programs, the U.S. National Science
Figure 5. Unprocessed single-fold seismic reflection data from
Mackay Sea Valley (MSV) seismic survey in Granite Harbor showing
low-amplitude sediments overlying a high-amplitude granite
basement. The high-amplitude reflection that appears to be a
basement step could instead be caused by a terminal moraine.
Trace spacing is 50 m.
Foundation, the New Zealand Foundation for Research, the
Italian Antarctic Research Program, the German Science
Foundation, and the Alfred Wegener Institute. The U.S.
National Science Foundation supports the over-sea-ice
seismic surveys though grants OPP-0342484 and
ANT-0732875.
References
ANDRILL International Science Proposal, 2003. ANDRILL:
Investigating
ng Antarctica’s Role
ole in Cenozoic Global
Environmental Change. ANDRILL Contribution 2, University
of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Neb.
eb..
Bannister, S.C., and Naish, T.R., 2002. ANDRILL site investigations,
New Harbour and McMurdo Ice Shelf, southern McMurdo
Sound, Antarctica. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences
Science Report, 2002/01, 24 pp.
Barrett, P., Sarti, M., and Wise, S.W., Jr.,
.,, 2000. Studies from the Cape
Roberts Project, Ross Sea, Antarctica, Initial Report on
CRP-3. Terra Antart., 7(1/2), 209 pp.
Betterly, S.J., Speece, M.A., Levy, R.H., Harwood, D.M., and Henrys,
S.A., 2007. A novel over-sea-ice seismic re�ection survey in
McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Terra Antart., 14(2):97–10�.
Cobb, A.T., 1973. ‘Vibroseis�® applications in the Arctic. Proceedings
from National Convention, Canadian Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, 115–140.
Cook, R.E., 1973. Experimental seismic methods in the Canadian
Arctic. Proceedings from National Convention, Canadian
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 47–57.
Davy, B.W., and Alder, G., 1989. Seismic re�ection surveys. In Barrett,
P.J. (Ed.),
d.),
.),, Antarctic Cenozoic history from the CIROS-1 drill
hole, McMurdo Sound. Bulletin in the Miscellaneous Series of
the New Zealand Department of Science and Industrial
Research, 245:15–21.
Falconer,, T., Pyne, A., Olney, M., Curren, M., Levy, R.,, and the
ANDRILL-MIS Science Team, 2007. Operations overview
for the ANDRILL McMurdo Ice Shelf Project, Antartica. In
Naish, T., Powell, R., and Levy,, R. (Eds.),
Eds.),
ds.), Studies from the
ANDRILL, McMurdo Ice Shelf Project, Antarctica Initial
Science Report on AND-1B. Terra Antart., 14(3):131–140.
:131–140.
131–140.
Florindo, F., Harwood, D., Levy, R., and SMS Project Science Team,
2008. ANDRILL�s success during the 4th International Polar
Year. Sci.. Drill.., �:29–31, doi: 10.2204/iodp.sd.�.03.2008.
Harwood, D., Levy, R., Cowie, J., Florindo, F., Naish, T., Powell, R.,
and Pyne, A., 200�. Deep drilling with the ANDRILL
Program in Antarctica. Sci.. Drill.., 3:43–45, doi:10.2204/
iodp.sd.3.09.200�.
Harwood, D.M., Florindo, F., Levy, R.H., Fielding, C.R., Pekar, S.F.,
and Speece, M.A., 2004. ANDRILL Southern McMurdo
Sound Project Scientific Prospectus. ANDRILL Contribution
5, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Neb.,
eb.,, 29 pp.
Horgan, H., and Bannister S., 2004. Explosive Source Seismic
Experiments from a Sea-Ice Platform, McMurdo Sound,
2003. Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Science
cience
Report
eport, 2004/15.
McGinnis, L.D., Bowen, R.H., Erickson, J.M., Aldred, B.J.,, and
Kreamer, J.L., 1985. East-West Antarctic boundary in
McMurdo Sound. Tectonophysics, 14:341–35�, doi:10.101�/
0040-1951(85)90020-4.
Mertz,, R.W., Brooks,, L.D., and Lansley,, M., 1981. Deepwater vibrator
operations – Beaufort Sea, Alaska, 1979 winter season.
Geophysics, 4�:172–181, doi:10.1190/1.1441187.
Naish, T.R., Powell, R., Levy, R., Florindo, F., Harwood, D., Kuhn, G.,
Niessen, F., Talarico, F., and Wilson, G., 2007. A record of
Antarctic climate and ice sheet history recovered. EOS
Trans.,
.,, Am. Geophys. Union 88:557–558, doi:10.1029/
2007EO500001.
Rendleman, C.A., and Levin, F.K., 1990. Seismic exploration on a
�oating ice sheet. Geophysics, 55:402–409, doi:10.1190/
1.1442849.
Authors
Marvin A. Speece, Geophysical Engineering Department,
Montana Tech, 1300 West Park Street, Butte, Mont.,
59701-8997, U.S.A., e-mail: mspeece@mtech.edu
Richard H. Levy and David M. Harwood, ANDRILL
Science Management Office and Department of Geosciences,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 12� Bessey Hall, Lincoln,
Neb. �8588-0341, U.S.A.
Stephen F. Pekar, School of Earth and Environmental
Sciences, Queens College, CUNY, �5-30 Kissena Boulevard,
oulevard,
levard,
evard,
vard,
ard,
d,
Flushing, N.Y., 113�7, U.S.A.
Ross D. Powell, Department of Geology and Environmental
Geosciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Ill.,
�0115, U.S.A.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 43
Technical Developments
Wireline Coring and Analysis under Pressure: Recent Use
and Future Developments of the HYACINTH System
by Peter Schultheiss, Melanie Holland, and Gary Humphrey
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.07.2009
Introduction
The pressure of the deep sea and of deep earth formations
has subtle effects on all aspects of physics, chemistry, and
biology. Core material recovered under pressure, using
pressure cores, can be subjected to sophisticated laboratory
analyses that are not feasible in situ. Though many ields of
study might beneit from pressurized cores, most obviously,
any investigation on gas- or gas-hydrate-rich formations on
land or under the sea certainly requires pressure coring.
Downhole Pressure Coring and HYACINTH
Scientiic investigations of marine gas hydrate formations
have provided the impetus for all wireline pressure core
development apart from proprietary oilield technology,
including the HYACINTH (HYACe In New Tests on Hydrate,
2001) system. The irst scientiic wireline pressure corer, the
Pressure Coring Barrel, was developed by the Deep Sea
Drilling Project to capture gas hydrate. It was used by
Kvenvolden et al. (1983) in depressurization and gas collection experiments to quantify gas hydrate within cores. The
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) later developed the Pressure
Core Sampler (PCS; Pettigrew, 1992; Graber et al., 2002),
and the Pressure-Temperature Coring System (PTCS) was
developed for Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
(JOGMEC, formerly Japanese National Oil Company, JNOC;
Takahashi and Tsuji, 2005). Both of these systems were used
almost exclusively for gas hydrate research. The HYACE
(HYdrate Autoclave Coring Equipment, 1997) and the subse-
East Sea/
Sea of Japan
UBGH-1
GMGS-1
NGHP-1
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
South
China
Sea
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
Figure 1. Map of South and Southeast Asia (based on http://www.
ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html) showing the location of
recent gas hydrate expeditions NGHP-1 (red squares), GMGS-1 (red
triangle), and UBGH-1 (red circle).
44 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
quent HYACINTH programs (Schultheiss et al., 200�;
Schultheiss et al., 2008a), funded by the European Union,
were also driven by the need for gas hydrate research.
The HYACINTH vision of scientiic pressure coring
encompassed not only coring tools but also an array of downstream core processing equipment and capabilities. The two
coring tools, the Fugro Pressure Corer (FPC) and the Fugro
Rotary Pressure Corer (FRPC; previously HYACE Rotary
Corer, HRC), were designed to recover high-quality cores in
a complete range of sedimentary formations. The combined
suite of equipment (the HYACINTH system) enables these
cores to be acquired and transferred in their core liners from
the pressure corers into chambers for non-destructive
testing, sub-sampling, and storage as required.
The HYACINTH system has continually improved over
the ten years since its inception. ODP and the Integrated
Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) have played major roles in
this development, allowing the tools to be initially tested
(ODP Legs 194 and 201) and then used on both recent gas
hydrate expeditions (ODP Leg 204, Hydrate Ridge, offshore
Oregon; Tréhu et al., 2003; IODP Expedition 311, Cascadia
Margin, offshore Vancouver Island, Canada; Riedel et al.,
200�). Since that time, further improvements to the performance and capabilities of the coring and analysis assemblies
have been made, and the system has allowed new scientiic
insights into the structure of natural marine gas hydrate
deposits.
Recent HYACINTH Expeditions
Since the completion of IODP Expedition 311 in 2005, the
HYACINTH system has been used on four major gas hydrate
expeditions for quantiication of gas hydrate and detailed
measurements on gas-hydrate-bearing sediments. The need
to assess the nature, distribution,, and concentration of gas
hydrate in the marine environment has multiple driving
forces. Scientiic interest in gas hydrate centers on carbon
cycling and climate impact, but to the oil and gas industry
hydrate is an irritating geohazard, and to national governments it is a potential resource ripe for exploitation. Political
climate change has made national energy independence a
high priority for governments, and in the last few years, the
biggest inancial input into marine gas-hydrate-related
drilling expeditions has come from national governments
and their associated national energy and geological organi-
zations. Of the four recent expeditions since IODP Leg 311
on which the HYACINTH coring and analysis system has
been used, one was to deine geohazards related to oil and
gas production,, and three were to quantify resources for the
governments of India, China, and Korea.
A
B
India, 2006
The irst Indian National Gas Hydrate Program drilling
expedition (NGHP-1;; Fig. 1)) took place on the drillship
JOIDES Resolution in the summer of 200�, led by the Indian
Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) and the United
States Geological Survey (USGS). It was designed to investigate the gas hydrate resource potential of sites around the
Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Andaman Sea
(Collett et al., 200�). This was an ambitious program, lasting
113 days, involving over a hundred scientists and technical
staff from India, Europe, and the United States, and drilling
thirty-nine locations at twenty-one distinct sites. It was a
hugely successful program, collecting more gas-hydratebearing cores than any previous expedition and describing
in detail at multiple scales one of the richest gas hydrate
accumulations ever discovered (Collett et al., 2008)..
As part of the coring program, forty-nine pressure cores
were recovered under pressure and analyzed at sea and
postcruise. These included IODP PCS cores as well as
HYACINTH FPC and HRC/FRPC cores. The onboard
pressure core analysis included routine core measurement of
all pressure cores in the HYACINTH Pressure Core Analysis
and Transfer System (PCATS). All nondestructive data was
collected at in situ pressure. The analytical portion of the
PCATS is designed to measure continuous proiles of P-wave
velocity and gamma density at in situ pressure and
temperature conditions on HYACINTH pressure cores, as
well as collect high-resolution 2D X-ray images (Fig. 2).
To perform these analyses, the PCATS extracts the lined
cores from the HYACINTH corer autoclaves under pressure
and moves them past the sensors. The PCATS was modiied
to accept PCS corer autoclaves. As the PCS core could not be
extracted under pressure, only gamma density and X-ray
images could be collected on these cores and at a reduced
resolution.
The X-ray images collected from pressure cores taken in
the Krishna-Godavari Basin showed hydrate structures with
remarkable complexity and in unprecedented detail (Fig. 2A).
Cores were rotated in the PCATS to understand their threedimensional nature. Less dense (lighter) patches in the
original X-ray (Figs. 2A, 2C) are dipping veins of gas hydrate
when seen from a perpendicular view (Fig. 2D). The P-wave
velocity and gamma density proiles also re�ect this
anisotropy. In the irst data set (Fig. 2C), the proiles were
taken perpendicular to (through) the major gas hydrate
veins, and a slight lowering of density and a smooth increase
in P-wave velocity is seen in the area of greatest gas hydrate
concentration (Fig. 2C). In the second data set (Fig. 2D), the
C
D
E
Figure 2. Data from a HYACINTH FPC core obtained on NGHP
Exp. 1 using the PCATS and a medical CT scanner, and methane
concentration data from the same site obtained from pressure cores.
All data and images from Collett et al., 2008. In the X-ray images,
denser features (carbonate nodules) are dark; less dense features
(gas hydrate veins) are light. [A] X-ray image with enlargements
showing different gas hydrate morphologies (nodules, lenses, veins)
in ine-grained sediment. [B] Horizontal X-ray computed tomographic
slices of the same pressure core showing the complexity of crosscutting gas hydrate vein features present in this clay core. [C] and [D]
Two sets of PCATS data (X-ray images, P-wave, and gamma density
proiles) collected at right angles to each other on the same pressure
core. [E] Logarithm of methane concentration vs. depth, plotted
over phase boundaries for Structure I methane hydrate (calculated
after Xu, 2002, 2004). Background image is resistivity-at-bit data
(lighter=more resistive) collected in a nearby hole. Dashed line is
extrapolated depth of seismic Bottom-Simulating Reflector (BSR)
which agrees closely with the calculated thermodynamic Base of
Gas Hydrate Stability (BGHS) as indicated by the solid horizontal line
of the phase diagram.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 45
Technical Developments
proiles are taken parallel to (along) the major gas hydrate
veins, showing low-density zones and a complex P-wave
velocity proile. Some extreme values are artifacts caused by
pulse interference effects from hydrate structures.
A decision was made to hold ive of these cores for
additional, more detailed shore-based investigations. The
morphology of the gas hydrate within this clay-hosted deposit
is worth extended study, not only to explain the mechanisms
of gas hydrate growth in ine-grained sediments but also to
predict the sediment behavior during gas hydrate dissociation. Models predicting the behavior of such gas-hydratebearing sediments during dissociation, whether for well-bore
stability, geohazard assessment, or potential methane gas
production, are certainly dependent on the small-scale
spatial relationship in the sediment. X-ray computed
tomography (CT) scans showed that the ine-grained
sediments hosted a complex gas hydrate vein network
(Fig. 2B). The pressure cores were individually transferred
into the Instrumented Pressure Testing Chamber (IPTC;
Yun et al., 200�) using the PCATS. Measurements of P-wave
velocity, S-wave velocity, electrical resistance, and strength
of the sediment were made at regular intervals along the
three pressure cores. Cores were then sub-sampled under
pressure with the HYACINTH PRESS system (Parkes et al.,
in press) or rapidly depressurized and placed in liquid
nitrogen for further analyses at varous laboratories.
The rest of the pressure cores had been depressurized
onboard the ship directly after PCATS analyses to determine
A
B
C
Figure 3. [A] Gas hydrate saturation from porewater freshening (blue
circles) and from depressurization experiments and methane mass
balance from pressure cores (red circles) at Site SH2 in the Shenhu
area, South China Sea (Wu et al., in press). [B] Example of gashydrate-bearing sediment from 204 mbsf at Site SH2. Though the core
has a gas hydrate saturation of approximately 30% by pore volume,
no gas hydrate was visible to the naked eye. [C] A gas-hydratebearing pressure core is slowly depressurized to release methane.
A rough compositional test is sometimes performed before gas
chromatographic analysis.
46 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
the exact methane content and hence the gas hydrate saturation (Fig. 2E). Pressure cores are the “gold standard” for gas
hydrate quantiication and are used to calibrate other
methods of gas hydrate detection. The slow, isothermal
release of pressure from a pressure core allows gases to
exsolve from pore �uids and allows gas hydrate to dissociate.
