Urban Square as the Place of History, Memory, Identity

Gradski trg kao mesto istorije, sećanja i identiteta Urban Square as the Place of History, Memory, Identity PROF. DR BERTRAND LEVY Univerzitet u Ženevi University of Geneva prevela sa engleskog Translated from English by Marijana siMu Tokom rada na prevodu konsultovan je tekst Bertranda Levya „Gradski trg u Evropi kao idealno mesto“ koji je objavljen u publikaciji „Mesta Evrope“ (Biblioteka XX vek, 2010) u prevodu Olje Petronić i Snežane Spasojević. idealan gradski trg Javni trg je konstrukcija nasleđena iz prošlosti, očuvana do danas kao najvažniji element evropskog grada. Gradski trg se može smatrati mestom u onoj meri u kojoj predstavlja značajno obeležje grada i u kojoj poseduje svojstva koja prema Marcu Augéu deinišu mesto: 1) da je istorijsko, 2) da je prožeto identitetom ljudi, 3) da je relaciono, 4) da ima simbolički smisao.1 The ideal urban square The public square is a construction inherited from the past that remains today as the quintessential element of the European town. The public square is a place, in so far as it is a signiicant urban feature and to the extent in which the four characteristics of place, given by Marc Augé, are respected as being: 1) historical, 2) imbued with human identity, 3) relational and 4) charged with symbolic meaning.1 U kontekstu globalizacije, trg kao mesto predstavlja određenu stalnost u prostoru, nasuprot nemestima koja su nastala kao rezultat nadmodernosti i rastuće pokretljivosti.2 Mesta oblikuju prostorni i ljudski identitet. Urbano mesto ima eg- In the context of globalization, the square as a place represents a certain permanence in space, as opposed to non-places produced by excessive modernity and growing mobility.2 Places structure space and human identity. The urban place touches 1 Augé, Marc, Non-lieux, Seuil, Paris, 1992, str.100. Balandier, Georges, Le Grand Système, Fayard, Paris, 2001, str. 62-76. 2 156 1 2 Augé, Marc, Non-lieux, Seuil, Paris, 1992, p.100. Balandier, Georges, Le Grand Système, Fayard, Paris, 2001, pp. 62-76. zistencijalnu dimenziju, zbog čega je u humanističkoj geograiji deinisano kao pojava od centralnog značaja za ljudsko poimanje prostora, koje pojedincu omogućava da kroz sećanje izgradi koherentan lični i društveni identitet. Za razliku od ulica, koje otelovljuju tokove izičkog kretanja kroz grad, trgovi predstavljaju periode odmora i pauze. on existential factors, which is why it is deined in humanistic geography as a central locus of human spatial awareness, enabling the individual to create – through memory – a coherent personal and social identity. Contrary to the streets, that embody lows of physical circulation through the city, squares represent periods of rest and of pause. U savremenim gradovima trgovi postaju sve neophodniji jer mesta protoka i ukrštanja postepeno preovladavaju nad mestima odmora, koja su po svojoj suštini ujedno i mesta na kojima se ljudi mogu zaustaviti i razmisliti o gradu, svom ličnom identitetu i sudbini. Naravno, neko se može usprotiviti mišljenju da su gradski trgovi jedina mesta koja poseduju osobine mesta za odmor i da, na primer, javni parkovi takođe ispunjavaju ovu ulogu. Međutim, suštinska razlika između javnog parka i javnog trga je ta što na trgu građanin nije u dodiru sa prirodom već sa samom suštinom gradske kulture, istorije i sećanja. In contemporary cities, squares become increasingly necessary as gradually places of low and crossing points tend to surpass the places of rest, which are also fundamentally places where mankind can stop and think about the city and its personal identity and destiny. One could of course counteract that urban squares are not the only places to present the characteristics of rest and that public parks, for example, also fulill that role; however the essential diference between a public park and a public square is that on a square, the citizen is not connected to manifestations of nature but to the heart of urban culture, history and memory. Guido Ceronetti u svom, gotovo ikonoklastičnom „Putovanju u Italiju“ (1996), piše da ste dok sedite na gradskom trgu pupčanom vrpcom vezani za grad i za njegov suštinski identitet i istoriju. Ovo je razlog zbog koga gradski trgovi predstavljaju veoma osetljivo pitanje: čak i najmanja promena ili transformacija trga doživljava se kao simbolična promena koja utiče na odnos civitas - urbs (zajednica građana - izgrađeni grad). Guido Ceronetti (1996), in his rather iconoclast A Travel in Italy, writes that when sitting in an urban square, one is bound to the umbilical cord of the city and to its deepest identity and history. This is the reason for which urban squares represent a very sensitive issue: even a small modiication or transformation made in a square is felt as a symbolic change afecting the type of relations between the civitas (the community of citizens) and the urbs (the built town). Austrijski urbanista Camillo Sitte istraživao je strukturalne promene gradova Austrian urban planner Camillo Sitte explored the structural changes of cities 157 u drugoj polovini XIX veka.3 Sitte je dokazao da je radijalno-kružni grad, koji je nastao tokom Ring perioda4 i koji je poslužio kao model urbanističkog planiranja u Evropi u drugoj polovini XIX veka (Hausmannov Pariz, Eixample u Barseloni, Fazyeva Ženeva...), u suprotnosti sa “gemütlichkheitom”5 srednjovekovnog grada i urbanizma zasnovanog na odbrani. Sitteova studija iz 1899. prati veliku urbanu transfomaciju bečkog Ringa – prostora isprekidanog prostranim šetalištima i ukrašenog vrtovima. Po njemu, Ring se sastoji od otvorenih prostora koji se razlikuju od uskih ulica i intimnog karaktera srednjovekovnih gradova. Zasigurno, savremena arhitektura i urbanizam su se umnogome promenili u odnosu na srednji vek i renesansu. Sitte ne odgovara na sva pitanja koja mi danas postavljamo, ali njegov rad