1 Qumran’s Enduring Legacy During the latter part of the Second Temple period, a community isolated, in the wilderness region of Qumran, stored its precious literature in caves. Remnants of their scrolls were discovered in 1947. These scrolls reveal the legacy left by the Qumran community that has influenced the major religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Issue 1, 2024 Doug Mason doug_mason1940@yahoo.com.au 2 Qumran’s Enduring Legacy JUDAISM’S PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM .................................................................... 4 ESTABLISHING HOLINESS IN QUMRAN’S WILDERNESS ...................................................... 8 THE QUMRAN SECT SAW ITSELF AS THE FULFILMENT OF SCRIPTURE ....................... 10 THE PESHARIM LEGACY CREATED AT QUMRAN ................................................................. 12 RIGHTEOUS TEACHERS................................................................................................................. 18 QUMRAN’S PESHER IN THE CONTEMPORARY BOOK OF DANIEL .................................. 24 NEW TESTAMENT AUTHORS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING ............................... 26 GOSPEL AUTHORS SAID JESUS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING OF SCRIPTURE TO HIMSELF ...................................................................................................................................... 30 QUMRAN AND THE NEW TESTAMENT .................................................................................... 34 THE QUMARANITES WERE LIVING IN THE TIME OF GOD’S “LAST DAYS” ................... 42 NEW TESTAMENT EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....................... 49 GOD’S “LAST DAYS” CONTINUED TO BE FOREVER IMMINENT ....................................... 55 FIRST MILLENNIUM EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ................... 58 11TH AND 12TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 61 13TH AND 14TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 62 15TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 64 16TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 67 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 69 19TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 74 20TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 75 21ST CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................. 78 ISLAMIC EXPECTANT ESCHATOLOGY ..................................................................................... 80 PAPERS AT ACADEMIA EDU BY DOUG MASON .................................................................... 84 RESOURCES ....................................................................................................................................... 95 DETAILED CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. 108 3 JUDAISM’S PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM Religious Syncretism Particularly prevalent during the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE) Religious syncretism, the fusion of diverse religious beliefs and practices. Instances of religious syncretism—as, for example, Gnosticism (a religious dualistic system that incorporated elements from the Oriental mystery religions), Judaism, Christianity, and Greek religious philosophical concepts— were particularly prevalent during the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE). The fusion of cultures that was effected by the conquest of Alexander the Great (4th century BCE), his successors, and the Roman Empire tended to bring together a variety of religious and philosophical views that resulted in a strong tendency toward religious syncretism.1 Myth and legend in the Persian period In 539 BCE, the Jews came under Persian domination and consequently absorbed a good deal of Iranian folklore about spirits and demons, the eventual dissolution of the world in a fiery ordeal, and its subsequent renewal. This introduced new elements into Jewish popular mythology: hierarchies of angels; archangels such as Michael, Gabriel, and Uriel (modeled loosely upon the six Iranian spiritual entities, the amesha spentas); and the demonic figures of Satan, Belial, and Asmodeus (corresponding to the Iranian Angra Mainyu [Ahriman], Druj, and Aēshma Daeva). There was also a preoccupation with apocalyptic visions of heaven and hell and of the Last Days. Unfortunately, no Jewish texts of this genre from the Persian period are extant, so these new elements can be recognized only inferentially from their survival in later times—notably in products of the ensuing Hellenistic Age, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The principal monument of Jewish story in the Persian period is the biblical Book of Esther, which is basically a Judaized version of a Persian novella about the shrewdness of harem queens. The story was adapted to account for Purim, a popular festival, which itself is probably a transformation of the Persian NewYear. Leading elements of the tale—such as the parade of Mordecai, dressed in royal robes, through the streets, the fight between the Jews and their adversaries, and the hanging of Haman and his sons—seem to reflect customs associated with Purim, such as the ceremonial ride of a common citizen through the capital, the mock combat between two teams representing the Old Year and the New Year, and the execution of the Old Year in effigy. 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica (2019) 4 Judaism’s period of religious syncretism Myth and legend in the Hellenistic period Historiated Bibles and legendary histories Judaism entered a new phase in 330 BCE, when Alexander the Great completed his conquest of the Middle East. The dominant features of the Hellenistic Age, which began with Alexander’s death in 323, were an increasing cosmopolitanism and a fusion of ancient Middle Eastern and Greek cultures. These found expression in Jewish myth and legend in the composition (in Greek) of stories designed to link the Bible with general history, to correlate biblical and Greek legends, and to claim for the Hebrew patriarchs a major role in the development of the arts and sciences. It was asserted, for instance, that Abraham had taught astrology to the king of Egypt, that his sons and those of Keturah had aided Heracles against the giant Antaeus, and that Moses, blithely identified both with the semi-mythical Greek poet Musaeus and with the Egyptian Thoth, had been the teacher of Orpheus (the putative founder of one of the current mystery cults) and the inventor of navigation, architecture, and the hieroglyphic script. Leading writers in this vein were Artapanus, Eupolemus, and Cleodemus (all c. 100 BCE), but their works are known to us only from stray quotations by the early Church Fathers Eusebius and St. Clement of Alexandria. The Jews also adapted the current Greek literary fashion of retelling Homeric and other ancient legends in “modernized,” novelistic versions, well-seasoned with romantic elaborations of their own traditions. A paraphrase of Genesis found among the Dead Sea Scrolls ornaments the biblical narrative with several familiar folklore motifs. Thus, when Noah is born, the house is filled with light, just as it is said elsewhere to have been at the birth of the Roman king Servius Tullius, of Buddha, and (later) of several Christian saints. When Abraham’s life is threatened, he dreams of a cedar about to be felled, an omen that is said to have presaged the deaths of the Roman emperors Domitian and Severus Alexander. (Although the parallels are of later date, they illustrate the persistence of age-old traditions.) The same trend toward fanciful elaboration of scriptural tales is manifested also in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (“testaments” meaning last wills), in which the virtues and weaknesses of the sons of Jacob are illustrated by moralistic legends. There is also a lengthy paraphrase of early biblical narratives, mistakenly attributed to Philo Judaeus, the famous Alexandrian Jewish philosopher of the 1st century CE. Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha The principal monuments of Jewish literature during the Hellenistic period are the works known collectively as the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. The former are certain later writings excluded by Jews from the canon of the Hebrew Bible but found in the Greek Septuagint version. The latter are other late writings not included in any authorized version of the Scriptures and spuriously attributed to biblical personalities. Judaism’s period of religious syncretism The Apocrypha include several Judaized versions of tales well represented in other cultures. The book of Tobit, for instance, turns largely on the widespread motifs of the “grateful dead” and the demon in the bridal chamber. The former relates how a traveller who gives burial to a dishonoured corpse is subsequently aided by a chance companion who turns out to be the spirit of the deceased. The latter tells how a succession of bridegrooms die on the nuptial night through the presence of a demon beside the bridal bed. Similarly, in Bel and the Dragon (2nd century BCE) there is the equally familiar motif of fraud that is detected by the imprint of the culprit’s foot on strewn ashes; the story reappears later in the French and Celtic romance of Tristan and Iseult. In the story of Susanna and the Elders (also 2nd century BCE), a charge of unchastity levelled against a beautiful woman is refuted when a clever youngster (“Daniel come to judgment”) points out discrepancies in the testimony of her accusers. This well-worn story has a close parallel in a Samaritan tale about the daughter of a high priest in the 1st century CE; the motif of the clever youngster who surpasses seasoned judges recurs later in the Infancy Gospels and in the tale of ʿAlī Khamājah in The Thousand and One Nights. The Pseudepigrapha also contain a number of folktales that have parallels in other traditions. The Martyrdom of Isaiah (1st century CE?) tells how the prophet, fleeing from King Manasseh, hid in a tree that opened miraculously, though he eventually perished when it was sawn asunder. Similar tales are related in the Talmud and in the later Persian epic Shāh-nāmeh (c. 1000 CE).2 Further reading on Judaism’s religious syncretism A Spirit World. (99+) A Spirit World | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Conception of the Great Religions (99+) Conception of the Great Religions | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Dead. Resurrected. Saved in the Second Temple period (99+) Dead. Resurrected. Saved in the Second Temple period | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Installation of Yahweh Alone (updated January 2024) (99+) Installation of Yahweh Alone (Updated January 2024 | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Satan. Lucifer. Devil. Assumptions and Presumptions (99+) Satan. Lucifer. Devil. Assumptions and Presumptions | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Second Temple period Literature UPDATED (99+) Second Temple period Literature UPDATED | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Second Temple period Mysticisms and Mysteries (99+) Second Temple period Mysticisms and Mysteries | Doug Mason - Academia.edu 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica (2024) Judaism’s period of religious syncretism Second-Temple Period Messiahs (updated 2022) (99+) Second-Temple Period Messiahs (updated 2022) | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Messiah is coming soon (99+) THE MESSIAH IS COMING SOON | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Originators of Judaism. Christianity, and Islam (99+) The Originators of Judaism. Christianity, and Islam | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Transforming the Messiahs: Earthly Monarchs and High Priests to Celestial Liberators (99+) Transforming the Messiahs: Earthly Monarchs and High Priests to Celestial Liberators | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Why Daniel, Why? The answers reveal fresh understanding (99+) Why Daniel, Why? | Doug Mason - Academia.edu ESTABLISHING HOLINESS IN QUMRAN’S WILDERNESS The Qumran community attempted to set itself up as the true Israel The evidence seems to suggest that the founders of the Qumran community came from the temple and from the company of the temple priests. They believed themselves to represent the true priestly line—the sons of Zadok— and believed that the cultus and the holiness it required had become degenerate. Their critical attitude to the ' profanation' of the office of high priest by the Maccabees had driven them out from the official cultus of Israel and from its spiritual centre. It seems likely that the existence of the community was the product of very many causes. But an important element in the profanation of the temple was that a family other than that from which the high priest could traditionally be drawn had taken over the office, thereby ‘defiling’ the cultus. A related question was which calendar should be followed in temple worship; it is common knowledge that the Jerusalem authorities had been severely criticized for observing the festivals and the hours at the wrong times. The Qumran community now attempted to set itself up as the true Israel, and it is probably true to say that the leaders of the community were temple priests who had settled down by the shores of the Dead Sea in the hope of creating a new spiritual centre to replace the desecrated temple until the day when God would finally reveal himself and confirm Israel's victory.3 The Qumran community replaced the temple of Jerusalem; they were the 'new temple' ONE of the fundamental elements in the temple symbolism of the Qumran community was a conviction that the 'presence' of God, the Spirit of God, was no longer bound to the temple in Jerusalem but to the true and pure Israel represented by the community. The Jerusalem temple had been defiled by 'the wicked priest' and his people. The fathers of the community therefore left 'the holy city and placed their trust in God in those days when Israel sinned and made the temple unclean' (C.D. xx. 22f.). … Thus it was that the community came to replace the temple of Jerusalem; they themselves were the 'new temple'.4 The community called itself 'the Holy place' and 'the Holy of holies’ Once the focus of holiness in Israel had ceased to be the temple, it was necessary to provide a new focus. This focus was the community, which called itself 'the Holy place' and 'the Holy of holies’.5 Gärtner (1965), 14 Gärtner (1965), 16 5 Gärtner (1965), 15 3 4 8 Establishing holiness in Qumran’s wilderness The Qumran community protested the corruption of the temple cult [The Qumran Community] began as a priestly movement that protested the corruption of the temple cult, the wrong means of interpreting Torah, and the ordering of life and liturgy by following a wrong calendar.6 The Qumran community was largely concentrated on establishing the holiness necessary for winning God's favour in the last days THE theology of the Qumran community was largely concentrated on establishing that degree of holiness which was accounted necessary for winning God's favour in the last days. This they believed could be attained by the detailed observance of the rules and regulations of the Law. By this means they won a renewal of the covenant, and stood out as the pure and holy Israel, the elect out of the ' official' Israel.7 The members of the Qumran community were commanded to be 'perfect' in the exercise of their cultic functions The demand for holiness was thus subject to the demands of the cultus, a situation reminiscent of the Jerusalem temple priests, where Yahweh was believed to be present. The temple priests had to be 'perfect' before the face of Yahweh: the members of the Qumran community were commanded to be 'perfect' in the exercise of their cultic functions.8 Each was to offer a spiritual sacrifice of a life lived in perfect obedience to the Law This eternal temple is now in process of realization in the community, in accordance with the commandment of God: … The sacrifices offered in this temple, a temple made up of members of the community, are to be spiritual in character and are to consist of a life lived in perfect obedience to the Law.9 Apostle Paul wrote that God had removed himself from the official Jerusalem temple to the 'new' people of God, the Christian Church Paul writes, 'What agreement has the temple of God with idols? For we are the temple of the living God.' This means that Christians are the true temple of God, separate from non-believers. The image of the temple appears to have been used here as it was used in Qumran, to show that the 'presence', Shekinah, of God had removed from the official Jerusalem temple to the ' new' people of God, the Christian Church. … In view of the numerous correspondences between this text and the ideology of Qumran, it may be worth seeking for the background of [Paul’s] expression in the Qumran texts.10 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle locations 282-283 Gärtner (1965), 4 8 Gärtner (1965), 7 9 Gärtner (1965), 34 10 Gärtner (1965), 50 6 7 9 THE QUMRAN SECT SAW ITSELF AS THE FULFILMENT OF SCRIPTURE Literature provides a glimpse into the exegetical mind-set and practices of a Jewish sect that existed around the rise of Christianity Of more importance for our purposes, are the pesher commentaries found at Qumran, which deal with portions of Habakkuk, Micah, Zephaniah, Genesis, Isaiah, Hosea, Nahum, and the Psalms. Likewise of importance are such texts as the Genesis Apocryphon, the Florilegium Fragment, the Testimonia Fragment, Serek Sirot `Olat Hassabbat, Migsat Ma`ase Torah (“Works of the Law”), the Melchizedek Scroll, and the Temple Scroll, as well as the targumic-like like treatments of Leviticus and Job. For in these materials we are given a glimpse into the exegetical mind-set and practices of a certain Jewish sectarian group that existed at a time roughly contemporary with the rise of Christianity.11 The Torah (God’s word) and the commentary (pesher) were directed only to the Qumranites The pesharim are the creations of one Community, the Qumran Yahad. They are primarily and foremost hermeneutical compositions. They have two foci: the sacred text of the Torah (God’s word) and the commentary (pesher) that both follows the lemma (scriptural citation) and is adumbrated in the lemma. These two are united in that both are perceived and understood as God’s word directed only to the Qumranites, their own history, and their own special place in the economy of salvation.12 The aim of pesher was to show that the biblical verses referred to the history of the Qumran group Pesher (pl. pesharim). Literally, “interpretation.” The Qumran scrolls preserve the remains of several scriptural commentaries that are generally known as “pesharim.” These commentaries aim to show that the biblical verses prophetically refer to the history of the Qumran group.13 Qumranites considered the selected Scriptures were exclusively concerned with them They looked on these selected passages as being exclusively concerned with them. And therefore, following a large number of the prophetic statements cited, there is the recurrence of the expression which may be translated “the interpretation of this is;” “this refers to;” or “this means.”14 Qumran applied biblical prophecies in precise terms to current and contemporary events Qumran’s pesher interpretation of the Old Testament is neither principally commentary nor midrashic exegesis. “It does not;” as Cecil Roth pointed out, Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 532 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 90 13 Cohen (2014), 274 14 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 661 11 12 10 The Qumran sect saw itself as the fulfilment of scripture “attempt to elucidate the biblical text, but to determine the application of biblical prophecy or, rather, of certain biblical prophecies: and the application of these biblical prophecies in precise terms to current and even contemporary events.”15 Prophetic texts were applied to the life and theology of the community The pesharim are a group of texts within the Qumran library that explicitly cite the Scriptures and interpret them with the technical term “pesher” introducing the interpretation. Prophetic texts receive an actualizing interpretation, an application with regard to the life and theology of the community. This is especially true for the “enemy readings” of the community. The authors of the pesharim found their enemies described in several descriptions of enemies in the Scriptures. Their enemies correspond to the oppressors of Hab 2 (1QpHab), to Nineveh, the city of bloodshed of Nah 3 (4QpNah), to the wine drinkers of Isa 5 (4QpIsab), to the conspiring nations of Ps 2 (4QFlor), and to the successful wicked of Ps 37 (4QpPsa).16 The Qumranites believed that the prophets prophesied about their time, the latter days, and about the Qumranites’ place The pesharim are the creations of the Qumranites, who believed they were living in “the latter days” and that the prophets, guided by the Holy Spirit, prophesied not about their own time but about the latter days and especially about the Qumranites’ place in the “economy of salvation.”17 Qumranites used the prophets to explain their own history, that the prophets were speaking about or alluding to the time of the Qumranites, the latter days Practically the only reason the Qumranites use the prophets to explain their own history is the conviction that the prophets were speaking about or alluding to the time of the Qumranites, the latter days. Following the lemma (a scriptural citation) is a pesher (an interpretation) that explains plains Scripture. The interpretation often refers to events contemporary with, or slightly prior to, the commentator.18 The Qumranites argued that the prophecies of Habakkuk and Nahum, as well as the “prophecies” of the Psalms, were fulfilled in the sect’s history In their pesharim, the Jews of Qumran argued that the prophecies of Habakkuk and Nahum, as well as the “prophecies” of the Psalms, were fulfilled by events in the sect’s history — and would be further fulfilled by the sect’s imminent rise to glory and destruction of its enemies.19 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 703 Troyer (2005), 24 17 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 127 18 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 739 19 Cohen (2014), 205 15 16 11 THE PESHARIM LEGACY CREATED AT QUMRAN This method of reinterpretation started with the people at Qumran. They interpreted Scripture as being solely speaking about them, and they invoked a process that is now known as “pesher” (fulfilment). They said that the original authors did not understand that the Hebrew scriptures were speaking only to the people at Qumran. The Gospel authors continued the process, repeatedly saying that passages in the Hebrew literature were actually solely speaking about them. They consistently put such words onto Jesus’ lips. This pesher process has continued unabated, even though history screams out that each generation was wrong. Therefore, today we see people saying that the Scriptures are speaking about today. Sadly, people will continue to be disappointed, but they will be followed by a future generation that will be convinced that the Scriptures speak uniquely to their generation. And the process will continue. Qumran’s legacy Pesher (singular); pesharim (plural), literally means “interpretation” Pesher (pl. pesharim). Literally, “interpretation.” The Qumran scrolls preserve the remains of several scriptural commentaries that are generally known as “pesharim.” These commentaries aim to show that the biblical verses prophetically refer to the history of the Qumran group.20 The pesharim were composed at Qumran ca. 100 to 40 B.C.E No sure dates before 103 or after 55 are preserved in the pesharim. … All the pesharim were composed at Qumran during Phase II (Archaeological Period Ib) or ca. 100 to 40 B.C.E., with the possibility that one or two pesharim were composed near the end of Phase I (Archaeological Period Ia), probably sometime between approximately 110 and 100 B.C.E.21 Pesher means “solution” or “interpretation” The exposition in the materials from Qumran is usually introduced by the term pesher, a word meaning “solution” or “interpretation”.22 Qumranites wrote commentaries now known as pesharim, and in the singular as pesher The Jews of Qumran wrote commentaries (known as pesharim; in singular, pesher) on the Psalms, Habakkuk, Nahum, and other prophets.23 Cohen (2014), 274 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 1179 22 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 653 23 Cohen (2014), 186 20 21 12 The Pesharim legacy created at Qumran The pesharim are a form of Scriptural exegesis and hermeneutics created at Qumran Pesharim are composed of quotations from the biblical text (lemmas) and their exposition (pesher).24 The pesharim are Jewish compositions shaped by exegesis and hermeneutics. … The pesharim are Qumranic compositions that are interpretations of Scripture. They are primarily important for a perception of exegesis and hermeneutics in Second Temple Judaism.25 Pesher interpretations speak in veiled terms (for example, using nicknames for real persons) about the history of the community The basic form of Qumran historical memory is interpretation. Biblical history is frequently interpreted in Qumran works. Qumran interpretation has two basic forms: one is the paraphrasing of biblical narratives, the other an explicit interpretation of texts. Biblical historical tradition is paraphrased and interpreted in a number of so-called para-biblical texts and “rewritten Bibles”. The explicit interpretation form is represented in the pesharim, a special form of historical memory in the life of the Qumran community. The pesharim interpret continuous biblical texts verse by verse by means of various literary devices. Interpretations are introduced by the word pesher (pl. pesharim). These texts were written with the aim of interpreting prophetic and psalm texts as references to events contemporary to the author of the interpretation. The interpreted texts contained meaningful revelations for their intended sectarian audience. Events referred to in the interpretation are episodes memorable in the history of the community. The authors’ concept-of and attitude to history were certainly defined by the community’s general attitude toward history. The interpretations themselves speak in veiled terms (for example, using nicknames for real persons) about the history of the community. Thus, the interpretations refer in a coded form to certain events of the history of the community, as well as their conflicts with enemies, supposedly over the second and first centuries B.C.E.26 Pesher interpretations relate to the events and persons of the age of the author of the interpretation The pesharim cite prophetic writings (and not historical narratives!) verse by verse, and “translate” the text, identifying its textual elements one by one with persons and events of a later age. It is generally known that the interpretations relate to the events and persons of the age of the author of the interpretation. … The commentary read alone has its own meaning, referring to various events in the history of the community. The author’s attitude to history—and, accordingly, the reason for the commentary—is that the prophet’s world relates Tov (2008), 11(=139) Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 253 26 Frölich (2011), 824-825 24 25 13 The Pesharim legacy created at Qumran not only to his own time, but also to a remote era which is identical with the present of the author of the commentary. According to this, the figures and persons mentioned in the prophecy are to be identified with those of the author of the commentary. Thus, the events referred to in the coded text are fulfilled prophecies, and this fact assigns to the events a much greater significance.27 Because the men at Qumran believed they were living in the time that had been made sacred, they created something new, the pesharim What defines and characterizes the Qumran pesharim? … The men at Qumran claimed to know that they were living in biblical history and time that had been made sacred by the acts of God in earlier history and time. History and time had a meaning, and that meaning had been understood only obliquely and imperfectly by the ancient prophets, God’s servants. Thus, God’s purposes had never before been so clearly and perfectly comprehended as at Qumran and in the mind-set of those who perpetually studied Scripture and created something new, the pesharim.28 For the Qumranites, the pesharim were necessary to complete Scripture Pesharim recast and refract some of the earlier compositions in Scripture, but the pesharim were not deemed part of Scripture. For the Qumranites, they rather were necessary to complete Scripture. For us, they are the first commentaries on Scripture.29 The sectarians at Qumran composed the pesharim with their distinctive exegetical style and content The community at Qumran had its whole foundation deeply rooted in Biblical interpretation. … Because of the prominent stress on “proper” interpretation of Scripture, there are examples of varied types and styles of interpretation and application to Scripture within the Qumran literature. … It was within this milieu of a high status placed on properly understanding the Scripture that the sectarians also composed the pesharim with their distinctive exegetical style and content.30 The pesharim, more than Qumran’s other types of interpretative material, reflect their distinctives The pesharim are not the only type of interpretative material from the Qumran community, but the pesharim, more than the others, reflect their distinctives as a sectarian group in the hermeneutics used to derive their eschatology.31 Frölich (2011), 851 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 222 29 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 237 30 Friebel (1981), 13 31 Friebel (1981), 22 27 28 14 The Pesharim legacy created at Qumran A Biblical text is followed by a gloss introduced by the phrase “the interpretation of the passage” or “the interpretation of it concerns” Fragments and sections from fifteen positively identified pesharim have been found which deal with parts of Isaiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Micah, Zephaniah, and the Psalms. All of these compositions are characterized by the citation of the Biblical text followed by a gloss introduced by the phrase psr hdbr (“the interpretation of the passage”) or pšrw ‘I/ pšrw ‘sr (“the interpretation of it concerns”), followed by the designation of whom it concerns and/or of the event which it refers to.32 Scripture’s ideas of pešer and raz, along with imminent “end times”, provided Qumran with an adequate basis for selecting the term pešer Regarding the term pešer and raz, and the contents of the Qumran sectarian’s beliefs, F. F. Bruce enumerates three points regarding the basis for the principles of the sectarians’ method of Biblical interpretation found in the pesharim: 1. God revealed His purpose to His servants the prophets, but His revelation (particularly with regard to the time when His purpose would be fulfilled) could not be understood until its meaning was imparted to the Teacher of Righteousness. 