Measuring the quantity of gas, its composition, and its evolution relative to time and pressure provides information on
the quantity, composition, and surface area of gas hydrate
(Kvenvolden et al., 1983; Dickens et al., 2000; Milkov et al.,
2004). The fundamental number obtained through these
experiments is the nominal concentration of methane in the
pore �uids, assuming all methane is in solution. If this nominal concentration is greater than the calculated methane
saturation, gas hydrate (or free gas, depending on the thermodynamic conditions) is assumed to be present, and the
amount can be quantitatively calculated. Data that shows the
sediment is under-saturated in methane is equally important,
as careful pressure core analysis is the only technique that
can conirm the absence of gas hydrate. Figure 2E shows
pressure core methane data from the same site as the core
shown in Figs. 2A–D. All pressure cores taken above the
base of gas hydrate stability were oversaturated in methane,
allowing calculation of the exact quantity of gas hydrate contained in the cores.
China, 2007
China�s irst gas hydrate drilling expedition, GMGS-1
(Fig. 1),, was carried out by Fugro and Geotek for the
Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey (GMGS), China
Geological Survey (CGS), and the Ministry of Land and
Resources of China. The expedition took place on the geotechnical drillship SRV Bavenit, which visited eight sites in
the northern South China Sea (Zhang et al., 2007; Yang et al.,
2008; Wu et al., in press) from April to June 2007. The project
goal�to determine the gas hydrate distribution at as many
sites as possible in the allotted time�required maximum
�exibility in the drilling program. The strategy was to use
pressure cores (FPC and FRPC) and conventional wireline
piston cores to ground-truth wireline logs, and after conidence was developed in the downhole log interpretation,
some locations were surveyed by downhole log alone.
Gas hydrate was detected in a thick layer (10–25 m) just
above the base of gas hydrate stability at three of the ive
sites cored. PCATS pressure core analysis provided groundtruth for gas hydrate saturation, as well as gamma density,
P-wave velocity, and X-ray images at in situ pressure. Gas
hydrate occupied pores between silty clay sediment grains,
in direct contrast to the hydrate-bearing clays cored off
India, which contained hydrate at similar overall saturations
but in distinct veins and layers. While surprising, this conclusion is based on the extremely high gas hydrate saturations
(20�–40�
�–40�
–40� of pore volume), the nature of the matrix (variably
silty clay), the elevated P-wave velocities (over 2000 m s -1)
without change in the gamma density, and the smooth, pre-
The distribution of gas hydrate in the Shenhu region,
within the sediment column and at the grain scale, is
unusually simple and uniform. Its presentation in a relatively
homogenous layer, directly above the base of gas hydrate
stability, is the type of distribution predicted from simple
models of gas hydrate formation (Hyndman and Davis, 1992;
Xu and Ruppel, 1999). However, a clear ield example of such
a gas hydrate distribution has not previously been reported.
Similarly, the homogeneous, pore-illing, small-scale hydrate
distribution found at Shenhu is the type of distribution typically used when modeling gas hydrate formation and dissociation in sediments of all grain sizes. Both of these characteristics would allow the gas-hydrate-bearing sediments in
the Shenhu deposit to be used to test the assumptions and
predictions, at various scales, of some gas hydrate models.
Korea, 2007
Ulleung Basin Gas Hydrate Expedition 1 (UBGH1) was
South Korea�s irst large-scale gas hydrate exploration and
drilling expedition in the East Sea (Fig. 1; Park et al., 2008).
It took place from September to November 2007, aboard the
multipurpose offshore support vessel REM Etive, which was
converted to a drilling ship by Fugro Seacore using the
heave-compensated R100 portable drill rig. The Korean
National Oil Company (KNOC) and Korean Gas Corporation
(KOGAS), advised by the Korean Gas Hydrate R&D
Organization and the Korean Institute of Geoscience and
Mineral
Resources
(KIGAM),
contracted
Fugro,
Schlumberger, and Geotek to investigate ive seismically
identiied locations for gas hydrate in the Ulleung basin
(Stoian et al., 2008). After the previous expeditions, pressure
core analysis was recognized as the key dataset to which all
others could be referenced (Schultheiss et al., 2008b).
Gas hydrate was detected at all three sites cored in the
clay matrix as veins and layers, and as pore-illing material
within silty/sandy layers. Both types of gas hydrate habit
were observed in FPC and FRPC pressure cores via the
PCATS datasets (gamma density, P-wave velocity, X-ray
images), using a PCATS newly equipped with automated
rotational and translational capability. The shipboard PCATS
data showed that a number of cores contained a particularly
dense network of gas hydrate veins (Fig. 4A). These cores
were not depressurized onboard, but instead were transferred under pressure to HYACINTH storage chambers and
saved for detailed post-cruise
-cruise
cruise analysis.
At one site, a 130-m-thick gas-hydrate-bearing sedimentary interval of interbedded sands and clay was penetrated..
This is one of the thickest gas-hydrate-bearing intervals to
be documented worldwide. The gas hydrate saturation from
analysis of pressure cores, which average over a one-meter
sample, was 11�–27� gas hydrate by pore volume in this
A
B
C
Depth (mbsf)
dictable increases in downhole sonic velocity and electrical
resistivity.
Figure 4. [A] X-ray image collected in the PCATS from Expedition
UBGH-1 showing gas hydrate in veins and layers, similar to the
core shown in Fig. 2 ; [B] picture of gas hydrate veins from another
UBGH-1 core; [C] logging-while-drilling electrical resistivity data
from the three “type” locations cored, showing resistivity profiles
differing by orders of magnitude. Gas hydrate was present at all three
locations.
interval. Because much of the gas hydrate was in grain-displacing veins and layers, there was no obvious quantitative
relationship between the electrical resistivity logs and the
average gas hydrate saturation, though the overall magnitudes were correlated (Fig. 4C).
X-ray CT scanning of the saved pressure cores conirmed
the PCATS data, showing a complex fracture structure
within the sediment that was illed with gas hydrate. This
his
information aided in the selection of locations for further
geophysical testing inside cores relative to the sedimentological and gas hydrate structures. These speciic locations
were tested with the IPTC, using the direct-contact probes
to measure P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, electrical
resistivity, and strength. The combined translational and
rotational precision of the PCATS and the radial precision of
the IPTC allowed probes to be inserted into the cores with
millimeter accuracy. The preliminary data indicated that
physical properties varied on a sub-centimeter-scale in these
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 47
Technical Developments
pressure cores containing thin hydrate veins (Park et al.,
2009).
While ive of these cores were depressurized to determine
hydrate saturation during physical measurements (“miniproduction tests”), some of the cores were preserved for
further gas hydrate studies. Two of the cores that were tested
were rapidly depressurized and portions stored in liquid
nitrogen for further testing. In addition, the most lavishlyveined core was not tested invasively and remains stored
under pressure, awaiting equipment to be designed for
further pressurized analyses.
core recovered by the two corers is 57 mm for the FPC and 51
mm for the FRPC, and developments have been planned to
increase the diameter of the FRPC core to match that of the
FPC for increased compatibility in downstream analyses. An
increase in the length of the recovered cores (currently one
meter) is also planned to ensure recovery of the target formations and to maximize the use of valuable ship time.
Over their development period, both the FPC and FRPC
have been incrementally modiied to improve their success
at retaining pressure and the quality of the cut core. Over the
last two years success rates for both tools has been 70�–80�.
The success of such sophisticated tools is markedly improved
when operated in a stable drill string. Experimentation with
systems used routinely in geotechnical drilling, such as
seabed frames in which to clamp the drill string, hass shown
that both the success rate and core quality improve relative
to those taken in an unclamped string.
The ability to manipulate cores, take sub-samples, and
make measurements�all at in situ pressures�were major
objectives of the HYACINTH project. Like the coring tools
themselves, the PCATS has been improved over the past few
years and has major new improvements planned in the next
few years. Non-destructive measurements of pressure cores
in the PCATS have been vitally important as an immediate
survey of the core, to determine if a successful core has been
retrieved and to look for obvious signs of the presence of gas
hydrate. PCATS measurements have also provided primary
data on sediment-hydrate properties to ground-truth largerscale measuremnts. The main analytical improvement that
has been made to the PCATS system is the core manipulation capabilities, that now include fully automated translational and rotational control (±0.5 mm and ±0.5° of accuracy,
respectively). A combination of precise rotational capability
with high-resolution X-ray imaging provides three-dimensional X-ray visualization through the core that enables
es
complex structural features to be examined in detail. This
capability has been used to provide remarkable images,
showing the complexity of gas hydrate vein networks that
can exist in ine-grained sediments, as well as crucial clues
to hydrate vein origin and growth mechanisms. In the future,
CT software integration could enable PCATS to collect and
display X-ray CT data along with the current high-resolution
gamma density and P-wave velocity proiles.
Like all equipment in a state of continuing development,
the HYACINTH tools currently have some intrinsic limitations and inconsistencies, which are being addressed over
time as funding and opportunities allow. The diameter of the
Planned improvements to the PCATS infrastructure in
the near future include lengthening the system to accept
core up to 3.5 m long and active temperature control.. In
addition, a versatile cutter arrangement to subsection long
Future HYACINTH Developments
When a new technique appears, or an old technique is
applied in a new location, new insights follow. The recent
HYACINTH deployments have provided such new insights
into the nature and morphology of natural gas hydrate
(Holland et al., 2008). To continue these ground-breaking
studies, we are making technological improvements to the
HYACINTH system and hope to deploy it in exciting and
diverse formations, on land and under the sea.
A
C
D
B
Figure 5. Interfacing third-party equipment to the HYACINTH PCATS. [A] Quick-clamp; [B] ball valve (65 mm internal diameter) and mating flange;
[C] the DeepIsoBug, showing ball valves and quick-clamps in use ; [D] diagram of the complex subcoring and sampling mechanism at the heart of
the DeepIsoBug. All manipulations are carried out under hyperbaric pressure equivalent to in situ hydrostatic pressure.
48 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
cores into custom lengths will allow further analysis or
storage, as is most appropriate. Parts of a core might be
depressurized on board ship, while other parts of the same
core could be stored under pressure for shore-based studies.
This increased �exibility will enable all cores to be more
fully assessed and will further increase the value of every
pressure core recovered.
PCATS was envisaged and designed as the midpoint, not
the endpoint, of a full pressure coring and pressure core
analysis system. Upstream compatibility to new coring tool
developments and downstream compatibility to third-party
equipment is paramount to its future evolution. The
speciications for the HYACINTH mating �ange, clamps,
and ball valves used in the PCATS (Fig. 5) are publicly
available,, and any investigator may design “PCATScompatible” pressurized equipment. Independent research
scientists have already developed pressurized equipment
that has been used with the PCATS and stored HYACINTH
cores, including the previously mentioned IPTC and the
DeepIsoBug (Schultheiss et al., 200�; Parkes et al., in press).
The DeepIsoBug, designed to take aseptic slices of a subcore
for use in pressurized microbial culturing, has prototyped
some extremely complex core sampling mechanisms under
pressure (Fig. 5D). There are also developments underway
for other PCATS-compatible test apparatus to enable more
sophisticated geotechnical measurements on pressure core
samples.
The ODP and the IODP have been fundamental to the
development of the HYACINTH tools and infrastructure.
ructure.
ucture.
Since its last use for IODP on Exp. 311, the system has
continued to be used and improved on commercially funded
expeditions. With the restart of JOIDES Resolution drilling,
the scientiic community can reap the beneits of these
commercial improvements in pressure coring and analysis,
and will be able to realize its initial investment in these
pressure coring and pressure core analysis systems.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all of the crews, technical
staff, and scientists who sailed on ODP Legs 194, 201, 204,
and IODP Exp. 311, for their patience as the HYACINTH
system found its feet. We would also like to thank
nk the literally
hundreds of people involved in the Indian, Chinese, and
Korean gas hydrate expeditions, especially the funding
agencies (noted in the text) that made the work possible.
References
Collett, T.S., Riedel, M., Boswell, R., Cochran, J.R., Kumar, P., Sethi,
A.K., Sathe, A.V.,, and NGHP Expedition-01 Scientiic Party,,
200�. International team
eam completes
ompletes landmark
andmark gas
as hydrate
ydrate
expedition
xpedition in
n the offshore
ffshore of India.. Fire in
n the Ice (U.S.
DOE–NETL newsletter) Fall 200�, 1–4.
Collett, T., Riedel, M., Cochran, J., Boswell, R., Presley, J., Kumar, P.,
Sathe, A., Sethi, A., Lall, M., Sibal, V., and the NGHP
Expedition 01 Scientists,, 2008. Indian National Gas Hydrate
Program Expedition 01 Initial Reports, Indian Directorate
General of Hydrocarbons, New Delhi, India.
Dickens, G.R., Wallace, P.J., Paull, C.K.,, and Borowski, W.S.,, 2000.
Detection of methane gas hydrate in the pressure core
sampler (PCS): volume-pressure-time relations during
controlled degassing experiments. In Paull, C.K.,
Matsumoto, R., Wallace, P.J., and Dillon, W.P. (Eds.), Proc.
ODP, Sci. Results, 164, College Station, Texas
exas (Ocean
Drilling Program), 113–12�.
Holland, M., Schultheiss, P., Roberts, J., and Druce, M.,, 2008.
Observed gas hydrate morphologies in marine sediments.
Proc. 6th Intl. Conf. Gas Hydrates (ICGH 2008), Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, �–10
–10
10 July 2008.
Hyndman, R.D., and Davis, E.E.,, 1992. A mechanism for the formation
of methane hydrate and sea�oor bottom-simulating
re�ectors by vertical �uid expulsion. J. Geophys. Res.,
97:7025–7041, doi:10.1029/91JB030�1.
Graber, K.K., Pollard, E., Jonasson, B. and Schulte, E.,, 2002. Overview
of ODP engineering tools and hardware. ODP Tech. Note 31,
College Station, Texas (Ocean Drilling Program).
Kvenvolden, K.A., Barnard, L.A.,, and Cameron, D.H.,, 1983. Pressure
core barrel: application to the study of gas hydrates, Deep
Sea Drilling Project Site 533, Leg 7�. In Sheridan, R.E.,
Gradstein, F.M., et al., Init. Repts. DSDP 76, Washington,,
DC (U.S. Govt. Printing Ofice), 3�7–375.
Milkov, A.V., Dickens, G.R., Claypool, G.E., Lee, Y-J., Borowski, W.S.,
Torres, M.E., Xu, W., Tomaru, H., Tréhu, A.M., and
Schultheiss, P.,, 2004. Coexistence of gas hydrate, free gas,
and brine within the regional gas hydrate stability zone at
Hydrate Ridge (Oregon margin): evidence from prolonged
degassing of a pressurized core.. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
222:829–843.,
:829–843.,
829–843., doi:10.101�/j.epsl.2004.03.028.
Park, K.-P., Bahk, J.-J., Kwon, Y., Kim, G.Y., Riedel, M., Holland, M.,
Schultheiss, P., Rose, K., and the UBGH-1 Scientiic Party,,
2008. Korean National Program expedition conirms rich
gas hydrate deposits in the Ulleung basin, East Sea.. Fire in
n
the Ice (U.S/ DOE–NETL newsletter) Spring 2008, �–9.
Park, K.-P., Bahk, J.-J., Holland, M., Yun, T.-S., Schultheiss, P.J.,
Santamarina, C., 2009. Improved pressure core analysis
provides detailed look at Korean cores. Fire in the Ice (U.S.
DOE-NETL Newsletter), Winter 2009.