razjašnjava šta je sve neophodno za stvaranje kvalitetnih urbanih okruženja, od kojih najbolja opstaju kao najcenjenije ikada sagrađene urbane forme. Kriterijumi za idealan trg po Sitteu Ustanovivši da je trg mesto geografske konvergencije i istorijskog sećanja, ne možemo da se ne složimo sa tvrdnjom Jacquesa Dewittea6 da je glavna funkcija trga da simbolizuje arhetip susretanja ljudi i podstakne razmišljanje o 3 Sitte, Camillo, City Planning According to Artistic Principles, 1965. Period urbanističkog razvoja Beča (sredina XIX veka) tokom kog je značajno razvijena urbana infrastruktura, a umesto gradskih zidina izgrađena ulica Ringstrasse, po kojoj je period i dobio naziv: http://www.wien.gv.at/english/history/overview/ringstrasse. html, (stranici pristupljeno u novembru 2011.) (prim. prev.) in the second part of 19th century.3 Sitte demonstrated that the radial and circulatory city, born during the Ring period and used as a model for all city planning in Europe in the latter half of the 19th century (Hausmann’s Paris, Barcelona’s Eixample, Fazy’s Geneva…), is opposed in his mind to the “Gemütlichkheit”4 of the medieval town and its protective urbanism. Sitte’s study (1899), traces the great urban transformation of Vienna’s Ring – an environment punctuated by vast esplanades and decorated with gardens. In his view, the Ring is made up of open spaces that distinguish themselves from the narrow streets and intimate character of cities in the Middle Ages. Certainly, contemporary architecture and urbanism have changed a lot since the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Sitte does not answer all the questions we pose today, but his work clariies what goes into the making of successful urban environments, the best of which survive as the most admirable urban forms ever built. The ideal criteria of the urban square according to Camillo Sitte Having established that the square is a place of geographic convergence and historic memory, one can but agree with Jacques Dewitte5 that its foremost function is to symbolize the archetype of human encounters and encourage urban contemplation. Camillo Sitte’s work addresses 4 5 Pristupačnost, udobnost (prim. aut.) Dewitte, Jacques, “ Eloge de la place. Camillo Sitte ou l’agoraphilie ”, La ville inquiète, Le temps de la rélexion, VIII, Gallimard, Paris, 1987, str. 150-177. 6 158 3 Sitte, Camillo, City Planning According to Artistic Principles, 1965. 4 5 Approachability/cozyness. Dewitte, Jacques, “ Eloge de la place. Camillo Sitte ou l’agoraphilie ”, La ville inquiète, Le temps de la rélexion, VIII, Gallimard, Paris, 1987, pp. 150-177. gradu. Sitteov rad bavi se morfologijom i estetikom trga pre nego njegovom funkcionalnošću ili upotrebom. Sitteovi morfološko-estetski kriterijumi za idealan gradski trg su sledeći:7 – zatvoren i zaštićen prostor; – slobodan centar (da bi se omogućio pogled ka i od); – spomenici smešteni po ivicama; – element iznenađenja (uske, vijugave ulice); – arhitektonski privlačne fasade ("Handwerk"); – konkavnost i dekorativno popločavanje. Kriterijumi funkcionalnosti koji su u skladu sa savremenim funkcijama i zahtevima za udobnošću mogu biti dodati pomenutim topografsko-estetskim kriterijumima. Kriterijumi funkcionalnosti gradskog trga su: – zatvorenost za saobraćaj/dostupnost pešacima; – obnavljanje/vraćanje u upotrebu starih zgrada; – postojanje više različitih pejzažno uređenih celina za odmor/sedenje; – blizina trgovinskim/komercijalnim sadržajima (ulicama kojima prolazi veliki broj pešaka); – postojanje različitih sadržaja zabavnog karaktera (muzika, ples, pozorište…). Jean-Bernard Racine smatra da gradski trg treba da ostane „kolektivno vlasništvo“, 7 Levi, Bertran, “ Gradski trg u Evropi kao idealno mesto ”, in Stela Ghervas, Fransoa Rose (ur.), Mesta Evrope, Urednik Ivan Čolović, Biblioteka XX vek, s francuskog prevele Olja Petronić i Snežana Spasojević, Beograd, 2010, str. 88-115. the morphology and aesthetics of the square rather than its functionality or use. Sitte’s ideal criteria may be summarized as follows:6 Ideal morphological-aesthetical criteria of the urban square: – closed and protected space; – the center should be free (to enable sight-lines to and from); – monuments are placed on the perimeter; – the element of surprise (narrow, crooked streets); – attractiveness of architectural façades (“Handwerk”); – concavity and aesthetic paving. Other criteria to do with present-day functions and amenities may be added to these ideal topographical-aesthetic criteria: Functional criteria of the town square – closed to traic/pedestrian accessibility; – restoration/rehabilitation of ancient buildings; – provision of various kinds of landscaped seating; – close to commercial activities (pedestrian lows); – diverse animation (music, dance, theatre…). Jean-Bernard Racine considers that the urban square should remain as a “collective property”; a space of shared citizenship that is inhospitable to commercial demands and 6 Levi, Bertran, “ Gradski trg u Evropi kao idealno mesto ”, in Stela Ghervas, Fransoa Rose (eds.), Mesta Evrope, Urednik Ivan Čolović, Biblioteka XX vek, translated from French by Olja Petronić and Snežana Spasojević, Belgrade, 2010, pp. 88-115. 159 prostor zajedničkog pripadanja istom gradu, negostoljubiv prema komercijalnim zahtevima i trgovini.8 Gradski trg je prostor ko- (komune, komunikacije, komunia,9 kontinuiteta) pre nego prostor dis- (diskriminacije, dispariteta, diskontinuiteta). Koreni Sitteovog dela potiču iz ozbiljnog bavljenja samom idejom zajednice.10 Sitte je predvideo da će kružni tokovi narušiti prirodu gradskog trga, pretvarajući ih u raskrsnice, saobraćajne čvorove ili prostrana šetališta predviđena za masovne demonstracije ili velike socio-kulturne događaje. Danas su trgovi s kraja XIX i iz XX veka postali raskrsnice i ponovno uređenje takvih mesta je u srži urbane regeneracije i sećanja. Međutim, obe vrste gradskih trgova, oni koji zadovoljavaju idealne morfološko-estetske kriterijume prema Sitteu i oni koji ih ne zadovoljavaju, odražavaju pitanje kako uključiti istoriju, sećanje i identitet u već izgrađen trg. Elementi istorije, sećanja i identiteta na jednom gradskom trgu Potrebno je napraviti razliku između istorijskih gradskih trgova prepunih simbola gradske istorije i sećanja – „nedodirljivih“, kako se mogu deinisati – i onih koji su nepotpuni, nastali na raskrsnicama ili među blokovima zgrada, onih koji bi mogli postati savršeni prema Sitteovim kriterijumima ili prema kriterijumima savremenih javnih politika. 