2. All the words of the prophets had reference to the time of the end. 3. The time of the end is at hand. Thus the connotation of the terms pešer and raz from the Scriptural usage, coupled with the belief that the “end times” were imminent or had already begun, would provide an adequate basis for the Qumran sectarians’ selection of the term pešer rather than other terms from Scripture to describe their “interpretations” in these exegetical compositions. Thus the pesharim can be considered: … The inspired application of the terms of the Biblical prophecies to “End of Days” or “Last Days” …; this in turn was not something associated with the remote future, but a process which in the eyes of the adherents of the Sect had already begun and was well advanced towards its culmination.33 Qumranites treated Scripture in a “this is that” fashion In contradistinction to rabbinic exegesis, which spoke of “that has relevance to this;” the Dead Sea covenanters treated Scripture in a “this is that” fashion.34 Pesher interpretation of Scripture is pneumatic, eschatological, and “fulfillment interpretation” What Is a Pesher? Pesher “interpretation” of Scripture is pneumatic, eschatological, and “fulfillment interpretation”; it is also self-serving and Friebel (1981), 13 Friebel (1981), 15-16 34 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 706 32 33 15 The Pesharim legacy created at Qumran idiosyncratic. … At Qumran … Pesher primarily denotes “interpretation” and “explanation.”35 The pesharim are distinct from other contemporaneous Jewish histories The pesharim are sui generis and certainly distinct from other contemporaneous Jewish works that may be perceived as historical works. The pesharim are paradigmatically different from Jewish histories like 1 Maccabees and Josephus’s War and Antiquities.36 Jewish historiography in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E. tends to be creative historiography, with past events presented with creative imagination We ought to keep in mind … Jewish historiography in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E., with the exception of 1 Maccabees and to a lesser extent 2 Maccabees, tends to be creative historiography. Past events were presented with a creative imagination that was fired by apocalypticism and an increasing belief that God would soon fulfill all his promises to Israel, his chosen people.37 Central to the Qumranites was what might be called the raz (mystery)-pesher (interpretation) revelational motif Central in the consciousness of the covenanters at Qumran was what might be called the raz (mystery)-pesher (interpretation) revelational motif, which is found explicitly stated in the commentary on Hab 2:1-2: God told Habakkuk to write the things that were to come upon the last generation, but he did not inform him when that period would come to consummation. And as for the phrase, “that he may run who reads,” the interpretation (pesher) concerns the Teacher of Righteousness to whom God made known all the mysteries (razim) of the words of his servants the prophets. And this is echoed in the treatment of Hab 2:3: The last period extends beyond anything that the prophets have foretold, told, for “the mysteries of God are destined to be performed wondrously.”38 God communicated the raz to the prophet while its pesher was made known to the Teacher of Righteousness, founder of the Qumran community The raz was communicated by God to the prophet, but the meaning of that communication remained sealed until its pesher was made known by God to His chosen interpreter. The chosen interpreter was the Teacher of Righteousness, the founder of the Qumran community.39 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 660 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 118 37 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 802 38 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 682 39 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 700 35 36 16 The Pesharim legacy created at Qumran The prophets received “mysteries” that dealt with the things to come upon the last generation The focal point of the contents of the pesharim from Qumran; that being that the sect held the view that the “mysteries” which the prophets received dealt with the things that were to come upon the last generation. Even CD1:10-12 brings out this focal point of the sect’ teaching in describing again the mission of the Teacher of Righteousness: (10) And God considered their works, for they had sought Him with a perfect heart; (11) and He raised up for them a Teacher of Righteousness to lead them in the way of His heart and to make known (12) to the last generations what He [would do] to the last generation, the congregation of traitors.40 The “latter days” were the “mysteries” that God communicated to the prophets; but these were not understood until the “interpretation” was given This concept of the divine “mysteries” being “revealed” to the sectarians was central to the concept of their possessing the “proper” interpretation of Scripture. Thus the link between the terms “mysteries,” “revelation,” and “interpretation” as evidenced in Daniel become central to the understanding of the exegetical method and content of the Qumran pesharim. It would appear that the prophetic books, or at least those passages dealing with the “latter days,” were considered by the sectarians to be the “mysteries” which God communicated to the prophets; but the “mysteries” were not understood until the “interpretation” was given. … The sectarians acknowledged that the Teacher of Righteousness was the interpreter to whom God gave the divine insight of the interpretation of Scripture. This is clearly brought out in the pesher on Habakkuk.41 The “interpretation” and the “mystery” are given to two separate parties, and they cannot be understood until they are brought together What becomes evident from the use in the Book of Daniel is that just as the interpretation comes through divine illumination, so too that which is interpreted is also divinely communicated. From Dan 2:30, it is seen that the “interpretation” and the “mystery”, which is to be interpreted, are transmitted·to two separate parties and that it is not until the mystery and the interpretation are brought together that the divine communication can be understood. The concepts of “mystery” and “revelation” play a significant role in the Qumran literature as well.42 Friebel (1981), 15 Friebel (1981), 15 42 Friebel (1981), 14 40 41 17 RIGHTEOUS TEACHERS Qumran’s unique prophet teacher leader The Righteous Teacher was the “inspired interpreter” In interpreting the pesharim, it is imperative to grasp Talmon’s point about the Righteous Teacher being the “inspired interpreter.”43 Only Qumran’s Righteous Teacher had received God’s full disclosure of all the mysteries While the Righteous Teacher did not compose the pesharim, the trajectory of Qumran theology reveals that he probably created the pesher method and taught it to his disciples. Those who composed the pesharim, probably after his death, remembered him in a singular fashion. He alone was the right Teacher. He alone had received God’s full disclosure of all the mysteries in the words of the prophets. He alone had been chosen to plant the final planting of God’s vineyard, the elect and “holy ones” (cf. 1QH 16).44 The Righteous Teacher, chosen by God, helped the Qumranites comprehend that God’s Word was directed only to their time, and only to them God has chosen only one man, the Righteous Teacher, to inaugurate augurate the final drama in the history of salvation (see esp. 1QH1 16). This priest was the specially chosen descendant of Aaron. God had revealed to him all the secrets preserved in the sacred words recorded in Scripture by God’s servants, the prophets (1QpHab 7). This person, the Righteous Teacher, knew he had been chosen by God. This priest, and scribe, then helped the Qumranites comprehend how, and in what ways, God’s Word in the words of Scripture had been directed only to their time, and only to them. Fulfillment hermeneutics was possible because “the Holy Spirit” dwelt within “the House of Holiness;” in which “the Most Holy of Holy Ones” dwelt. In fact, angels visited them at Qumran in their “House of Holiness.” For the Qumranites, the “House of Holiness” was not only on the earth; it was also open to revelation and to heaven itself. The Qumran Scrolls often give me the impression that the Qumranites often believed they were living in an antechamber of God’s throne room.45 God made known to the Teacher of Righteousness all the mysterious revelations of his servants the prophets The righteous are characterized by the authentic interpretation of the Law, in a special way. Authentic interpretation of the Law by the (Righteous) Priest is interpretation that he received from “the Priest in whose [heart] God has put [the abil]ity to explain all the words of his servants the prophets, through [whom] God has foretold everything that is to come upon his people and [his] com[munity]” (1QpHab II:8-10); “the Teacher of Righteousness to whom God made known all the mysterious revelations of his servants the prophets” Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 188 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 198 45 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 230 43 44 18 Righteous Teachers (1QpHab VII:4–5). Thus, the prophetic revelations are valid for the history of later generations, according to the Essenes’ concept of historical time.46 God will rescue them because of their suffering and their loyalty to the Teacher of Righteousness Their proper religious practice, their fidelity to the Righteous Teacher, and the authority of the right practice are the basis of their rescue in the future, “whom God will rescue from among those doomed to judgement, because of their suffering and their loyalty to the Teacher of Righteousness” (1QpHab VIII:1– 3).47 Numerous pesharim focus on the Righteous Teacher When studying the pesharim, the serious person readily perceives in them the overpowering influence of the Righteous Teacher. Numerous pesharim focus on him in an attempt to explain and comprehend his sufferings in the history of salvation.48 Through the hermeneutics of pesher, the Qumranites explained that the Righteous Teacher is he who “has been sent” The pesharim reveal the extent to which the Qumranites revered the Righteous Teacher and saluted him as their “charismatically qualified leader.” He alone was the bearer of charisma; he alone had been led by the Holy Spirit to build in the wilderness “the House of Holiness.” He had demanded a following, and to those who followed him from the Temple into the wilderness he revealed the meaning of Scripture. He clarified God’s will for them. They were the elect of the renewed covenant, “the Holy Ones.” The Qumranites knew, and explained through the hermeneutics of the pesher that they knew, that the Righteous Teacher is he who “has been sent.” He “is their master.”49 According to the pesharim, only the Qumranites or the Righteous Teacher, not the authors of Scripture, knew the meaning of the prophetic books Two perspectives are paramount in the pesharim. First, according to the Qumranites the ancient men of wisdom, especially the prophets, focused their thoughts on the latter days. Second, the Qumranites believed they were living in the latter days of time and history. According to the pesharim (esp. 1QpHab 7), only the Qumranites or the Righteous Teacher knew the meaning of the prophetic books. Even the authors of Scripture did not know what had been revealed through them. God disclosed the full meaning, in the latter days, only to the Righteous Teacher and thence to his group.50 The Righteous Teacher taught his followers to think only in their own special history and only in their own lives, now and in the near future What type of biblical commentaries, then, are the pesharim? They are the first examples of fulfillment interpretation; that is, fulfillment hermeneutics. The Righteous Teacher taught his followers to think that only in their own special Frölich (2011), 853 Frölich (2011), 854 48 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 158 49 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 172 50 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 668 46 47 19 Righteous Teachers history and only in their own lives, now and in the near future (which was beginning to break into the present), can one perceive how God is fulfilling his promises for Israel, which, of course, has been redefined.51 The Gospels’ unique prophet teacher leader Jesus was the Teacher of Scripture and its object Then [Jesus] said to them, “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you — that everything written about me in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds to understand the scriptures, and he said to them, “Thus it is written. … I am sending upon you what my Father promised.”52 Jesus was anointed as God’s messenger In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus is also introduced as God’s messenger who fulfills the expectations related to the “anointed prophet” in the book of Isaiah (Luke 4:18– 19, quoting Isa 61:1–2 in combination with 58:6).53 Jesus heard from God and was sent by Him You are trying to kill me [Jesus], a man who has told you the truth that I heard from God. … I did not come on my own, but he sent me. (John 8:40, 42, NRSV) Jesus was the unique manifestation of God’s thoughts and words In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. … And the Word became flesh and lived among us, and we have seen his glory, the glory as of a father’s only son, full of grace and truth. … No one has ever seen God. It is God the only Son, who is close to the Father’s heart, who has made him known. (John 1:1-2, 14, 18, NRSV) The Anointed Jesus was given both prophetic and royal attributes Jesus in the Gospel of John, as the Anointed, is linked with Moses and referred to as the King of Israel. He is given both prophetic as well as royal attributes, which is not that strange given that both royal and prophetic attributes were sometimes attached to the same person.54 In John, Jesus is presented as the king The Fourth Gospel, more often than any of the Synoptics, presents Jesus as King.55 Nathanael said Jesus was King of Israel Nathanael replied, “Rabbi, you are the Son of God! You are the King of Israel!” 50 Jesus answered, “Do you believe because I told you that I saw you under the fig tree? You will see greater things than these.” 51 And he said to him, “Very truly, I tell you, you will see heaven opened and the angels of God ascending and descending upon the Son of Man.” (John 1:49, NRSV) Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 239 Luke 24:44-46, NRSV 53 Schröter (2020), 4. In Matthew, Luke, and John, 3/40 54 Evans (1997), 131 55 Caragounis, Crys, in Fortna (2001), 125 51 52 20 Righteous Teachers The people called Jesus “the King of Israel” who came in the name of the Lord The next day the great crowd that had come to the festival heard that Jesus was coming to Jerusalem. So they took branches of palm trees and went out to meet him, shouting, “Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord — the King of Israel!” Jesus found a young donkey and sat on it; as it is written: “Do not be afraid, daughter of Zion. Look, your king is coming, sitting on a donkey’s colt!” (John 12: - 15, NRSV, underlining added) As the Messiah, Jesus is a teacher; discerner of secrets; a restorer; a new Moses At the well [Jesus] encounters the Samaritan woman. … Jesus’ knowledge about the woman’s past and her numerous husbands leads her to recognize him as a prophet. … The woman responds with a confession, “I know that Messiah is coming (who is called Anointed). When that one comes, he will proclaim all things to us” ([John] 4:25). Here one of the attributes of the Messiah is clearly that of a teacher. The woman then returns to her village to announce that she has found a man “who told me everything I have ever done. He cannot be the Messiah, can he?” (4:28-30). Thus, another attribute of the Messiah is that he is able to discern the secrets people hold. … Many of the Samaritans believe on account of the woman’s testimony and are convinced that Jesus is truly the savior of the world (4:42). … The Samaritan woman does not expect a Messiah in the sense of an anointed king from the house of David. … [The] Samaritans … longed for the coming of the Taheb, apparently their term for the Messiah. The term itself means “restorer” and points toward not a new David but a new Moses.56 Jesus said he was anointed by the Spirit of the Lord to bring good news [Jesus] unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed (χρίω chrio) me to bring good news to the poor”.57 Jesus, the eschatological messianic redeemer of Israel As messiah, God’s eschatological redeemer sent to the people of Israel, Jesus’ mission involves bringing about many of the expected eschatological blessings. These blessings include the Last Judgment, the resurrection of the righteous dead to life eternal, and the outpouring of God’s Spirit (cf. Ezek. 36:26-27; 37:1114; 39:29). (Rensberger in Fortna (2001), 19) The eschatological weight in [the Fourth Gospel] falls on the coming of Jesus himself. The realization of eschatological blessings occurs in him and in the believers’ response to him: “I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though they die, will live, and everyone who lives and believes in me will never die” (John 11:25-26). 56 57 Evans (1997), 132 Luke 4:18, NRSV 21 Righteous Teachers Not only does Jesus himself rise from the dead, but he offers that resurrection life to all who believe in him, not only as a hope for the last day, but as a present experience. For believers, eternal life starts now. The Messiah has come into the world, and with him have come the Spirit, the resurrection, and a gift of life that means the judgment has already occurred.58 Like Qumran’s Teacher, Jesus was in an exclusive relationship with God Jesus knows God It is my Father who glorifies me [Jesus], he of whom you say, ‘He is our God,’. … I know him. … I do know him. (John 8:54-55, NRSV) Jesus is the exalted Lord, acting in an exclusive relationship with God and with is authority In a dispute with the Sadducees, the Markan Jesus, by quoting Psalm 109:1 LXX, emphasizes that the Christ is not the Son of David, but the exalted Lord (12:35–37). This episode points to a possible misunderstanding of “Christ” in relation to Jesus. He will not act as the Davidic messiah as described in Pss. Sol. He will therefore also not fulfill the expectations of the crowd that welcomed him at his entry into Jerusalem shouting, “Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the coming kingdom of our father David!” (Mic 11:9–10). Instead, Jesus as Christ acts in God’s authority on earth, he will suffer, die and rise again (Mark 8:31; 9,31; 10:33–34), he will be exalted to the right hand of God and return as judge at the end of time. The latter aspect becomes clear at Jesus’ interrogation by the high priest. Jesus answers the question of the high priest “Are you the Messiah (ὁ χριστός), the Son of the Blessed One?” by saying: “I am; and you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of the Power and coming with the clouds of heaven.” (14:61). The designation “Messiah” is interpreted in this dialogue by two other expressions: “Son of the Most High” (or “Son of God”) refers to Jesus’ exclusive relationship with God; “Son of Man” alludes to Dan 7:13 and refers to Jesus’ return as judge in final judgement (cf. also 8:38 and 13:26).59 While in the Father’s presence, Jesus received personal instructions I am he, and that I do nothing on my own, but I speak these things as the Father instructed me. And the one who sent me is with me; he has not left me alone, for I always do what is pleasing to him. … I declare what I have seen in the Father’s presence”. (John 8:28-29, 38, NRSV) Keep Jesus’ words, and you will never see death I tell you, whoever keeps my [Jesus’] word will never see death. (John 8:51, NRSV) Heaven’s angels announced Jesus’ birth as the Saviour, the Lord An angel of the Lord stood before them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. But the angel said to them, "Do not be afraid; for 58 59 Rensberger in Fortna (2001), 20 Schröter (2020), 3. Mark, 3/40 22 Righteous Teachers see — I am bringing you good news of great joy for all the people: to you is born this day in the city of David a Savior, who is the Messiah, the Lord.60 A voice from heaven declared and confirmed Jesus’ divine Sonship 16 And when Jesus had been baptized, just as he came up from the water, suddenly the heavens were opened to him and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and alighting on him. 17 And a voice from heaven said, "This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased."61 60 61 Luke 2:9-11, NRSV Matthew 3:16, 17, NRSV 23 QUMRAN’S PESHER IN THE CONTEMPORARY BOOK OF DANIEL On thirty occasions, Qumran’s pesher (“interpretation”) is used in the Aramaic portion of the Book of Daniel The root psr is found only in the Hebrew text of the Bible in Ecclesiastes 8:1: “Who is like the wise man and who knows the interpretation of a matter?” All of the other occurrences of the noun and verb form in Scripture are in the Aramaic portion of the Book of Daniel, of which there are thirty occurrences of the Aramaic cognates. In Daniel, this term is used in Daniel’s interpretation of Nebuchadnezer’s two dreams (Dan 2:4,5,6,7,9,16,23,26,30,36 and Dan 4:3,4,6,15,16,21 MT); of the writing on the wall at Belshazar’s feast (Dan 5:12,15,16,26); and of the interpretation of Daniel’s first vision (Dan 7:16).62 In Daniel and at Qumran, pešer denotes the “interpretation” of those things which are hidden and it is linked with “mystery” (raz) As the term pešer is thus used to denote the “interpretation” of those things which are hidden from normal understanding, we find that it is linked both in Daniel and in the Qumran texts with the word “mystery” (raz), as in Dan 2:18, 30 and 4:6 MT.63 Most of Daniel 2:4-7:28 can be classed as “Theme and Variations on the RazPesher Motif” The greater part of the material in [Daniel] 2:4-7:28 can appropriately be classed as “Theme and Variations on the Raz-Pesher Motif”: Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of the metallic human image, and Daniel’s interpretation (ch. 2); Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of the gigantic tic tree and its fall, and Daniel’s interpretation (ch. 4); the writing on the wall at Belshazzar’s banquet, and Daniel’s interpretation (ch. 5); and Belshazzar’s dream of the composite animal, and Daniel’s interpretation (ch. 7). “In the Book of Daniel;” as F. F. Bruce pointed out, “it is clear that the raz, the mystery, is divinely communicated to one party, and the pesher, the interpretation, to another.64 The Qumranites recreated the Danielic pattern of interpretation, rather than follow a rabbinic mode of exegesis The covenanters of Qumran seem not so much conscious of following a rabbinic mode of exegesis as recreating the Danielic pattern of interpretation. In Dan 9:24-27, Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years is reinterpreted by the angel Gabriel to mean seventy heptads of years, and in Dan 11:30 Balaam’s prophecy regarding the “ships of Kittim” is used to denote a Roman fleet.65 Jeremiah’s promise was repurposed by the author of Daniel to the promise of restoration of Israel after the depredations of Antiochus Epiphanes In the height of the religious crisis of the mid - second century BCE, the author of Daniel sought to unlock the secret to the events that were taking place. The Friebel (1981), 14 Friebel (1981), 14 64 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 694 65 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 691 62 63 24 Qumran’s pesher in the contemporary Book of Daniel answer was to be found in the book of Jeremiah (Dan. 9:2): “I, Daniel, perceived in the books the number of years that, according to the word of the LORD to the prophet Jeremiah, must be fulfilled for the devastation of Jerusalem, namely, seventy years.” Jeremiah’s promise of restoration, prophesied to the Babylonian exiles several hundred years earlier, was understood by the author of Daniel to promise the restoration of Israel after the depredations of Antiochus Epiphanes. Thus did the words of Jeremiah’s prophecy live on, their potency and veracity undiminished long after their own time. The same attitude toward the prophets is well attested in the pesharim from Qumran; in the Gospels, with their frequent reference to the “fulfillment “of biblical prophecies.66 The Book of Daniel incorporated the “Watchers” from the 2nd century BCE apocryphal Book of Enoch A Watcher is a type of biblical angel. The word occurs in both plural and singular forms in the Book of Daniel (2nd century BC), where reference is made to the holiness of the beings. The apocryphal Books of Enoch (2nd–1st centuries BC) refer to both good and bad Watchers, with a primary focus on the rebellious ones. In the Book of Daniel 4:13, 17, 23 there are three references to the class of "watcher, holy one" ("watcher", Aramaic ʿir; "holy one", Aramaic qaddish). The term is introduced by Nebuchadnezzar who says he saw "a watcher, a holy one come down (singular verb) from heaven." He describes how in his dream the “watcher” says that Nebuchadnezzar will eat grass and be mad and that this punishment is "by the decree of the watchers, the demand [decision] by the word of the holy ones" 67 66 67 Cohen (2014), 184 Wikipedia, “Watcher (angel). Watcher (angel) - Wikipedia accessed 11 February 2024 25 NEW TESTAMENT AUTHORS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING Hebrew prophecy in its original setting was not concerned with the distant future The genre of Hebrew prophecy in its original setting was unconcerned with the distant future. Therefore, the Hebrew Bible does not contain any prophecy intended as a prediction of Christ. All supposed prophecies of this nature initially addressed situations in the prophet’s own day.68 Four headings of 1st century Jewish exegesis were: literalist, midrashic, pesher, and allegorical Jewish exegesis of the first century can generally be classified under four headings: literalist, midrashic, pesher, and allegorical…. The pesher commentaries from Qumran are primarily on prophetic material: the “former prophets;” the “latter prophets;” and the Psalms. Evidently deuteronomic legislation, while having to be adapted somewhat to their unique situation, was taken for the most part quite literally – if not hyperliterally.69 The authors of the pesharim and the authors of the New Testament books shared a similar means of interpreting the same Scriptures The Qumranic pesharim and the New Testament books employ a similar method. The authors of the pesharim and the authors of the New Testament books shared a similar means of interpreting the same Scriptures. These were interpreted, the authors claimed, through special revelation and with the help of “the Holy Spirit.” The authors belonged to different Jewish communities with different agendas, but they were both (especially Jesus’ group) shaped by messianology. Clearly, the Qumran sect and Jesus’ sect were shaped by a shared penchant to think that they were living in the last days when God’s promises would be fulfilled in and for them.70 In the pesharim of Qumran and the pesher of the New Testament, the words of Scripture are perceived as fulfilled in the life of each community Both the Qumran pesharim and the New Testament documents are to be perceived as Jewish works, and the methodology for interpreting Torah should be labeled as fulfillment interpretation (or as fulfillment hermeneutics); that is, the words of Scripture are perceived as fulfilled in the life of each community.71 Isaiah 7 reinterpreted Isaiah 7:14 (Quoted in Matt 1:23). This verse from Isaiah is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew as referring to the virgin birth of Jesus. … McKenzie (2005), 79 Longenecker (1999), Kindle locations 547, 582 70 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 43-46 71 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 47 68 69 26 New Testament authors applied pesher understanding Isaiah’s sign was intimately related to the Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis. It bore the same message as his oracle to Ahaz, namely that Ahaz should trust in Yahweh to save Judah from its enemies. The sign was not a prediction of the far distant future and had nothing to do originally with the birth of Jesus eight hundred years later.72 Isaiah 9 reinterpreted Other Examples from Isaiah: Isaiah 9:6–7 (Heb 9:5–6) For a child has been born for us, a son given to us; Authority rests upon his shoulders; and he is named Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. His authority shall grow continually, and there shall be endless peace for the throne of David and his kingdom. He will establish and uphold it with justice and with righteousness from this time onward and forevermore. (NRSV) This text is not quoted in the New Testament, although Matthew (4:15–16) quotes the beginning of the Isaiah oracle (9:1–2). The familiar passage is commonly cited by later Christian interpreters as a prediction of Christ. … This passage refers to the birth of a son in the line of David. But the boy’s birth lies in the past rather than in the future. The verb forms in 9:5 (perfects and converted imperfects) are typically used in Hebrew for the past tense. As the NRSV translation indicates, the child, the subject of the poem, had been born already at the time the poem was written (“For a child has been born …”). Indeed, the poem celebrates the birth of a crown prince, the oldest son of one of the kings of Judah. The names “Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace” are the reasons this poem has been interpreted traditionally as a reference to Christ. These names do not necessarily refer to the individual who bears them. Symbolic names are common in the prophets. The child Immanuel (“God is with us,” Isa. 7:14), born in 734 BCE, was not divine. The names of Isaiah’s other sons, Shearjashub (“a remnant will return,” 7:3) and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (“spoil hurries, prey makes haste,” 8:1), say nothing about those children. Hosea’s children, Jezreel (“God sows”), Lo-ruhamah (“Not loved”), and Loammi (“Not my people”), have names that symbolize the deteriorating relationship between Yahweh and Israel (Hosea 1). Later on in Hosea those 72 McKenzie (2005), 79, 81 27 New Testament authors applied pesher understanding names are changed to “Beloved” and “My People,” indicating an improvement in the relationship. It is also possible, moreover, that the names in Isaiah 9 are not four phrases but two sentence names: “Mighty God is a Wonderful Counselor” and “Eternal Father is Prince of Peace.”73 Such sentence names were given as a way of praising and thanking the deity for the gift of the children who bore them.74 Isaiah 11 reinterpreted Isaiah 11:1–9. This passage is also not quoted in the New Testament. The first line of the passage indicates its date and nature: “A shoot shall come out from the stump of Jesse (NRSV).” Jesse was the father of King David. The “shoot,” therefore, is a new member of the Davidic dynasty, which ruled Judah. The fact that the new branch comes out of Jesse’s “stump” indicates that the Davidic line has been cut off. The passage, therefore, dates from after 587 BCE, when Jerusalem was destroyed, the Davidic king taken captive, and the Babylonian exile begun. This passage can properly be called “messianic” since the word “messiah,” meaning “anointed,” was simply a title for a king. This text envisions the coming of a new king in David’s line or the restoration of the royal line of David over Israel. The rest of the passage describes this new king and his reign, perhaps hyperbolically. The description, however, is hardly a prediction. … A further indication that this passage is not a prediction is that the author does not seem to have a specific individual in mind. There is no mention of Jesus by name. There is no date or time frame. It is a utopian vision, an expression of hope intended to create hope and expectation within readers. At the same time, like all utopian visions, this one is distinctly earthly. Christians agree that Jesus’s kingdom, contrary to the expectations of his disciples, was not of this world. The reign of the king imagined in Isaiah 11:1–9, on the other hand, is not a vision of heaven or the next world but the ideal in the present age—and actually in the past age of ancient Israel when the ideal form of government could still be viewed as monarchy.75 Prophecies in the book of Micah were reapplied to later situations The book of Micah is an exercise in prophetic reinterpretation and reapplication. Less than half of the present book derives from Micah himself. His prophecies of destruction were reapplied to later situations. The Babylonian exile may have been seen in at least some circles as their eventual fulfillment. Other writers apparently perceived that the exile was not the final end and looked forward to restoration, which they articulated in hopeful oracles added Williamson, Variations on a Theme: King, Messiah and Servant in the Book of Isaiah, page 43 McKenzie (2005), 81-82 75 McKenzie (2005), 82-83 73 74 28 New Testament authors applied pesher understanding to the expanding book. Despite this diversity of compositions, Micah retains a coherence of both literary organization and of themes.76 Pesher in Acts In Acts when some bystanders charged that the disciples were speaking as they were because they were drunk, Peter defended them; part of his apology consisted of offering a pesher-like exegesis of a passage from the prophet Joel— a pesher that might have made the scrolls’ Teacher of Righteousness proud: “No, this is what was spoken through the prophet Joel: ‘In the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams. Even upon my slaves, both men and women, in those days I will pour out my Spirit; and they shall prophesy.” (Acts 2:16-18). As in pesher exegesis, Peter takes a prophetic text and claims it speaks to his time and situation—a time characterized as “in the last days.”77 76 77 McKenzie (2005), 78 VanderKam (2015), BAR 29 GOSPEL AUTHORS SAID JESUS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING OF SCRIPTURE TO HIMSELF The Gospels’ authors were familiar with the Essenes It does not appear that Jesus had personal contact with the Essenes, but the early Christians did As far as can be ascertained, Jesus had no personal contact with the Essenes. … Neither did the places he visited offer him any contact with the Essenes. … Jesus worked in Galilee, where in his time there were no Essenes at all. … As emerges from the Gospels, none of Jesus' activity shows any direct Essene influence, but instead a great deal that contradicted their basic orientation. The case was different with Christianity, as it took form after Jesus' time on earth. The original community at Jerusalem arose in the same city in which there was also an important Essene quarter. This early community was the center of Christianity until the members who still belonged to it left Jerusalem at the outbreak of the revolt against the Romans in A.D. 66.78 The Gospels say that Jesus employed Qumran’s pesher form of interpretations Jesus often treated selected biblical texts in a fashion we have learned of late to call pesher Much more could be said in regard to Jesus’ pesher approach to the Scriptures of the Old Covenant. Reference could be made, for example, to his reinterpretation and use of such terms as “Son of Man;” “Servant of Yahweh;” and “Day of Yahweh” … All four evangelists believed that Jesus viewed the Old Testament from the perspective of his own ministry, that the fulfillment theme was a definite feature of his teaching, and that he often treated selected biblical texts in a fashion we have learned of late to call pesher.79 Jesus’ most characteristic use of Scripture is a pesher “this is that” interpretation [Jesus’] most characteristic use of Scripture is portrayed as being a pesher type of interpretation. The “this is that” fulfillment motif, which is distinctive to pesher exegesis, repeatedly comes to the fore in the words of Jesus.80 Jesus was engaged in a creative interpretation of Scripture, applying its importance to himself in a pesher fashion It seems evident that those who heard [Jesus] – particularly his disciples – understood him to be engaged in a creative interpretation of Scripture that explicated the enigmatic features and applied the import of the passage to himself in a pesher fashion.81 Stegemann (1998), 258 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 1011 80 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 961 81 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 1005 78 79 30 Gospel authors said Jesus applied pesher understanding of Scripture to himself In typical pesher fashion, Jesus is represented as the fulfilment of Scripture In Matthew’s Gospel [Jesus] is represented as using a typical pesher formula, saying by way of introduction: “This is he of whom it is written”.82 In pesher fashion, Jesus applied the words of the prophet to his own ministry In Matt 13:14-15, Jesus quotes Isa 6:9-10 in explanation of his use of parables. … It must not be overlooked that Jesus is here presented as introducing the quotation with the words “in them [i.e., in those who refuse to hear] is fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah,” and of applying in pesher fashion the words of the prophet to his own ministry.83 Jesus applied the fulfilment of Scriptures directly to himself In Luke 22:37, Jesus applies the clause “he was numbered among the transgressors” from Isa 53:12 directly to himself, altering only the LXX preposition. On either side of the citation, he directly invokes a pesher theme, saying first that “it is necessary that what is written be fulfilled in me” and then that “that concerning me [in Isaiah’s prophecy] has fulfillment”.84 Jesus applied Scriptures to his teaching and to his ministry in particular In John 6:45, [Jesus] alludes to the message of Isa 54:13 and Jer 31:33, making the point that the words “and they shall be taught of God” – as the prophets’ message may be rather freely rendered – apply to his teaching and his ministry in particular.85 Jesus applied to himself, in pesher fashion, a correspondence-in-history theme [Jesus] is portrayed as invoking a correspondence-in-history theme and applying it to himself in pesher fashion: (1) in Matt 12:40, paralleling the experience of Jonah and that of his own approaching death and entombment; (2) in Matt 24:37, drawing the relationship between the days of Noah and the days of “the coming of the Son of man”; and (3) in John 3:14, connecting the “lifting up” of the brass serpent in the wilderness to his own approaching crucifixion. Jesus seems to have viewed these Old Testament events not just as analogies that could be used for purposes of illustration, but as typological.86 Moses was writing about Jesus In John’s Gospel the theme of fulfillment is just as explicitly stated in Jesus’ denunciation of the Pharisees in John 5:39-47. The passage begins with a rebuke of his opponents’ false confidence, proceeds to give an unfavorable verdict on their attitudes and interpretations, and climaxes in the assertion: “If you believed Moses, you would have believed me; for he wrote of me.”87 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 979 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 983 84 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 989 85 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 991 86 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 1008 87 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 966 82 83 31 Gospel authors said Jesus applied pesher understanding of Scripture to himself Jesus said that his hearers had heard Isaiah 61 being fulfilled According to Luke’s Gospel, Jesus began to expound the Scriptures in terms of a fulfillment theme very early in his ministry. … He reads Isa 61:1-2, rolls up the scroll, hands it to the attendant, sits down to speak, and proclaims: “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your ears.”88 Luke 4:17-24, NRSV: The scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to [Jesus]. He unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovery of sight to the blind, to let the oppressed go free, to proclaim the year of the LORD’s favor.” And he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant, and sat down. … Then he began to say to them, “Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.” … And he said, “Truly I tell you, no prophet is accepted in the prophet’s hometown.” Jesus applied the Scriptural lament, “hated without a cause” to himself In John 15:25, the lament of Pss 35:19 and 69:4, “hated without a cause;” is applied by Jesus to his own person and introduced by the statement “in order that the word that is written in their law might be fulfilled”.89 Jesus saw his own activity as literally fulfilling some of Isaiah’s eschatological prophecies Jesus’ reply to John, then, indicates that he saw his own activity as a healer as fulfilment – in a most literal way – of some of Isaiah’s prophecies concerning the eschatological age.90 Abraham was glad he would witness Jesus’ day Abraham rejoiced that he would see my day; he saw it and was glad. … Very truly, I tell you, before Abraham was, I am.” (John 8:56, 58, NRSV) Jesus saw that his rejection and exaltation fulfilled the psalmist’s words In Mark 12:10-11; Matt 21:42; Luke 20:17, Jesus concludes his allusion to the well-known parable of the vineyard (Isa 5:1-7) and his not-so-veiled rebuke of the people’s rejection of the son with the quotation of Ps 118:22-23: “The stone that the builders rejected has become the head of the corner. This was from the Lord, and it is marvelous in our eyes.” Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 963 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 996 90 Hägerland (2011), 198-199 88 89 32 Gospel authors said Jesus applied pesher understanding of Scripture to himself The text is an exact reproduction of the LXX, and his point obviously concerns fulfillment of the psalmist’s words in his own rejection and exaltation.91` When Jesus rebuked the scribes and Pharisees, he applied the Scripture passage in pesher fashion In Matt 15:8-9, [Jesus] paraphrases Isa 29:13 (possibly also collating Ps 78:36-37) in rebuke of the scribes and Pharisees from Jerusalem. Again, it is to be noted that he introduces the quotation by a fulfillment motif, “Isaiah prophesied concerning you saying”, and [he] applies the passage in pesher fashion to the Jewish leaders’ rejection of himself.92 Jesus applied the lament of David to his betrayal by Judas, “in order that the scripture might be fulfilled” In John 13:18, he applies the lament of David in Ps 41:9 (LXX 40:10) to his betrayal by Judas: “He who ate my bread lifted up his heel against me.” In the text itself, synonyms are used for the LXX readings. … Jesus introduces the quotation by the fulfillment formula: “in order that the scripture might be fulfilled”.93 After the Last Supper, Jesus directly invoked a “this is that” pesher motif In Mark 14:27; Matt 26:31, after the Last Supper, he quotes Zech 13:7 in regard to his approaching death and the disciples’ reactions: “I will strike down the shepherd and the sheep (of the flock) will be scattered.” The citation is introduced by Jesus with the formula “it is written” and directly invokes a “this is that” pesher motif.94 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 969 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 986 93 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 993 94 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 973 91 92 33 QUMRAN AND THE NEW TESTAMENT Correlation is not causation. Although Qumran’s Scrolls and the New Testament do not directly mention one another, evidence shows they were cut from the same cloth, with the Qumran community slightly preceding Christianity. New Testament authors share ideas and passages with those found at Qumran but are not present in the Hebrew scriptures95. This does not prove that one is the cause of the other; the most that anyone should say is that they shared in a common heritage, that expressions they used were common across Judaism during that latter Second Temple period. This is reasonable, since the occupants at Qumran came from many regions, and as they came, they brought their ideas and their literature with them. Not all scrolls located at Qumran originated there. No New Testament author explicitly names Qumran or any party associated with that establishment. The most that scholars offer is inference, not tangible evidence. There is, however, one tangible legacy left by the people at Qumran: pesher interpretation of scripture. Intimately integrated with pesher was their conviction they were living in the time of God’s “Last Days”. This was not unique to the Qumran sect, for at the time, belief in the imminent consummation was widespread. Not only was the Qumran community living in the “Last days”, but they knew that the prophecies were written for them alone, to them alone, and about them alone. They were the only people who understood this, courtesy of their Teacher. The widespread fervor across Judaism with matters eschatological generated speculations that also influenced the Qumran community; these included: a coming eschatological messiah figure (or two); a spirit world; a leader of fallen spirits; resurrection; war in heaven; and so forth. These novel ideas took hold, as can be witnessed in the religions that followed. The intertwined legacies are thus (a) pesher interpretation and (b) “these are God’s ‘Last Days’”. Similarities, but very different A tremendous chasm between Qumran thought and Christianity Of this there should be no question, there remains a tremendous chasm between Qumran thought and Christianity. No matter how impressive the terminological and ideological similarities are, the difference that Jesus Christ makes between the two cannot be minimized. Therefore we do well to avoid any policy of hunting for Christian parallels to every line of the Qumran Literature.96 95 96 Here is include both the Greek Septuagint and the Hebrew texts Brown (1955), 571 34 Qumran and the New Testament There is nothing like the Christian gospel in the Qumran literature The chief difference between the Qumran literature and the NT lies in the Christian gospel, the good news of what Jesus of Nazareth achieved for humanity in his life, passion, death, and resurrection. There is nothing like that news in the Qumran literature.97 The differences between Jesus and the Essenes outweigh the similarities It could be that through John the Baptist, Jesus was acquainted with the Essene sect and took over from it certain elements of his thought. He shared their attitude toward the Temple. But the differences outweigh the similarities… In Jesus’ teaching, we do not find the legalism of the Qumran people; we do not find the role of the priesthood which was so important for them (e. g., the Teacher of Righteousness was a priest). Jesus’ gospel has no asceticism and no tendency to secrecy. … But this is still not the most significant point. What is decisive is what we call Jesus’ self-consciousness. … During his life, the Teacher of Righteousness possessed great spiritual authority. He died, and after his death, was honored. But he died as a prophet. … Nowhere do we hear that the Teacher of Righteousness voluntarily took upon himself the mysterious role of the Suffering Servant, suffering vicariously for the sins of the world. So far, we have heard nothing in the new texts of an atoning death. Yet this is the most important aspect of Jesus’ self-consciousness. That the Teacher of Righteousness also suffered death because of his priestly and prophetic activity is not the same thing, and is in no way parallel to the conscious relation to the figure of the Servant which is basic for Jesus. That at the same time Jesus expected to return as the Son of Man, on the clouds of Heaven (an expectation which brings him close to the Book of Enoch), and expected also to suffer as the Servant of Yahweh — that is what was new and unheard-of.98 The Essenes were not Christians, and the Christians were not Essenes The Essene sectarians were not Christians, and the recognition of this will prevent many misinterpretations. On the other hand, it is even more incorrect to tum the early Christians into Essenes.99 Pauline theology is fundamentally different from that of the Qumran Pauline theology, in spite of parallels, is fundamentally different from that of the Qumran texts.100 Fitzmyer (2009), 125 Cullmann (1955), 224-225 99 Brown (1955), 571 100 Cullmann (1955), 226 97 98 35 Qumran and the New Testament Qumran’s Scrolls shed light on the New Testament The Scrolls are Jewish texts and their teachings are Jewish to the hilt The claim that the Scrolls are Jewish Christian documents, closely related to early stages of Christian history, is highly exaggerated and simply wrong. They are Jewish texts, and the teachings in them are Jewish to the hilt.101 Much in the New Testament is characteristic of the Judaism of that time Much in the New Testament that may appear to us at first glance to be a product of Essene influence turns out on closer examination to be simply characteristic of the Judaism of that time.102 The ideas held by Qumran must have been fairly widespread in certain Jewish circles The argument for inter-relation between the Johannine writings and the Qumran literature is indeed strong. The resemblances do not seem to indicate immediate relationship, however, as if St. John were himself a sectarian or were personally familiar with the Qumran literature. Rather they indicate a more general acquaintance with the thought and style of expression which we have found in the Qumran literature. The ideas of Qumran must have been fairly widespread in certain Jewish circles in the early first century A.D. Probably it is only through such sources that Qumran had its indirect effect on the Johannine literature.103 Striking details in the Scrolls shed light on the New Testament writings Although the Qumran Scrolls provide information that may help to explain the background of John the Baptist but practically nothing about Jesus and his background or ministry, interpreters have nevertheless discovered many striking details in the Scrolls that shed light on the New Testament writings. … Even though none of the [Scrolls] refers to anything Christian or mentions any Christians, they do give us firsthand evidence of the Palestinian Jewish matrix from which ideas and phrases found in these Christian writings emerged and to which they are related. After all, Jesus of Nazareth, a Palestinian Jew, taught and preached in Aramaic, and probably spoke some Greek. So the Scrolls, in bringing to light contemporary evidence of such Palestinian Jewish ideas and phrases, have had a remarkable impact on our understanding of the record compiled about Jesus in the New Testament and on the interpretation of him there.104 The Qumran Scrolls are a rich aid to understanding the New Testament and early Christianity Beyond John the Baptist and Jesus, the Qumran finds are at any rate an unexpectedly rich aid to understanding the New Testament and early Fitzmyer (2000), 27 Stegemann (1998), 259 103 Brown (1955), 571 104 Fitzmyer (2000), 23 101 102 36 Qumran and the New Testament Christianity. … They enrich in highly gratifying measure our background knowledge of New Testament issues, of terminology unattested in Greek usage, and of the basic peculiarities of Christian origins in relation to contemporary Judaism.105 Qumran’s scrolls and the New Testament reveal a store of shared interpretive and theological traditions None of [the following] is evidence that a New Testament writer knew and used any of the scrolls. It is far more likely that these examples reveal a store of shared interpretive and theological traditions on which writers in both communities drew. The parallels … indicate that the relevant New Testament texts fit into the circumstances and debates of the time. Naturally, the two communities used these shared traditions on which to build their own teachings.106 Apocryphon of Daniel and the New Testament A scroll called Apocryphon of Daniel (4Q246), written in Aramaic, has received its modern name from the fact that its two preserved columns concern a person like Daniel who interprets a vision. In the course of his interpretation, the Daniel-like character says that a future ruler “will be called [gr]eat ... and by his name he will be designated. The son of God he will be proclaimed and the son of the Most High they will call him.” The passage is strongly reminiscent of Luke 1:32, 35, which was written about 100 years after the scroll was copied. In Luke, the angel Gabriel appears to the virgin Mary and informs her that she will conceive a son whom she is to name Jesus. The text goes on: “He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High, and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his ancestor David.” Gabriel continues in verse 35: “He will be called Son of God.” Both this New Testament passage and Apocryphon of Daniel share the use of “great” “son of God” and “son of the Most High.” The scroll and the gospel use “will be called” in connection with “son of God” and “son of the Most High”. “Son of God” is a title attested in the scriptures. For example, the Davidic king is called God’s son (2 Samuel 7:14; Psalm 2:7). “Son of the Most High” is not found in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, but a plural form of it appears in Psalm 82:6 (“children [= sons] of the Most High”)— but not the singular. This makes it all the more remarkable that the scroll and Luke agree in using the title. 