Parkes, R.J., Amann, H., Holland, M., Martin, D., Schultheiss, P.J.,
Anders, E., Wang, X., and Dotchev, K.,, 2008. Technology for
high-pressure
igh-pressure
pressure
ressure sampling
ampling and analysis
nalysis of deep
eep sea
ea sediments,
ediments,
associated
ssociated gas
as hydrates
ydrates and deep
eep biosphere
iosphere processes.
rocesses.
In Collett, T. (Ed.),
.),
),, AAPG Special Volume on Gas Hydrates,
in press.
Pettigrew, T.L.,, 1992. Design and operation of a wireline pressure
core sampler. ODP Tech. Note 17, College Station, Texas
exas
(Ocean Drilling Program).
Riedel, M., Collett, T.S., Malone, M.J., and the Expedition 311
Scientists, 200�. Proc. IODP, Exp. Repts., 311, College
Station, Texas
exas (Ocean Drilling Program).
Schultheiss, P.J., Francis, T.. J.G.,
.G.,
G., Holland, M., Roberts, J.A., Amann,
H., Thjunjoto, Parkes, R.J., Martin, D., Rothfuss, M.,
Tuynder, F.,, and Jackson, P.D.,, 200�. Pressure coring,
oring,
logging
ogging and sub-sampling
ub-sampling
sampling
ampling with the HYACINTH system..
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 49
Technical Developments
In Rothwell, G. (Ed.), New Techniques in Sediment Core
Analysis, Geol. Soc. London, Spec. Pub., 267:151–163.
:151–163.
151–163.
Schultheiss, P.J., Holland, M.E., and Humphrey, G.D., 2008a. Borehole
pressure coring and laboratory pressure core analysis for
gas hydrate investigations, OTC 19601. Proc. Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, 5–8 May 2008.
Schultheiss, P., Holland, M., Roberts, J., and Humphrey, G., 2008b.
Pressure core analysis as the keystone of a gas hydrate
investigation. Proc. 6th Intl. Conf. Gas Hydrates (ICGH
2008), Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 6–10 July
2008.
Stoian, I., Park, K.-P., Yoo, D.-G., Haacke, R.R., Hyndman, R.D.,
Riedel, M., and Spence, G.D., 2008. Seismic re�ection blank
zones in the Ulleung Basin, offshore Korea, associated with
high concentrations of gas hydrate. Proc. 6th Intl. Conf. Gas
Hydrates (ICGH 2008), Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada, �–10 July 2008.
Takahashi, H., and Tsuji, Y., 2005. Multi-well exploration program in
2004 for natural hydrate in the Nankai trough, offshore
Japan, OTC 171�2. Proc. Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas, 2–5 May 2005.
Tréhu, A.M, Bohrmann, G., Rack, F.R., Torres, M.E., et al., 2003.
Proc. ODP, Init. Repts., 204. [CD-ROM]. Available from:
Ocean Drilling Program, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77845-9547, U.S.A.
Wu, N., Yang, S., Zhang, H., Liang, J., Schultheiss, P., Holland, M.,
Wang, H., Wu, D., Su, X., Fu, S., and Zhu, Y., 2008. Gas
hydrate system of Shenhu Area, Northern South China Sea:
Preliminary geochemical results. J. Asian Earth Sci., in
press.
Xu, W., 2002. Phase balance and dynamic equilibrium during formation and dissociation of methane gas hydrate. Proc. 4th Intl.
Conf. Gas Hydrates, 19023:199–200, Yokohama, Japan.
Xu, W., 2004. Modeling dynamic marine gas hydrate systems. Am.
Mineralogist, 89: 1271–1279.
Xu, W., and Ruppel, C., 1999. Predicting the occurrence, distribution
and evolution of methane gas hydrates in porous sediments.
J. Geophys. Res., 104:5081–509�, doi:10.1029/1998
JB900092.
Yang, S., Zhang, H., Wu, N., Su, X., Schultheiss, P., Holland, M.,
Zhang, G., Liang, J., Lu, J., and Rose, K., 2008. High
concentration hydrate in disseminated forms obtained in
Shenhu area, North Slope of South China Sea. Proc. �th Intl.
Conf. Gas Hydrates (ICGH 2008), Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, �–10 July 2008.
Yun, T.S., Narsilio, G., Santamarina, J.C., and Ruppel, C., 200�.
Instrumented pressure testing chamber for characterizing
sediment cores recovered at in situ hydrostatic pressure.
Mar. Geol., 229:285–293, doi:10.101�/j.margeo.200�.
03.012.
Zhang, H., Yang, S., Wu, N., Su, X., Holland, M., Schultheiss, P., Rose,
K., Butler, H., Humphrey, G., and the GMGS-1 Science
Team, 2007. Successful and surprising results for China�s
irst gas hydrate drilling expedition. Fire in the Ice (U.S.
DOE–NETL newsletter) Fall 2007, �–9.
ZoBell, C.E., and Morita, R.Y., 1957. Barophilic bacteria in some
deep-sea sediments. J. Bacteriol., 73:5�3 – 5�8.
50 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Authors
Peter Schultheiss, Geotek Ltd.,
.,, 3 Faraday Close, Daventry,
Northants, NN11 8RD, UK..
Melanie Holland, Geotek Ltd.,
.,, 3 Faraday Close, Daventry,
Northants, NN11 8RD, UK, e-mail:melanie@geotek.co.uk.
Gary Humphrey, Fugro GeoConsulting, Inc., �100 Hillcroft
Avenue,
nue,, Houston, Texas,
as,, 77081, U.S.A.
Related Web Links
http://w w w.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsFall0�.pdf
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/1201
ht t p://w w w- odp.t amu.edu/publicat ions/tnotes/tn31/
INDEX.HTM
http://w w w.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsSpring08.pdf
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/1200
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/11�2
https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/1178
http://w w w.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsFall07.pdf
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/2minrelief.html
Photo Credits
Fig. 3: N. Wu, GMGS. (Currently at GIEC, Guangzhou
Institute of Energy Conversion)
Fig. 4: J. -H. Chun, KIGAM
Fig. 5: P. Schultheiss
Workshop Reports
Scientific Collaboration on Past Speciation Conditions in
Lake Ohrid–SCOPSCO Workshop Report
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.08.2009
by Bernd Wagner, Thomas Wilke, Sebastian Krastel-Gudegast, Andon Grazhdani,
Klaus Reicherter, Sasho Trajanovski, and Giovanni Zanchetta
Transboundary Lake Ohrid between Albania and
Macedonia (SE Europe, Fig. 1) is considered to be the oldest
continuously existing lake in Europe with a likely age of
three to ive million years. The lake has a surface area of 3�0
km 2 and is 289 m deep. An extraordinarily
ily
y high degree of
endemism, including more than 210 described endemic
species (Fig. 2), makes the lake a unique aquatic ecosystem
of worldwide importance. Due to its old age, Lake Ohrid is
one of the very few lakes in the world representing a hot spot
of evolution and a potential evolutionary reservoir enabling
the survival of relict species (Albrecht and Wilke,, 2008). Its
importance was emphasized when the lake was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
demism in the lake, these records are too short to provide
information about the age and origin of the lake and to
unravel the mechanisms controlling the evolutionary development. Molecular clock analyses of mitochondrial DNA
genes from several endemic species �ocks (i.e., groups of
closely related species) indicate that Lake Ohrid is probably
two to three million years old (Albrecht and Wilke,, 2008).
Moreover, concurrent genetic breaks
eaks
aks in several invertebrate
groups indicate that major geological and/or environmental
events must have shaped the evolutionary history of endemic
faunal elements in Lake Ohrid (Albrecht and Wilke,, 2008).
Different site surveys between 2004 and 2008 (Wagner
et al., 2008b) focused on a detailed seismic investigation
of the sedimentological inventory of the lake and on the
recovery of sediment sequences spanning the last
glacial-interglacial cycle. The results of these site surveys
emphasized the potential of Lake Ohrid for deep drilling.
Such a drilling will allow us to::
L ak
The continuous existence since the Tertiary makes Lake
Ohrid an excellent archive of environmental changes in the
northern
ern Mediterranean region. Because of its geographic
position and its presumed age, Lake Ohrid represents an
important link between climatic and environmental records
from the Mediterranean Sea and the adjacent continents. In
the eastern Mediterranean Sea, most records focus on the
• understand the impact of major geological/environLate Pleistocene and Holocene history (Geraga et al.,, 2005),,
mental events on general evolutionary patterns and on
and only few cover several glacial-interglacial cycles
generating an extraordinary degree of endemic biodi(Schmiedl et al.,, 1998). Similarly, most terrestrial records
versity as a matter of global signiicance,
from this region are restricted to the Late Pleistocene and
Holocene (Denè�e et al.,, 2000;; Sadori and Narcisi,, 2001).
• obtain a continuous record containing information on
Longer continuous records covering more than the last
tectonic and volcanic activities and climate changes in
glacial-interglacial cycle are relatively sparse (Wijmstra,,
the northern
ern Mediterranean region, and
19�9;; Tzedakis et al.,, 1997). Extant sedimentary records
from Lake Ohrid were re15°
20°
25°E
covered
during
ield
campaigns in 1973 (Roelofs
Roman V.
A
B
C
Roccaand Kilham,, 1983) and more
Macedonia
monfina
recently between 2001 and
Vulture
2007 (Belmecheri et al.,, 2007;;
Albania
Campanian V.
40°
Matzinger et al.,, 2007;;
Lake
Ohrid
Wagner et al.,, 2008a,
a,, 2008b).
).
Aeolian Is.
These records cover (with
some hiatuses)
uses) the past
Etna
glacial-interglacial cycle and
Pantelleria
reveal that Lake Ohrid is a
0
100
200 km Mediterranean
valuable archive of volcanic
N
Sea
35°
ash dispersal and climate
Figure 1. [A] Map of the northern Mediterranean region showing the study area (rectangle) and Italian
change in the northern
ern
volcanic regions (circles). [B] The digital elevation model of Lake Ohrid at the Albanian/Macedonian border
Mediterranean
region.
showing that the lake is part of a NNW to SSE striking graben system. [C] Bathymetry of Lake Ohrid with
However, with respect to
25-m contour intervals. The dashed line indicates the border between Albania and Macedonia; the red line
shows the position of the seismic proile shown in Fig. 3.
the extraordinarily
ily
y high ene
P r espa
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 51
Workshop Reports
Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, U.K., and U.S.A.)
participated in the workshop. The agenda included the presentation of posters and talks on the irst day, the formation
of breakout groups and a half-day excursion on the second
day, and the presentation and discussion of the results and
goals deined by the breakout groups, as well as a discussion
of future steps towards deep drilling, on the third day.
Figure 2. Photographs from two representatives of the more than 210
endemic species of Lake Ohrid.
•
obtain more precise information about age and origin of
the lake and, thus, meet key issues of International
Continental Scientiic Drilling Program (ICDP)..
Under the auspices of the ICDP, on 13–17 October 2008 a
workshop was held on the Scientiic Collaboration On Past
Speciation Conditions in Lake Ohrid (SCOPSCO) in the city
of Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia. Its intent was to review the
existing datasets and interpretations as well as discussions
on objectives and intended achievements, required laboratory analyses and techniques, scientiic collaboration and
responsibilities, drill sites and operations, logistics, legal
issues, and funding. Altogether, thirty-four scientists from
eleven nations (Albania, France, Germany, Italy, Macedonia,
Overall, nineteen talks provided a general introduction
into the SCOPSCO project, the history of the region and the
Hydrobiological Institute in Ohrid, and an overview on
existing geological, recent biological, tectonic, and sedimentological datasets. In addition, ive posters focusing on
tectonic and biological aspects were presented. After the
presentation of talks and posters on the irst day, three
breakout groups were formed in order to deine the speciic
aims and drill sites of a future deep drilling campaign. The
three breakout groups focused on the following topics::
(1) speciation and endemism in Lake Ohrid, (2) seismic and
neotectonic issues in Lake Ohrid and its vicinity,, and
(3) sedimentological and tephrostratigraphical questions to
be addressed within the scope of the SCOPSCO project.
The breakout group on speciation and endemism in Lake
Ohrid deined two to three drill sites close to recent
subaquatic springs in the lake where a high degree of
endemism can be observed. The seismic and neotectonic
breakout group deined several drilling target sites on the
basis of more than 500 km of seismic proiles across the lake
(Figs.. 1 and 3). Drilling less than about 200 m into the
sediments at these sites will allow for a better understanding
of the sediment input into the lake, the formation and
chronology of foresets and slides (particularly
particularly in the southern
part of the lake),
),, and the fault development mainly along the
western and eastern sides of
the lake. One
ne drill site was
deined for
or sedimentological
and
tephrostratigraphical
issues, including the reconstruction of the past environmental conditions at Lake
Ohrid
throughout
its
existence. This main drill site
is located in the central,
almost deepest part of the
lake, where a sediment ill of
about 700 m (Fig. 3) promises
to contain the complete
history of the lake back to its
origin.
Figure 3. Brute stack of a multichannel air-gun seismic proile collected in 2007 (Krastel et al., unpublished
data). The central part of the proile indicates a >700-m-thick succession of undisturbed sediments.
52 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Possible overlaps, particularly between sites for
studying neotectonic activities and those providing
information to speciation
and endemism around the
springs, will reduce the number of total target sites to about
ive or six. For all sites, downhole logging and core logging
issues were discussed and deined.
Sadori,, L.,
.,, and Narcisi,, B.,
., 2001.. The postglacial record of environmental history from Lago di Pergusa, Sicily. The Holocene,
11:�55–�70, doi:10.1191/0959�830195�81.
Schmiedl,, G.,
.,, Hemleben,, C.,
.,, Keller,, J.,
.,, and Segl,, M.,
., 1998.. Impact of
The excursion in the afternoon of the second day led to
the Galicica Mountains, which separate lakes Ohrid and
Prespa,, and later to the southeastern part of Lake Ohrid to
visit St. Naum springs, which form a major part of the water
supply to the lake. The third day of the workshop focused on
future steps towards an ICDP deep drilling campaign, with
respect to logistic and legal issues, funding within the scope
of national and international programs,, and support by local
ministries and institutes. Finally, the schedule for submission of a full proposal was established.
climatic changes on the benthic foraminiferal fauna in the
Ionian Sea during the last 330,000 years. Paleoceanography,
13:447–458, doi:10.1029/98PA018�4.
Tzedakis,, P.C.,
.C.,
C.,
.,, Andrieu,, V.,
.,, de Beaulieu,, J.-L.,
.-L.,
-L.,
.,, Crowhurst,, S.,
.,, Follieri,,
M.,
.,, Hooghiemstra,, H.,
.,, Magri,, D.,
.,, Reille,, M.,
.,, Sadori,, L.,
.,,
Shackleton,, N.J.,
.J.,
J.,
.,, and Wijmstra,, T.A.,
.A.,
A.,
., 1997.. Comparison of
terrestrial and marine records of changing climate of the
last 500,000 years. Earth Planet.. Sci.. Lett.., 150:171–17�,
doi:10.101�/S0012-821X(97)00078-2.
Wagner,, B.,
.,, Lotter,, A.F.,
.F.,
F.,
.,, Nowaczyk,, N.,
.,, Reed,, J.M.,
.M.,
M.,
.,, Schwalb,, A.,
.,,
Sulpizio,, R.,
.,, Valsecchi,, V.,
.,, Wessels,, M.,
.,, and Zanchetta,, G.,
.,
In summary, the SCOPSCO workshop provided a reliable
platform to discuss the present state of knowledge and future
steps towards a deep drilling campaign. A full proposal for an
ICDP drilling campaign will be submitted in 2009.