8 Racine, Jean-Bernard, “Villes idéales et rêves de villes: de Tombouctou à Jérusalem, regards croisés sur quelques villes vécues en vrai ou en imaginaire ”, u: Lévy, B., Rafestin, C. (ur.), Ma ville idéale, Metropolis, Genève, 1999, str. 187-240. komunio - zajednica, naročito crkvena, verska; pričest; vreme kad se pričešćuje (u katoličkoj crkvi); zajedničko učešće. (prim. prev.) 9 10 Dewitte, Jacques, “ Eloge de la place. Camillo Sitte ou l’agoraphilie ”, La ville inquiète, Le temps de la rélexion, VIII, Gallimard, Paris, 1987, str. 150-177. 160 speculation.7 The urban square is a space of co-(community, communication, communion, continuity) rather than of dis(discrimination, disparity, discontinuity). Indeed, the roots of Sitte’s work stem from a deep concern for the very idea of community.8 Sitte anticipated that circulatory lows invade and kill the nature of urban square when they become crossroads, urban hubs or vast esplanades conceived for mass demonstrations or mass socio-cultural events. Nowadays, squares from the late 19th and 20th century have become crossroads and redesigning such piazzas is at heart of urban regeneration and memory. However, both types of urban squares, those that respect the ideal morpho-esthetic criteria of Sitte and those that do not, are concerned by the problematic of how to incorporate elements of history, memory and identity into an already built-up urban square. History, memory and identity elements on an urban square A distinction should be made between historical urban squares, saturated with the symbols of urban history and memory – “the intouchables” as one might be inclined to deine them – and between incomplete urban squares, born out of crossroads or bloc systems, which are perfectible following Sitte’s criteria or those of contemporary public policies. What types of elements deine an ancient urban square? To begin with, the elements 7 Racine, Jean-Bernard, “Villes idéales et rêves de villes: de Tombouctou à Jérusalem, regards croisés sur quelques villes vécues en vrai ou en imaginaire ”, in Lévy, B., Rafestin, C. (eds.), Ma ville idéale, Metropolis, Genève, 1999, pp. 187-240. 8 Dewitte, Jacques, “ Eloge de la place. Camillo Sitte ou l’agoraphilie ”, La ville inquiète, Le temps de la rélexion, VIII, Gallimard, Paris, 1987, pp. 150-177. Koji elementi deinišu stari gradski trg? Za početak, namena elemenata je da formiraju celinu, da daju jedinstven karakter javnom trgu, kao neka vrsta zaštitnog znaka koji ova mesta čini originalnim i jedinstvenim. To se može postići postavljanjem spomenika (crkva, zvonik, statua, fontana...) po obodu trga tako da se stvara asimetrija. Takvi su primeri Mikelanđelova skulptura „David“ na trgu Piazza della Signoria u Firenci i zvonik na Trgu svetog Marka u Veneciji, kao i mnoge crkve koje su utkane među građevine koje oivičavaju trgove u ovim gradovima. Pažnja se može usmeriti i na karakteristike fasada po obodu trga. Na primer, ako posmatramo trg Piazza del Campo u Sijeni, odsustvo balkona odražava strogu ujednačenost dok zakrivljene linije pojedinih zgrada odražavaju prilagođavanje prirodno kružnom obliku mesta. Kružni oblik odražava kolektivnu volju i identitet, simbolizuje duh zajedništva i saglasja u gradu koji je kroz istoriju bio pritiskan ratovima. Sličnu ulogu ima i Palio, konjička trka koja se održava dva puta godišnje i u kojoj se stanovnici grada, podeljeni u kontrade11 prema kvartovima u kojima žive, utrkuju u krug oko trga simbolizujući nadmetanje i različitost delova grada. Oblik kruga je korišćen da izrazi jedinstvo, okupljanje i susretanje. Podela trga Piazza del Campo na devet delova (koji simbolizuju Vladu devetorice) i njihovo susretanje ispod tornja Torre del Mangia - glavna arhitektonska odrednica koja dominira trgom - takođe simbolizuje želju za jedinstvom različitih političkih snaga u gradu. Ono što je važno kada su u pitanju gradski trgovi duboko ukorenjeni u istoriju, jeste 11 contrada (ital.) - deo grada, kvart (prim. prev.) are designed to form a whole, to give a personality to the public square, a sort of “brand” that makes these places original and inimitable. Monuments (a church, a campanile, a statue, a fountain...) situated on the perimeter may be evoked, so that an asymmetry is created. Such is the case for Michelangelo’s David in Piazza della Signoria in Florence or of Piazza San Marco’s campanile in Venice. Many churches are integrated into the fabric of buildings hemming the square. We can also focus in on characteristics of the facades along the square. For instance, if we consider Piazza del Campo in Siena, the absence of balconies relects a strictly egalitarian will while the curvature of certain buildings, an adaptation of the site’s natural circular formation. This circularity relects a collective will and identity; it symbolizes the spirit of union and of concord in a city historically beset by turf wars. Such is also the role of the Palio, a bi-yearly horse race in which the city’s different “contrade” (neighborhood factions), race in circles around the square, in order to symbolize the competition and diversity of the diferent neighborhoods. The igure of the circle is used to express unity, gathering and encounter. The