105 106 Stegemann (1998), 263 VanderKam (2015), BAR 37 Qumran and the New Testament In short, the contexts of the scroll and the gospel share several distinctive features.107 The silence of Qumran’s Scrolls and Jesus There is nothing in Qumran’s Scrolls about Jesus of Nazareth or his story nor any interpretation of him The Christian message itself has found no parallel in those Scrolls. There is nothing about Jesus of Nazareth or his story or the interpretation of him, nothing about the Christian church, nothing about the vicarious and salvific character of what Jesus accomplished for humanity in his passion, death, and resurrection. … For all the light that the Scrolls have shed on the Palestinian Jewish matrix of Christianity and on ways that early Christians borrowed ideas and phrases in order to formulate their kerygmatic proclamation of the Christian message, there is nothing in the Scrolls that undermines or is detrimental to that message.108 The Scrolls help us to better comprehend Pauline teaching Paul was echoing the phrase current in the Judaism of his day, “the righteousness of God” Paul speaks at times of a divine attribute, “the righteousness of God” (dikaiosynê theou, Rom 1:17; 3:5, 21, 22; 10:3), and the phrase sounds like a frequently used slogan. Yet it is never found verbatim in the Old Testament, which otherwise often calls God “righteous” and speaks of his “righteousness”. It has now, however, turned up verbatim in the Dead Sea Scrolls, either as sedeq 'el (1QM 4:6) or as sidqat 'el (1QS 10:25; 11:12). Clearly, then, Paul was echoing a phrase current in the Judaism of his day. Related to that phrase is Paul's teaching on justification by grace through faith. “Justification” is derived, of course, from the Hebrew Scriptures, which taught Jews of old that they could achieve a righteous status in God's sight by observing the Mosaic Law, by doing “the works of the Law.” In contrast, … for Paul such righteousness was a grace bestowed by God on people of faith. Two aspects of Essene teaching now found in the Scrolls shed light on this Pauline teaching, for the Essenes of Qumran also insisted on the justification of human beings by God's “mercy” and “grace.”109 Paul, in relating “works of the Law” to the pursuit of “righteousness”, manifests he was coping with current Palestinian Jewish ways of thinking The Qumran Scrolls have shed light on Paul's use of “the works of the Law.” Paul insisted that “a human being is justified by faith apart from works of the law” (Rom 3:28; cf. Gal 2:16). Erga nomou is used by Paul so frequently that it too sounds like a well-known Jewish slogan, and yet its equivalent is never found in the Hebrew of either the Old Testament or the rabbinic literature of VanderKam (2015), BAR Fitzmyer (2000), 39-40 109 Fitzmyer (2000), 28 107 108 38 Qumran and the New Testament later periods. It has, however, turned up in Qumran texts as ma'àsê hattôrah, “deeds of the law” (4QF10r [4Q174] 1-2 i 7; 4QMMT C 27). In these writings it clearly means things prescribed by the Mosaic Law. … Paul, in relating “works of the Law” to the pursuit of “righteousness,” … manifests how he was coping with current Palestinian Jewish ways of thinking about God and the human condition. … The Scrolls have helped us to a better comprehension of Pauline teaching.110 The Christological title “Son of God” Luke’s titles “Son of God” and “Son of the Most High” were in use in contemporary Judaism; they were at home on Palestinian soil An even more important christological title is “Son of God.” Given its Old Testament background, where it is used sometimes of corporate Israel, or of the king on the Davidic throne, or of angels, or even of an individual Jew, most New Testament commentators have been reluctant to claim that its use for Jesus in the New Testament was derived from contemporary Hellenistic or GrecoRoman usage. … It would, of course, be foolhardy to deny that contemporary Hellenistic usage of “Son of God” for demigods or heroes born of gods and goddesses, or even for theioi andres, may have exerted some influence on early Christians in their use of such a title for the risen Christ. No one would have expected that a striking instance of the title would turn up in a Palestinian Jewish text copied at the turn of the era. Among the last fragments of Qumran Cave 4 acquired from the Bedouin in July 1958, there was found an Aramaic text in which this title occurs. Unfortunately, the text is fragmentary, broken vertically down the center of a column, which makes it impossible to say who the person was to whom the title is applied. … It reads: [X shall be gr]eat upon the earth. All peoples sha]ll make [peace with him]; they shall all serve [him. For] he shall be called [the holy one of] the [G]reat [God], and by His name shall he be named. (Col. 2) He shall be hailed son of God, and they shall call him son of the Most High. Like the comets you saw (in your vision), for (some) years they shall rule over the land, and shall trample on all: one people shall trample upon another, and one province on an[o]ther, (vacat) until there arises the people of God, and everyone rests from the sword (vacat). (4Q246 1:8—2:4) … It not only shows that the title hèreh dî 'el, “Son of God,” was current in Palestinian Judaism, but it uses the same titles, “Son of God” and “Son of the Most High,” as are found in the Lucan infancy narrative. … 110 Fitzmyer (2000), 29, 30 39 Qumran and the New Testament It may be sheer coincidence that he [Luke] uses them, but this Aramaic text shows that such titles were in current use in contemporary Judaism and at home on Palestinian soil.111 The Christian belief that Jesus of Nazareth was God's “Messiah” was a development of the 2nd century BCE understanding The titular use of “Messiah” for the risen Christ is another instance of how the Scrolls have aided our understanding of a christological title. For the Qumran material reveals that Judaism had, indeed, developed at least by the end of the second century B.C. a clear belief in a coming Messiah or Messiahs. … The only place in the Old Testament where Hebrew mašîâh has the connotation of an expected or awaited anointed figure of Davidic descent is found in Dan 9:25: 'ad mašîàh nagîd, “to the coming of an anointed one, a prince” (RSV). There in the book of Daniel one may debate whether one should translate the Hebrew word mašîâh as “anointed one” or as “messiah,” but Qumran texts that date from only a short time after the final redaction of the book of Daniel (ca. 165 B.C.) now make it clear, as they build on that Danielic passage, that Palestinian Jews had developed a belief in the coming of a “Messiah” (with a capital M) or even “Messiahs” (in the plural). The Christian belief that Jesus of Nazareth was God's “Messiah” was a still further development of that Jewish tenet.112 Melchizadek in the New Testament book: To the Hebrews Qumrans’ exaltation of Melchizedek helps to explain why the Epistle to the Hebrews says that Christ is “a priest according to the order of Melchizedek” llQMelch … depicts Melchizedek, the king mentioned in Gen 14:18-20, in a way that was unknown before. The text may well be sectarian. … It is composed in the form of a pešer (commentary) on a number of Old Testament texts. … The text portrays Melchizedek not as an earthly king (as in Genesis), but as a heavenly figure, performing a priestly act of expiation. It gives him the title Elôhîm and depicts him as taking his stand “in the as[semb1y of E]l” and “in (the midst of gods (‘lwhym)) by whom are undoubtedly meant the angelic court of heaven, and “giving judgment.” It applies to him the words of Ps 82:2 and says further: “And Melchizedek shall exact the ven[ge]ance of the jud[g]ments of God (..) [from the hand of Be]1ia1 and from the hand(s) of all [the spirits of] his [lot]. … What is noteworthy here is the depiction of Melchizedek as 'elôhîm, which literally means “god,” and of him standing “in the midst of gods” (= angels). It thus makes of him a heavenly redemption figure. This way of regarding Melchizedek is not found in the Old Testament (in Gen 14:18-20 or in Ps 110:4) and perhaps prefigures some of the ways in which he is regarded in later literature, both Jewish and Christian. 111 112 Fitzmyer (2000), 31-33 Fitzmyer (2000), 33-34 40 Qumran and the New Testament The exaltation of Melchizedek, however, which sounds like an apotheosis113 of him, helps to understand why Christ in the Epistle to the Hebrews is said to be hiereus kata ten taxin Melchisedek, “a priest according to the order of Melchizedek” (6:6). … Because Melchizedek is depicted in the Qumran fragment as a heavenly redemption figure, called 'elôhîm, this is why he can be said to "resemble the Son of God" and to have "neither beginning of days nor end of life," and so to continue as "a priest for ever." If we had not recovered this text about Melchizedek so portrayed, would we ever have understood correctly what was meant by Heb 7:3and its affirmation about him? … This example, then, shows us what an important text has been recovered from Qumran Cave 11 for the interpretation of the Epistle to the Hebrews.114 113 114 apotheosis: the elevation of someone to divine status Fitzmyer (2000), 38,39 41 THE QUMARANITES WERE LIVING IN THE TIME OF GOD’S “LAST DAYS” The eschatological literature in the Dead Sea Scrolls reflects the community’s apocalyptic self-understanding The eschatological (endtime) literature in the DSS reflects the community’s apocalyptic self-understanding. That is to say, the Qumran sect viewed itself to be the true Israel, the righteous remnant with whom God was establishing his new covenant in the last days (see, e.g., 1QS 1:1; CD 4:2). As the faithful of God, the people of the DSS equated their suffering with the severe messianic woes which Judaism expected to test Israel before the advent of the Messiah (CD 1:511; 20:13-15; 1QH 3:7-10). The community’s exile into the desert (Qumran) under the eventual leadership of the Teacher of Righteousness was understood to be the final preparation for the arrival of the messianic age.115 The authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls fully believed they were living at the verge of the End of Days The writers state that in their view some of the blessings and curses have already come to pass: And we recognize that some of the blessings and curses which are written in the B[ook of Mo]ses have come to pass, and that this is the End of Days when they will repent in Isra[e1] for[ever …] and they will not backsli[de]. (Halakhic Letter C20-22) Here the authors reveal their belief that they are currently living on the verge of the End of Days, a notion that later became normative in Qumran messianic thought. It is also clear that they considered their own age the period foretold by the Bible as the final repentance of Israel.116 Qumran’s calculation for the timing of the Last Judgment The Damascus Document (CD 1:5-8), composed around 100 B.C., and other works of the Essenes show the conclusions to which they then came. They interpreted the 390 years of Ezekiel 4:5, during which the house of Israel was to have borne a heavy burden of guilt, as applying to the period from the beginning of the Exile (587/6 B.C.) to the moment of the murder of the high priest Onias III (170 B.C.). … The Essenes now combined the number 390, from Ezekiel 4:5, with the seventy weeks of years — 490 years — from Daniel 9, and determined the moment of the approaching Last Judgment to be the year 70 B.C. Thanks to the prophets, at last they could be sure why God had not begun the Last Judgment before, in 170 B.C., and long since blotted out all evil from the world. A further result of these calculations on the part of the scripture scholarship of the time was that the thirty-eight years of the people of Israel’s further wandering in the desert after the departure from Egypt until the death of all “soldiers,” according to Deuteronomy 2:14, was referred to the “some forty 115 116 Pate (2000), 48 Schiffman (1995), 85 42 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” years” that must pass between the date of death of the Teacher of Righteousness and the year 70 B.C. (CD 20:13-17; cf. 19:33-20:1). Thereby the entire future existence of the Essenes until the Last Judgment and the time of salvation corresponded to Israel’s forty years’ wandering in the desert from the departure from Egypt until the entry into the Promised Land. The destiny of Israel’s desert generation of long ago must now be reflected in the Essenes’ own further destinies, until the Last Judgment. When the Essenes calculated the moment of the coming Last Judgment in this fashion, the latter was admittedly still three decades away. But this new knowledge immediately sparked activities of which no one had thought until then. For one thing, the Qumran settlement was now planned and built, in order to intensify the study of the Torah and the Prophets by way of the production of writing scrolls — quite literally “in the desert.” Insofar as possible, all of the many thousands of Essenes living at that time had to receive adequate opportunity to acquire exact knowledge of the will of God as revealed in the Torah and the Prophets and to direct their daily lives accordingly, in order to be found blameless at the coming Last Judgment. And all Israel had to receive the opportunity to do as they. Second, there now arose a new literary genre that had not existed before and whose basic concept was the application of the declarations of the biblical prophets to the individual events of the last phase of world history, together with the extraction, from these holy writings of tradition, of the precise destinies of everyone involved in this last phase of history, in the Last Judgment, and in the time of salvation. The writings that appeared in this fashion furnish us with the text of individual biblical books of the prophets reproduced word for word in individual passages, or verse for verse with interpretations appended. Accordingly, these works are designated “commentaries.” The interpretative passages usually begin with the Hebrew word pesher; “interpretation,” “exposition.” Hence these works are also called pesharim, “interpretative books,” and their manner of setting forth Scripture the “pesher method.” The Essenes composed eight commentaries of this kind on the Prophets.117 Personal comment: To make the 70 weeks of Daniel coincide with Jesus Christ, interpreters follow the lead set by Qumran, making Daniel’s “70 weeks” mean 490 years. In the process, these interpreters invoke an event in Ezekiel and in Numbers. In contrast, rather than incorporating Ezekiel into their understanding of the “70 weeks”, Daniel’s authors associated that period with Jeremiah’s “70 years”. Consistency would demand that if Daniel’s “70 weeks” meant “490 years”, then Jeremiah’s linked prediction of “70 years” equates to 25,200 Julian years or approximately 25,560 Gregorian years. 117 Stegemann (1998), 123-124 43 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” The Dead Sea communities were convinced that the “End of Days” was imminent The [Qumran] sect lived in preparation for and expectation of the imminent End of Days. … They themselves would soon experience the great battles and tribulations at the End of Days. … As time passed, sectarian expectations mounted, as members awaited the great battles that would usher in the End of Days.118 The Essenes thought they were living in the last days and they interpreted Scripture in terms of current events The end of the world was always about to come. The Essenes thought they were living in the last days, and anticipated a final battle between the forces of good (the Children of Light) and those of evil (the Children of Darkness). … They used their Pesharim, or commentaries, to interpret Scripture in terms of current events, just as many apocalyptic groups have done through the years.119 For the communities of the Dead Sea, signs had begun to make clear the impending arrival of the End of Days Despite clear evidence of major cosmic changes, human beings did nothing to prepare themselves. Although they should have realized that God’s plan for the End of Days, the mystery, was soon to unfold, they ignored the signs [Book of Mysteries 1: 5-7]: And this shall be the sign to you that it is taking place: When the begotten of unrighteousness are delivered up, and wickedness is removed from before righteousness, as darkness is removed from before light. (Then,) just as smoke wholly ceases and is no more, so shall wickedness cease forever, and righteousness shall be revealed as the sun (throughout) the full measure of the world. And all the adherents of the mysteries of [Belial] will be no more. But knowledge shall fill the world, nor shall folly ever[more] be there. These mysteries clearly describe the coming of the End of Days, at which time the wicked will be destroyed. Signs have already begun to make its impending arrival clear. … It is precisely humanity’s complete dishonesty and the nations’ struggles with one another that bear witness to the imminent dawning of the End of Days.120 Apart from the communities of the Dead Sea, humankind failed to grasp that the End of Days was really at hand God was now announcing that the End of Days was about to dawn, when all the wicked and evil itself would be eliminated and cease forever, and when knowledge of God would fill the earth. How would one know that the End of Schiffman (1995), 338, 339. 397 Freedman (2007), 45 120 Schiffman (1995), 207, 208 118 119 44 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” Days was really at hand? God would send unmistakable signs; the hypocrisy of all the nations would reveal itself … Although humankind has failed to grasp this fateful message, God has made these mysteries manifest as part of His order of creation.121 The Qumran sect placed great emphasis on eschatology, with documents dedicated almost completely to the End of Days The documents of the Qumran sect placed great emphasis on eschatology. A number of documents are dedicated almost completely to issues relating to the End of Days. From the Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness, we learn that the sect expected to participate in the battle that would usher in the final age. This vision of a cataclysmic battle and the ensuing radical changes in the world order have earned the Qumran group the label “apocalyptic.” The notion of a great battle, similar in many ways to the Day of the Lord found in the Hebrew Bible, typifies apocalyptic sects.122 For the Qumran sect, the messianic age would be heralded by the great war, and after 40 years of wickedness, the elect would attain glory Reflecting the apocalyptic trend, [the Qumran sect] anticipated that the advent of the messianic age would be heralded by the great war described in the War Scroll, leading to the victory of the forces of good over those of evil, in heaven above and on earth below. After forty years, the period of wickedness would come to an end; then the elect would attain glory.123 Living on the verge of the End of Days, the Qumran community were convinced that the messianic era would happen in their life-time Important to the sectarians was the immediacy of the End of Days. They anticipated that the old order would soon die. The sect lived on the verge of the End of Days, with one foot, as it were, in the present age and one foot in the future. They were convinced that the messianic era would happen in their lifetime. Their move to the desert from the main population centers of Judaea and their establishment of a center at Qumran had marked the dawn of the new order. Their lives were dedicated to preparing for that new age by living as if it had already come.124 The Dead Sea communities prepared themselves for the final battles when the End of Days dawned According to the War Scroll, a series of battles and a cycle of victories were to lead to the final End of Days. Thereafter, when all the enemies of Israel had been destroyed and all Israel had either repented and become part of the sect or had been extirpated, eternal peace would reign. … Schiffman (1995), 208 Schiffman (1995), 321 123 Schiffman (1995), 322 124 Schiffman (1995), 322 121 122 45 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” After receiving some sign that the End of Days had dawned, this assembly would then decide to initiate the series of events announced in the War Scroll and would preside over the sect’s role in those final battles.125 The Dead Sea sectarians felt confident that the coming of the Romans would trigger the great eschatological battle For many years, the Dead Sea sect had expected the Roman conquest of Palestine. The Dead Sea sectarians felt confident that the coming of the Kittim— as they called the Romans—would trigger the great eschatological battle. But this final, expected war failed to materialize after the Romans easily defeated the divided Hasmonaean state in 63 B.C.E.126 Believing they were living near the end time, The Qumranites took a vivid interest in eschatological speculations The Jews of Qumran, at least, believed that they were living near the end time; they had a vivid interest in eschatological speculations, but they did not have much interest in apocalypses.127 The pesharim were composed at the culmination of God’s time The guidance of the Holy Spirit helps the Qumran exegete obtain the precise hermeneutic, which is defined by the belief that God’s chosen “holy ones” – the Qumranites - are living in the latter days. The present time – when the pesharim were being composed – is the culmination of God’s time. Now, according to the Qumran collective mind, all of God’s mysteries are being understood, but only by those in the Community, and all of God’s promises are being fulfilled, especially the elevation of and rewards wards for his elect.128 Qumranites considered themselves the divinely elected community of the final generation before the eschatological consummation The Dead Sea sectarians considered themselves the divinely elected community of the final generation of the present age, living in the days of “messianic travail” before the eschatological consummation. Theirs was the task of preparing for the coming of the Messianic Age and/or the Age to Come. And to them applied certain prophecies in the Old Testament that were considered to speak of their situation and circumstances.129 The community understood that it was God’s righteous remnant in the period of eschatological consummation “Everything the ancient prophet wrote has a veiled, eschatological meaning,” has reference to the community’s understanding of itself as God’s righteous remnant in the period of eschatological consummation. Here Qumran distinguishes itself from rabbinic interpretation, for while in the talmudic literature there is a contemporizing treatment of Holy Writ that seeks to make God’s Word relevant to the present circumstances and ongoing situations, Schiffman (1995), 330 Schiffman (1995), 395 127 Cohen (2014), 194 128 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 95 129 Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 656 125 126 46 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” among the Dead Sea covenanters the biblical texts were looked on from the perspective of imminent apocalyptic fulfillment.130 Qumran interpreted a prophet’s references to people and events of his own time as cryptic messages for their own time The sectarians viewed and interpreted all the references to peoples and events during the prophet’s time as being cryptic messages for the future (i.e., their own time). … Thus Hab 1-2, as interpreted by the sectarians, does not deal with the impending threat to the Southern Kingdom by the forces of the Chaldeans, but rather is a cryptic reference to the threat by the Qumran contemporaries, the Kittim.131 Qumran was only concerned with the relationship that a biblical text had to their own time Within the pesharim, all that the secretarians·are concerned with is the relationship of the text to their own contemporary setting.132 Biblical passages considered to refer to the “latter days” were correlated by Qumran to their own contemporary happenings The sectarians considered themselves to be living in the “latter days” as the Biblical passages which were considered to refer to the “latter days” were correlated by them to their contemporary historical happenings.133 Through the pesharim, the Qumranites affirmed that the divine promises, predictions and prophecies had been fulfilled in their special Community The pesharim are hermeneutically focused. They are biblical commentaries in the sense of fulfillment hermeneutics. They reveal primarily the way the Qumranites viewed their recent past by finding meaning for their own lives and special history by pouring over the words from God preserved by the prophets, his servants. They read Habakkuk, Nahum, and other prophets and biblical books by focusing on divine promises, predictions, and prophecies, and then affirming that they had been fulfilled in the life and history of their own special Community.134 The pesharim interpreted current events in light of Qumran’s eschatology, which was currently taking place The pesharim deal with contemporary events, interpreting them in light of the sectarians’ perspective of God’s working in history. The pesharim deal with eschatology, which to the sectarians, was being realized.135 The Qumranites believed they were in the wilderness preparing for the fulfillment of God’s latter days in their own time The Qumranites generally stressed the importance of time over place. They expended an abundance of time contemplating the meaning of Scripture and Longenecker (1999), Kindle location 664 Friebel (1981), 16 132 Friebel (1981), 16 133 Friebel (1981), 15 134 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle locations 130-131 135 Friebel (1981), 16 130 131 47 The Qumaranites were living in the time of God’s “Last Days” shaping their theology by reflections on the meaning of time. They believed they were in the wilderness as a place of preparation for the fulfillment of God’s time. God’s word to them became meaningful, because it was intended to be fulfilled filled in the latter days, their own time.136 The Voice had called the Qumranites into the wilderness The Qumranites had gone into the wilderness, they claim, because they had heard the Voice calling them. The Voice pointed them to Scripture. In it they would find their way and their meaning.137 The divine Voice had called them to prepare the Way in the wilderness, so they studied the Torah and composed pesharim The Qumranites lived out the belief that they were chosen by God. The divine Voice had called them to prepare the Way in the wilderness. They were preparing for the future day in which God’s promises found in Scripture would be fulfilled. The Qumranites devoted the day and the night to preparing “the Way of YHWH,” studying Torah, seeking to understand God’s hand in contemporaneous events – that is, by composing pesharim.138 The Qumranites were to suffer “in the wilderness”, preparing the Way of the Lord (Isaiah 40:3) For the Qumranites, the answer was found in their conviction that God had chosen them and predestined them to be “the Sons of Light.” Their task was to serve God in bringing into history and time the fulfillment of all the promises encapsulated in Scripture. They were to suffer “in the wilderness;” preparing the Way of the Lord; a perception that was grounded in their hermeneutical understanding of Isaiah 40:3.139 The pesher on Isaiah promised eschatological victory over the Kittim (Rome) This pesher on Isaiah, which clearly expresses a promise of eschatological victory over the Kittim, is pertinent to the understanding of 4Q285, because it gives an interpretation of Isa 10:34-11:1 by alluding to the Romans under that code name, but makes no mention of a messianic figure.140 On the day of judgment, the Qumranites alone would be rewarded by God According to the Qumranites, the day of judgment – a concept inherited from the prophets – would vindicate their suffering and reveal that they that had been predestined to be the “Sons of Light.” At that time, they alone would be rewarded by God.141 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 145 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 213 138 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 1184 139 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 227 140 Fitzmyer (2000), 102, n. 91 141 Charlesworth (2002), Kindle location 229 136 137 48 NEW TESTAMENT EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Paul and the writers of the gospels expected Jesus’ coming to take place during their lifetimes The people of Qumrân were no more wrong than the New Testament writers, and we give considerable slack to the latter. Paul and the writers of the gospels all expected Jesus’ second coming to take place during their lifetimes, and when it didn’t, it fell to succeeding generations of Christians to reinterpret certain things that Jesus did and said.142 Paul and the Gospels assure their followers that at least some of them will shortly see the end of the world with their own eyes The author of Revelation is not the only figure in Christian scriptures whose prediction of the end-times was mistaken. Jesus, according to some awkward sayings attributed to him in the Gospels, assures his followers that at least some of them will see the end of the world with their own eyes. The apostle Paul, in turn, offered the same assurance to his generation of Christians. Both Jesus and Paul were gone by the time the author of Revelation set down his vision of “things which must shortly come to pass.” All of them turned out to be dead wrong, and the world is still here.143 John the Baptist announced the imminent appearance of the messianic kingdom (Evangelical commentary) John’s message had a twofold emphasis: (1) the imminent appearance of the messianic kingdom, and (2) urgent need for repentance to prepare for this event (Matt. 3:2). … Most fully [John’s baptism] was an eschatological act preparing for admission into the messianic kingdom.144 John addressed his embattled flock with the eschatological promise that Christ’s return was imminent John was also a Christian exile addressing an embattled and perhaps even terrified flock. [The Book of] Revelation offers … a specific message both of warning and of hope to readers whom the author knows personally, concluding with an eschatological vision of Christ’s imminent return, an end to suffering, and the inauguration of a heavenly kingdom of peace and justice. From this perspective, the work reveals with particular clarity the eschatological expectations that gripped the embattled early church.145 Jesus saw himself as an eschatological Jewish prophet, expecting the imminent onset of a new world Jesus envisioned himself as an eschatological Jewish prophet who expected the imminent onset of a new world order in which God would build a new temple, reassemble Israel’s twelve tribes, and welcome the wicked.146 Freedman (2007), 46 Kirsch (2006), 13 144 Treier (2017), 450, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology 145 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 628-631 146 Maston in Blackwell (2018), 29 142 143 49 New Testament expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Jesus’ disciples expected the imminent return of Jesus as God’s eschatological King and Judge The disciples of Jesus experienced his resurrection appearances as revelatory confirmations of his Kingdom message. They assumed that these appearances heralded his imminent return as God’s eschatological King and Judge. Accordingly, very soon after they began to proclaim the risen Jesus, they also began to reinterpret the eschatological cleansing with water that Jesus had received earlier from John the Baptizer.147 Evangelical acknowledges that from the very start, the return of Christ was expected to be imminent Jesus, Paul, James, and Peter taught that the return of Christ is imminent and is to be expected at any time (Mat. 24:44; Phil. 4:5; Jam. 5:8-9; 1 Pet. 4:7). The early Christians lived in expectation of Christ’s return and the literal fulfillment of the prophecies (1 Th. 1:9-10).148 1 Thessalonians 1: “You Thessalonians … wait for God’s Son from heaven” You [Thessalonians] turned to God from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead — Jesus, who rescues us from the wrath that is coming. (1 Thess. 