2008a. A 40,000-year record of environmental change from
ancient Lake Ohrid (Albania and Macedonia). J.. Paleolimnol..,
(in press),, doi: 10.1007/s10933-008-9234-2.
Wagner,, B.,
.,, Reicherter,, K.,
.,, Daut,, G.,
.,, Wessels,, M.,
.,, Matzinger,, A.,
.,,
Schwalb,, A.,
.,, Spirkovski,, Z.,
.,, and Sanxhaku,, M.,
., 2008b.
b. The
Acknowledgements
potential of Lake Ohrid for long-term palaeoenvironmental
reconstructions. Palaeogeogr.. Palaeoclimatol.. Palaeoecol..,
The SCOPSCO workshop was hosted by the
Hydrobiological Institute in Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia,
and funded by the International Continental Scientiic
Drilling Program (ICDP) and the Ministry of Environment
and Physical Planning and the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Republic of Macedonia.
References
Albrecht,, C.,
.,, and Wilke,, T.,
., 2008.. Ancient Lake Ohrid: biodiversity
and evolution. Hydrobiologia, �15:103–140
�15:103–140, doi:10.1007/
s10750-008-9558-y.
Belmecheri,, S.,
.,, von Grafenstein,, U.,
.,, Bordon,, A.,
.,, Andersen,, N.,
.,, Lézine,,
A.M.,
.M.,
M.,
.,, Mazaud,, A.,
.,, and Grenier,, C.,
., 2007.. Last Glacial-interglacial cycle palaeoclimatology and palaeoecology reconstruction in the southern Balkans: an ostracode stable isotope record from Lake Ohrid (Albania). Geophys.. Res.. Abstr..,
9:09�22..
Denè�e,, M.,
.,, Lézine,, A.M.,
.M.,
M.,
.,, Fouache,, E.,
.,, and Dufaure,, J.J.,
.J.,
J.,
., 2000..
A 12,000 year
ear pollen
ollen record
ecord from Lake Maliq, Albania. Quat..
Res.., 54:423–432, doi:10.100�/qres.2000.2179.
Geraga,, M.,
.,, Tsaila-Monopolis,, S.,
.,, Ioaim,, C.,
.,, Papatheodorou,, G.,
.,, and
Ferentinos,, G.,
., 2005.. Short-term climate changes in the
southern Aegean Sea over the last 48,000 years. Palaeogeogr..
Palaeoclimatol.. Palaeoecol.., 220:311–332, doi:10.101�/j.
palaeo.2005.01.010.
259:341–35�, doi:10.101�/j.palaeo.2007.10.015.
Wijmstra,, T.A.,
.A.,
A.,
., 19�9.. Palynology of the irst 30 m of a 120 m deep
section in northern Greece. Act. Bot. Neerl.., 18:511–527..
Authors
Bernd Wagner, Institute of Geology and Mineralogy,
University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 49a, D-50�74 Köln,
Germany, e-mail: wagnerb@uni-koeln.de..
Thomas Wilke, Animal Ecology and Systematics, Justus
Liebig University Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 2�-32,
D-35392 Giessen, Germany..
Sebastian Krastel-Gudegast, Leibniz Institute of Marine
Sciences (IFM-GEOMAR), Wischhofstr. 1-3, D-24148 Kiel,
Germany.
Andon Grazhdani, Universiteti Politeknik, Fakulteti i
Gjeologjise dhe Minierave, Tiranė, Albania..
Klaus Reicherter, Lehr- und Forschungsgebiet Neotektonik
und Georisiken, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstr. 4-20,
D-5205� Aachen, Germany..
Sasho Trajanovski, Hydrobiological Institute Ohrid, Naum
Ohridski 50, �000 Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia..
Giovanni Zanchetta, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra,
University of Pisa, Via S. Maria 5�, I-5�12� Pisa, Italy.
Related Web Links
Matzinger,, A.,
.,, Schmid,, M.,
.,, Veljanoska-Sarailoska,, E.,
.,, Patceva,, S.,
.,,
Guseka,, D.,
.,, Wagner,, B.,
.,, Sturm,, M.,
.,, Müller,, B.,
.,, and Wüest,,
A.,
., 2007.. Assessment of early eutrophication in ancient
lakes – A case study of Lake Ohrid. Limnol.. Oceanogr..,
52:338–353..
http://www.geologie.uni-koeln.de/lake_ohrid.html
http://ohrid.icdp-online.org
Photo Credits
Roelofs,, A.K.,
.K.,
K.,
.,, and Kilham,, P.,
., 1983.. The diatom stratigraphy and
paleoecology of Lake Ohrid, Yugoslavia. Palaeogeogr..
Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol..,
42:225–245,
doi:10.101�/
Fig. 1: Wagner et al., 2008b
Fig. 2:: photo by T. Wilke
0031-0182(83)90024-X.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 53
Workshop Reports
The Magma-Hydrothermal System at Mutnovsky Volcano,
Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia
by John Eichelberger, Alexey Kiryukhin, and Adam Simon
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.09.2009
Introduction
What is the relationship between the kindss of volcanoes
that ring the Paciic plate and nearby hydrothermal systems?
A typical geometry for stratovolcanoes and dome complexes
is summit fumaroles and hydrothermal manifestations on
and beyond their �anks. Analogous subsurface mineralization is porphyry copper deposits �anked by shallow Cu-As-Au
acid-sulfate deposits and base metal veins. Possible reasons
for this association are (1) upward and outward �ow of magmatic gas and heat from the volcano�s conduit and magma
reservoir, mixing with meteoric water; (2) dikes extending
from or feeding towards the volcano that extend laterally
well beyond the surface ediice, heating a broad region; or
(3) peripheral hot intrusions that are remnants of previous
volcanic episodes,, unrelated to current volcanism.
These hypotheses are testable through a Mutnovsky
Scientiic Drilling Project (MSDP) that was discussed in a
workshop during the last week of September 200� at a key
example, the Mutnovsky Volcano of Kamchatka. Hypothesis
(1) was regarded as the most likely. It is also the most attractive since it could lead to a new understanding of the
magma-hydrothermal connection and motivate global
geothermal exploration of andesitic arc volcanoes.
Geology and Volcanic Activity of
Mutnovsky Volcano
Mutnovsky Volcano on Russia�s Kamchatka Peninsula
(Fig. 1) is exemplary of associated hydrothermal and volcanic
regimes. The volcano has gone through four stages spanning late Pleistocene through Holocene time. Each stage
probably re�ects the evolution of a small shallow magma
reservoir, and the transition from one stage to the next has
involved a shift of the eruptive center and perhaps the active
reservoir by as much as 1 km. All stages except for the
current incompletely developed stage have produced
magmas ranging from basalt to dacite (Selyangin, 1993).
Mutnovsky IV is characterized by basaltic andesites.
Mutnovsky III ended its eruptive cycle with a Holocene eruption of dacitic pyroclastic �ows and emplacement of a dacite
dome within its crater (Fig. 2). This crater has been enlarged
by explosion, collapse, and/or erosion and is now occupied
by a crater
rater glacier,
lacier, possibly the main recharge source of the
hydrothermal system. The breach in Mutnovsky III crater,
cut by a river,
iver, exposes a magniicent dike swarm (Fig. 3).
The crater of Mutnovsky III is the scene of intense fumarolic activity, modestly superheated and arranged in a ring,
apparently deining the conduit margin of the late dacite
dome. A powerful phreatic explosion in 2000 at the edge of
the adjoined Mutnovsky IV crater reopened a large preexisting sub-crater. This event appears to have been caused
Figure 1. Kamchatka Peninsula with location for Mutnovsky and Goroly
volcanoes shown (from Lees et al., 2007; image from http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/2000/2967/PIA03374_lrg.
jpg) and http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/kamchatka_sites.
54 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Figure 2. Mutnovsky Volcano from the west. The Crater Glacier and
the hydrothermal plume of Mutnovsky III crater is visible through
the breach formed by the Volcannaya River in Dangerous Ravine
left of center. The larger plume from the Active Crater of Mutnovsky
IV rises to the right. Width of the ield of view is approximately 3 km
(photo by J. Eichelberger).
by a dike propagating upward
and intersecting the hydrothermal system centered
beneath Mutnovsky IV. A
second power-ful explosion
occurred in 2007, excavating
a new sub-crater on the �oor
of the active
ctive crater
rater of
Mutnovsky IV.
Mutnovsky�s geothermal
ield (Dachny) was discovered in 19�0 and described
in detail by Vakin et al. (197�).
The active
ctive crater
rater (Mutnovsky
JOUSVTJPOT
IV) has fumaroles as hot
#PSFIPMFT
as �20 ºC, emitting
ting a continuous
SO2 -rich
plume
Figure 4. Cross-section and conceptual geothermal/hydrogeological model of the Mutnovsky volcano
(92.8 wt� steam, 3.3wt � CO2 ,
(Mutnovsky geothermal ield system). MSDP1: potential borehole for the Mutnovsky Scientiic Drilling
Program. Upflow rates estimated based on numerical models are 50–60 kg s-1 with enthalpies of
2.9 wt� SO2 , 0.� wt� H 2 S,
1270–1390 kJ kg-1. (by A. Kiryukhin and J. Eichelberger)
0.3 wt� HCl, 0.1 wt� HF and
H 2). Mutnovsky craters� comSeismic modeling of Mutnovsky IV volcano’s magma
bined thermal (>1000
>1000 MWt
chamber, performed recently by Utkin et al. (2005), yielded
with temperatures above �00 ºC)) and gas emission
the following estimations of chamber parameters:
(~100
~100 T d -1 SO2; Trukhin, 2003)) imply shallow magma deelevation-1.7 km (approximately 3 km depth), radius 1.5 km,
gassing (Wallace et al., 2003) and cooling at a rate on the
3 -1
temperature 900 ºC–1250 ºC. Heat content of the chamber
order of 1 m s , a rate comparable to recent dome lava
and
adjacent host rocks is estimated to be 3 × 10 19 J. Fumaroles
discharge rates of Mount St.. Helens. This is exceptional for a
of the volcano are grouped as the Upper Field (UF) and
volcano in repose and would seem to require robust magma
Bottom Field (BF) of Mutnovsky III Crater and the Active
convection within Mutnovsky�s conduit. Moreover, the
Crater (AC) of Mutnovsky IV (Fig. 4).
magmatic contribution is an underestimate because the
hydrothermal system is apparently scrubbing gas output, an
important issue in volcano monitoring. Scrubbing has given
rise to an extraordinarily diverse population of Sulfolobus, a
single-celled Archaea micro-organism. The opportunity to
deine the pressure and temperature limits of such microbiological activity as well as constrain its rate of evolution in a
primordial environment is an exciting one, with implications
for the origin of life on Earth and existence of life elsewhere
in the solar
olar system.
ystem.
Figure 3. Dike swarm exposed in the wall of Mutnovsky III crater. Height of
ield of view is approximately 500 m (photo by J. Eichelberger).
In the laboratory, volcanic gases sampled with evacuated
bottles were analyzed for SO2 and H 2 S.. Condensates
ondensates were
analyzed for HF, HCl,, and HBr, and δD and δ18 O values were
determined in water from condensates. On a δD-δ18 O plot, all
sampling points are close to a classic mixing line between
magmatic water and local meteoric waters (Fig. 5). However,
correlations between isotopic and chemical compositions
Figure 5. Integrated δD vs δ18 O data of the Mutnovsky geothermal
field (red circles - production wells, blue circles - meteoric waters;
Kiryukhin et al., 1998; 2002) and Mutnovsky crater fumaroles
(Zelensky et al., 2002).
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 55
Workshop Reports
divide all fumaroles into two independent hydrothermal
systems.
The Mutnovsky Geothermal Field
The main and the most powerful hydrothermal system
discharges at the active crater and the BF. Gases of this
system originate from mixing of magmatic 800 ºC �uid with
low temperature (100 ºC–150 ºC) hydrothermal steam. The
source of the steam, according to its isotopic composition,
may be meteoric waters from 900 m elevation. Another
powerful hydrothermal system discharges as the upper
fumarolic ield (UF) with rather high temperature (300 ºC)
meteoric steam along with a very low content of acids. The
steam mixes with cold meteoric water from 1500 m elevation, probably from the adjacent crater glacier. Complementary
to the fumarole volatiles, an isotopic geochemistry study has
been performed on the trace metals in the fumaroles. The
solutions in the boilers have compositions that appear to be
unique in the world due to extremely high contents of Cl, Cr,
Ni, Co, Ti, V, and B (Bortnikova et al., 2007). These elements
are extracted from magma and wall rocks by acid magmatic
gases and then concentrated in zones of secondary boiling.
Thus, a modern ore-forming zone exists in the region of
brine formation.
Exploration work began in 1978, including delineation of
surface manifestations, temperatures, soil gas surveys,
resistivity surveys, T-gradient drilling, and drilling of
eighty-nine exploration wells. Flow tests from production
wells, conducted during the 1983–1987 time period, and
modeling conirmed the potential for 50 MWe production.
Hence, in 1999 a pilot 12 MWe power plant was put into
operation, followed in 2002 by the Mutnovsky 50 MWe power
plant, located about 8 km NNE of the Mutnovsky II Crater.
Mutnovsky�s geothermal power plant provides one-third
-third
third of
the nearby city
ity of Petropavlovsk�s electric power
Conceptual Model
odel of the Mutnovsky
Magma-Hydrothermal
agma-Hydrothermal
Hydrothermal
ydrothermal System
ystem
At Mutnovsky there are two strong arguments for a direct
connection between geothermal production and active
magma beneath the volcano. First, the main production zone
in the Mutnovsky ield is a dyke-like plane of high permeability that if projected towards the volcano intersects the active
conduit at shallow depth. Second, there is a component of the
producing �uid, deined in terms of O and H isotopic composition, for which the only known equivalent is the crater
rater
glacier.
lacier. The glacier apparently acts as the main source of
meteoric water recharge area for the �uids producing by
exploitation wells. Meteoric recharge is accelerated by melting of the glacier due to high heat �ows in the crater
(Fig. 4).
Thermal input to the production zone may alternatively
come from other magmatic bodies accumulated in the North
56 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
Mutnovsky volcano-tectonic zone. Some of the wells bottom
in diorite intrusives that could represent a local heat source.
It is not clear at present whether or not such bodies are (1)
directly connected to the magmatic system of the active
Mutnovsky volcano, (2) isolated remnants of magma intruded
into the plane of hydro-magma-fracturing created by
Mutnovsky volcano, or (3) as some have argued, much older
intrusions related to a predecessor magmatic system
unrelated to the current volcanic activity.
Mutnovsky Scientific Drilling Project
Workshop 2006
Thirty-nine presenting scientists from Russia and six
countries abroad, and many additional Russian participants
for a total of about seventy,, met in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
in September 200� to consider scientiic drilling at
Mutnovsky. The meeting was held at the Institute for
Volcanology and Seismology (IVS), Academy of Science of
the Russian Far East.
The project concept, as introduced at the start of the
meeting, was to drill and sample the magma-hydrothermal
system at a point intermediate between the active craters
and the geothermal production ield, and to conduct hydraulic
and chemical tests to assess their connectivity. With a system
geometry characterized by lateral transition from magmatic
vapor to dilute hydrothermal �uid at <2 km depth, Mutnovsky
is an attractive drilling target for understanding
magma-hydrothermal interactions. The presentations and
discussions included a number of past and current scientiic
drilling projects such as deepening of commercially drilled
wells for scientiic purposes. Further deliberations
highlighted the research on several wells that have been
drilled to depths exceeding 2000 m and to temperatures
exceeding 300 ºC.