division of Siena’s Piazza del Campo into nine parts (symbolizing the Government of the Nine) and their linear convergence in front of the Torre del Mangia (the main architectural feature that dominates over the square), also symbolizes a desire for the political unity of the diferent forces of the city. With these urban squares deeply steeped in history, what is important is the preservation of the message printed in the past, not the adding of new elements. Nowadays, the struggle of these squares is mainly di161 Slika 1 :: trg piazza del campo u sijeni predstavlja idealnu formu gradskog trga koja prema sitteu podrazumeva otvoren, konkavan i kružan prostor u zgusnutom gradskom pejzažu. (fotograija: Bertrand l evy) Picture 1 :: The Campo of Siena represents an ideal form of urban square as described by C. Sitte: an open space in a dense urban landscape, concave and rounded. (photo by Bertrand Levy) očuvanje poruke utisnute u prošlosti, a ne dodavanje novih elemenata. U današnje vreme, bitka za ove trgove je pretežno usmerena na očuvanje njihovih istorijskih elemenata, protiv vandalizma i interesnih grupa koje pokušavaju da iskoriste mesto za komercijalne namene. Ovi trgovi su takođe pod pritiskom različitih grupa koje povremeno nastoje da organizuju kulturne događaje, svečanosti, predstave i komercijalne sadržaje različitog tipa (slika 1). Neki primeri u Ženevi Problematika je dosta drugačija kada su u pitanju „nesavršeni trgovi“. Oni zahtevaju delimičnu ili potpunu rekonstrukciju koja često otvara pitanje načina raspoređivanja elemenata koji nose umetničku i nostalgičnu vrednost. 162 rected towards the conservation of their historical elements against vandalism and private groups who may seek to use the site for commercial purposes. These squares are also under the pressure of different groups who may wish to organize occasional cultural, festive or commercial events (picture 1). Some examples in Geneva The problematic is quite diferent for the “imperfect squares”. These squares require sporadic or deinitive redesigning from which the question of placing elements of artistic and nostalgic value is oten raised. Let us take some examples from Geneva: Place Neuve is a traditional cultural agora stemming from the end of 19th century that gathers some ediices of prestige such Pozabavimo se primerima u Ženevi: trg Place Neuve predstavlja tradicionalnu kulturnu agoru još od kraja XIX veka na kojoj se nalaze prestižna zdanja kao što su zgrada Opere (Le Grand Théâtre), Muzej Rath, Muzički konzervatorijum, kao i univerzitetski park Les Bastions. Centralni prostor trga zauzima statua generala Henri Dufoura, inženjera, urbaniste, kartografa i političara iz XIX veka, koji je pomogao izgradnju susedne ulice Corraterie, i koji je doprineo uspostavljanju mira u Švajcarskoj tokom građanskog rata između katoličkih i protestantskih kantona 1847. (Sonderbundški rat). Place Neuve ne odgovara Sitteovim kriterijumima idealnog gradskog trga – suviše je prostran i otvoren – i vremenom je postao raskrsnica zagušena saobraćajem. Godine 1997. pokrenut je projekat sa ciljem da se na trgu onemogući saobraćaj privatnim vozilima kako bi se cela površina trga i okolne ulice koje čine Bankarski kvart (Quartier des Banques) pretvorile u pešačku zonu. Građani Ženeve su na referendumu odbacili ovaj projekat. Značajno je primetiti kako je javni trg postao predmet neslaganja među građanima: u delovima grada koji su naseljeni imućnijim slojem projekat je prihvaćen, dok je u onima naseljenim pripadnicima radničke klase odbačen. Razlog za ovo se može pronaći u različitoj društvenoj upotrebi trga od strane dve grupe: ljudi iz manje bogatih kvartova Ženeve koriste trg i okolne ulice kao besplatan parking prostor prilikom večernjih izlazaka i ne žele da u budućnosti plaćaju visoke troškove korišćenja privatnih podzemnih parkinga. Osim toga, ovi ljudi ne posećuju trg često kako bi uživali u neoklasicističkim zda- as Le Grand Théâtre (the Opera House), the Rath Museum, the Conservatory of music, and the University Park (les Bastions). At the center of the space stands the statue of général Henri Dufour, an engineer, urban planner, cartographer and politician of the 19th century who helped build the adjacent street, la rue de la Corraterie and who paciied Switzerland during the Sonderbund War – the civil Swiss war opposing the catholic and protestant cantons in 1847. Place Neuve does not respond to Sitte’s ideal criteria – it is too vast and too open – and has become over time a crossroad, jammed with private and public traic. In 1997, an urban project was established with the aim of suppressing private traic in order to create a pedestrian zone throughout the square and the adjacent streets that make up the Quartier des Banques. The people of Geneva rejected the project by popular referendum. It is remarkable to observe how this public square became an object of discord among the population: the bourgeois neighborhoods of the city accepted the new project whereas the working class ones rejected it. The reason for this can be seen in the diferent social uses of the square amongst the two factions: people from the non-aluent parts of Geneva, use the square and its adjacent streets for free parking when going out in town in the evening and did not want in future to have to pay high rates for private underground parking. In addition to this, these people did not customarily visit the square in order to make use of its prestigious neoclassical ediices of culture. Conversely, the privileged inhabitants of the area were content to use the underground parking zones, as were the aluent when going out to the 163 njima na trgu i kulturnim sadržajima koje ona nude. Nasuprot tome, imućni stanovnici dela grada oko trga bili su spremni da koriste podzemne parkinge, kao što su i češće posećivali Operu ili koncertnu dvoranu. Uprkos delimičnom