1:10, NRSV, underlining added) 1 Thessalonians 4: “We [– Paul and the Thessalonians –] who remain alive until the coming of the Lord” But we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those who have died. … We who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will by no means precede those who have died. For the Lord himself … will descend from heaven, and the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up in the clouds. (1 Thess 4:13-17, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 1 Corinthians 10: “us, on whom the ends of the ages have come” These things happened to them to serve as an example, and they were written down to instruct us, on whom the ends of the ages have come. (1 Cor. 10:11, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 1 Corinthians 1: “You [Corinthians] wait for the revealing [apokalypsis] of our Lord Jesus Christ” So that you [Corinthians] are not lacking in any spiritual gift as you [Corinthians] wait for the revealing [apokalypsis] of our Lord Jesus Christ. He will also strengthen you to the end, so that you may be blameless on the day of our Lord Jesus Christ (1 Cor. 1:7-8, NRSV, underlining added) 147 148 Perry, in Fortna (2001), 159 Cloud (2017), 88 50 New Testament expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” 1 Corinthians 15: “We will not all die for the trumpet will sound, the dead will be raised and we will be changed” Listen, I will tell you a mystery! We will not all die, but we will all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed. (1 Corinthians 15:51-52, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 1 Corinthians 7: “The appointed time has grown short … the present form of this world is passing away Are you free from a wife? Do not seek a wife. … Brothers and sisters, the appointed time has grown short. … The present form of this world is passing away. (1 Corinthians 7:27, 29-31, NRSV, underlining added) Romans 13: The night is far gone, the day is near You know what time it is, how it is now the moment for you to wake from sleep. For salvation is nearer to us now than when we became believers; the night is far gone, the day is near. (Rom. 13:11-12, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Romans 16: Shortly, Satan will be crushed under Romans’ feet The God of peace will shortly crush Satan under your feet. (Rom. 16:20, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Philippians 1: Confidence that the good work on the Philippians will be completed by the day of Jesus Christ I am confident of this, that the one who began a good work among you [Philippians] will bring it to completion by the day of Jesus Christ. … This is my prayer, that your love may overflow more and more with knowledge and full insight to help you to determine what is best, so that in the day of Christ you [Philippians] may be pure and blameless. (Philippians 1:6, 9-10, NRSV, underlining added) 1 Timothy 6: Timothy, you must “keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ” I charge you [Timothy] to keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ, which he will bring about at the right time. (1 Timothy 6:14-15, NRSV, underlining added) Acts 2: The manifestations at the Day of Pentecost were spoken of by prophet Joel as “the last days” When the day of Pentecost had come …Peter, standing with the eleven, raised his voice and addressed them, “… This is what was spoken through the prophet Joel: ‘In the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh’. (Acts 2:14-17, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 51 New Testament expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Matthew 24: Truly, this generation will not pass away until all these things have taken place, just as Jesus’ words will not pass away “From the fig tree learn its lesson: as soon as its branch becomes tender and puts forth its leaves, you know that summer is near. So also, when you see all these things, you know that he is near, at the very gates. Truly I tell you, this generation will not pass away until all these things have taken place. Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away”. (Matthew 24:32-35, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Matthew 10: The Son of Man would come before Jesus’ twelve followers had finished telling the house of Israel that the Kingdom was near These twelve Jesus sent out with the following instructions: “Go nowhere among the Gentiles, and enter no town of the Samaritans, but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. As you go, proclaim the good news, ‘The kingdom of heaven has come near.’ … “You will be hated by all because of my name. But the one who endures to the end will be saved. “When they persecute you in one town, flee to the next; for truly I tell you, you will not have gone through all the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes”. (Matthew 10: 5-7, 22-23, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Matthew 16: “Truly”, some standing before Jesus will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom “For the Son of Man is to come with his angels in the glory of his Father, and then he will repay everyone for what has been done. Truly I tell you, there are some standing here who will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.” (Matthew 16:27-28, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Luke 21: The generation that sees Jerusalem surrounded by armies will see the son of Man coming in a cloud with power and great glory “When you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that its desolation has come near. … These are days of vengeance, as a fulfillment of all that is written. … Jerusalem will be trampled on by the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled. “There will be signs in the sun, the moon, and the stars, and on the earth distress among nations confused by the roaring of the sea and the waves. People will faint from fear and foreboding of what is coming upon the world, for the powers of the heavens will be shaken. Then they will see ‘the Son of Man coming in a cloud’ with power and great glory. Now when these things begin to take place, stand up and raise your heads, because your redemption is drawing near.” 52 New Testament expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Then he told them a parable: “Look at the fig tree and all the trees; as soon as they sprout leaves you can see for yourselves and know that summer is already near. So also, when you see these things taking place, you know that the kingdom of God is near. Truly I tell you, this generation will not pass away until all things have taken place. (Luke 21:20-32, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Hebrews 9: Jesus appeared “at the end of the age” [Jesus] has appeared once for all at the end of the age to remove sin by the sacrifice of himself. (Hebrews 9:26, NRSV, underlining added) Hebrews 10: They were seeing the Day approaching Encouraging one another, and all the more as you see the Day approaching. (Hebrews 10:25, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Hebrews 10: The Coming will be in a very little while, and it will not be delayed For yet “in a very little while, the one who is coming will come and will not delay”. (Hebrews 10:37, NRSV, underlining added) James 5: The coming of the Lord is near. … The Judge is standing at the doors! Be patient, therefore, beloved, until the coming of the Lord. … Strengthen your hearts, for the coming of the Lord is near. … The Judge is standing at the doors! (James 5:7-9, NRSV, underlining added) Jude: Prophets of the Lord, including Enoch, spoke of intruders in the midst of first century Christians, who were living “in the last time” Intruders have stolen in among you, people who long ago were designated for this condemnation as ungodly, who pervert the grace of our God… It was also about these that Enoch, in the seventh generation from Adam, prophesied, saying, “See, the Lord is coming with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment on all, and to convict everyone of all the deeds of ungodliness that they have committed in such an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things that ungodly sinners have spoken against him.” These are grumblers and malcontents; they indulge their own lusts; they are bombastic in speech, flattering people to their own advantage. But you, beloved, must remember the predictions of the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ; for they said to you, “In the last time there will be scoffers, indulging their own ungodly lusts.” It is these worldly people, devoid of the Spirit, who are causing divisions. (Jude 4, 14-19, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 1 John 2: “It is the last hour! … It is the last hour.” Children, it is the last hour! As you have heard that antichrist is coming, so now many antichrists have come. From this we know that it is the last hour. (1 John 2:18, NRSV, underlining added) 53 New Testament expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” 1 Peter 1: Jesus “was revealed at the end of the ages” He was destined before the foundation of the world, but was revealed at the end of the ages for your sake. (1 Pet. 1:20, NRSV, underlining added) 1 Peter 4: “The end of all things is near” The end of all things is near; therefore be serious and discipline yourselves for the sake of your prayers. (1 peter 4:7, NRSV, underlining added) Revelation 1: Jesus Christs’ revelation of “what must soon take place” The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what must soon take place. (Revelation 1:1, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Revelation 1: Keep what is written in the Book of Revelation, “for the time is near” Blessed is the one who reads aloud the words of the prophecy, and blessed are those who hear and who keep what is written in it; for the time is near. (Revelation 1:3, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Revelation 3: I am coming soon to keep you from the hour of trial that is coming I will keep you from the hour of trial that is coming on the whole world to test the inhabitants of the earth. I am coming soon; hold fast to what you have, so that no one may seize your crown. (Revelation 3:10-11, NRSV, bold, underlining added) Revelation 22: The trustworthy and true words show that the Alpha and Omega is coming soon with his rewards And he said to me, “These words are trustworthy and true, for the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, has sent his angel to show his servants what must soon take place. See, I am coming soon!” … And he said to me, “Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is near. … “See, I am coming soon; my reward is with me, to repay according to everyone’s work. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end.” … The one who testifies to these things says, “Surely I am coming soon.” Amen. Come, Lord Jesus! (Revelation 22:6-7, 10, 12-13, 20, NRSV, bold, underlining added) 54 GOD’S “LAST DAYS” CONTINUED TO BE FOREVER IMMINENT Christians in each age have wrongly identified “predictions” with their own age (Evangelical commentary) During Christian history, each age has had interpreters who identified the prophetic and apocalyptic “predictions” with persons and events of their own age. Time has shown them to be fundamentally wrong again and again.149 Readers explain away past failed prophecies of Revelation, yet every generation urgently believes that its own times are the end-times Readers in every age have tried to explain away the failed prophecies of Revelation by arguing that its visions must be understood as a symbolic depiction of events that will take place long after its disappointed author died a natural death. And yet, significantly, every new generation urgently believes that its own times will be the end-times.150 In each age of Christian history, people have repeatedly incorrectly applied apocalyptic predictions to their own age During Christian history, each age has had interpreters who identified the prophetic and apocalyptic “predictions” with persons and events of their own age. Time has shown them to be fundamentally wrong again and again.151 In every generation, new predictions have been made of the precise date when some of Revelation’s prophecies will finally come to pass More than a few readers of Revelation in every age, including our own, have thrilled at the idea that the end is near. Indeed, they are perfectly willing to overlook the plain fact that the world has not ended as predicted, and they persist in poring over the text of Revelation in a fresh attempt to figure out the precise date when it will. They have always been wrong, too, of course, but nothing has discouraged the so-called date setters who study the text, crunch the numbers, and come up with dates when the world must end. Not a single century has passed since the ink dried on the first copy of Revelation without some new prediction of the precise date when its prophecies will finally come to pass.152 Millenarian sects and movements have formed with the widest possible range of attitudes There are countless possible ways of imagining the Millennium and the route to it. Millenarian sects and movements have varied in attitude from the most violent aggressiveness to the mildest pacifism and from the most ethereal spirituality to the most earthbound materialism. And they have also varied greatly in social composition and social function There was certainly great variety amongst the millenarian sects and movements of medieval Europe. At the one extreme were the so-called Treier (2017), 435. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Kirsch (2006), 4 151 Treier (2017), 435 152 Kirsch (2006), 14 149 150 55 God’s “Last Days” continued to be forever imminent ‘Franciscan Spirituals’ who flourished in the thirteenth century. These rigorous ascetics came mainly from the mixture of noble and merchant families which formed the dominant class in the Italian towns. Many of them renounced great wealth in order to become poorer than any beggar; and in their imaginings the Millennium was to be an age of the Spirit, when all mankind would be united in prayer, mystical contemplation and voluntary poverty. At the other extreme were the various millenarian sects and movements that developed amongst the rootless poor of town and country. The poverty of these people was anything but voluntary, their lot was extreme and relentless insecurity, and their millenarianism was violent, anarchic, at times truly revolutionary.153 Apocalyptic belief is durable and it is highly adaptable. Specifics change while the underlying thematic structures remain One is struck not only by the durability of apocalyptic belief, but also by its enormous adaptability. From second-century Asia Minor to eighteenth-century America, in vastly different historical circumstances, interpreters found vastly different meanings in the prophecies. … [An] observation … is the remarkable continuity of basic themes and preoccupations. Concern with America’s destiny, the Jews’ prophetic role, Antichrist’s identity, the precise sequence of end-time events; anticipations of Antichrist’s rule in current economic and political trends; the vision of a world far different from the present one – all these components of contemporary prophetic speculation have deep roots in the past. Interest in the prophetic significance of powerful Islamic leaders, from Saladin in the twelfth century to the Ottoman Turks in the sixteenth to Saddam Hussein in the twentieth, has been another constant. Specifics change; underlying thematic structures remain.154 Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism believed prophecies referred to future times Typological exegesis plays an important role in the New Testament and in rabbinic Judaism. By the same logic, the prophecies were believed to refer not to a single set of events but to future times as well. The only trick was to figure out which prophecies were valid for the contemporary situation. Sometimes it was easy; Josephus remarks that Jeremiah predicted the destruction of Jerusalem that took place “in our day.” Usually, however, it was much more difficult. The early Christians believed that the messianic prophecies of Isaiah were “fulfilled” through Jesus, but most other Jews did not agree.155 Cohn (1970), 16 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 1051, 1067 155 Cohen (2014), 205 153 154 56 God’s “Last Days” continued to be forever imminent Revelation has always been the “text of choice” for religious eccentrics who see their own time as the end-time Revelation has always been the “text of choice” for religious eccentrics who see their own time as the end-time, ranging from Montanus in the second century to David Koresh in the twentieth century, and countless others in between.156 Christianity and Judaism made accommodations and adjustments to the fact that the end did not come as each had expected It’s clear that the ancient Hebrew prophets as well as the early Christians expected some dramatic changes, and we would have to say that. nothing that corresponded exactly to their expectations happened. Yet both Christianity and Judaism have made similar accommodations and adjustments to the fact that the end did not come.157 156 157 Kirsch (2006), 115 Freedman (2007), 46-47 57 FIRST MILLENNIUM EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” About 172 A.D., Montanus said the Last Judgment was at hand and New Jerusalem was about to descend About 172 A.D. or earlier, a Phrygian prophet named Montanus proclaimed claimed himself the Holy Spirit incarnate, said the Last Judgment was at hand, and asserted that John’s prophesied New Jerusalem would soon descend in Phrygia.158 The earliest Christians, including the Montanists and the authors of the Book of Revelation, expected the Coming to happen ‘shortly’ In expecting the Second Coming from day to day and week to week, the Montanists were following in the footsteps of many, perhaps most, of the earliest Christians; even the Book of Revelation had still expected it to happen ‘shortly’.159 Irenaeus (ca. 130-ca. 200) patterned his prophetic timetable on the six days of Creation Irenaeus’ (ca. 130-ca. 200) most important treatise, Against Heresies, concluded with a survey of the biblical apocalypses. In Irenaeus’ own prophetic timetable, patterned on the six days of creation and the day of rest, history extends for six thousand years, ending with Christ’s return and the millennium, “the hallowed seventh day.”160 Victorinus, third-century Bishop of Pettau, was a confirmed millennialist Victorinus, the late-third-century Bishop of Pettau (in present-day Austria) and author of the earliest surviving commentary on the Book of Revelation, was a confirmed millennialist.161 Quite abruptly, in the 4th century CE, iconic symbols of the end-times begin to appear The images of the Apocalypse were used only rarely in Christian art and architecture prior to the fourth century. Then, abruptly, the sword-wielding Lamb of God and other iconic symbols of the end-times begin to appear on sarcophagi, ivory carvings, murals, mosaics, and monumental paintings throughout Christendom. Alpha and omega, the Greek letters that John uses to evoke the creation and destruction of the world, are inscribed on artifacts ranging from a woman’s gold ring to a slave collar. So “sudden and profuse” was the eruption of apocalyptic imagery in Christian arts and crafts that one scholar characterizes the phenomenon as an “invasion”.162 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 652 Cohn (1970), 26 160 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 655-656 161 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 659 162 Kirsch (2006), 132 158 159 58 First millennium expectations of God’s imminent Llast Days” In the 5th century CE, wars, earthquakes, and a solar eclipse were seen as fulfillments of the prophecies of Revelation Signs of the end-times were seen everywhere by those who were looking for them in the fifth century. The barbarians at the gates of Rome, many of whom were baptized Christians, were seen as the armies of Satan whose arrival signaled the Second Coming: “Behold, from Adam all the years have passed,” declared one Christian sermonizer when Alaric and the Visigoths sacked the imperial capital in 410, “and now comes the day of judgment!” Earthquakes in Palestine and a solar eclipse that was recorded on July 19, 418, were seen as fulfillments of the prophecies of Revelation.163 Theologians of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages thrilled at the notion that they were living in the seventh and final age Elaborate theories were proposed in the early Middle Ages for calculating the end-times. The most enduring and pervasive theory is based on an ancient tradition that the history of the world from beginning to end can be divided into seven periods, each one a thousand years in duration. … Theologians of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages preferred to see the seven-headed beast of Revelation as a symbol of the seven ages of history, and they thrilled at the notion that they were living in the seventh and final age.164 Augustine (354- 430) rejected the millennialism of his day Saint Augustine (354- 430), the preeminent theologian – and literary stylist – of the early Church. … Augustine rejected the millennialism of his day for its coarse sensuality. In numerous polemical works, and above all in his masterpiece, The City of God, written between 413 and 426, he offered a subtle interpretation of history shaped by biblical eschatology but free of end-time speculation.165 In 431, the Council of Ephesus condemned millennialism [Augustine’s] approach also distanced Catholic thought from all literalist readings of prophecy, and especially from notions of an earthly millennium. With the condemnation of millennialism by the Council of Ephesus in 431, Augustine’s views became orthodoxy. Indeed, church authorities went so far as to expurgate the works of Irenaeus and Victorinus, to eradicate all millennial taint.166 Medieval (500-1500 ce) expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” In the Middle Ages, Eschatology was a central concern of intellectuals Eschatology was a central concern of intellectuals in the Middle Ages; it also lay at the heart of popular religion and folk belief.167 Kirsch (2006), 125 Kirsch (2006), 127-128 165 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 676 166 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 692 167 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 758 163 164 59 First millennium expectations of God’s imminent Llast Days” Apocalyptic speculation flourished at all levels of medieval society Apocalyptic speculation flourished at all levels of medieval society. Eschatological hope formed part of the ground of Christian belief, and thus of the medieval mentality. Monastic scholars and the most erudite theologians contributed to, and often cited, the vast body of verse prophecies known collectively as the Sibylline oracles.168 End-time events figured prominently in miracle plays of the later Middle Ages In the later Middle Ages, guilds supported by the urban elites produced openair dramas or miracle plays (the Oberammergau Passion Play is a surviving example) in which the Last Judgment and other end-time events figured prominently.169 168 169 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 699-701 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 702 60 11TH AND 12TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Between 1097 and 1270, apocalyptic belief fuelled support for the Crusades Apocalyptic belief fuelled support for the Crusades, launched between 1097 and 1270 to retake the Holy Land from its Islamic conquerors. Fired by visions of recapturing Jerusalem and thereby preparing the way for the New Jerusalem. … Europeans of all social levels – from the nobility to the peasantry and the urban poor joined in the cause. Richard Coeur de Lion, setting out in 1190 on the Third Crusade, undertaken to drive Saladin from Jerusalem, stopped off in Messina to confer with the most famed prophecy scholar of the day, Joachim of Fiore.170 Joachim of Fiore (ca. 1135-1202) was the most influential medieval apocalypticist The most influential medieval apocalypticist was the man sought out by Richard Coeur de Lion, the Calabrian monk Joachim of Fiore (ca. 1135-1202).171 12th century Joachim of Fiore’s scheme of history anticipated, in a form, the dispensationalism popularized several centuries later Joachim’s interpretation involved three overlapping ages, each identified with a figure of the Trinity: the Age of Law, presided over by God the Father; the Age of Grace, inaugurated by Jesus’ birth; and a future Age of the Spirit, in which, after Antichrist’s defeat, righteousness will prevail and mankind kind will devote itself to spiritual contemplation. Joachim thus vigorously reintroduced millennarianism, rejected by Origen and Augustine. His tripartite scheme of history anticipates in rudimentary form the dispensationalism popularized by British and American prophecy writers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which similarly segments history into a series of divinely ordained stages, or “dispensations.”172 Visions of end-time events by a 12th century abbess Hildegard of Bingen enjoyed a wide influence Hildegard of Bingen, a brilliant twelfth-century German abbess, religious writer, and composer, recorded her visions of Antichrist and end-time events in works that enjoyed a wide influence.173 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 711-712 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 722 172 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 722 173 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 704 170 171 61 13TH AND 14TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Germany’s Frederick II, who ruled from 1220 to 1250, was the “Emperor of the Last Days” who would usher in the Millennium In thirteenth-century Germany, … struggles between the papacy and successive German rulers produced a widely believed myth that Frederick II, who ruled from 1220 to 1250, was the “Emperor of the Last Days” who would usher in the Millennium. The myth gained force when Frederick seized Jerusalem in 1229 and proclaimed himself its ruler. The pseudo-Joachian texts focusing on the year 1260 strengthened the end-time speculation surrounding Frederick. With his death in 1250, the legend took a new form: the departed ruler would return at the end of time to reform the government and establish righteousness. This belief spread across Germany in the fourteenth century and beyond.174 The so-called Spiritual Franciscans foresaw that the Age of the Spirit would arrive in in 1260 Noting that the Gospel of Matthew records forty-two generations from Abraham to Jesus (the Age of Law), [the so-called Spiritual Franciscans] concluded that the Age of Grace (or Gospel Age), too, would last for forty-two generations. Assuming a generation to be thirty years, they foresaw the arrival of the Age of the Spirit in 1260.175 Francis of Assisi was “the Angel of the Sixth Seal,” while he and the founder of the Dominican order were the two witnesses of the end-times Pope John XXII (ca. 1244–1334) convened a papal court in 1317 to consider one especially aggravating instance of apocalyptic speculation among the Spirituals of the Franciscan order. The defendant was a book rather than a human being— a commentary on the book of Revelation by a Franciscan monk named Peter John Olivi (ca. 1248–1298). … Copies of Olivi’s writings were put to the flames, and a few of his flesh-andblood followers were put to death for the crime of reading and teaching his revolutionary ideas on the end-times. … Drawing on the text of Revelation, they saw Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, as “the Angel of the Sixth Seal,” and they imagined Francis and Domingo de Guzman (ca. 1170–1221), founder of the Dominican order, as the two witnesses of the end-times.176 Late 13th century intense university debates on prophetic interpretation Issues of prophetic interpretation sparked intense debate at Oxford and the University of Paris in the late thirteenth century.177 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 744-746 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 731, 735-736 176 Kirsch (2006), 146 177 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 704 174 175 62 13th and 14th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” A 13th Century encyclopedia presented the nightmarish visions of Hildegard of Bingen as “future history”, rather than mystical speculation The sure and urgent expectation of the end-times was, quite literally, a fact of life in the Middle Ages. That is why the author of Mirror of History, an encyclopedia published in 1250, presented the nightmarish visions of Hildegard of Bingen as “future history” rather than mere mystical speculation. Among the book’s other entries were a biography of the Antichrist, a checklist of the signs of the end-times, and a description of the last judgment. Neither Christ nor the Antichrist actually showed up, of course.178 14th century monk Rupescissa saw the Saracens, Turks, and Tartars as the satanic armies that were gathering for the final battle of Armageddon John of Rupescissa (ca. 1310–ca. 1366), a Franciscan monk from southern France who is sometimes known simply as “Brother John,” insisted that all of the afflictions foretold in Revelation would be visited on the world as punishment for the sins of the church. Inspired by visions of his own, he saw the Saracens, Turks, and Tartars who threatened medieval Christendom as the satanic armies that were gathering for the final battle of Armageddon. … Brother John predicted that a pair of Antichrists would appear, one in the eastern realm of Christianity in 1365 and the other in the west in 1370. A Franciscan monk would be raised to the papal throne, and the new pope would appoint a French king to the throne of a world empire. Together, the pope and the emperor would make war on the two Antichrists, close the schism between the eastern and western churches, and call the Jews into communion with the Christians. … Brother John predicted an exalted role for the Jewish people in the end-times. Jerusalem would be rebuilt to serve as the glorious capital of a unified and purified faith during the millennial kingdom on earth.179 178 179 Kirsch (2006), 157 Kirsch (2006), 147-148 63 15TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” In early 15th century Bohemia, radical social movements were fuelled by apocalypticism The fueling of radical social movements by apocalypticism emerges starkly in the Taborite uprising that convulsed early-fifteenth-century Bohemia. … Once their persecutors were eliminated, the leaders preached, Christ would rule the world from their own Mount Tabor. … As Taborite preachers proclaimed Jesus’ imminent return, many Bohemians sold their possessions and flocked to Taborite towns that they believed would be spared. Some tried to hasten the end by armed attacks on their opponents. Declared a Taborite tract: “Accursed be the man who withholds his sword from shedding the blood of the enemies of Christ. Every believer must wash his hands in that blood.”180 In the fifteenth century, The Taborites prepared for the millennial kingdom that would replace kings and priests alike The Taborites, a movement composed of Bohemian peasants and the urban poor of Prague, set up their own armed communes in the fifteenth century in anticipation of the millennial kingdom that would replace kings and priests alike. By 1452, a punitive expedition succeeded in capturing the last stronghold of the Taborites.181 For the Taborites, Christ will appear as a warrior at the head of an army of angels As the extreme Taborites understood it, the Millennium was to be characterized by a return of the lost anarcho-communist order. Taxes, dues, rents were to be abolished and so was private property of all kinds. There was to be no human authority of any sort: ‘All shall live together as brothers; none shall be subject to another.’ ‘The Lord shall reign, and the Kingdom shall be handed over to the people of the earth.’ And since the Millennium was to be a classless society, it was to be expected that the preparatory massacres would take the form of a class-war against ‘the great’ – of a final assault, in fact, upon that old ally of Antichrist, Dives. The Taborites were quite explicit on the point: ‘All lords, nobles and knights shall be cut down and exterminated in the forests like outlaws.’ … After which the warrior-Christ appears in the heavens at the head of the army of angels, to make war upon Antichrist and to establish the Millennium on earth. Once the great purification had been carried out and the state of total community had been recreated on Bohemian soil, the Saints must go forth to 180 181 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 758-766 Kirsch (2006), 164 64 15th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” conquer and dominate the rest of the world. For they were ‘ the army sent through all the world to carry the plagues of vengeance and to inflict revenge upon the nations and their cities and towns, and judgement upon every people that shall resist them’.182 Outbreaks of revolutionary millenarianism took place against a background of disaster Again and again one finds that a particular outbreak of revolutionary millenarianism took place against a background of disaster: the plagues that preluded the First Crusade and the flagellant movements of 1260, 1348-9, 1391 and 1400; the famines that preluded the First and Second Crusades and the popular crusading movements of 1309-20, the flagellant movement of 1296, the movements around Eon and the pseudo-Baldwin; the spectacular rise in prices that preluded the revolution at Münster. The greatest wave of millenarian excitement, one which swept through the whole of society, was precipitated by the most universal natural disaster of the Middle Ages, the Black Death.183 Confronted with the Black Death, intellectuals avidly drew on prophetic belief about the End Times European intellectuals of the mid-fourteenth century, confronting the horrors of the Black Death, avidly drew on the common body of prophecy belief about Antichrist and the end times to place this terrifying plague in a meaningful context.184 Christopher Columbus became convinced he was fulfilling prophecies in preparation for the end of the world Christopher Columbus called on the apocalyptic scriptures and Joachian sources to give meaning to his career, eventually becoming convinced … that “he was predestined to fulfill a number of prophecies in preparation for the coming of the Antichrist and the end of the world.”185 Thomas Müntzer invoked biblical apocalypticism to goad the rebels in the violent Peasant’s War From its origins near the Swiss border, the [Peasant’s War] uprising eventually engulfed much of southern and western Germany. A major figure in these events was Thomas Müntzer, a radical Thuringian Protestant pastor, theologian, and charismatic leader. Little interested in the rebels’ economic grievances, the well-educated and widely read, Müntzer was absorbed in apocalyptic speculation, which by the early 1520s had become an obsession with the end times and an imminent war of extermination against the godless. … Though not the instigator of the Peasants’ War, Müntzer became its principal theological defender and goaded the rebels of his region to new heights of violence. Cohn (1970), 215-216 Cohn (1970), 282 184 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 777 185 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 779 182 183 65 15th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Müntzer invoked the language of biblical apocalypse to justify the peasants’ cause. As the decisive battle took shape near Frankenhausen, he roused the illequipped rebels with a speech full of eschatological allusions. With God’s help, he allegedly assured them, he himself would catch the cannonballs in his shirtsleeves. As the peasants sang hymns and looked for Christ’s return to support their cause, the attack began. An estimated five thousand rebels died in the resulting slaughter; Müntzer himself was beheaded on May 15, 1525.186 186 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 803-809) (For more on Müntzer, see Cohn (1970), pages 234-251 66 16TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Anabaptists were united in their conviction that the return of Christ was near Eschatological hope burned brightly among the early Anabaptists. As Walter Klassen has written, “All Anabaptists were united in their conviction that the return of Christ was near” and that “Christ and Antichrist were locked in the final struggle.”187 Jan Matthys declared the end of the world would take place on the following day Jan Matthys … gained power in the Westphalian city of Münster and proclaimed it the New Jerusalem. … On the following April 5, Easter Sunday, having prophesied that the end of the world would occur on that day, Matthys led a small company of supporters against a besieging force; all were killed.188 Anabaptist Bockelson accepted the title of Messiah, proclaiming Christ’s imminent return, with Münster as forerunner of the millennial kingdom In September, when a wandering prophet hailed Bockelson as Messiah, he accepted the title. “Now I am given power over all nations of the earth,” he proclaimed, “and the right to use the sword to the confusion of the wicked and in defense of the righteous.” A cadre of Dutch supporters enforced Bockelson’s rule; newly minted coins bore apocalyptic inscriptions such as “One king of righteousness over all”; Bockelson issued manifestos proclaiming Christ’s imminent return and portraying Münster as a forerunner of the millennial kingdom. For Münster the end was indeed at hand. Early in 1535 an army representing the local bishop and several German states blockaded the city. As Bockelson and his inner circle lived opulently and commandeered what little food remained in the city, the starved populace ate rats, grass, shoes, and even corpses. In June the besiegers captured the helpless city, massacring Anabaptists.189 The Reformation leaders took strong and vicious action in response to the apocalyptic movements Reformation leaders reacted with horror to the Peasants’ War, the rise of Anabaptism, and the bizarre events in Strasbourg and Münster. Luther in vicious language urged the German princes to exterminate the rebellious peasants. Calvin in the Institutes denounced the “frenzied” Anabaptist “devils.” Zwingli fiercely repressed Anabaptism in his part of Switzerland.190 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 815) (For more on Anabaptists, see Cohn (1970), pages 252-260 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 819-823 189 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 826) (For more on Bockelson, see Cohn (1970), pages 261ff 190 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 835-837 187 188 67 16th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” The reactions to millennialism by the Reformation’s leaders shaped their eschatological thinking The reformers’ reaction to the Anabaptists’ radical millennialism decisively shaped their eschatological thinking. In 1522, appalled by the radicals’ use of apocalyptic rhetoric, Luther dismissed John’s Apocalypse as “neither apostolic nor prophetic” and relegated it to an appendix in his German New Testament. Luther eventually found greater value in Revelation, but his repudiation of all who sought in the work a clear key to current and future events profoundly influenced Lutheran theology. The Augsburg Confession denounced the Anabaptists’ millennialism as “Jewish doctrine.” Calvin, while accepting the Book of Revelation as canonical, granted it less authority than the Gospels and did not include it in his Bible commentaries. In his 1561 commentary on the Book of Daniel, Calvin offered a preterist interpretation in which the Beast stands for successive Roman emperors. Zwingli flatly dismissed Revelation as “not a book of the Bible.”191 Michael Stifel announced that the end-times would begin at 8:00 AM on October 19, 1533. Anabaptists also selected 1533 Michael Stifel, a German mathematician, mounted the pulpit in Luther’s church to announce his calculation that the end-times would begin promptly at 8:00 AM on October 19, 1533.192 The Anabaptists of the early sixteenth century believed that the millennium would occur in 1533.193 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 837 Festinger (2008), 13 193 Festinger (2008), 13 191 192 68 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Prophetic exegesis in 16th and 17th century England had a profound effect on early American thought In England, meanwhile, a rich literature of prophetic exegesis emerged from the religious ferment of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries – a literature that profoundly molded early American thought.194 In 1606, Nicholas Raimarus employed chronological proof that the Last Day will come within 77 years The long narrative title of a work by a German visionary named Nicholas Raimarus, first published in Nuremberg in 1606, is plain evidence that the end of the world was always regarded as inevitable and imminent: Chronological, Certain, and Irrefutable Proof, from the Holy Scripture and Fathers, That the World Will Perish and the Last Day Will Come Within 77 Years.195 The dedication of the 1611 King James Version of the Bible thanked the King for his effort to identify “the Man of Sin” Writers at all social and intellectual levels interpreted the English Reformation in apocalyptic terms. … The dedication of the Authorized Version of the Bible published in 1611 – the so-called King James Version – thanked James for this youthful effort to identify “the Man of Sin.”196 The 16th century inventor of logarithms applied his mathematical skills, predicting that the current age would end in 1688 John Napier, the inventor of logarithms, in 1594 published A Pleine Discoverie of the Whole Revelation of St. John. Applying his mathematical genius to the books of Daniel and Revelation, Napier predicted that the current age would end in 1688.197 17th century England’s prophetic concern focused on the Papacy, the Turkish Ottoman Empire, and Islam England’s preoccupation with prophecy intensified in the seventeenth century. In part, this trend reflected events in Europe. During the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) English pamphleteers proclaimed their nation’s duty to help preserve Protestantism against the assaults of Antichrist, embodied in the papacy. They also echoed Continental writers in finding continued prophetic significance in the rise of Ottoman power and of Islam in general. Soon, wrote one pamphleteer in 1615, “the Antichrist of Rome and the Turk shall be utterly destroyed.”198 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 850 Kirsch (2006), 157 196 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 860 197 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 863 198 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 868-870 194 195 69 17th and 18th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” The expansion of the Ottoman Turks into eastern Europe and the Middle East affected the early Protestant leaders’ eschatology The Reformation coincided with the expansion of the Ottoman Turks into eastern Europe and the Middle East, and this theme, too, affected the early Protestant leaders’ eschatology. Luther, fearful of an Ottoman invasion, in his 1530 German Bible described the Turks as the Gog of Ezekiel 38. Catholic exegetes, too, saw the Ottoman threat in eschatological terms.199 -----The rise of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire instilled a terror of the Turks. For many Christians, this fear merged with a belief the coming millennium. [The year] 1500 would see the end of the world, as foretold in Saint John’s Book of Revelation. It was the End of Days, or so it seemed.200 The followers of Cromwell saw their military conflict as a sign that the millennial kingdom of Jesus Christ was soon to begin The followers of Cromwell, for example, saw the conflict between the parliamentary and royalist armies as a struggle between Christ and Anti-christ, and they regarded the defeat of King Charles I as a sign that the millennial kingdom of Jesus Christ was soon to begin: “The Eternall and shortly-expected King,” writes poet (and Puritan pamphleteer) John Milton (1608–1674), “shall open the Clouds to judge the severall Kingdomes of the World.” … “These are days of shaking,” observed one English preacher in 1643, “and this shaking is universal.”201 In 1648, Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed himself the promised Messiah. Nothing happened and he accepted 1666 from Christians Sabbatai Zevi was born and raised in the city of Smyrna. By 1646 he had acquired considerable prestige through living a highly ascetic life and devoting his whole energy to the study of the cabala. … Prevalent among Jews at that time was the belief that the Messiah would come in the year 1648. His coming was to be accompanied by all manner of miracles and the era of redemption would dawn. Some time in 1648 Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed himself as the promised Messiah. … After the year 1648 had passed and nothing had happened, Zevi proclaimed his messiahship to people outside his small circle of disciples. … About this time some segments of the Christian world were expecting the year 1666 to usher in the millennium, and Sabbatai Zevi appears to have accepted this date. … In September or October of 1665, he proclaimed himself the Messiah in a public ceremony in Smyrna. … The movement gradually spread to almost the whole of Jewry, and Sabbatai was accepted and heralded everywhere as the Messiah.202 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 850 The End of Days: Albrecht Dürer’s Woodcuts for ‘The Apocalypse’ - 1498 - Flashbak accessed 11 February 2023) 201 Kirsch (2006), 175 202 Festinger (2008), 15, 16 199 200 70 17th and 18th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Puritan poet John Milton invested his current events with high eschatological significance From 1642 to 1660, as England experienced civil war, regicide, a commonwealth, and military dictatorship, end-time anticipation ran rife. John Milton, the poet of Puritanism, was but one of many who invested these events with high eschatological significance, viewing them as the prelude to the moment when “the Eternall and shortly-expected expected King shall open the Clouds to judge the severall Kingdomes of the World.” The urgent apocalypticism of these years can scarcely be overstated. … With the defeat of Charles I in 1646 and his beheading in 1649, apocalyptic speculation surged among English radicals.203 Sir Isaac Newton and his successor William Whiston were heavily invested in prophetic studies. It was in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries that Isaac Newton pursued the exhaustive prophetic studies that ultimately supplanted his work on mathematics and optics. William Whiston, Newton’s successor as professor of mathematics at Cambridge, produced several influential prophecy books.204 The 17th century Puritans and those who came after them tinkered with the scenario of Revelation and created story lines of their own invention When the Puritans arrived in the New World — “flying from the Depravations of Europe,” as they saw it, “to the American Strand” — they promptly unpacked and polished up the old apocalyptic texts. John Winthrop (1588– 1649), a passenger on the Arabella and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, famously invoked the New Jerusalem when he likened the Puritan settlement to “a City upon a Hill.” And, significantly, “The Day of Doom,” a poem by Michael Wigglesworth (1631–1705), was “the first best seller in the annals of the American book trade.” But the Puritans and those who came after them also felt at liberty to tinker with the scenario of Revelation and come up with story lines wholly of their own invention. Indeed, they insisted on accentuating the positive in Revelation, and they gave the apocalyptic idea a uniquely American spin that has persisted into our own anxious age. Remarkably, the end of the world and the destruction of humankind, if viewed in the right way, could be seen as a good thing.205 The migrating Puritans were fully involved with the eschatological hopes The Puritans who migrated to Massachusetts fully shared the eschatological hopes of those who stayed behind.206 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 886-887, 895 Boyer (1992), Kindle Locations 902, 904 205 Kirsch (2006), 174-175 206 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 937 203 204 71 17th and 18th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” American Puritans increasingly found prophetic meaning in their own history As millennial expectations in England receded after 1660, American Puritans increasingly found prophetic meaning in their own history. This “Americanization of the apocalyptic tradition,” as Stephen Stein calls it.207 17th century speculation of America’s prophetic destiny as a forerunner of the New Jerusalem Boston minister Increase Mather (1639-1723) in 1676 speculated about America’s prophetic destiny as a forerunner, or “type,” of the New Jerusalem. Boston political leader Samuel Sewall, writing in 1697, shared Mather’s conviction that America might be “the seat of the Divine Metropolis” in the Millennium.208 After calculations involving the Ottoman Empire and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Cotton Mather tentatively predicted the end in 1697 Increase Mather’s son Cotton [Mather] (1663-1728) … “inaugurated an era of apocalyptical expectation in America that did not lose its force until after the American Revolution.” … His sermon “Things To Be Look’d For” (1691) found portents of the Second Coming in local and world events and, after calculations involving the Ottoman Empire and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, tentatively predicted the end in 1697.209 In the 17th century, Mather predicted that the Jewish people would be brought into their own land again and convert to Christianity Mather predicted in The Mystery of Israel’s Salvation Explained and Applied (1669) that the Jewish people would be “brought into their own land again” and that, once they returned to the site of ancient Israel, they would convert to Christianity and become “the most glorious nation in the world.” One Presbyterian minister actually undertook to build dock houses and wharves in New Haven as a place of embarkation for the Jewish emigrants: “The return of the Jews to their own land,” he declared in 1800, “is certain.”210 Mather expected “our glorious LORD, will have an Holy city in AMERICA, a City, the Street whereof will be Pure Gold” Cotton Mather (1663-1728) in his more exalted moments had little doubt about the location of the New Jerusalem. New England, he insisted in the Magnalia [Christs Americana] (echoing his father), would provide not only a bulwark against Antichrist but possibly be “the Spot of Earth, which the God of Heaven Spied out” as the capital of the millennial kingdom. “Many Arguments … perswade us,” he added in a 1709 sermon, “that our glorious LORD, will have an Holy city in AMERICA, a City, the Street whereof will be Pure Gold.”211 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 940 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 941 209 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 945 210 Kirsch (2006), 195 211 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 954 207 208 72 17th and 18th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Mather concluded that the end was near Mather stressed the nearness of the end. “All that has been foretold ... as what must come to pass before the Coming”, he wrote shortly before his death, “is, as far as we understand, Fulfill’d: I say ALL FULFILL’D!” (Nearly three centuries later, prophecy writers were reaching the same conclusion.)212 Mather was an inveterate date setter, including 1697, 1716, and 1736 Mather was also an inveterate date setter. When 1697 passed quietly, he fixed on 1736; later, adopting a timetable proposed by Whiston, he settled on 1716, a year he spent in an agony of anticipation.213 Increase [Mather] (1639-1723) wrote that the saints would “be caught up into the Air” before the final conflagration Increase [Mather] (1639-1723) wrote of the earth’s coming destruction by fire, and cited scriptures proving that the saints would “be caught up into the Air” beforehand, thereby escaping the final conflagration – an early formulation of the Rapture doctrine more fully elaborated in the nineteenth century.214 Date-setting books loosely grounded in biblical apocalyptic were big sellers in the American colonies A Boston printer reissued The Strange and Wonderful Predictions of Mr. Christopher Love, the alleged work of an English radical executed by Cromwell. A sensational, date-setting work loosely grounded in biblical apocalyptic, it predicted earthquakes quakes and wars in the 1750s, the rise of Antichrist in 1761, and the final end in 1763. Another big seller in the colonies, Richard Clarke’s book The Prophetic Numbers of Daniel and John Calculated (1759), forecast cast the end by 1766 at the latest.215 George Bell announced that Jesus Christ would descend on February 28, 1763 Undiscouraged by any of the earlier failed prophecies, an English preacher named George Bell declared with equal certainty that Jesus Christ would descend from heaven to earth on February 28, 1763.216 As the eighteenth century closed, … the eschatological vision was never long absent from colonial and revolutionary America Benjamin Foster’s Dissertation on the Seventy Weeks of Daniel (1787) offered detailed chronological calculations proving that the Book of Daniel precisely foretold told Jewish history through Jesus’ resurrection, and that the Bible could therefore be trusted as a guide to end-time events. As the eighteenth century closed, … the eschatological vision was never long absent from colonial and revolutionary America.217 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 958 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 960 214 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 1027 215 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 1040 216 Kirsch (2006), 160 217 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 1045 212 213 73 19TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Adventism sprang up in the 1830s Adventism most commonly denotes the movement that sprang up in the 1830s from William Miller, a Baptist minister in New York. Miller confidently prophesied the imminent return of Christ, setting 1843–44 as the time. The Millerite movement spread rapidly among northeastern churches. When the expected return did not occur as predicted, a reinterpretation set October 22, 1844, as the correct date. The faithful met in local gatherings on the appointed day, worshiping and waiting. The “Great Disappointment” following the prophecy’s failure led many Millerites to forsake the movement. … A new series of signs, visions, and prophecies, however, fed the lagging spirits of those who refused to give up Adventist hopes. As early as the day after the Great Disappointment, Hiram Edison had a vision that confirmed the prophetic significance of October 22, 1844, but he indicated that it marked a heavenly rather than earthly event.218 “Adventism” continues to be significant in the Christian tradition Emphasis on events surrounding the return of Christ among fundamentalists, premillennialists, and evangelical churches generally reflects the continuing significance of general “Adventism” in the Christian tradition.219 Darby’s 19th century ideas became prominent in American fundamentalism [Darby’s] ideas pervaded late-nineteenth-century millenarianism and became a prominent element in American fundamentalism.220 John Darby introduced the new idea that the final salvation of Christians depends on the destiny that God has assigned to the Jewish people The repatriation of the Jewish people took on a new degree of power and authority in the teachings of John Darby. He came away from his study of the Hebrew Bible with a new idea about the role of the Jewish people in the endtimes, a notion that has been called one of the “most distinctive and controversial features” of his doctrine. To sum up Darby’s elaborate theory, he taught that God has devised one fate for the Jewish people and a different fate for the Christian church—but the two phases of the divine plan for the end of the world are interrelated, and so the final salvation of Christians depends on the destiny that God has assigned to the Jewish people.221 Treier (2017), 32 Treier (2017), 32-33 220 Treier (2017), 228 221 Kirsch (2006), 195-196 218 219 74 20TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” The Balfour Declaration of 1917 was interpreted as the beginning of a series of events that would establish God’s kingdom here upon earth The Balfour Declaration of 1917, which committed Great Britain to the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and the liberation of Jerusalem from the Turks in 1918 by the British army, were interpreted as “the beginning of a series of events that are destined to establish God’s kingdom here upon earth,” according to an enthusiastic Bible commentator named E. L. Langston. “The Jews and the land of Palestine are like charts to the mariner,” Langston explains. “As we study the prophecies concerning ‘the people’ and ‘the land’ we hold the key to the mysteries of God’s plan and purpose for the world.”222 The gathering of the Jewish people in their ancient homeland came to be seen as a sign and as a precondition of the Coming Since Darby was convinced that all biblical prophecy must be fulfilled, including the prophecies in the Hebrew Bible that were addressed to the Israelites, he concluded that God will keep his promise to restore the land of Israel to the Chosen People and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem before bringing the world to an end. Indeed, the gathering of the Jewish people in their ancient homeland in Palestine came to be seen as both a sign and a necessary precondition of the Second Coming, the defeat of Satan, and the creation of the New Heaven and the New Earth. Thus did the Jewish people come to play an unwitting but decisive role in the end-times as imagined so vividly by the apocalyptic true believers in America.223 In the late 1960s, Lindsey and his collaborator, C. C. Carlson, went public with his prediction that the end was near America was swept by wave after wave of radical new ideas and unsettling new experiences in the 1960s and 1970s—war, riot, and assassination, of course, but also the civil rights movement and the antiwar movement, the sexual revolution and the computer revolution, Beatlemania and Woodstock, the birth-control pill and men on the moon. The times they were a-changing, according to Bob Dylan’s anthem, and Christian fundamentalism caught the same the winds of change. The New World was the site of yet another apocalyptic invasion that carried the book of Revelation out of the Christian ghetto and into the heart of American politics and popular culture. The selfmade apocalyptic seer who literally put the apocalyptic idea on the best-seller lists of America was a colorful and charismatic preacher named Hal Lindsey (b. 1930). … 222 223 Kirsch (2006), 205 Kirsch (2006), 196 75 20th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” Inspired by the lively response to the sermons on Bible prophecy that he delivered in the late 1960s, Lindsey and his collaborator, C. C. Carlson, went public with his prediction that the end was near with the publication of The Late Great Planet Earth in 1970. Like the “medieval best sellers” of an earlier age, Lindsey’s book repurposed and reinterpreted the text of Revelation and other apocalyptic passages of the Bible in terms that made sense to contemporary readers.224 Hal Lindsay’s 1960s book restates John Darby’s 19th century doctrine of dispensational premillennialism [Hal Lindsay] insists that God’s plan for the imminent end of the world is to be found in “the tested truths of Bible prophecy.” The Late Great Planet Earth, in fact, is essentially a restatement of the doctrine of dispensational premillennialism as framed by John Darby in the nineteenth century. “Some time in the future there will be a seven-year period climaxed by the visible return of Jesus Christ,” Lindsey begins, and he proceeds to describe the standard version of the end-time scenario that he learned at the Dallas Theological Seminary. … The “seven-year countdown” to the Second Coming will be triggered by the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and the resumption of animal sacrifice by the Jewish people. Next will come the world dictatorship of the Antichrist and the period of persecution known as the Tribulation—but not before Christian true believers are raptured to heaven. At the end of the Tribulation, Jesus Christ will return to fight the battle of Armageddon, reign over a peaceable kingdom on earth for a thousand years, and then, at last, defeat Satan once and for all, sit in judgment over all humankind, and reward the Christian saints with eternal life in a new heaven and a new earth.225 In 1970, Hal Lindsay suggested the Rapture will take place in 1981 followed in 1988 by Armageddon and the coming of Jesus Christ [Hal] Lindsey is unable to resist the same temptation that has resulted in the embarrassment of every previous doomsayer from Montanus to Father Miller—the cardinal sin of date setting. The countdown clock for doomsday, Lindsey argues, began with the establishment of the modern state of Israel, and he interprets various fragments of biblical text to confirm that the end will come within the lifetime of the generation that witnessed its rebirth in 1948. On the assumption that a generation is equivalent to forty years, Lindsey suggests in The Late Great Planet Earth, first published in 1970, that the Rapture will take place in 1981, followed by seven years of persecution under the Antichrist and then, in 1988, the battle of Armageddon and the second coming of Jesus Christ. Lindsey, of course, was proven wrong. As the year 1981 approached and the Rapture seemed no nearer, he rechecked his end-time calculations and offered a slightly revised schedule in The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon (1980). 224 225 Kirsch (2006), 221-222 Kirsch (2006), 222-223 76 20th century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” After the collapse of the Soviet bloc in the early 1990s, however, he was inspired to offer a new end-time scenario in Planet Earth 2000 A.D. (1994): Islamic fundamentalism rather than the Red Army will be the final adversary of Jesus Christ at the battle of Armageddon, although he insists that “the ‘collapse’ of Communism is part of a masterful game of deceit engineered by Mikhail Gorbachev and the Soviet KGB.” Still later, Lindsey offered another insight into the workings of Satan: UFO sightings, he argued, are “deceptive ruses by demons, who will soon stage a massive UFO landing to mislead earthlings into believing in life on other planets.”226 Edgar Whisenant argued there were 88 Reasons Why the Rapture will be in 1988 According to some Christian Zionists, the beginning of the end would commence in the fortieth year after the establishment of the modern state of Israel. A former NASA rocket engineer named Edgar Whisenant argued the case in 88 Reasons Why the Rapture Will Be in 1988, where he predicts that the Tribulation would begin on October 3, 1988 — Rosh Hashanah, the first day of the new year on the Jewish ritual calendar — and the Battle of Armageddon would break out exactly seven years later.227 226 227 Kirsch (2006), 224-225 Kirsch (2006), 234 77 21ST CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” Evangelical (2007): “We are living in the generation that will witness the Second Coming” We are witnessing the fulfillment of numerous prophecies regarding the rebuilding of the Temple in our generation. The practical preparations to build the Third Temple are the clearest signs yet that we are rapidly approaching the time when the Messiah will return to set up His holy kingdom on earth. We are living in the generation that will witness the Second Coming.228 -----Prophetic signposts clearly indicate we are quickly approaching the final turning point – the Second Coming of Jesus Christ to set up His kingdom. Prior to that long-awaited event, a great battle will take place in which the Lord will protect Israel from a massive invading army. An unprecedented military alliance will form, led by Russia. The alliance will be made up of Islamic nations, including virtually all Middle Eastern Arab and Islamic states, North African states, Central Asian (former southern U.S.S.R) states, plus Iran and a number of Asian nations. In Ezekiel 38:2-6 God prophesied in great detail the names of the ancient nations that will invade Israel. … The devastation will be so vast that cities around the world will be shaken. The global earthquake will cause buildings, bridges, and walls to crumble. The Scriptures prophesy that it will take seven months just to bury the fallen soldiers, and it will take seven years for Israel to burn the weapons of the invaders. … If this seems far-fetched, think about the radical changes that will take place in the United States after the Rapture. All born-again Christians will be instantly transferred to heaven, vacating their positions in government, education, business, the church, and the military.229 -----At some point during the lifetime of this generation, at God’s appointed time, the Third Temple will be built, possibly following the War of Gog and Magog. The Holy of Holies in the Third Temple will once again house the ark of the covenant, which was the major object in the Temple that pointed clearly to the second coming of the Messiah.230 The hazards depicted by modern prophecy writers are very different from the earlier accounts of God’s own wrath Late-twentieth-century prophecy writers whose end-time scenarios – bristling with knowing discussions of the neutron bomb, ozone depletion, the Jeffrey (2007), vii Jeffrey (2007), 173-175 230 Jeffrey (2007), 176 228 229 78 21st century expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” greenhouse effect, and other hazards – seemed very different from earlier accounts of God’s own wrath descending on wicked humanity.231 Modern prophecy writers are merely the latest participants in a discourse that had been under way for nearly four centuries Post-1945 prophecy writers who discussed America’s prophetic destiny were merely the latest participants in a discourse that had been under way for nearly four centuries. From the early seventeenth century through the late eighteenth, the entire span of American colonial history was marked by speculation about America’s role in God’s plan. That the colonizing venture began at a time of intense apocalyptic awareness in England meant that it, like everything else in these years, took on an aura of eschatological meaning.232 Modern prophetic scenarios are updated versions of very ancient ones Modern prophecy scenarios are in fact updated versions of very ancient ones. In some cases, highly specific beliefs have been transmitted intact over 1,500 years or more. Irenaeus, for example, taught that Antichrist will reign on earth “for three years and six months” – precisely the time period mentioned by Hal Lindsey and other modern-day day popularizers.233 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 926 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 932 233 Boyer (1992), Kindle Location 770 231 232 79 ISLAMIC EXPECTANT ESCHATOLOGY The Mahdi is an Islamic eschatological Messianic figure who will rid the earth of evil and injustice ْ romanized: al-mahdiyy), meaning “the rightly guided The Mahdi (Arabic: ‫ٱل َم ْهدِي‬, one”, is an eschatological Messianic figure who, according to Islamic belief, will appear at the end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. In Islam, it is said that he will appear alongside Isa and establish the Divine kingdom of Allah. … Although the concept of a Mahdi is not an essential doctrine in Islam, it is popular among Muslims. It has been a part of the creed (aqida) of Muslims for 1400 years. Both Sunnis and Shia agree that the Mahdi will rule over the whole world and establish justice; however, they differ extensively on his attributes and status.234 The Mahdi is a messianic figure in Islamic eschatology ْ romanized: al-Mahdī, lit. ’the Guided’) is a messianic The Mahdi (Arabic: ‫ِي‬ ّ ‫ٱل َم ْهد‬, figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad who will appear shortly before the prophet ʿĪsā (Jesus) and lead Muslims to rule the world.235 Belief in the promised Mahdi exists in other religions as well Is belief in the promised Mahdi confined to the followers of Islam, or does it exist in other religions too? In fact, this belief is not limited to the Muslims alone. In almost all religions and heavenly creeds one can find a similar belief in the future savior. The followers of these religions believe that there will come a time when the world will become corrupt and engulfed in a crisis. Evil and injustice will become the rule of the day. Disbelief will cover the entire world. At that time, the universal savior of the world will appear. With remarkable divine help he will restore the purity of faith and defeat materialism with the help of divine worship. Not only are the tidings to be found in revealed books like the Zand and Pazand, and Jamaspname of the Zoroastrians, the Torah and other Biblical books of the Jews, and the Gospel of the Christians, such information can also be seen, more or less, among the Brahmins and the Buddhists. The followers of all religions and traditions maintain such a belief and are awaiting the appearance of such a commanding figure under the divine protection. Each tradition recognizes this figure with a different name and specific title. The Zoroastrians call him Saoshyant (meaning the ‘savior of the world’); the Jews know him as the messiah, whereas the Christians regard him as the Savior Messiah. However, each group believes that this divinely ordained savior will be among them. 234 235 Ruark (2021) “Mahdi”, Wikipedia. Mahdi - Wikipedia accessed 1 February 2023 80 Islamic eschatology The Zoroastrians believe he is Persian and among the followers of Zoroaster. The Jews maintain that he will be among the Children of Israel, and the follower of Moses. The Christians think he will be one among them. Muslims believe that he will be among the Hashimites and among the direct descendants of the Prophet. In Islam he has been fully introduced, whereas in other religions this is not so. It is remarkable that all the characteristics and signs mentioned for this universal savior in other religions are applicable to the promised Mahdi, the son of Imam Hasan ‘Askari. It is possible to regard him as Iranian in race because among his ancestors is the mother of the fourth Imam Zayn al-’Abidin who, as the daughter of Yazdgard, the Sassanian king, was a Persian princess. He can also be considered among the Children of Israel, since both the Hashimites and the Israelites are among the descendants of Abraham. The Hashimites are the descendants of Isma’il (Ishmael) and the Israelites are the descendants of Ishaq (Isaac). Hence, the Hashimites and the Israelites are one family. He is also connected to Christians because, according to some traditions, the mother of the present Imam was a Byzantine princess by the name of Narjis (Nargis), who is part of the miraculous story reported in some sources. It is not appropriate to confine the deliverer of the world, the Mahdi, to one particular nation. He will actually come to fight against all discriminatory claims of racial, creedal and national distinction. Consequently, he should be regarded as the Mahdi of the whole of humanity. He is the savior and deliverer of the people who worship God. His victory is the victory of all the prophets and all the righteous ones on earth. He will be restoring the religion of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and all of the heavenly revelations, namely, Islam; he will revive the pure religion of Moses and Jesus which had foretold the prophethood of Muhammad.236 There is a strong renaissance of apocalyptic beliefs in the Shiite world, with the main focus on the state of Israel We are currently witnessing a strong renaissance of apocalyptic beliefs in the Shiite world. The main focus is the state of Israel, not the followers of Judaism. Messianism began to “slip” out of the control of religious institutions and became a lever of influence for preachers who were not directly dependent on the state. Logically, the latter often interpret current events through the prism of socially formed populist messianism. In this way, processes known to some extent in Sunnism and Evangelism take place in Ja’farite messianism. The lowlands do not recognize the views offered by state institutions and create their own, but much more radical and elementary scenarios.237 236 237 Amini, Ibrahim Chukov (2021), 45 81 Islamic eschatology God will permit the Mahdi to launch his final revolution when general conditions have become favourable to the rulership of the truth When the world has become psychologically ready to accept the government of God and when general conditions have become favorable to the idea of the rulership of the truth, God will permit the Mahdi to launch his final revolution. He will suddenly appear in Mecca and the caller of God will announce to the world that he has alighted. A few selected individuals, whose number has been fixed to 313 in some traditions, will be the first ones to respond to his call, and will be drawn to him like iron to a magnet in that first hour of his appearance. Imam Sadiq relates: “When the Master of the Age appears, the young among his followers (shi’a), without any prior appointment, will rouse themselves and reach Mecca that very night1.” At that time the Mahdi will call upon the entire world to join his movement. Those who have suffered and lost all hope that their situation could improve will rally around him and will pay allegiance to him. In a short time, a vast army made up of courageous, sacrificing, and reform-seeking peoples of the world will be prepared to be led by him. Imams Baqir and Sadiq (peace be upon them), have described the Qa’im’s helpers thus: They will occupy the east and the west of the world, will bring everything under his command. Each one of these soldiers will have the power of forty strong men. Their hearts will be harder than iron pieces so much so that in their march to the goal should they encounter mountains made of iron they will overcome them with their inner strength. They will continue their struggle until God’s pleasure is acquired. At that time, the imperious, sinful rulers, lacking any conscience yet sensing the threat, would come out in defense, calling out the oppositional forces made up of their own followers. But the soldiers of justice and reform, having been disgusted with the injustice and persecution of those evil forces, will take the ultimate decision of attacking them in unison and with total effort. With God’s help and sanction they will wipe them out. Awe and fear will descend upon the survivors who will finally surrender to the rightful, just government. On seeing the fulfillment of many of the signs promised in the traditions, a large number of unbelievers will turn towards Islam. Those who persist in their disbelief and wickedness shall be killed by the soldiers of the Mahdi. The only victorious government in the entire world will be that of Islam and people will devotedly endeavor to protect it. Islam will be the religion of everyone, and will enter all the nations of the world.238 238 Amini, Ibrahim 82 Islamic eschatology Islamic preachers, clerics and thinkers are trying to find the signs of the expected messiah Many modern [Islamic] preachers, clerics and thinkers are trying to find the signs of the appearance of the expected messiah given by Sharia tests and their interpretations by Islamic legal authorities.239 The Dajjal is an evil figure in Islamic Eschatology, similar to the Antichrist of Christianity ْ romanized: al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl, Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (Arabic: ‫ل‬ ُّ ‫ٱل َمسِي ُحّ ٱلدَّجَّا‬, lit. ’Deceitful Messiah’),[2] otherwise referred to simply as the Dajjal, is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology similar to the Antichrist in Christianity, who will pretend to be the promised Messiah, appearing before the Day of Judgment according to the Islamic eschatological narrative.[2][4] The Dajjal is never mentioned in the Quran, but he is mentioned and described in the ḥadīth literature.[2] Like in Christianity, the Dajjal is said to emerge out in the east, although the specific location varies among the various sources.[5] The Dajjal will imitate the miracles performed by ʿĪsā (Jesus), such as healing the sick and raising the dead, the latter done with the aid of devils (Shayāṭīn). He will deceive many people.240 For Iranian clerics, appearance of the messiah is linked to the destruction of Israel In the views of Iranian Ja’afarit clerics, the appearance of the messiah is directly related to the destruction of the state of Israel.241 People will oblige the Messiah to accept Muslim devotion Such reflections are intended to prepare Muslims to be constantly ready for the appearance of Al Mahdi Al Montazar, the expected messiah. The most important characteristic of the Messiah is that people will oblige him to accept their devotion, not impose it on them.242 Chukov (2021), 41 “Al-Masih ad-Dajjal”, Wikipedia. Al-Masih ad-Dajjal - Wikipedia accessed 1 February 2023 241 Chukov (2019), 89 242 Chukov (2021), 42 239 240 83 PAPERS AT ACADEMIA EDU BY DOUG MASON A Spirit World (99+) A Spirit World | Doug Mason - Academia.edu If we relied on the canonical Hebrew Bible alone, without subsequent writing and commentary, our religious heritage would be Devil-free. By the time of 1 Enoch, however, we have entered a different religious universe in which very potent evil forces exist and form part of a rival kingdom set against that of God. (Jenkins, Philip. Crucible of Faith: The Ancient Revolution that made our Modern Religious World, page 62). Biblical Listings a library of sacred literature (updated) (99+) Biblical Listings (updated) Libraries of Sacred Literature | Doug Mason Academia.edu A Bible is a library of books. Each Christian community makes its selection on which books it includes and which it will exclude. These selection processes covered centuries, and longer as each Church created its Bible. This situation remains, with the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Ethiopian, Syrian, Protestants and others producing its own Bible. The situation was fluid at the time when the New Testament writers plied their craft. Literature was available to them that in later centuries would no longer be included in some Bibles. But the New Testament writers did not know this would happen, and they alluded to literature that many today do not accept as Scripture. This Paper tabulates lists of books proposed during the selection process. This Paper also tabulates the books alluded to by New Testament authors that were later not included in most Bibles. Updated with a few pages from Evans, “Ancient Texts for New Testament Studies”. Changes in Millennial Dawn and Studies in the Scriptures (99+) Changes in Millennial Dawn and Studies in the Scriptures | Doug Mason Academia.edu None of Russell’s predictions came to pass, so words in his books were altered and they continued to sell them. Today, Witnesses are told that 1914 was a year “marked” by Russell, but they are not told that Russell expected an outbreak of enduring PEACE with 1914, under the auspices of fleshly Jews. The following pages demonstrate key alterations that the Watchtower Society made at the time to Charles Taze Russell’s books “Millennial Dawn” [MD], subsequently renamed “Studies in the Scriptures” [SS]. The original title reflected Russell’s teaching that the Millennium had already dawned. Conception of the Great Religions (99+) Conception of the Great Religions | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Brilliant minds of creative geniuses have influenced more people than any other for millennia. Billions have had their lives influenced by them. But we do not know their names. Great innovators who set in motion movements that sweep history, directly influencing great and small, powerful and the needy. Magnificent cathedrals, breathtaking places of worship, stand testimony to the ongoing power of those who conceived ideas that capture the hopes and aspirations, that inspire great art, music, and literature. Could these conceivers have ever imagined their legacy, their ongoing impact upon people of all ages and races? Historians recognise them, although no one knows their names. Historians only know that they lived in the third century 84 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason BCE. Some call them the first true Jews. Their ideas became fundamental to the ideas that underscore Judaism, Christianity and Islam, at least. It was they who set in motion the ideas, who absorbed ideas, who moulded ideas – ideas that capture and captivate. Whether it be the idea of the imminent Divine Intervention; a promised last-days Messiah; an evil empire with an evil Leader; a single supreme deity; resurrection; and more – all come from that group of anonymous conceivers 2200 years ago. Critique of the Watchtower’s “The Bible – God’s Word or Man’s?” on Daniel 9 (99+) Critique of the Watchtower’s “The Bible – God’s Word or Man’s?” on Daniel 9 | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Through the 14 chapters of its book “The Bible - God’s Word or Man’s?”, the WTS endeavours to provide evidences that the Bible is “the Word of God”. The book says that one evidence of the Bible’s divine source is given through the precise fulfilment of prophecy. For its example of fulfilled prophecy, the WTS refers to Daniel 9, saying that it predicted the exact year when Jesus would be anointed. Is its claim justified? Daniel 4 and 1914 CE? (99+) Daniel 4 and 1914 CE? | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The authority and claims that the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society [WTS] makes for itself relies on the significance it gives to the year 1914 CE. This is the year of Christ’s Parousia when he took up his position in the kingdom set up by Jehovah God. To arrive at 1914 CE, along with its significance, the WTS begins with a dream. Is the WTS’s interpretation of that dream solid? Are its arguments along the way to 1914 CE grounded in verifiable facts? Are its explanations reasonable? Dead. Resurrected. Saved in the Second Temple period (99+) Dead. Resurrected. Saved in the Second Temple period | Doug Mason Academia.edu Death is the inevitable outcome of being alive. Death does not discriminate, coming to Pharaoh, Imam, Pope, Rabbi, and Commoner alike. Western religions in their various forms offer messages that find their genesis in the period of Judaism’s Second temple, when Persia’s Zoroastrianism, Hellenist philosophies, the Mystery religions and Judaisms interacted and intermingled, influencing one another and their successors. How did each of those dynamic groups face Death and its consequences? What promises did they give? What warnings did they make? Reading their thoughts provides insights into their times and their cultures. At the same time, these insights provide lessons that help each person as they face the inevitable and be better able to respond to modern religion’s attempts. Did Israel’s ruler come from Bethlehem? (99+) Did Israel’s ruler come from Bethlehem? | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The July 2012 issue of Awake! states that the narratives of Jesus’ birth show that the Bible is “A Book of Accurate Prophecy.” The aim of this Study is to find out what the birth narratives do reveal about the nature of the Bible. What does investigation of the writings of Micah, Matthew, and Luke reveal about the way that the Bible should be read and applied? Does this investigation open the door to a better comprehension of the nature of Scripture? 