Through
hrough the efforts of Russian scientists and the local
development company,, a large body of data already exists for
the Mutnovsky system concerning �uid composition and
conditions in the geothermal and volcanic systems. Some
ome
interesting pressure excursions have been associated with
regional earthquakes, suggesting that the entire system may
be a sensitive strainmeter. The three fumarole ields within
the crater were deined as related through dilution of magmatic gas by meteoric water. Fumaroles depositing pyrite
and arsenopyrite explain the remarkable chemistry (for
for
example, the highest fumarolic Cr concentrations ever
recorded).
).. Mutnovsky�s fumaroles are an epithermal
ore-depositing system in action and have been termed
“a unique natural chemical reactor” where thirty-ive
previously unknown hydrothermal minerals have been discovered. In counterpoint, some scientists view the volcano as
a parasitic chimney on a more powerful and older Mutnovsky
hydrothermal system. It should also be noted that the diverse
microbiological population of extremophiles is an object of
extensive international research.
The workshop moved to the Mutnovsky Power Plant for
two days of tours and discussions. The highlight of the meeting was the visit to Mutnovsky’s craters. Under the leadership of Adam Simon, proposals for this pre-drilling phase of
the project are being submitted to the U.S. National Science
Foundation.
Proposed Surface
urface and Holes
oles of
Opportunity
pportunity Investigations
nvestigations
There are a number of surface investigations that will
contribute to testing the single system hypothesis and help
to guide and complement later dedicated scientiic drilling.
Thermal horizons, both magmatic and aqueous, have very
low electrical resistivity in comparison with host rocks,, and
this resistivity provides a basis for using
ing surface electromagnetic methods for their spatial deinition. Magneto-telluric
soundings can be used to illuminate the magma-hydrothermal
system by imaging conductivity distribution. Self-potential
(SP) anomalies are directly related to subsurface heat and
�uid movements;; thus,
hus, SP mapping and modeling are strong
toolss to investigate the structure of a volcanic body and
geothermal reservoir. In studying the Mutnovsky geothermal
ield, an SP mapping survey will be conducted widely in and
around the Mutnovsky volcano.
In the area around the volcano there are no seismic
stations. The nearest one is near Gorely Volcano at a distance
of about 12 km to the northwest. In this situation, it is impossible to deine seismic activity at Mutnovsky Volcano on a
satisfactory level. One of the main tasks for future investigationss in this area is acquisition of suficient local seismic and
geodetic observations in order to differentiate between
production-caused and natural events and to assess the
connectedness of the volcano and geothermal system
(Fig. �). If there is a hydraulic connection between the
volcano and the geothermal ield due to migration of magma,
�uids, or both, the 4-D pattern of deformation and seismicity
should detect it..
The project also proposes to establish and monitor a
micro-gravity network and a continuous-gravity
-gravity
gravity network at
Mutnovsky,, both
oth of which will require GPS elevation control.
The aim of the micro-gravity and ground deformation
network is to quantify any sub-surface mass movements
occurring as a result of magma movements, degassing
episodes, hydrothermal activity and geothermal exploitation.
In particular, microgravity data may be able to differentiate
between deformation caused by migration of �uids and that
caused by migration of magma.
Investigation of aqueous geochemistry of the system will
be expanded so that analysis of surface and borehole �uids
from the north �ank of Mutnovsky and the production ield
span the same range of elements and isotopes as the
thoroughly studied crater fumarole ields. These data will
permit a much better assessment of Mutnovsky Volcano�s
contribution to the geothermal system than is possible now.
At this time there is just one well, where pressure monitoring with a capillary tubing system has been conducted
from 1995 until September 200�. Intriguing pressure excursions have been recorded during and just prior to regional
earthquakes. The hydrothermal system appears to function
as a sensitive strainmeter.
This is consistent with many
recent studies citing seismicity
at volcanoes triggered by
distant earthquakes, and speculating that earthquakes could
trigger eruption. The utility of
pressure sensors in multiple
boreholes
in
assessing
connectivity of the system is
obvious, and it may even be
possible to capture the �uid
pressure signal in the near and
far ields from phreatic
explosions such as occurred in
2000 and 2007.
Figure 6. Proposed 20-station real-time seismic network at Mutnovsky Volcano and geothermal ield. Earthquake epicenters (2001–2005) range in magnitude from Ml=1.8 to 3.8. Red lines mark the high permeability
planes where production wells are located. Blue lines mark geothermal contours at 250 mbsl (from Kiryukhin
et al., 1998). Earthquake data are from the Kamchatka Branch of the Geophysical Service (KBGS), and the
base photo is from Google Earth.
A considerable amount of
core has already been acquired
in the course of exploration
and development of the
Mutnovsky geothermal ield.
Core
ore parameters are planned
to be measured: density,
porosity, gas permeability,
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 57
Workshop Reports
pore space structure, microfracture network, sonic velocities, geomechanical characteristics (compression and tensile
strength, elastic modulus), thermal and magnetic properties,
and then interpreted according to the rocks’ petrography.
These subsurface properties will be used to create improved
geophysical and surface deformation models. Chemical
investigations of available core and surface samples will also
reveal the internal geochemical stratigraphy of Mutnovsky
Volcano.
olcano. This work will involve unit-by-unit,
-by-unit,
by-unit,
-unit,
unit, high-quality
geochemical analyses of drill core recovered by the project.
The analyses of major and trace elements by X-ray
ray
ay
fluorescence
luorescence spectroscopy
pectroscopy will also serve to identify hydrothermal alteration processes and the extent of alteration of
the original magmas. These data will deine the magma
evolution of the Mutnovsky systems and its relationship to
mineralization.
A goal of hydrothermal petrology of core will be to understand the permeability controls and chemical evolution of
high-temperature, magmatically driven hydrothermal
systems, mechanisms for focusing ore-formation, and energy
use of Mutnovsky-type geothermal resources. The gas and
heat output of the volcano can be viewed as providing a
measure of the amount of magma undergoing decompression
and cooling, respectively, per unit time. Taking the rough
estimate of Mutnovsky�s fumarolic SO2 output of ~100 T d -1
and applying a value of solubility of S in basaltic andesite of
400 ppm (Wallace et al., 2003) yields a result that about
1 m 3 s -1 of magma must be decompressed to maintain this
discharge rate. Cooling this amount of magma would satisfy
the ~1000 MWe thermal budget as well. This is not
insigniicant, being equivalent to the rate of extrusion of
dome lava in 2007 at Mount St. Helens volcano, yet Mutnovsky
is not erupting. The only obvious explanation for this behavior
is that magma is vigorously convecting within the conduit
that is undergoing decompression, but the degassed and
cooled magma is �owing back down the conduit rather than
erupting. An ascent rate of 1 cm s -1, (equivalent to that
commonly inferred for lava eruptions) over a cross-sectional
conduit area of 10 m2 would supply the observed SO2
discharge. When combined with new data on geochemistry
of Mutnovsky magma and melt volatiles as a function of time,
coupled gas/heat/mass �ux observations will provide an
unprecedented deinition of the source term for the
Mutnovsky magma-hydrothermal system.
Drilling Investigations
nvestigations
If the hypothesis of a direct magma-hydrothermal
connection at Mutnovsky is correct, then our objective will
become to penetrate and sample the transition zone. Such a
borehole will become a key observation midpoint and sample
port in a ~10-km-long fracture-hosted system,, with active
magma at one end and geothermal production at the other.
The magmatic end will be monitored at the surface within
Mutnovsky III and active
ctive craters,
raters,, and the geothermal end
will be monitored at depth through existing wells. In addition
58 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
to obtaining direct information on the current chemical and
physical state of the system, it will be possible to use timedependent behavior to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the entire system.
The plan for drilling will be developed in parallel with
progress in the surface investigations;; however,
owever, some aspects
of drilling can be considered now. It seems clear that drilling
should penetrate as far beneath the Mutnovsky ediice and
as close to the active conduit as possible. The borehole will
therefore need to be directionally drilled. Its path should
take it across the projection of the plane of geothermal
production. The science team will continue discussions with
the local geothermal company concerning the extent to
which geothermal and scientiic objectives can be combined
and hence costs shared (for
or example, whether this could be
a geothermal well that will be deepened for the scientiic
objectives).
).. An important question is how close the well or
wells can be sited to the volcano. If drilling conditions are
favorable and data indicate that the active conduit is within
reach, a subsequent stage of the project will be proposed
aimed at intersecting, quenching at depth, and sampling
magma. This is an objective embraced by the decadal white
paper of ICDP (Harms et al, 2007) and would provide an
unprecedented “ground truth” in volcanology, both in terms
of the internal structure and conditions of volcanoes and the
state and composition of unerupted magma. It will also be
envisaged that MSDP will support continuation of the
International Volcanological Field School based on
Mutnovsky and founded in 2003 by the Kamchatka State
University and University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Summary
The MSDP proposes a comprehensive geophysical and
geochemical research program with stages wherein drilling
will play an increasingly important role. Immediate priorities
are magneto-telluric, seismic, geodetic, and gravity surveys
to deine the extent and behavior of the magma-hydrothermal
system. The geothermal development company is currently
drilling new 2000-m wells. This irm and the scientiic
drilling consortium formed at the workshop have agreed to
collaborate in order to maximize scientiic gain from drilled
wells.
Based on results from this irst phase, MSDP will drill a
more proximal portion of the system that is hotter and more
enriched in magmatic components than subsurface �uids
previously sampled. Physical properties measurements on
core will be used to reine initial geophysical models,
particularly rheological properties relevant to inversion of
measured surface displacements. Tracer and hydraulic tests
will be used to assess overall connectivity of the system,
from crater to production zone. Natural events, the numerous
strong regional earthquakes and occasional eruptions, will
also provide pressure perturbation tests. Finally, if feasibility
can be demonstrated, we hope that the project will attempt to
penetrate Mutnovsky’s active conduit. The goal of reaching
magma in a decadal time frame is one endorsed by the
International Continental Scientiic Drilling Program White
Paper (Harms et al., 2007).
We anticipate important results in the following areas:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
�.
The relationship of hydrothermal activity to active
volcanism, with implications for future geothermal
exploration of circum-Paciic and other supra-subduction
zone volcanoes.
The relationship of active ore deposition to �uid regimes,
transitioning from high-temperature acid magmatic to
moderate-temperature
-temperature
temperature neutral hydrothermal.
The extent and evolution of life in a sulfur-rich environment spanning a large temperature and pressure range
New constraints on the volatile budget of arc volcanoes;
in particular, an assessment of subsurface “losses” to
hydrothermal systems relevant to use of SO2 emission
as a monitoring and eruption-predictive tool.
The deep structure of arc volcanoes and the nature of
unerupted magma.
Engagement of students from a number of countries in
international, resource-oriented research.
Acknowledgements
We thank the ICDP, IVS, UAFGI, Geotherm JSC, and SUE
Kamchatskburgeotermia for their generous support. We also
thank Uli Harms for persistence in extracting and patience
in editing this report. Interested scientists are encouraged to
write the authors of this report in order to be included in
future communications and discussions.
References
eferences
ferences
erences
Bortnikova, S.B., Sharapov, V.N., and Bessanova, E.P., 2007. Hydrogeochemical composition of springs at the Donnoe Fumarole
Field, Mutnovsky Volcano (Southern Kamchatka) and
problems of their relation with supercritical magmatic
�uids. Dokl. Earth Sci., 413A(3):410–414, doi:10.1134/
S1028334X07030208.
Harms, U., Koeberl, C., and Zoback, M.D., 2007. Continental Scientific
Drilling: A Decade of Progress and Challenges for the Future.
Berlin (Springer), 3�� pp.
Kiryukhin, A. V., Korneev, V.A., and Polyakov, A.Yu., 200�. On a
possible relationship between strong earthquakes and
anomalous pressure variations in a two-phase geothermal
reservoir. Volcanology and Seismology Journal, �:3–11 (in
Russian).
Kiryukhin, A.V., Leonov, V.L., Slovtsov, I.B., Delemen, I.F., Puzankov,
M.Yu., Polyakov, A.Yu., Ivanysko, G.O., Bataeva, O.P., and
Zelenskii, M.E., 2005. Modeling the utilization of area
Dachnyi of the Mutnovskii geothermal ield in connection
with the supply of heat-transfer agent to the 50 MW
Mutnovskii Geologic Power Station. Vulkanologiya i
Seismologiya, 5:19–44. Russian
Kiryukhin, A.V., Takahashi, M., Polyakov, A.Yu., Lesnykh, M.D., and
Bataeva, O.P., 1998. Origin of water in the Mutnovsky geo-
thermal ield: an oxygen (18 O) and hydrogen (D) study.
Volcanology and Seismology Journal, 4–5:54–�2 (in
Russian).
Lees, J.M., VanDecar, J., Gordeev, E., Ozerov, A., Brandon, M., Park,
J., and Levin, V., 2007. Three-dimensional images of the
Kamchatka-Paciic plate cusp. In Eichelberger, J., Gordeev,
E., Kasahara, M., Izbekov, P., and Lees, J. (Eds.), Volcanism
and Subduction: The Kamchatka Region, Geophysical
Monograph Series 172, American Geophysical Union: �5–75.
Selyangin, O.B., 1993. New about Mutnovsky volcano. Vulkanologiya i
Seismologiya, 1:17–35 (in Russian).
Trukhin, Y.P., 2003. Geochemistry of the Active Geothermal Processes
and Geotechnologies Applications. Moscow (Nauka Publ.),
37� pp. (in Russian).
Utkin, I.S., Fedotov, S.A., Delemen, I.F., and Utkina, L.I., 2005.
Dynamics of the development of �owing magmatic chambers
on Mutnovsko-Gorelovsky group of volcanoes, their thermal
ields and underground heat capacity. Volcanology and
Seismology Journal, 5:1-30 (in Russian).
Vakin, E.A., Kirsanov, I.T., and Kirsanova, T.P., 197�. Hot areas and
thermal springs of the Mutnovskii volcanic region.
Gidroterm. Sist. Term. Polya Kamchatski: 85–114 (in
Russian).
Wallace, P.J., Carn, A.S., Rose, I.W., Bluth, J.S.G., and Gerlach, T.,
2003. Integrating petrologic and remote sensing perspectives on magmatic volatiles and volcanic degassing. EOS,
Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 84(42):441–447, doi:10.1029/
2003EO420001.
Zelensky, M.E., Ovsyannikov, A.A., Gavrilenko, G.M., and Senyukov,
S.L., 2002. Eruption of Mutnovskii Volcano, Kamchatka,
March 17, 2000. Volcanology and Seismology Journal, �:25–28
(in Russian).
Authors
John Eichelberger, University of Alaska Fairbanks,,
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Reichardt Building,
Alaska, U.S.A. [Current
Current Address: Volcano Hazards Program,
U.S. Geological Survey, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, MS 904,
Reston, Va., 20192, U.S.A., e-mail: jeichelberger@usgs.gov.]
Alexey Kiryukhin, Institute of Volcanology and Seismology,
9 Piip Boulevard, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, �8300�,
Russia.
Adam Simon, Department of Geoscience, University of
Nevada–Las
–Las
Las Vegas, 4505 South
outh Maryland Parkway, Las
Vegas, Nev.,, 89154-4010, U.S.A.