pretvaranju prostora trga u pešačku zonu, ekološki pokret je uglavnom bio protiv projekta jer je on podrazumevao izgradnju novih parking zona u istorijskom jezgru grada, intenzivirajući na taj način saobraćaj i povećavajući broj vozila. Ovde smo suočeni s pitanjem korišćenja zemljišta na trgu od strane građana, nasuprot pitanju samog sećanja. Sa stanovišta sećanja, trg odražava slavnu stranu istorije Ženeve. Na primer, ispod jednog od zidova starog grada podignuta je bista Henria Dunanta, jednog od osnivača Crvenog krsta 1863. Činjenica koja je pri tome potpuno ignorisana i izbrisana je da je na istom tom mestu dželat Republike Ženeve odrubljivao glave zatvorenicima starog režima. Izazov za gradske trgove nastaje onda kada na njima treba da se prikažu i negativne strane grada ili nacionalne istorije. Place Neuve je takođe mesto masovnih demonstracija. Godine 2010. kada je narod Švajcarske odbacio zahtev za izgradnjom novih minareta u državi, grupa mladih ljudi je demonstrirala sagradivši simboličan minaret blizu spomenika generalu Dufouru i plešući oko njega u znak protesta protiv rezultata referenduma koji je u Ženevskom kantonu bio pozitivan. Nedavno je na trgu privremeno bio izložen provokativan umetnički rad, džinovski pauk vajarke Louise Bourgeois (1922-2010). Rad je često pogrešno tumačen, a zapravo je zamišljen da simbolizuje majku umetnice – i kao takav pre je izraz ličnog, a ne kolektivnog sećanja. Pauk može biti posmatran kao 164 opera or to the concert hall. The ecological party, despite a partial pedestrianization of the area, was mostly against the project because it involved building new parking zones in the historic city, hence attracting increased lows of cars. We are here faced with a question of land use of the square, as opposed to one of sheer memory. From a commemorative point of view, the square relects the glorious side of Geneva history, not the negative one. For instance, under one of the old town’s walls, another classical statue was erected: the bust of Henri Dunant, one of the founders of the Red Cross in 1863. What is ignored or erased is that on that very same spot, the executioner of the Republic of Geneva used to decapitate prisoners of the old regime. Prestigious urban squares are not at ease when a request is made to expose the negative face of the city or of the nation’s history. Place Neuve is also used as a site for popular demonstrations. In 2010, when Swiss people rejected the construction of new minarets in the country, a group of young demonstrators built a symbolic minaret close to the statue of General Dufour and danced around it, in protest against the results of the referendum – which had been positive in the canton of Geneva. Recently another provocative artistic work was temporarily displayed: the giant spider by the contemporary sculptor Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010), an oten misinterpreted symbol that is meant to represent her mother – so as a result, a piece of individual rather than of collective memory. A spider may be viewed as an invading predator, but one that is supposed to relect qualities of the mother: the indispensability, tenacity, patience. grabljivac, ali i onaj koji odražava kvalitete majke: neophodnost, istrajnost, strpljenje. Par koraka od trga Place Neuve nalazi se kružni tok Plainpalais kome je najpre 1990-tih, a potom i početkom 2000-tih promenjen izgled. Cilj je bio da se smanji intenzitet saobraćaja privatnih vozila kako bi se povećao prostor namenjen budućoj tramvajskoj liniji što bi kao rezultat učinilo trg prilagođenijim za pešake. Trg se nalazi veoma blizu Fakulteta za književnost Univerziteta u Ženevi. Na trgu je podignut visoki stub kako bi usmeravao pešake ka centralnom šetalištu uz obalu, za prolaznike su postavljene klupe, a za trg su posebno izrađene i tri bronzane statue od kojih se za svaku može reći da podseća na slučajnog prolaznika. Jedna od statua predstavlja pisca Michela Butora kako stoji sa prtljagom. Butor je dosta putovao a predavao je francusku književnost na obližnjem fakultetu. Stoga se ova skulptura može posmatrati kao izraz individualnog i kolektivnog sećanja koje pripada delu grada u kome se nalazi. Statue su napravljene u prirodnoj veličini i postavljene su u nivou očiju. Ovaj trend je počeo da se razvija u Zapadnoj Evropi od kraja 1980tih sa ponovnim otkrićem ljudske igure koja spoznaje grad na fenomenološki način, što je, kao rezultat, dovelo do prevazilaženja monumentalizma XIX veka. Georges Haldas, jedan od najvećih ženevskih pisaca, rođen je nekoliko koraka dalje od kružnog toka Plainpalais. Nadajmo se da će jednoga dana neka urbana znamenitost podsećati i na njega. Knjižara na istom trgu nosi njegovo ime, ali je pre dve godine zatvore- A few steps away from Geneva’s Place Neuve, the Rond-Point de Plainpalais (Plainpalais Roundabout) was redesigned in the 1990s and then again in the 2000s. The purpose was to diminish private trafic in order to increase the ground surface that was to be devoted to a future tramway and, in so doing, make the square more pedestrian-friendly. The square is very close to the Faculty of Letters of the University of Geneva. A contemporary column was erected to set pedestrians on the central boardwalk; benches were installed for passersby and three bronze statues were designed especially for the square, each of which could be said to resemble the common man on the street. One of the statues represents the writer Michel Butor, standing with luggage. Butor was a great traveler and he used to teach French literature in the nearby university. Therefore, Butor’s statue can be viewed as a piece of individual and collective memory belonging to the neighborhood. The statues are on a scale of 1/1 and are placed at eye level. This is a trend that was developed in Western Europe from end of the 1980s with the re-discovery of the human body