Related Web Links
http://kamchatka.icdp-online.org
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/
2000/29�7/PIA03374_lrg.jpg
http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/kamcatka_sites
Photo Credits
Figs. 2 and 3: J. Eichelberger
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 59
Workshop Reports
MOLE: A Multidisciplinary Observatory and Laboratory of
Experiments in Central Italy
by Massimo Cocco, Paola Montone, Massimiliano R. Barchi,
Georg Dresen, and Mark D. Zoback
doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.7.10.2009
Introduction
The structure and mechanics of active Low Angle Normal
Faults (LANFs)
s)) have for decades been posing questions—in
particular,, if low angle normal faults accommodate crustal
extension,, and if they generate large magnitude earthquakes,,
or if they move aseismically. To shed new light on these
challenging questions, MOLE intends to drill (down to
4–5 km) an active LANF in the Umbria-Marche sector of the
northern Apennines (Fig. 1) and to establish a deep borehole
observatory. The target site offers a unique opportunity to
reach a LANF at drillable seismogenic depth to unravel the
“low angle normal fault mechanical paradox” (Wernicke,
1995; Axen, 2007).
In order to discuss the scientiic background and plan the
MOLE project, sixty-two scientists from various research
ields attended an international workshop in Spoleto, Italy, on
5–8 May 2008. The workshop focused on the following goals
that need to be achieved: (I) to collect new observational
Umbria
Fault
Systems
Normal
Faults
CROP 03
MC
Alto Tiberina
Fault
Thrusts
MOLE site
A’
SD
A
Figure 1. Schematic seismotectonic map of the Umbria-Marche
area (modiied after Mirabella et al., 2004). Historical earthquakes
(gray squares) between 461 BC and 1997 AD (from Boschi et al.,
2000). Focal mechanism solutions: (1) Gubbio earthquake (Haessler
et al., 1988); (2) Gualdo Tadino earthquake, and (3, 4, 5) Coliorito
sequence (Ekström et al., 1998); (6) Norcia earthquake (Deschamps
et al., 2000). SD (San Donato) and MC (Monte Civitello) well sites
with A-A’ represent the section of Figure 2.
60 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
data at depth for constraining the fault zone structure; (II) to
perform laboratory experiments with gouge and fault zone
materials to understand frictional properties and weakening
mechanisms; (III) to record microearthquakes at distance
comparable to the source radius,, and (IV) to obtain stress
and strain measurements and geochemical data in and near
the fault zone at depth to understand the mechanics of earthquakes and faulting.
Scientific Background − the LANF Paradox
The question whether or not moderate-to-large magnitude earthquakes can nucleate on LANFss and contribute to
accommodate extension of continental crust is widely
debated in the literature (Wernicke, 1995 and referencess
therein; Axen, 2007). Indeed, from a theoretical point of view,
in an extensional tectonic setting characterized by a vertical
principal stress σ1, no slip is expected on faults dipping less
than 30° with a friction coeficient ranging between 0.� and
0.85 (Byerlee, 1978). In
n boreholes at depth in the vicinity of
many high-angle, normal faults around the world,, direct
irect
stress measurements are consistent with both theory and
laboratory-derived coeficients of friction (Zoback, 2007).
Nevertheless, observed slip on LANFs implies the reactivation of severely misoriented low angle structures (Sibson,
1985) occurring either because of anomalously weak
frictional conditions (μs << 0.6� or �ecause of a�ru�t rotation
of �rinci�al stress directions. If the orientation of �rinci�al
stresses rotates in the direct vicinit� of a LANF� it can �e
determined �� stress measurements in a �orehole through
the fault zone (Zo�ac�� 2007�. �igh
igh �uid �ressure ma� �e
causing sli� on a LANF� which means that the fault zone itself
must �e over�ressured with res�ect to the roc�s in the
adjacent hanging wall and footwall.
Seismological
o�servations
indicate
that
no
moderate�to�large magnitude earth�ua�es have �een
documented on LANFs �ased on well�constrained focal
mechanisms (Collettini and Si�son� 2001;; �ac�son and White�
1989�. On the contrar�� geological evidence of active
low�angle normal faulting has �een documented in
numerous ield��ased structural studies and also inter�reted
on seismic re�ection �roiles. Therefore� the role of LANFs
and their contri�ution to seismic ris� are still controversial.
Des�ite recent studies which �rovided
d o�servational
evidence and �h�sical inter�retations (Axen� 1999; Collettini
and �oldsworth�� 2004; Flo�d et al.� 2001; �a�man et al.�
2003; �oldsworth� 2004; Sorel� 2000�� more ex�erimental
data and in situ studies are needed to shed light on these
im�ortant unanswered issues.
Geology and Seismicity of the Project Area
The MOLE �roject aims to integrate several alread�
existing/�lanned monitoring and research �rojects designed
to create a multidisci�linar� test site in the target area of the
�igh Ti�er �alle� in the northern A�ennines of Central Ital�
(Fig. 1�. In this sector of the A�ennines� the u��er crust is
made u� of four main lithological units� each a�out 1.5–2 �m
thic�. From �ottom to to� these are a �h�llitic �asement (not
ex�osed at the surface�� ���er Triassic eva�orites (alternated
anh�drites and dolostones�� �urassic to Oligocene
multila�ered car�onates� and a cover of Miocene and
Pliocene s�norogenic de�osits (Figs. 2 and 3�. The
�resent�da� tectonic setting derives from the su�er�osition
of two main tectonic �hases� com�ressional structures
related to arc�sha�ed
�sha�ed
sha�ed folds and thrusts (Late Miocene� and
extensional structures related to NW�SE trending normal
faults (Late Pliocene�Quaternar��. The easternmost and
more recent NW�SE extensional structures have �een named
as the �m�ria Fault S�stem (Fig. 1�. These SW�di��ing
normal faults re�resent the �rominent extensional structures
of the region� controlling the onset and evolution of
neo�autochthonous continental intra�mountain �asins
located on the hanging wall of the su�siding areas.
SD well
MC well
0m
0m
326
ATF
580
980
1139
1400
2255
2841
Shmin = N13E ± 29°
SHmax = N77W ± 29°
48 number of breakouts
3030
Shmin = N40E ± 20°
SHmax = N50W ± 20°
29 number of breakouts
429 m of breakout
Quality C
1190 m of breakout
Quality D
4485
4485
4763
4763
Turbiditic Fm.
(Aquitanian-Langhian)
Umbro-marchean pelagic Fm.
(Sinemurian-Eocene)
5600
Fault
Discontinuity
Umbro-marchean carbonatic
Fm. (Sinemurian-Hettangian)
Analyzed interval
Burano evaporite Fm.
(Norian-Rhaetian)
Breakout interval
Verrucano Fm. (Carnico)
Figure 3. Stratigraphic sketch of the Monte Civitello (MC) and San
Donato (SD) deep wells (see Fig. 1 for location). S hmin orientation
from breakout data performed in the wells. Beside each is a rose plot
with the Shmin orientation, standard deviation, the breakout’s number
and length, and the quality assigned to the result (modified from
Mariucci et al., 2008).
The Alto Ti�erina Fault (ATF� is a NE�di��ing LANF
cutting the u��er crust in Central Ital�� a region charac�
terized �� active extension and moderate�magnitude
seismicit� (Fig. 1�. The su�surface geometr� of the ATF
(Fig. 2� has �een de�icted along a dee� seismic� nearl�
l�
vertical re�ection transect (CROP03; Pialli et al.� 1998��
further constrained �� a set of seismic re�ection �roiles
(Mira�ella et al.� 2004� and cali�rated �� dee� �oreholes
(e.g.� San Donato and Perugia 2 wells�. All these data deine
in detail a �ortion of the ATF
(N150° trending� which is at
SD-PG2 wells (projected)
Gubbio
least 55–60 �m long. In
Fault
Tiber Valley
Perugia Mts.
cross�section�
�section�
section� the ATF is
SW
NE
0
0
characterized �� a staircase
1
1
trajector� with a mean di� of
2
2
3
3
15º –20° recogniza�le in the
4
4
seismic �roiles down to a
5
5
6
6
de�th of a�out 12 �m (Fig. 2�.
7
7
ATF
Seismo�tectonic
data
and
8
8
9
9
5 Km
�reliminar� geodetic investiga�
10
10
tions (D’Agostino et al.� 2008�
Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene carbonates
Triassic Anhydrites and Dolomites
Pliocene-Quaternary
of the Umbria-Marche pelagic sequence
deposits
demonstrate that the ATF
Lower Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous carbonates
Miocene urbidites
Phyllitic Basement
is �resentl� active and accom�
of the Umbria-Marche pelagic sequence
modates crustal extension.
x
Normal Fault
Strike-slip Fault
Alto Tiberina Fault (ATF)
Thrust Fault
Moreover� the a�sence of
Figure 2. Geological cross-section through the Tiber Valley and the Gubbio anticline (modified after
historical earth�ua�es dou�t�
Collettini and Barchi, 2002). The section (see location A-A’ on Fig. 1) is based on the data set acquired
lessl� associated with the ATF
during the CROP03 NVR project, including surface geology data, seismic reflection, and refraction proand the �resence of a source of
files, calibrated by deep boreholes (Anelli et al., 1994). SD and PG2: San Donato and Perugia 2 boreholes,
respectively.
over��ressurized �uids located
km
Several moderate�magnitude earth�ua�es struc� the
stud� area in the �ast (Fig. 1�. This seismicit� is clearl�
associated with Quaternar� faults. The most recent earth�
�ua�es are the 1979 Norcia Ms =5.5� the 1984 Gu��io Ms =5.3�
the 1988 Gualdo Tadino Mw=5.1 events�� and the 1997–98
Coliorito earth�ua�e se�uence 5.2<Mw<6.0 (Amato and
Cocco� 2000�. �owever� all these earth�ua�es ru�tured
SW�di��ing normal faults antithetic to the Alto Ti�erina
Fault (Fig. 2�.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 61
Workshop Reports
b
Ti
in the fault hanging wall
SW
NE
N 13.0E
1
km
(Chiodini et al.� 2004� suggest
2
Ti
0
be
that the fault most li�el� moves
rb
as
43.5N
in
through a com�ination of
8
Città di Castello
3
seismic/aseismic sli� and cree�
with re�eating microearth�
16
C1
�ua�es (Collettini� 2002�. The
Gualdo Tadino
ATF detaches an active hanging
Perugia Mts.
wall �loc� from an aseismic
km
footwall. In the hanging wall
0
F1
�loc�� seismic re�ection �roiles
Assisi
Perugia
8
and seismological data reveal the
Colfiorito
�resence
of
moderatel��to
0 km 10
C2
A 16
stee�l��inclined minor faults
soling into the detachment.
2000–2001 relocated seismicity
aftershocks of the 1984 Gubbio
While there is no instrumental
km
(Mw 5.1) earthquake
km
0
evidence of moderate�magnitude
0
earth�ua�es located on the ATF�
8
8
it is im�ortant to note that micro�
seismicit� has �een associated
15°
16
16
C3
B
with the ATF (Boncio et al.� 1998;
SW
NE
-12
0
12
-24
-16
-8
0
8
16
Chiaraluce et al.� 2007�� thus
Figure 4. [A] Map of the area and location of seismic sections. [B] Vertical cross-section perpendicular to
conirming that it is an active
the Apenninic belt showing the relocated composite seismicity and (in orange) the 1984 Gubbio sequence.
LANF. A tem�orar� dense local
[C] Three vertical cross-sections showing the seismicity distribution and the available fault plane solutions
seismic networ� de�lo�ed in the
computed for seismic data acquired from 2000 to 2001. Their positions are shown in [A] together with the
width used to plot hypocenters. The heavy red lines plotted in each cross-section represent the trace of
stud� area for eight months
the ATF fault as imaged on the depth-converted seismic reflection profiles (modified from Chiaraluce et
allowed the recording of nearl�
al., 2007).
2000
(M<3.2�
earth�ua�es
(Piccinini et al.� 2003�. The
of a misoriented fault in which microseismicit� might �e
integration of geological o�servations and seismicit� data��
generated �� local� short�lived �uild�u�s in �uid �ressure
together with the inter�retation of seismic re�ection �roiles��
during regional scale degassing of the dee� crust and the
led to a clear identiication of a 60��m�long �ortion of the E�
mantle� associated with regional tectonic extension (Chiodini
di��ing low angle normal ATF (Fig. 4�. The anal�sis of this
et al.� 2004�. �owever� their theor� must �e corro�orated ��
multidisci�linar� data set shows that in the last 2 Ma this
in situ o�servations and ex�erimental evidence.
structure has accumulated 2 �m of dis�lacement.
er
ba
sin
Workshop Program and Results
The com�uted focal mechanisms of microearth�ua�es
(Chiaraluce et al.� 2007� are in agreement with the geometr�
of the faults (Fig. 4�. The latter are nicel� highlighted �� the
earth�ua�e distri�utions that a��ear in seismic re�ection
�roiles in accord with a stress ield characterized �� a nearl�
vertical σ1 and a NE�trending σ3� �er�endicular to the stri�e
of the ATF� which has also �een inferred from regional stress
data (Mariucci et al.� 2008;; Montone et al.� 2004�. This micro�
seismicit� is uniforml� distri�uted over the ATF �lane�� and
the earth�ua�e distri�ution in the down�di� direction reveals
a fault zone thic�ness ranging from 500 m to 1000 m.
Re�eating
e�eating earth�ua�es occur in ver� small sli� �atches
whose dimensions are off the order of 10–100 m (Chiaraluce
et al.� 2007�.
Collettini and �oldsworth (2004� �rought u� the
h��othesis that the ATF at de�th consists of a �h�llosilicate�
rich fault core. This relies on analog� with the Zuccale Fault�
an older� �resentl� inactive� ATF�li�e structure cro��ing out
west of the Alto Ti�erina fault on the island of El�a. This
h��othesis is consistent with the �ro�osed aseismic �ehavior
62 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
During the MOLE wor�sho� �artici�ants from eight
countries discussed drilling dee� (4–5 �m� into the Alto
Ti�erina Fault. During the irst da� other dee� fault drilling
�rojects were �resented�� followed �� a session on the
seismotectonics� geolog�� seismolog�� geodes��� and
geochemistr� of the target area during the second da�.
Another session focused on la�orator� ex�eriments on roc�
friction and roc� mechanics using fault zone materials. The
third da� was dedicated to outlining
ing �reliminar� studies�
investigations during the drilling �hase�� and research after
drilling. The �otential drill site (Fig. 5� and some major
normal faults of the region were visited during a half�da�
ield tri�. During the last afternoon� the �e� scientiic and
technical issues associated with the de�lo�ment of the dee�
�orehole and the long�term multidisci�linar� o�servator� at
de�th were summarized� and a scientiic rationale for the
MOLE dee� drilling �roject was drafted. An unusuall� large
set of geological and geo�h�sical data is availa�le� including
detailed geological ma��ing� seismic re�ection �roiles� dee�
�oreholes data� seismicit� data� GPS measurements�� and
12.25
N
M<1
1<M<2
2<M<3
N
N
M>3
o
r
03
OP
Ti
-80
CR
Sansepolcro
Seismicity
Instrumental Historical
12.5
t
00
m
h
e
be
rB
as
in
00
m
A
p
Città di Castello
M>5.5
NF Q=B
SS Q=C
Borehole breakout
SD well MC well
Q=D
Q=C
43.50N
n
!(
-60
4.5<M<5.5
Crop03 seismic
profile
Isobaths ATF
T-axis
NF Q=C
r
!(
e
-40
n
n
0m
-2000m
-50
MOLE
00
MC well
Umbertide
F
AT
SD well
s
n e
n
n i
m
Gubbio
Montone
43.25
!(
Ti
be
rB
as
in
0 km 5
One of the
he main conclusions of the wor�sho� was that
drilling through
hrough
rough the Alto Ti�erina Fault will �rovide infor�
mation on crustal stress and �uid �ressures.. Itt will also allow
us to do the following:: (I� sam�le fault zone materials to
measure their �h�sical �ro�erties; (II� install down�hole
seismometers� strainmeters�� and �uid chemistr� recorders
to measure seismicit�� strain rate�� and transmigration of
�uids; and (III� �etter understand the fault zone structure of
a normal fault di��ing at ~15°–20°� of which the seismogenic
�otential is un�nown. Ta�en together� these studies will
directl� address man� of the �e� �uestions related to the
LANF �aradox with �articular regard to the understanding
of the local stress ield within the fault zone and the role of
�uids in this �rocess.