perceiving the city in a phenomenological way. As a result, it overcame the monumentalism of the 19th century. Hopefully one day Georges Haldas (19172010), one of Geneva’s major authors who was born a few steps away from the RondPoint, will also be relected in an urban landmark. A bookshop located on the same square carries his name but it closed its doors two years ago, victim of the crisis of the independent bookstore. The works of Georges Haldas are published by L’Age 165 na usled posledica krize u nezavisnom knjižarstvu. Haldasove radove objavila je najveća izdavačka kuća u francuskom delu Švajcarske, L’Age d’Homme iz Lozane, čiji je osnivač Vladimir Dimitrijević (1943-2011), izdavač srpskog porekla koji je sebe deinisao kao prolaznika između Istočne i Zapadne Evrope. Tako je komadić sećanja preostao na ovom trgu s pravom posvećen književnosti. Mora se istaći da pomenuti objekti nisu prožeti političkim značenjima. Trg nacija (Place des Nations), moderan trg projektovan prema smernicama Le Corbusiera, koji se nalazi uz zdanje Palate nacija (Palais des Nations), razlikuje se po obimu intervencija od kružnog toka Plainpalais i trga Place Neuve. Sa arhitektonskog stanovišta, trg nikad nije dovršen, što je dovelo do diskontinuiteta njegovog prednjeg pročelja. Zapušteni travnjak koji je podsećao na ogoljeno parče tla zauzimao je centralni deo trga. Ovo je čest slučaj na trgovima kružne osnove koji su pretvoreni u saobraćajne raskrsnice. Koncept idealnog trga pretpostavlja oslobađanje prostora unutar već izgrađene strukture grada, nasuprot trgu koji je smešten a posteriori u slobodan prostor. Trg nacija je projektovan po uzoru na američki sistem blokova (u suštini, koncept urbanističkog planiranja po kome je zemljište isparcelisano na pravougaone površine za gradnju ili druge namene), po kom trg zauzima mesto jednog (nedostajućeg) bloka. Ovakav tip trga ne poseduje osobinu zatvorenosti i zaštićenosti, jednu od karakteristika idealnog trga, i zbog toga prouzrokuje dosta problema u urbanističkom planiranju. 166 d’Homme in Lausanne, a major publishing house in the French part of Switzerland, founded and developed by Vladimir Dimitrijevich (1943–2011), a publisher of Serbian origin who deined himself as a passer between Eastern and Western Europe. The tiny memory remaining on this square is thus rightly devoted to literature. It has to be noticed that these installations have not been imbued with a political meaning. Place des Nations, a modern square designed according to the guidelines of Le Corbusier and bound to the ediice of The Palais des Nations, is not afected in the same way as the Rond-Point and Place Neuve. From an architectural point of view, the square was never completed, leading to a discontinuity of its front frame. A derelict lawn that resembles a piece of wasteland occupied the centre of the square. This is oten the case on roundabout squares that have been transformed into traic crossroads. The ideal square suggests a freeing of space into the full structure of a town as opposed to a square that is settled a posteriori into a free space. Place des Nations is based on an American-style block system (a concept in urban planning which implies dividing of land into square-shaped lots for building or other purposes) in which the square occupies the space of a missing block. This kind of square does not possess the closed and protected nature of the ideal urban square and it engenders a lot of urban planning problems. Indeed, deprived of a contiguous urban fabric, this type of square resembles an unstructured space or quite simply a traic junction. If urbanization is denser and the square located on a traic node arranged on several levels (such as Pots- Zaista, lišen urbanog tkiva u svom neposrednom okruženju, ovakav trg podseća na nestrukturisani prostor ili jednostavno na saobraćajno čvorište. U slučaju zgusnute urbanizacije i trga smeštenog na saobraćajnom čvoru organizovanom na više nivoa (kakav je npr. Potsdamer Platz u Berlinu ili mnogi savremeni „stanični trgovi“ u svetu), njihovo preuređenje i razvoj bivaju otežani ograničenjima koje nameće saobraćaj.12 damer Platz in Berlin or numerous modern station squares), their redevelopment is complicated by traic constraints.9 Jedno od takvih ograničenja na Trgu nacija ogleda se u uvođenju nove tramvajske linije koja ide preko trga, uz istovremeno zadržavanje mogućnosti pristupa trgu i privatnim vozilima. U ovakvoj situaciji glavne izazove predstavljalo je jačanje saobraćajnog čvora stavljanjem akcenta na javni prevoz i stvaranje estetski privlačnog i korisnicima prilagođenog prostora na izdignutom centralnom pločniku trga. Opšti društveno-politički značaj Trga nacija, prostora koji ostaje otvoren za demonstracije manjeg ili većeg obima, podcenjen je urbanističkim projektom koji je pobedio na konkursu gradske uprave. Ovaj projekat, delo rimskog arhitekte Massimiliana Fuksasa, osporen je na javnom referendumu održanom 1998. Nakon neuspešne kampanje za projekat, građani Ženeve su ga odbacili sa 52.4% glasova protiv. Naime, prezentacija projekta na zvaničnoj referendumskoj brošuri, koja je podeljena stanovnicima grada Ženeve, sastojala se od krajnje složenog dvodimenzionalnog prikaza koji nije uključio urbani pejzaž u okruženju budućeg trga. Kod ljudi je ovakav poduhvat faraonskih razmera izazvao nepoverenje The traic constraints of Place des Nations consisted in bringing a new planned tramway into the square while maintaining accessibility for private traic. The major challenges were as follows: strengthening the traic node by focusing on public transportation and creating an aesthetic and user-friendly space on the raised central pavement of the square. The general sociopolitical context of the square, a space that remains open to small or mass demonstrations, was underestimated by the urban project that won the competition launched by the city authorities. This project, designed by the Roman architect Massimiliano Fuksas, was attacked by a popular referendum that took place in 1998. The people of Geneva rejected the project by 52,4 %, ater a failed campaign of graphic communication. The project designed on the oicial electoral booklet that had been sent to the city’s citizens, was an extremely complex two-dimensional design that lacked a landscape coniguration of the future plaza. The people’s reaction to this Pharaonic undertaking was one of mistrust towards the authorities. The let-wing parties supported this campaign because, in their view by installing successive basins on the square, Fuksas’ project would help to prevent large gatherings. Ten years later, a compromise led to a regenerated Place des Nations, in which the architect’s idea of animating fountains was used but not his irreversible and anti-populist hard design. 12 Nielebock, Henry, Berlin und seine Plätze, J. Strauss Verlag, Potsdam, 1996. 9 Nielebock, Henry, Berlin und seine Plätze, J. Strauss Verlag, Potsdam, 1996. 167 Slika 2 :: trg nacija (place des nations) u Ženevi je bio prazno šetalište na kom su postavljene reverzibilne fontane, dok je u centru postavljena skulptura „slomljena stolica“ ispred glavnog ulaza u zgradu ujedinjenih nacija. (fotograija: Bertrand levy) Picture 2 :: Place des Nations, Geneva, was an empty esplanade where reversible fountains have been installed. In the center, the Broken Chair that faces the main building of the United Nations. (photo by Bertrand Levy) prema vlastima. Stranke levice su podržale kampanju jer je po njihovom viđenju postavljanje više uzastopnih udubljenja ispunjenih vodom na trgu moglo da spreči masovna okupljanja. Deset godina kasnije postignuto je kompromisno rešenje koje je dovelo do obnavljanja Trga nacija, u okviru kog je primenjena ideja arhitekte o postavljanju fontana koje oživljavaju prostor, ali ne i njegov projekat u celosti jer je bio antipopulistički i nije omogućavao vraćanje na prethodno stanje. Upotreba reverzibilnih vodoskoka danas je rasprostranjena na javnim trgovima Zapadne Evrope i poima se kao suprotstavljanje strogom i ozbiljnom izgledu određenih mesta (slika 2). Na trgovima poput onog ispred Palazzo Madama 168 The use of reversible waterjets in public squares is nowadays widespread in Western Europe and is understood to counteract the appearance of certain formal and solemn places (picture 2). Place du Palais Madame in Turin or Place Fédérale in Bern, also have such water games installed. These facilities are mostly used by children which oten results in a popular appropriation of the place. Two memorial elements stand on Place des Nations: irst, “the broken chair” memorial, which serves to commemorate those maimed and killed in the mine ields of Angola and that broadly symbolizes the ight against anti-personnel landmines. This monumental wooden sculpture was installed before the redesigning of the square; u Torinu ili Bundesplatz - Place Fédérale u Bernu postavljene su slične fontane. U ovim instalacijama uglavnom uživaju deca, što doprinosi lakšem vezivanju građana za dato mesto. Na Trgu nacija postoje dva elementa memorijalnog karaktera. Prvi je memorijal „Slomljena stolica“ postavljen u znak sećanja na ranjene i poginule na minskim poljima u Angoli. Pored toga, on u širem smislu simbolizuje i borbu protiv upotrebe nagaznih mina. Ova monumentalna skulptura od drveta bila je postavljena pre rekonstrukcije trga i izvedena je 1997. prema konceptu švajcarskog umetnika Daniela Berseta koji je realizovao stolar Louis Genève. Ideja za skulpturu visoku 12 metara, za čiju je izradu potrošeno 5,5 tona drveta, potekla je od Paula Vermeulena, osnivača i direktora organizacije Handicap International Switzerland. Skulptura je postavljena ispred glavnog ulaza u Palatu nacija u avgustu 1997, gde je trebalo da ostane svega tri meseca, do potpisivanja Otavske konvencije o zabrani nagaznih mina u decembru 1997.13 Međutim, „Slomljena stolica“ je postala toliko popularna da je do današnjeg dana ostala na tom mestu – iako je 2005. bila uklonjena kako bi se omogućila rekonstrukcija Trga nacija. Uklanjanje je izazvalo dugotrajnu debatu o tome da li skulptura treba da se vrati na mesto ili ne. Ujedinjene nacije su bile neodlučne po pitanju vraćanja skulpture jer je ona smatrana suviše uznemirujućim i „teškim“ simbolom. Gradska vlast Ženeve je 26. februara 2007. konačno uspela da 13 Više informacija o ovome na: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Broken_Chair (internet stranici pristupljeno: 20.10.2011). it was conceived by the Swiss artist Daniel Berset and constructed by the carpenter Louis Genève in 1997. It is made of 5.5 tons of wood and is 12 meters high, ater an idea of Paul Vermeulen, founder and director of Handicap International Switzerland. The sculpture was erected at the main entrance of the Palais des Nations in August 1997, where it was supposed to remain for just three months, until ater the signing of the Ottawa Convention banning anti-personnel mines in December 1997.10 The chair was so popular that it remains in place to this day – although in 2005, during the redevelopment of the Place des Nations, it was removed, leading to a prolonged debate on whether to keep it. The U.N. were reluctant to leave it where it was because it was considered as a symbol that was too “hard” and disturbing. The City of Geneva (led by a political majority green and rose) was eventually able to impose it on the U.N. and have it resettled in the same place on February 26th, 2007. (picture 3) To soten the impression of disharmony caused by the broken chair on the Place des Nations, the City of Geneva commissioned a 60-meter-long mural from the artist Hans Erni – born in Lucerne in 1909 – as a sign of attachment to an artist who celebrates peace in his works. The work, inaugurated in 2009, was conceived in his Lucerne workshop and laid out on ceramic materials, designed to withstand the moods and depredations of time. Its name is “ta panta rei”, in Greek: “everything in movement”. It symbolizes the hope of freedom and human dignity that numerous people come in here to 10 More info at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_Chair (accessed October 20, 2011). 