¯
Gualdo Tadino
Perugia
Summary
M<4.5
Assisi
Figure 5. Digital Elevation Model around the planned MOLE borehole
(red circle) showing the seismicity (instrumental from Chiaraluce et
al., 2007 and historical from Boschi et al., 2000), T-axes from focal
mechanisms (Montone et al., 2004), breakout data (Mariucci et al.,
2008) and Alto Tiberina Fault isobaths (Mirabella, 2002).
While the main goals of the MOLE �roject are to im�rove
the understanding of the mechanical and �h�sico�chemical
�ehavior of LANFs�� the im�act of the �roject is certainl�
�roader. The collected data and direct o�servations will
�rovide a ste� toward more realistic models of earth�ua�e
nucleation and strain localization within fault zones.
La�orator� ex�eriments on roc� friction with real and fresh
fault zone materials can �rovide im�ortant constraints on
fault friction and d�namic fault wea�ening �rocesses. In
general� MOLE will �ecome a natural la�orator� for moni�
toring and modeling the geo�h�sical and geochemical
�rocesses controlling normal faulting in an active tectonic
setting.
more.. These data su��ort the fact that the ATF is an active
LANF.. The wor�sho� �artici�ants concluded that the
�otential ATF drilling site is ideal for setting
ting u� a uni�ue
la�orator� to investigatee the mechanics and the seismogenic
�otential of active LANFs.. �owever� �rior to drilling it will �e
necessar� to im�rove h��ocenter determination and collect
site surve� data in new seismic and geodetic cam�aigns�
including high resolution seismic re�ection data to �etter
image and constrain de�th of the target.
Acknowledgements
An interesting o��ortunit� that emerged during the wor��
sho� was the re�o�ening of Monte Civitello well� which was
closed man� �ears ago �� AGIP com�an� through the injec�
tion of several �lugs. The ATF was not identiied during the
drilling of Monte Civitello well �ro�a�l� �ecause the drilling
was sto��ed just a�ove it. We are �resentl� evaluating the
�ossi�ilit� of re�o�ening Monte Civitello in order to install a
dee� arra� of seismometers and �ossi�l� to monitor geo�uids
at an ex�ected maximum de�th of nearl� 2000 m.
References
Another �e� conclusion from the wor�sho� was to start
drilling with a 2��m�dee�
��m�dee�
�m�dee�
�dee�
dee� �ilot hole ver� close to the inal
MOLE
OLE �orehole. This will allow for further detailed o�serva�
tions at de�th to reine existing crustal structure models and
to im�lement monitoring activities with �articular attention
to dee� geo��uids. Moreover� this will �rovide new data
through �orehole logging and sam�ling that will hel� to set
u� a �ermanent o�servator� at de�th and im�rove �lanning
for the dee� hole.
Man� than�s to M.T. Mariucci and S. Pierdominici for the
critical reading of this �a�er and for the �re�aration of some
igures. Than�s are also due to A. Amato and L. Chiaraluce
for corrections. We are grateful to ICDP and ING� for s�on�
soring the wor�sho� that was oficiall� �atronized �� Regione
�m�ria. We than� ENI S.�.A. and all wor�sho�
�artici�ants.
Amato� A.� and Cocco� M.�� 2000. S�ecial Issue: The �m�ria�Marche�
Central Ital�� Seismic Se�uence of 1997�1998. J. Seismol.�
4:: 5–598.
Anelli� L.� Gorza� M.� Pieri� M.� and Riva� M.� 1994. Su�surface well
data in the Northern A�ennines. Mem. Soc. Geol. It.�
48:: 461–471.
Axen� G.�.� 1999. Low�angle normal fault earth�ua�es and triggering..
Geophys. Res. Lett.� 26:: 3693–3696� doi:10.1029/
1999GL005405.
Axen� G.�.� 2007. Research Focus: Signiicance of large�dis�lacement�
low�angle normal faults.. Geology� 35(3�:
(3�:
3�:
�: 287�288.
Boncio� P.� Ponziani� F.� Brozzetti� F.� Barchi� M.� Lavecchia� G.� and
Pialli� G.� 1998. Seismicit� and extensional tectonics in the
Northern �m�ria�Marche A�ennines. Mem. Soc. Geol. It.�
52: 539–555.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 63
Workshop Reports
Boschi� E.� Guido�oni� E.� Ferrari� G.� Mariotti� D.� �alensise� G.� and
Gas�erini� P.� 2000. Catalogue of Strong Italian Earthquakes.
Annali di Geofisica� 43(4�� 268 ��.� with data�ase on
CD�ROM.
B�erlee� �.D.� 1978. Friction of roc�s. Pure Appl. Geophys.� 116:: 615–629�
doi:10.1007/BF00876528.
Chiaraluce� L.� Chiara��a� C.� Collettini� C.� Piccinini� D.� and Cocco�
M.�� 2007. Architecture and mechanics of an active low angle
normal fault: the Alto Ti�erina fault (northern A�ennines�
Ital�� case stud�. J. Geophys. Res..� 112:: B10310�
doi:10.1029/2007�B005015.
Chiodini� G.� Cardellini� C.�� Amato� A.� Boschi� E.�� Caliro� S.�� Frondini�
F.� and �entura� G.�� 2004. Car�on dioxide Earth degassing
and seismogenesis in central and southern Ital�. Geophys.
Res. Lett.� 31:: L07615� doi:10.1029/ 2004GL019480.
Collettini� C.�� 2002. ���othesis for the mechanics and seismic
�ehaviour of low�angle normal faults: the exam�le of the
Altoti�erina fault Northern A�ennines. Ann.. Geophys..�
45(5�:
(5�:
5�:
�: 683–698.
Collettini� C.� and Barchi� M.R.� 2002. A low angle normal fault in the
�m�ria region (Central Ital��: a mechanical model for the
related microseismicit�. Tectonophysics� 359:: 97–115.
Collettini� C.� and �oldsworth� R.E.�� 2004. Fault zone wea�ening �ro�
cesses along low�angle normal faults: insights from the
Zuccale Fault� Isle of El�a� Ital�. J. Geol. Soc.� 161:: 1039–1051�
doi:10.1144/0016�764903�179.
Collettini� C.� and Si�son� R.�.�� 2001. Normal faults normal friction�
Geology�
29(10�:
(10�:
10�:
�:
927–930�
doi:10.1130/0091�7613
(2001�029<0927:NFNF>2.0.CO;2.
D’Agostino� N.� Mantenuto� S.�� D�Anastasio� E.� Avallone� A.� Barchi�
M.� Collettini� C.� Radicioni� F.� Sto��ini� A.� and Fastellini�
G.�� 2008. Contem�orar� crustal extension in the �m�ria–
Marche A�ennines from regional CGPS networ�s and com�
�arison �etween geodetic and seismic deformation.
Tectonophysics� in �ress�� doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2008.09.033.
Descham�s� A.� Cour�oulex� F.� Gaffet� S.� Lomax� A.� �irieux� �.�
Amato� A.� Azzara� A.� Castello� B.� Chiara��a� C.� Cimini�
G.B.� Cocco� M.� Di Bona� M.� Marghereti� L.� Mele� F.�
Selvaggi� G.� Chiaraluce� L.� Piccinini� D.� and Ri�e�e M.�
.�
2000. S�atio�tem�oral distri�ution of seismic activit�
during the �m�ria�Marche crisis� 1997. J. Seismol., Special
Issue� 4:377–386�
:377–386�
377–386� doi:10.1023/A:1026568419411.
E�ström� G.� Morelli� A.� Boschi. E.� and Dziewons�i� A.M.�� 1998.
Moment tensor anal�sis of the central Ital� earth�ua�e
se�uence of Se�tem�er�Octo�er 1997. Geophys. Res. Lett.�
25:1971–1974.
:1971–1974.
1971–1974.
Flo�d� �.S.� Mutter� �.C.� Goodliffe� A.M.� and Ta�lor� B.�� 2001.
Evidence for fault wea�ness and �uid �ow within active low�
angle
normal
fault.
Nature�
411:779–783�
:779–783�
779–783�
doi:10.1038/35081040.
�aessler� �.� Gaulon� R.� Rivera� L.� Console� R.� Frogneux� M.�
Gas�arini� G.� Martel� L.� Patau� G.� Siciliano� M.� and
Cisternas� A.�� 1988. The Perugia (Ital�� earth�ua�e of 29
A�ril 1984: a microearth�ua�e surve�. Bull. Seismol. Soc.
Am.� 78:1948–1964.
:1948–1964.
1948–1964.
�a�man� N.W.� Knott� �.R.� Cowan� D.S.� Nemser� E.� and Sarna�
Wojcic�i� A.M.�� 2003. Quaternar� low�angle sli� on
detachment faults in Death �alle�� California. Geology� 31::
343–346.
64 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
�oldsworth� R.E.� 2004. Wea� faults�rotten cores. Science�
303:181–182�
:181–182�
181–182� doi:10.1126/science.1092491.
�ac�son� �.A.� and White� N.�.� 1989. Normal faulting in the u��er con�
tinental crust: O�servations from regions of active exten�
sion.
J.
Struct.
Geol.�
11:15–36�
:15–36�
15–36�
doi:10.1016/
0191�8141(89�90033�3.
Mariucci� M.T.� Montone� P.� and Pierdominici� S.�� 2008. Active stress
ield in central Ital�: a revision of dee� well data in the
�m�ria region. Ann.. Geophys..� 51� 2/3� in �ress.
Mira�ella� F.�� 2002. Seismogenesis of the �m�ria� Marche region
(Central Ital��: Geometr� and �inematics of the active faults
and mechanical �ehaviour of the involved roc�s. Ph.D.
thesis� �niversit�
ersit� of Perugia� Perugia� Ital��� 121 ��.
Mira�ella� F.� Ciaccio�� M.G.� Barchi�� M.R.� and Merlini�� S.� 2004. The
Gu��io normal fault (Central Ital��: geometr�� dis�lacement
distri�ution and tectonic evolution. J. Struct. Geol.�
26:2233�2249�
:2233�2249�
2233�2249� doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2004.06.009.
Montone� P.� Mariucci� M.T.� Pondrelli� S.� and Amato� A.�� 2004. An
im�roved stress ma� for Ital� and surrounding regions
(central Mediterranean�. J. Geophys. Res.� 109:B10410�
:B10410�
B10410�
doi:10.1029/2003�B002703.
Pialli� G.� Barchi� M.� and Minelli� G.�� 1998. Results of the CROP03
dee� seismic re�ection �roile. Mem. Soc. Geol. It.� 52� 654
��.
Piccinini� D.� Cattaneo� M.� Chiara��a� C.� Chiaraluce� L.� De Martin�
M.� Di Bona� M.� Moretti� M.� Selvaggi� G.� Augliera� P.�
S�allarossa� D.� Ferretti� G.� Michelini� A.� Govoni� A.� Di
Bartolomeo� P.� Romanelli� M.� and Fa��ri� �.� 2003. A micro�
seismicit� stud� in a low seismicit� area of Ital�: the Città di
Castello 2000�2001 ex�eriment. Ann. Geophys.� 46(6�:
1315–1324.
Si�son� R.�.� 1985. A note on fault reactivation. J. Struct. Geol.�
7:751–754�
:751–754�
751–754� doi:10.1016/0191�8141(85�90150�6.
Sorel� D.� 2000. A Pleistocene and still�active detachment fault and the
origin of the Corinth�Patras rift� Greece. Geology� 28:83–86�
:83–86�
83–86�
doi:10.1130/0091�7613(2000�28<83:APASDF>2.0.CO;2.
Wernic�e� B.� 1995. Low�angle normal faults and seismicit�: A review.
J. Geophys. Res.� 100:20159–20174�
:20159–20174�
20159–20174� doi:10.1029/95�B01911.
Zo�ac�� M.D.� 2007. Reservoir Geomechanics� Cam�ridge� �K
(Cam�ridge
Cam�ridge �niversit� Press��
��� 449 ��..
Authors
Massimo Cocco and Paola Montone, Istituto Nazionale di
Geofisica e �ulcanologia (ING��� �ia di �igna Murata� 605–
00143� Rome� Ital�� e�mail: cocco@ingv.it.
Massimiliano R. Barchi� �niversit� of Perugia�
Di�artimento di Scienze della Terra� Piazza dell’�niversità�
1� 06100 Perugia� Ital�.
Georg Dresen� GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ��
Telegrafen�erg 14473� Potsdam� German�.
Mark D. Zoback� Stanford �niversit�� De�artment of
Geo�h�sics� Mitchell Building
uilding
lding
ing
g 347� Stanford� Calif. � 94305�
4606� �.S.A.
Related Web Link
htt�://mole.icd��online.org
News and Views
European Geosciences
Union General Assembly
NERC UK IODP Directed
Program: Two-Day Conference
19–24 April 2009, Vienna, Austria
18–19 May 2009, Royal Society, London,
U.K.
I O D P/
ECORD
B o o t h
No. 54–55
will
�e
o�ened
Monda� to
Frida�� 20–24 A�ril 2009 as a meeting
�oint for the scientiic drilling commu�
nit�. A joint ICDP–IODP Townhall
meeting will also �e held on Thursda��
23 A�ril 2009� Room 1.
Detailed information will �e regu�
larl� �osted on the ECORD we� site at:
htt�://www.ecord.org/�i/egu09.html.
Contact: ema@jussieu.i�g�.fr.
Beyond 2013—The Future of
European Scientific Drilling
Research
A session
“Be�ond
2013 —T he
Future of
Euro�ean Scientiic Drilling Research”
will �e held at the EG� General
Assem�l� 2009 in �ienna� Austria. The
session� convened �� G. Camoin and
R. Stein� will �e followed �� a two�da�
wor�sho� A�ril 24–25 s�eciicall�
addressing the future of Euro�ean
scientiic drilling research. Its main
o�jectives are to deine and document
the Euro�ean interests in IODP �e�ond
2013� and to �re�are for the IODP
renewal conference IN�EST (�. 66� this
volume�. More details at: htt�://www.
e s s a c .e c or d .or g /i nde x .�h�� mo d =
wor�sho�&�age=euroforum.
Session: 23 April 2009, Vienna
Workshop: 24–25 April 2009
At the University of Vienna, Geocenter
The aim of this conference is to high�
light im�ortant scientiic achievements
from the current IODP �hase� and to
solicit contri�utions and challenges that
will ta�e Ocean Research Drilling for�
ward �ost�2013� when the existing IODP
�rogram ends. It is envisaged that the
two�da� conference will cover a range
of scientiic themes from the evolution
of the �lanet through climate change
and the dee� �ios�here. We also ho�e to
showcase �ost�graduate� PhD and �ost�
doctorate research� which has made
use of the extensive wealth of data col�
lected during the varied IODP ex�edi�
tions. A session of the conference will
�e an o�en discussion on the future
IODP �rogram �e�ond 2013.