169 nametne svoju odluku Ujedinjenim nacijama, kada je skulptura ponovo postavljena na isto mesto (slika 3). Kako bi ublažile atmosferu nesloge izazvanu ovom situacijom, gradske vlasti Ženeve naručile su od umetnika Hansa Ernia – rođenog u Lucernu 1909. – izradu šezdeset metara dugačkog murala, kao znak povezanosti sa umetnikom koji slavi mir u svojim radovima. Ovo delo, otkriveno 2009, osmišljeno je u umetnikovoj radionici u Lucernu i izvedeno na keramičkim pločama kako bi odolelo zubu vremena. Mural je nazvan „Ta panta rei“, što na grčkom znači „sve teče“. Slika simbolizuje nadu u ostvarenje slobode i ljudskog dostojanstva koju ispoljavaju brojni ljudi koji na to mesto dolaze. Za razliku od „Slomljene stolice“, ovaj dugački mural u plavim i sivim tonovima diskretno se uklapa u okruženje, izražavajući osećaj sklada i mira, kroz predstave ljudskih lica i životinja (golub) u pokretu koji asocira na kretanje po nebu. Mural je postavljen na betonski zid, sagrađen da pojača zaštitu ulaza u zgradu Ujedinjenih nacija (slika 4). Zaključak Pouka koja se može izvući iz iskustva sa Trgom nacija u Ženevi, posmatrano sa njegovog komemorativnog aspekta, je ta da javnost ponekad prihvata simbole tragične istorije lakše nego političari. „Slomljena stolica“ ostaje upečatljiv primer budući da daje ton i značenje ovom mestu, koje je nekada predstavljalo „crnu rupu“ u urbanističkom smislu. Možemo govoriti i o novom obliku monumentalizma, bitno različitom od onoga s kraja XIX veka u Zapadnoj Evropi, kada su 170 Slika 3 :: „slomljena stolica“ (rad daniela Berseta, 1997), trg nacija u Ženevi, simbolizuje borbu protiv upotrebe nagaznih mina. (fotograija: Bertrand levy) Picture 3 :: The Broken Chair (by Daniel Berset, 1997), Place des Nations, Geneva, symbolizes the fight against anti-personal landmines. (photo by Bertrand Levy) demonstrate. Contrary to the broken chair, this long mural in blue and gray tones its discreetly into the landscape of the place. It expresses a sense of harmony and peace, with human faces and animals (a dove), depicted in a movement of celestial dynamics. The mural is located on a concrete wall, built to enhance the protection of the entry to the United Nations. (picture 4) Conclusion A lesson that may be retained from a commemorative point of view of the experience of Place des Nations, is that sometimes the public adopts the symbols of tragic history with greater ease than politicians. The Broken Chair remains impressive: it sets the tone and gives meaning to this place, for- Slika 4 :: Mural „sve teče“ Hansa ernia, 2009. Mural simbolizuje nadu u ostvarenje slobode i ljudskog dostojanstva koju ispoljavaju brojni ljudi koji na to mesto dolaze. trg nacija u Ženevi. (fotograija: Bertrand levy) Picture 4 :: Hans Erni Fresco, 2009, “Everything in movement”. It symbolizes the hope of freedom and human dignity that numerous people come in here to demonstrate. Place des Nations, Geneva. (photo by Bertrand Levy) monumentalne statue „heroja nacija“ bile uzdizane na pijedestale – trend koji je danas prisutan kod novih balkanskih država koje su nestrpljive u jačanju svojih nacionalnih identiteta. Zanimljiva činjenica koja se odnosi na oba novopostavljena simbola na Trgu nacija jeste da predstavljaju simbole međunarodne i univerzalne vrednosti – različita ljudska lica naslikana na muralu simbolizuju multikulturalnost današnjeg sveta, bez posebnog naglašavanja. Njima nije potreban pijedestal – ima li šta uobičajenije od stolice, predmeta iz svakodnevnog života? – oni su inkorporirani u prethodno postojeće elemente trga i pripadaju sećanju našeg doba. Oni takođe predstavljaju izraze dva različita umet- merly a “black hole” in terms of urbanism. We may also speak of a new form of monumentalism, quite diferent from that of the 19th century in Western Europe, when the monumental statues of “heroes of the nations” were erected on pedestals – a trend that is common in the new Balkan nations that are anxious to strengthen their national image. The interesting fact concerning both of the newly implemented symbols on Place des Nations, is that both represent international and universal values – it should be noted that the diferent human faces drawn on the fresco represent multiculturalism in today’s world, but without emphasis. They do not need any pedestal – what is more common than a chair, an object of every171 nička jezika: art brut u slučaju „Slomljene stolice“, odnosno klasična i soisticirana umetnost u slučaju murala. Kako su veoma blizu jedan drugom i postavljeni na veoma prometnom mestu (glavni ulaz u kompleks Ujedinjenih nacija), oni stvaraju tenziju unutar mesta i ne dopuštaju nikome da ostane ravnodušan prema njihovom prisustvu. 172 day life? – they are incorporated into preexisting elements of the square and belong to the modern memory of our period. They are also expressions of two distinct artistic languages: a form of art brut for the Broken Chair and a form of classical and sophisticated art for the Fresco. As they are very close to one another and are located on a nevralgic point (the main entrance of United Nations complex), they create a tension within the place and allow no one to remain indiferent to their presence. Literatura Literature Augé, Marc (1992), Non-lieux, Seuil, Paris. Augé, Marc (1992), Non-lieux, Seuil, Paris. Balandier, Georges (2001), Le Grand Système, Fayard, Paris. Balandier, Georges (2001), Le Grand Système, Fayard, Paris. 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