Information on the event will �e
availa�le at the �KIODP we�site (www.
u�iod�.�gs.ac.u��. For en�uiries �lease
contact the �KIODP Science Coordi�
nator at u�iod�@�gs.ac.u�.
and su��l� a tem�late for future conti�
nental scientiic drilling. This wor��
sho� is the irst ste� in develo�ing a
general science �lan for continental
drilling. To�ics to �e addressed range
�roadl�: glo�al climate and environ�
mental change at all time scales� geod��
namics of faults and hots�ots� magmatic
and volcanic �rocesses� im�acts� natural
resources� the dee� �ios�here� and the
facilities necessar� to o�timize return
on investment in drilling �rojects. The
organizers ho�e that other to�ics will
emerge during the �lanning �rocess or
at the wor�sho� itself.
The organizers see� �artici�ation of
a diverse grou� of active investigators.
International a��lications are welcome.
For further information� to a��l� to �ar�
tici�ate� or for others� �lease contact
Ton� Walton at twalton@�u.edu or call
at 1�785�864�2726. Related we� lin�s at
DOSECC (htt�://www.dosecc.org� or
the �niversit� of Kansas (htt�://www.
geo.�u.edu/�.
4th International Symposium
in Okinawa, Japan
29 June–3 July 2009, Okinawa, Japan
Seven other
sponsors are
also support-
Continental Scientific
Drilling Workshop
ing this event.
4–5 June 2009, Denver, Colorado
Application Deadline: 15 April 2009
A
forward�loo�ing
wor�sho� will identif�
areas where signiicant
scientiic advances in
the understanding of
continental or whole
Earth �rocesses and
histor� re�uire sam�les or data that can
onl� �e o�tained �� continental drilling
or cou�led continental�ocean drilling.
The wor�sho� will also stress devel�
o�ing colla�orations with �arallel
communities� such as those that �artici�
�ate in IRIS� IODP� NCAR� MARGINS�
and EarthSco�e. The aim of the wor��
sho� will �e to �roduce a �rief docu�
ment� with su��lementar� information�
that will inform the geologic commu�
nit�� su��ort �lanning of future funding�
The 4th International S�m�osium on
“Chemos�nthesis�Based Ecos�stems”
will �e held on 29 �une–3 �ul� 2009 in
O�inawa� �a�an. This s�m�osium high�
lights the recent achievements in the
ield of uni�ue ecos�stems driven ��
chemos�nthesis rather than �hotos�n�
thesis. Major to�ics include �iogeogra�
�h�� �iodiversit�� evolution� s�m�iosis�
ecolog�� �h�siolog�� geochemistr��
micro�iolog�� and research technolog�
& methods. �enue is the Ban�o�u
Shinr�o�an (htt�://www.shinr�o�an.
com� in Nago Cit�� O�inawa� �a�an�
which is set next to �eautiful sand�
�eaches. Coral reefs and su�tro�ical
forests with exotic wildlife surround the
venue. For u�dated information� visit
the we�site: htt�://www.jamstec.go.j�/
x�r/4th_CBE/. Contact: Yoshihiro
Fujiwara or Yoshi�o Ta�eo�a� E�mail:
4th_CBE_ofice@jamstec.go.j�.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 65
News and Views
ECORD Summer School
31 August–11 September 2009, Bremen,
Germany
E COR D
Summer
School on
“Geod�namics of mid�ocean ridges”
will �e held at the Center for Marine
Environmental Sciences (MAR�M��
�niversit� of Bremen. Lecture to�ics
range from mantle melting to tectonic
exhumation of mantle to h�drothermal/
micro�ial interactions. Partici�ants will
�e introduced to a full range of IODP
related to�ics from general introduction
to the �rogram to writing IODP �ro�os�
als. In The �irtual Shi�� ocean drilling
cores from the Mid�Atlantic Ridge
stored at the IODP Bremen Core
Re�ositor� (BCR� will �e used to teach
“shi��oard” methodologies a��lied on
the drilling vessels of the �rogram.
These include core curation� visual core
descri�tion� �h�sical �ro�erties mea�
surements� and �etrogra�hic o�serva�
tions. Also� �lanned is a ield tri� to a
Devonian su�marine volcanic �rovince.
A registration form will �e circulated in
s�ring 2009. For further information�
see htt�://www.glomar.uni��remen.de/
ECORD_Summer_School_2009.html.
Photo Credit: Wolfgang Bach, MARUM, Bremen
University, Germany
Conference Call: IODP New
Ventures in Exploring
Scientific Targets–INVEST
23–25 September 2009, Bremen,
German�
The IODP
conference�
IN�EST� is
�lanned as a large� multidisci�linar��
international� scientiic meeting to
Now stepping for ward to future scientific
drilling program.
deine the scientiic research goals of
the second �hase of IODP scheduled to
�egin in late 2013. IN�EST will ta�e
�lace at the �niversit� of Bremen in
German� on 23–25 Se�tem�er 2009.
The meeting� o�en to all interested
scientists and students� �rovides the
�rinci�al o��ortunit� for science
communit� mem�ers from ever�where
to in�uence the future of scientiic
ocean drilling. The goal of INVEST is
to build the framework for the next tier
of success in scientiic ocean drilling.
Input from a broad swath of scientists
actively working in or having a future
interest in IODP is solicited. INVEST
will seek to sum-marize the state of
knowledge across interdisciplinary
geoscience themes, identify emerging
science, new re-search initiatives, and
implementation strategies. Also, identifying technological and iscal needs will
be pur-sued.
For more information on INVEST
steering committee and meeting
program, please see www.marum.de/
en/iodp-invest.html. or www.iodp.org.
Registration opens 4 April 2009. Travel
support programs are being organized
by all current IODP members.
ICDP Training 2009 Goes to
the Projects
The Operational
Support Group of
ICDP is in preparation for two
train-ing sessions for 2009. The irst
one is in cooperation with and hosted by
the Swedish Deep Drilling Program
(SDDP). The SDDP working group is
planning a drilling program for four
world-class deep boreholes over a
66 Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009
ten-year period. Accordingly, an adapted training program in Sweden in early
summer 2009 will comprise the modules
Planning of Scientific Drilling Projects
and Writing of an ICDP Proposal in addition to the basic module Fundamentals
of Scientific Drilling. A second training
program in fall 2009 will be held in conjunction with the envisaged Campi
Flegrei Drilling Project in southern
Italy and will address high-temperature
drilling issues in addition to the basic
element on fundamentals of drilling. A
limited number of places in these courses is open to scientists from ICDP member countries with preference for those
involved in planned ICDP projects.
Further information: http://www.sddp.
se and http://www.icdp-online.org.
GESEP: German Scientific
Earth Probing Consortium
German
funding
agencies
and institutes invested signiicantly in infrastructure and know-how for scientiic
drilling for many decades. But, until
now there was only limited coordination for exchange or joint use of facilities and industry cooperation. To
overcome this weakness the “Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft” (DFG) has
supported the formation of GESEP, an
alliance founded by university and
non-university earth science institutes.
Its major goal is focusing interests of
researchers and engineers in scientiic
drilling. GESEP opens with a short
course for postgraduates (Earth
Drilling School) in Potsdam on 18–19
March 2009. Current plans are to establish GESEP as a knowledge center on
scientiic drilling. First milestones
envisaged are establishment of a core
repository for continental drill cores
and related samples to complement the
Bremen Core Repository, plus design
and set-up of a related data bank and
information platform. GESEP will also
act as a contact to ensure that long-term
partnerships are generated for adaptation of energy service industry tools
and methods for scientiic drilling and
monitoring tools. GESEP will organize
meetings� �rovide a contact �oint for
�uestions on scientiic drilling and
coordinate
�u�lic
relations
and
outreach. Advanced training courses
and schools will �e �ased on various
ex�ertise in �artici�ating institutes.
�RL: htt�://www.gese�.org.
GESEP members already include:
• Alfred-Wegener-Institute, Bremerhaven
• German Research Centre for
Geosciences, GFZ, Potsdam
• Institut für Geologische
Wissenschaften, Free University Berlin
• Leibniz Institute for Applied
Geophysics, Hannover
• Leibniz Institute for Marine Sciences,
IFM-GEOMAR, Kiel
• MARUM, Centre for Marine
Environmental Sciences, Bremen
University
• Institute for Earth Sciences, Frankfurt
University
• Institute for Geology and Mineralogy,
Cologne University
• Institut for Chemistry and Biology of the
Marine Environment, Oldenburg
University
• Institute for Earth Sciences, Potsdam
University
• Institute of Environmental Geology,
Technical University Braunschweig
New Drill Site on the Ross
Ice Shelf
T h e
A Ntarctic
geological
DRILLing
(ANDRILL� Program is develo�ing new
drill sites for the Coulman �igh (C��
Project in the western Ross Sea (htt�://
www.andrill.org/science/ch�. The C�
Project will target an earl� Miocene and
Paleogene section to address evolution
and sta�ilit� of the cr�os�here; warm
climate �eriods in the Earl� Tertiar�;
or�ital varia�ilit� controls on climate;
and tectonics within the West Antarctic
Rift S�stem. Drill sites are on the C� at
the former C�19 giant ice�erg calving
site (Fig. 1� located on a seismic �roile
com�leted at the Ross Ice Shelf edge in
2003� now covered �� the advancing ice
shelf. The stratigra�hic record here
would extend the Miocene and �ounger
data o�tained from ANDRILL sites MIS
and SMS (Sci. Drill., 2006� 3:43–45;
Sci. Drill., 2008� 6:29–31� and recover
underl�ing sediments re�resenting the
Earl� Tertiar� greenhouse world.
Technical challenges include drilling
Modernized JOIDES Resolution is Tested
and Ready for IODP Science Operations
The JOIDES Resolution—
a 20��ear wor�horse on �ehalf
of scientiic ocean drilling—
sailed awa� from a Singa�ore
shi��ard on 25 �anuar� after a com�lete transformation to
modernize and u�grade the shi�. To get the JR into the
sha�e she’s in now has ta�en �ears of diligent effort �� a
talented team of �roject managers� dozens of IODP��SIO
staffers� thousands of s�illed shi��ard la�orers (averaging
roughl� 350 �er da��� and more.
Restored JOIDES Resolution ready for sailing. (Departing from
Singapore)
Fig. 1. Coulman High Drilling Project site
location map. Proposed drill sites (yellow
dots) are 125 km from McMurdo Station. Prior
successful ANDRILL drill sites SMS and MIS
are shown (stars).
into the sea�ed while the ice is moving
north at more than two meter �er da�
and maintaining an o�en hole through
the nearl� 250�m�thic� ice shelf. A �.S.
�ro�osal is under review� and �ro�osals
for New Zealand and Euro�e are under
develo�ment. ANDRILL (www.andrill.
org� is currentl� see�ing international
�artners in develo�ing a multinational
colla�oration for this exciting new
effort. For more information �lease con�
tact the ANDRILL Science Management
Ofice at ch@andrill.org.
The renovation� funded mostl� �� the �.S. National
Science Foundation (NSF� and �artl� �� Overseas Drilling
Limited� includes state�of�the�art u�grades to the shi�’s
science la�oratories and facilities� all�new� ex�anded and
reined accommodations� refur�ishment and renewal of
shi� e�ui�ment and infrastructure� advanced safet� and
environment safeguards� and augmented logging and
drilling ca�a�ilities.
An external scientiic assessment team �oarded the shi�
in Guam on 7 Fe�ruar�. Sea trials too� �lace at Ontong �ava
Plateau� ODP Site 807� and transit to �onolulu followed�
ma�ing the shi� read� again for IODP ex�editions in earl�
March. The JR is now �oised to hel� IODP continue to �ush
the edge of science. A multimedia overview of the “new” JR�
including dail� re�orts� is availa�le online from htt�://
oceanleadershi�.org/node/2000.
In earl� March 2009� the JR will set sail from �onolulu
for the e�uatorial Paciic for the irst of two nine�wee�
ex�editions. The second ex�edition will follow immedi�
atel�� commencing in Ma� 2009� and �oth are grou�ed into
one science �rogram. This science �rogram� �nown as the
Paciic E�uatorial Age Transect� will investigate how the
e�uatorial Paciic is intricatel� lin�ed to major changes in
the glo�al climate s�stem. htt�://iod�.tamu.edu/science�
o�s/ex�editions/e�uatorial_�aciic.html.
Scientific Drilling, No. 7, March 2009 67
Schedules
IODP
- Expedition Schedule http://www.iodp.org/expeditions/
ESO Operations *
1
2
Platform
5
6
7
8
MSP
May 2009–Aug. 2009
TBD
325 - Great Barrier Reef
MSP
Sep. 2009–Dec. 2009
TBD
Dates
Port of Origin
Platform
320 - Paciic Equatorial Age Transect
JOIDES Resolution
05 Mar. 2009–05 May2009
Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
321 - Paciic Equatorial Age Transect/
Juan de Fuca Cementing Operations
JOIDES Resolution
05 May 2009–05 Jul. 2009
Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.
323 - Bering Sea
JOIDES Resolution
05 Jul. 2009–04 Sep. 2009
Victoria, Canada
324 - Shatsky Rise
JOIDES Resolution
04 Sep.2009–04 Nov.2009
Yokohama, Japan
317 - Canterbury Basin
JOIDES Resolution
04 Nov. 2009–04 Jan. 2010
Townsville, Australia
318 - Wilkes Land
JOIDES Resolution
04 Jan. 2009–09 Mar. 2010
Wellington, New Zealand
Dates
Port of Origin
Chikyu
05 May 2009–31 Aug. 2009
TBD
322 - NanTroSEIZE Stage 2: Subduction Input
Chikyu
NanTroSEIZE—Riserless Observatory Casing
01 Sep. 2009–10 Oct. 2009
TBD
CDEX Operations ***
9
10
Port of Origin
313 - New Jersey Shallow Shelf
USIO Operations **
3
4
Dates
Platform
319 - NanTroSEIZE Stage 2: Riser/Riserless
Observatory 1— Sediment Inputs
MSP = Mission Speciic Platform
TBD = to be determined
* Exact dates in this time frame dependent upon inal platform tender.
** Sailing dates may change slightly. Stafing updates for all expeditions to be issued soon.
*** CDEX schedule subject to OTF and SAS approval.
ICDP
1
22
33
64
1
- Project Schedule http://www.icdp-online.org/projects/
ICDP Projects
Drilling Dates
Location
Iceland Deep Drilling Project
Jun. 2008–2010
Krafla, Iceland
Lake El'gygytgyn Drilling Project
Oct. 2009–May 2010
Chukotka, Russia
New Jersey Shallow Shelf**
May 2009–Aug. 2009
Offshore New Jersey, U.S.A.
Lake Van
Jul. 2010–Sep. 2010
Anatolia, Turkey
**IODP-ICDP joint project
Exact dates in this time frame dependent upon final platform tender.
90º
120º
150º
180º
210º
240º
270º
300º
330º
0º
30º
2
60º
1
60º
5
3
30º
9
10
1
4
6
3 4
0º
30º
0º
2
-30º
-30º
7
-60º
-60º
8
IODP
ICDP
90º
120º
150º
180º
210º
240º
270º
300º
330º
0º
30º