85 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason European Christologies and Salvations (99+) European Christologies and Salvations | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Christian Christologies and Soteriologies experience constant change. Evolution Creation Creationism (99+) Evolution Creation Creationism | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Summary of key features of evolution, biblical creation, and Christian Creationism (illustrated). Evolutionary scientists quoted by the Watchtower Society in The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking (99+) EVOLUTIONARY SCIENTISTS QUOTED BY THE WATCHTOWER SOCIETY in The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking | Doug Mason - Academia.edu In 2010, the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society published a 32-page brochure, “The Origin of Life”, with the intention of supporting its view that life was created by a divine source, as declared in the Hebrew Scriptures. The purpose of this Critique is to examine the manner in which the brochure employs information from scientists to support the Watchtower’s position. Their brochure does not claim that any of the cited scientists supports its stance on Creation and indeed makes it very clear that the scientists are evolutionists. When the brochure provides information from a scientist, it appeals to the reader’s subjective opinion, asking whether it is possible that unaided Nature could have resulted in the outcomes witnessed by scientists. This is the brochure’s strategy and agenda. Truth would thus be determined through subjective opinion. However, this very same information is used by scientists in their support for evolution. God-breathed Scriptures (99+) God-breathed Scriptures | Doug Mason - Academia.edu For those interested in Christianity and its relationship to the Bible, few subjects are more significant than the claim that it is “God-breathed”, or as many translate the Greek word: “inspired of God”. How the Watchtower Society arrives at 1914 CE (99+) How the WTS arrives at 1914 CE | Doug Mason - Academia.edu A step-by-step outline of the method employed by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society to arrive at 1914CE. Installation of Yahweh alone (99+) Installation of Yahweh alone | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Yahweh’s journey from local warrior god assigned to weather and storms to his installation as the universal deity -- and the people who put him there. Installation of Yahweh Alone (updated January 2024) (99+) Installation of Yahweh Alone (Updated January 2024 | Doug Mason Academia.edu The Paper now includes a Section from another of my Papers, “Concept of the Great Religion”. Is Awake! accurate about Jesus’ anointing? (99+) Is Awake accurate about Messiah’s anointing? | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Awake! for July 2012 claims that the “70 weeks” prophecy at Daniel 9 predicted the year when Jesus was baptised and anointed by God. 86 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason Israel’s World (99+) Israel’s World | Doug Mason - Academia.edu What was the world like for the first settlers of Canaan’s Hill country and as they emerged to form a kingdom? This Study considers their external and internal experiences up to the time they were ruled by Kings Saul and David. Johannine soteriology and christology 1 (99+) JOHANNINE SOTERIOLOGY AND CHRISTOLOGY 1 | Doug Mason Academia.edu Understanding some of the history of the Fourth Gospel assists understanding. While the Fourth Gospel must be read and treated as a completed document, understanding something of the history of its development assists the reader in understanding its meaning. The Johannine community started out as a group of Jews. J. L. Martyn detects in 1:35-51 that the Johannine community began among Jews who came to Jesus and with relatively little difficulty found him to be the Messiah they expected. I [Raymond Brown] think he is perfectly right. Significant polemical situation within the synagogue and with the Johannine community one may begin, in agreement with Louis Martyn and others, with a recognition that a polemical situation within the synagogue and later between the Johannine community and the synagogue is almost certainly a significant, if not the central, milieu of the Johannine material, particularly the Fourth Gospel. (Community of the Beloved Disciple, page 71.) Matthew’s messages through Jesus’ inaugural tests (99+) MATTHEW’S MESSAGES THROUGH JESUS’ INAUGURAL TESTS | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Writing in 68 CE, 85 CE, and 90 CE respectively, the Authors of the Gospels according to Saints Mark, Matthew, and Luke say that immediately following his baptism and acceptance by Heaven, Jesus experienced a period of testing. Matthew is the earliest account that presents details of the tests and their outcomes. This Study examines the cultural and lexical contexts of that account to identify the messages that were intended by the Authors and understood by their immediate community. To achieve this objective, this Study first presents the situations that the authors of Matthew encountered. People who made Bibles (99+) People who made Bibles | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Biblical literature, from its inception and thereafter, is human. Human hands molded the Bibles. Claims that a Bible is “The Word of God” are human opinions based on tradition. Any claim that a Bible was “divinely inspired” is just a human opinion. Sola Scriptura is a human tradition. Understanding relies on human interpretation. People who were important to Charles Taze Russell (99+) People who were important to Charles Taze Russell | Doug Mason Academia.edu Documents from the time of people who influenced Charles Taze Russell, the second President of the Watch Tower Society. 87 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason Pictures from Lipsius de Cruce Liber Primus (99+) Pictures from Lipsius de Cruce Liber Primus | Doug Mason - Academia.edu In Appendices of translations of the Greek Scriptures (“New Testament”) the WTS provides a picture of a man attached to a single pole. This, they explain is the manner of Christ’s execution. This picture, they explain, comes from the book De Cruce Liber Primus: “This is the manner in which Jesus was impaled” (Kingdom Interliner, page 1155). This is not impalement, in which the instrument of death is forced up through the victim’s body. Most important is the fact that the WTS totally misrepresents what Justus Lipsius wrote. He actually provided a number of illustrations, showing several such methods of execution. Lipsius concluded his research by saying that the conventional cross, in which a crosspiece is attached to a pole, was the implement used in Christ’s death. It does not matter if Lipsius was right or wrong. What matters is that the WTS deliberately misreported Lipsius and that it hides factual evidence from its followers. If it does this with an non-essential matter, how does it behave with critically important matters? Rescued from the depths of despair: Chapters 8 and 9 of the book of Daniel in context https://www.academia.edu/s/c9c52703f5?source=link The Book of Daniel was a product of the latter Second temple period, and it refers to their experiences with the Maccabean Revolt and the subsequent emergence of the Hasmoneans. This means that all meanings, such as the “message to restore and rebuild Jerusalem”, the “2300 evenings and mornings”, and so forth, need to be understood only within that context. The message to “restore and rebuild” was given by Judas Maccabaeus. Time periods were intended literally, including the 1150 days as are described in the Book of Maccabees. The objective of the 70 ‘sevens’ was to give the people and the city a time to rectify their evil ways. Revolutions in Judaeo-Christian beliefs about Salvation: Jesus-followers: From a Fundamentalist Nazarene to Visionaries of the Diaspora (34) Discussion: Revolutions in Judaeo-Christian beliefs about Salvation Jesusfollowers: From a Fundamentalist Nazarine to Visionaries of the Diaspora Academia.edu Satan. Lucifer. Devil. Assumptions and Presumptions (99+) Satan. Lucifer. Devil. Assumptions and Presumptions | Doug Mason Academia.edu This Paper, presenting Leaders of the Evil Spirit World, steps across 2500 years of history, providing stepping stones that touch key features of thinking along the journey. Science, or Superstitious Mythology (99+) Science, or Superstitious Mythology | Doug Mason - Academia.edu People ignore the warnings provided by Earth’s previous mass extinctions of life, hence they deny the present Holocene extinction phase, saying that “God will not 88 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason allow his Earth to be destroyed”. The outcome is that Man is speeding the extinction process as it raids Earth’s finite resources and the relentless search for growth. ====== False assumptions emanating from Evolution and Creation include: • Life was inevitable • Changes were improvements • Homo Sapiens is the purpose and objective of the process. Hence there was an intended design (with Creationists and their fellow travellers ignoring the issue of Theodicy). Second Temple period Literature UPDATED (99+) Second Temple period Literature UPDATED | Doug Mason - Academia.edu An outline of Second Temple literature from the early post-exilic period through to the literature produced in the immediate aftermath of the destruction of the Second Temple. This is an expanded and restructured presentation. Second Temple period Mysticisms and Mysteries (99+) Second Temple period Mysticisms and Mysteries | Doug Mason Academia.edu Completely revised Study on the Mysticisms and Mysteries during the SecondTemple period and their ongoing impact. The information is structured thematically: 1. Celestial Ascents 2. Mysticisms 3. The Mysteries 4. Descent from Heaven Plus two Appendices. Second-Temple Period Messiahs (updated 2022) (99+) Second-Temple Period Messiahs (updated 2022) | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Considers the range of concepts concerning Messianic expectations during the Second-Temple Period. Second-Temple Period Resources (99+) Second-Temple Period Resources | Doug Mason - Academia.edu These pages list resources I accessed or have identified as relevant during my research of the Second Temple Period (2TP). There is a wealth of further relevant information, but I hope this listing provides some help. Soteriology of the Pre-Exilic Period: Forming the Foundations (99+) Soteriology of the Pre-Exilic Period: Forming the Foundations | Doug Mason Academia.edu Considers the concepts of “salvation” during the Israelite pre-Exilic period. The “Faithful and Discreet Slave” and its “Governing Body” (99+) The “Faithful and Discreet Slave” and its “Governing Body” Doug Mason | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Governing Body (GB) of Jehovah’s Witnesses derives its authority through its claim that it was appointed in 1919 by Jehovah God and Jesus to be the sole voice on Earth of God’s heavenly government. JW’s thus heed the GB because of that claim. This Paper critiques the bases of the GB’s claims and structures. The amazing transformation of David (99+) THE AMAZING TRANSFORMATION OF DAVID | Doug Mason Academia.edu So much has been written about David, King of Judah and Israel, but there was one question I needed to have answered: How could such a murderous, loathsome, hated, adulterous, tyrant represent the Messianic ruler of God’s eternal Kingdom? 89 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason David had been a powerful warlord leading a Habiru-like gang of bandits who lived outside the law as extortionists, wife-stealers, and more. I was personally very distressed as I uncovered David as he murdered, stole wives, fathered many children with many wives and concubines. This was not the image I had of him before I conducted my research. How was it possible that this person, who fought against the King of Israel, even taking that king’s wife as his own, how could he be the same David who is revered and became so intimately associated with the promised Messiah? How could this transformation have taken place? What took place that enabled this most amazing transformation? This Study is not an inquiry into David. This is about the people who achieved David’s transformation. I wanted to know if it were possible to trace the processes that brought about this most amazing transformation, this stunning change of image. At the start we have a murdering tyrant and at the finish we have the messianic king. What made this possible? The Death, Grave and Funeral of Charles Taze Russell (99+) The Death, Grave and Funeral of Charles Taze Russell | Doug Mason Academia.edu Historical pictures, articles and correspondence related to the death of Charles Taze Russell. From an anonymous source. The Meaning of the word ‘blood’ in Scripture, Rev. A. M. Stibbs (99+) The Meaning of Blood | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Messiah is coming soon (99+) THE MESSIAH IS COMING SOON | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The objective of this Paper is to examine each key element of the Coming of Messiah and trace its origin and journey. When every element is seen to be sound, this could validate a belief in a Coming. It is not the purpose of this Paper to identify, formulate or describe any sequence of Last-day events. It does not propose, suggest, recommend, or critique any of the wide range of proposed models. The wide and diverse range of models bears witness to the fact that none is literally mapped out in any Scripture. By considering the sources and the journeys of each key element – such as: Messiah, Temple, and Resurrection, this Paper considers their origins and the influences on them. For many fundamentalist Christians and Muslims, belief in the imminent Coming of the Messiah impacts their daily lives and their interpretation of the world. Each believes their actions and their influences determine how soon Messiah’s cataclysmic cosmic earth-shattering Coming is able to be manifest to the world. The influences of these commitments spread into the political arenas of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The religious views of the Coming of Messiah underscore conflicts throughout history, resulting in human impacts ranging from individual suicide attacks to multi-national wars. A soon-coming Messiah is not an academic, intellectual exercise. It has real-life consequences. The_neo-Babylonian_chronology (99+) the_neo-Babylonian_chronology | Doug Mason and John Mieras Academia.edu “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking” FAILS TO DELIVER (99+) “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking” FAILS TO DELIVER | Doug Mason - Academia.edu 90 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason In 2010, the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society released the brochures, “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking” and “Was Life Created?” While the focus of this Critique is dominantly on the former brochure, at times reference is made to the latter. The science is complex and well beyond most to comprehend. This Critique, “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking” FAILS TO DELIVER, does not venture deeply into the technicalities of the science-it examines how the brochure handles and presents information. Does the brochure do this fairly and openly? Are its conclusions valid? Does the brochure provide the information in the manner that enables its readers to make a genuinely informed decision? This Critique considers information that the brochure did not present but should have. “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking”: USING SCIENTISTS (Revision 2) (99+) “The Origin of Life: Five Questions Worth Asking”: USING SCIENTISTS (Revision2 | Doug Mason - Academia.edu In 2010, the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society published a 32-page brochure, “The Origin of Life”, with the intention of supporting its view that life was created by a divine source, as declared in the Hebrew Scriptures. The purpose of this Critique is to examine the manner in which the brochure employs information from scientists to support the Watchtower’s position. Their brochure does not claim that any of the cited scientists supports its stance on Creation and indeed makes it very clear that the scientists are evolutionists. When the brochure provides information from a scientist, it appeals to the reader’s subjective opinion, asking whether it is possible that unaided Nature could have resulted in the outcomes witnessed by scientists. This is the brochure’s strategy and agenda. Truth would thus be determined through subjective opinion. However, this very same information is used by scientists in their support for evolution. The Originators of Judaism. Christianity, and Islam (99+) The Originators of Judaism. Christianity, and Islam | Doug Mason Academia.edu People living in the latter part of the post-biblical Second Temple period introduced and nurtured novel beliefs that became fundamental to rabbinic Judaism, Christianity and Islam. This Paper introduces key people who were responsible, who lived and fought for their beliefs. The vision at Daniel chapter 8 sets up the message at Daniel chapter 9 (9) THE VISION AT DANIEL CHAPTER 8 SETS UP THE MESSAGE AT DANIEL CHAPTER 9 | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Daniel Chapter 8 provides the setup for the message of Chapter 9. Although these passages are set in the 6th century BCE physical desecration of the Jerusalem temple by the Babylonians, they related to the 2nd century spiritual desecration of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes. The authors wrote historical stories solely for the purpose of influencing their own times. Their histories provided lessons for their communities that were intended solely for the purpose of directly and immediately affecting them. 91 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason The Watch Tower Society Reveals Itself (99+) The Watch Tower Society Reveals Itself | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society [WTS] is about 135 years old. From the time of its creation, the organization has produced books, magazines and tracts, and later it ventured into audio and visual media. The organization thus provides a vast array of detailed documentation. This Study uses some of the written material to help provide an insight into the organization. The current leadership endeavours to link itself to its origins while at the same time distancing itself, using euphemisms such as “increased light”. Previous statements shine a light on the present. Whether the current leadership uses a new name for an old teaching or whether it openly contradicts a previous belief, it all helps to reveal the thinking of the current leadership. The Watchtower Society’s Loyalty Test over Blood: A Guide to Understanding and Handling (99+) The Watchtower Society’s Loyalty Test over Blood | Doug Mason Academia.edu The reasons JWs refuse some blood products and some medical procedures involving blood. The Watchtower’s Handling of Blood (99+) The Watchtower’s Handling of Blood | Doug Mason - Academia.edu In 1977, the Watchtower Society produced a definitive booklet “Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Question of Blood”. It covered religious, moral and medical issues. These three documents relate to that WTS booklet. I wrote this Paper in the 1980s. It addresses each point raised in the Society’s booklet. In April 1989, I received a personal letter from an impeccable source, who wrote: “While the booklet on Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Question of Blood was written primarily by Gene Smalley, I know that Dr. [Lowell] Dixon reviewed it with him and made suggestions.” Transforming the Messiahs: Earthly Monarchs and High Priests to Celestial Liberators (99+) Transforming the Messiahs: Earthly Monarchs and High Priests to Celestial Liberators | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Initially, the Hebrew “Messiah” spoke only of a living, anointed person, such as a current monarch or high priest, maybe even a prophet. Changed circumstances, most notably the cessation of the monarchs and more particularly the power grab by the Hasmoneans and the oppression under Rome, witnessed a hope arising for divine intervention in their affairs. They envisaged one or more powerful liberators would remove the oppression and restore the nation to its rightful state. God would be the active driving force during this period, the Last Days. Included in this eschatological scenario was one or more messiahs, which represented a distinct revolution from the nature of Messiahs in the biblical period of the Davidic Dynasty. Jews arose claiming to be the anticipated Liberator, and the followers of Yeshua of Nazareth in Galilee held him up as The Liberator, even attaching the title “Christ” to his name, but instead of removing the power of Rome and liberating God’s people, Yeshua was executed by Rome. Just as the earlier Judahites had amended their understanding of Messiah when the Davidic Dynasty ended, in similar fashion the followers of Yeshua 92 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason changed their meaning of the title. Paul and his followers employed the Merkebah tradition of transportations to the Throne Room of God, thereby creating the revolution where Yeshua Christ sat on God’s throne. This was another unprecedented revolution of Messiahship. The action moved from restitution at a national level to cosmic action focused on the throne of God. The Merkebah Messiahship of Yeshua shaped the imagery of their literature, notably at Ephesians and Hebrews as well as the apocalyptic Book of Revelation. Instead of the Liberator freeing Israel from the nation’s oppressors, Yeshua provided liberty from the oppressor Sin, and the victory was not a literal national rescue but it became a spiritual victory over the Evil One. Exalting Yeshua to the Throne of God and casting him as heaven’s eternal, sinless High Priest provided the foundation for future Messianic revolutions by followers of Paul which saw Yeshua later designated as God the Son, and as Christ the Saviour. Translating with prejudice (99+) Translating with Prejudice | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The New Testament of the NWT is noted for its use of the word “Jehovah” within its text. But the NWT is not consistent. It omits “Jehovah” from some verses in its NT where the OT being quoted does use the Tetragram (YHWH). And some of its “J” sources use YHWH at some interesting places. What each did with the David they inherited: The Sanitizing of David (99+) What each did with the David they inherited: The Sanitizing of Davi | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Bible depicts King David as a deeply flawed, unsavory character, the perpetrator of evil acts including: murder, insurrection, adultery, banditry, and extortion. The sanitizing of David’s character during the following centuries and millennia created an image that idolizes him as the paragon of virtue, closely associated with the promised Messiah. This Study identifies the Davidic sanitizing process. Why Daniel, Why? The answers reveal fresh understanding (99+) Why Daniel, Why? | Doug Mason - Academia.edu Yes, indeed Daniel, please do tell us: Why Daniel, Why? Why do you exist? What forces caused you to be formed? What was happening at the time you were brought forth? What were you meant to achieve? This Paper is about the Book of Daniel. It addresses the nature of the Book, its time, the people, and its intended message. As with everything that is created, the Book of Daniel was driven by and shaped by its contexts. These environments were dominated by the religious and political pressures imposed by gentile overlords and by opposing sects, including their temples. The Book of Daniel had a local, immediate purpose, focused on the sect’s constituents. This Paper accepts the Antiochene Crisis as the genesis of the Book’s formation, along with the pressures exerted by opposing temples, as at Mount Gerizim and at Leontopolis. The sect at Mount Zion responsible for the Book of Daniel was also politically opposed by communities at Qumran. Contemporary religious concepts, traditional and emerging, external to Judaism and within, along with the sect’s political aspirations, drove the Book of Daniel. Add to these their myths and legends, idioms, the way they employed numbers, and 93 Papers at Academia.edu by Doug Mason so forth, and Daniel’s dynamism emerges full of colour and action. Welcome to Daniel. Why does the Watchtower accept Christendom’s Scriptures? (99+) WHY DOES THE WATCHTOWER SOCIETY ACCEPT CHRISTENDOM’S SCRIPTURES | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The Watchtower Society (WTS) says that Christianity quickly plunged into apostasy as soon as the first Apostles died. According to the WTS, this apostasy is highlighted by the 4th century adoption of The Trinity. However, at the same time the WTS accepts the Scriptures that were adopted by that same 4th century body of men. Why is the WTS so inconsistent? Witnessing The Name (99+) Witnessing The Name | Doug Mason - Academia.edu I wrote this during the latter 1970s and early 1980s, when personal computers were little more than glorified typewriters. My intention was to consider the use of the name “Jehovah” in the Watchtower Society’s translation of the Greek Scriptures (“New Testament”). 94 RESOURCES Amini, Ibrahim. Chapter 14: The Signs of the Appearance (Zuhur) of the Mahdi in “Al- Imam alMahdi, The Just Leader of Humanity”. Chapter 14: The Signs of the Appearance (Zuhur) of the Mahdi | Al-Imam al-Mahdi, The Just Leader of Humanity | AlIslam.org accessed 31 January 2023. Ansariyan Publications – Qum: available at: AlImam al-Mahdi, The Just Leader of Humanity | Al-Islam.org accessed 31 January 2023 Includes topics on the belief in the Mahdi, pseduo Mahdis, leadership of Imam Mahdi (a), occultation, his long life, and the reappearance of the Imam. Beale, Greg (1994) The Right Doctrine from the Wrong Texts?: Essays on the Use of the Old Testament in the New, Baker Academic. If Paul and other New Testament authors were publishing today, would scholars accept their exegetical methods? This collection of essays presents various perspectives concerning the hermeneutical issue of whether Jesus and the apostles quoted Old Testament texts with respect for their broader Old Testament context. Each of the contributors debates the interpretive understandings by which Old Testament texts are quoted and applied in the New Testament. Were New Testament teachers and authors simply children of rabbinic midrashic scholarship? Did they revere the original context of passages they quoted or fill them with different meaning? What presuppositions about the Old Testament guided their approaches? As the contributors to this volume wrestle with Old Testament quotation in the New Testament, they offer views from across the theological spectrum to help biblical studies students work through the issues. Contributors include: David L. Baker G. K. Beale C. H. Dodd Francis Foulkes R. T. France Scott J. Hafemann Morna D. Hooker G. P. Hugenberger Walter C. Kaiser Jr. Barnabas Lindars Richard N. Longenecker I. Howard Marshall S. V. McCasland Richard T. Mead Roger Nicole Philip Barton Payne Vern Sheridan Poythress David Seccombe Klyne Snodgrass Albert C. Sundberg Jr. Beale, Greg (2012). The Right Doctrine, Wrong Texts: Can we follow the Apostles’ Doctrine but not their Hermeneutics? (99+) The Right Doctrine, Wrong Texts: Can we follow the Apostles’ Doctrine but not their Hermeneutics? | Greg Beale - Academia.edu accessed 5 February 2024 In 1989, I published an article titled ‘Did Jesus and His Followers Preach the Right Doctrine from the Wrong Texts? An Examination of the Presuppositions of the Apostles’ Exegetical Method.’ 1 This was an article that surveyed the recent history of the use of the Old Testament in the New, with focus on the works of Richard Longenecker. Longenecker had argued that the trend of the New Testament was to use the Old Testament in non-contextual ways, which we today would consider illegitimate and which we certainly should not imitate in the way we interpret the Old Testament. I will summarize the essence of that article here and also integrate into it briefly the developments within especially evangelical scholarship on this issue since my 1989 article. Then I will take a single case study of a notoriously difficult text to see how one might approach other thorny uses of the Old Testament by the New. 95 Resources Blackwell, Ben C.; Goodrich, John K.; and Maston, Jason (editors) (2018). Reading Mark in Context: Jesus and Second Temple Judaism. Zondervan Academic (Page numbering from the physical book) Blumenthal, George S. (President, Center for Online Judaic Studies). (nd). The Pesher. Overview: Pesher : Center for Online Judaic Studies (cojs.org). COJS. Accessed 1 February 2024 Boyer, Paul (1992). When Time Shall Be No More. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Kindle edition Millions of Americans take the Bible at its word and turn to like-minded local ministers and TV preachers, periodicals and paperbacks for help in finding their place in God’s prophetic plan for mankind. And yet, influential as this phenomenon is in the worldview of so many, the belief in biblical prophecy remains a popular mystery, largely unstudied and little understood. When Time Shall Be No More offers for the first time an in-depth look at the subtle, pervasive ways in which prophecy belief shapes contemporary American thought and culture. Belief in prophecy dates back to antiquity, and there Paul Boyer begins, seeking out the origins of this particular brand of faith in early Jewish and Christian apocalyptic writings, then tracing its development over time. Against this broad historical overview, the effect of prophecy belief on the events and themes of recent decades emerges in clear and striking detail. Nuclear war, the Soviet Union, Israel and the Middle East, the destiny of the United States, the rise of a computerized global economic order--Boyer shows how impressive feats of exegesis have incorporated all of these in the popular imagination in terms of the Bible’s apocalyptic works. Reflecting finally on the tenacity of prophecy belief in our supposedly secular age, Boyer considers the direction such popular conviction might take--and the forms it might assume--in the post-Cold War era. The product of a four-year immersion in the literature and culture of prophecy belief, When Time Shall Be No More serves as a pathbreaking guide to this vast terra incognita of contemporary American popular thought-a thorough and thoroughly fascinating index to its sources, its implications, and its enduring appeal. Brooke, George (1985). Exegesis At Qumran: 4QFlorilegium in its Jewish Context. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament A comprehensive analysis of the text 4Q Florilegium must begin with the acknowledgement that the text is fragmented in nature and alludes to others through quotations. With this acknowledgement, Brooke moves on to address the relevant contextual aspects of the text. What becomes clear is this: without appreciation of exegetical devices and techniques at use in early Judaism, any analysis of 4QFlor is as fragmentary as the text itself. Brown, Raymond E. (1955). The Qumran scrolls and the Johannine Gospel and Epistles: ii. other similarities. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 4 (October, 1955), pp. 559-574 Charlesworth, James (2002). The Pesharim and Qumran History: Chaos or Consensus? Eerdmans. Kindle edition 96 Resources Since their discovery among the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Pesharim have sparked intense debate. Are these ancient documents biblical commentary, or are they historiographies alluding to figures and events of the time? Charlesworth demonstrates that these 16 books do indeed contain historical allusions and relates these references to a synopsis of Qumran history. Chukov, Vladimir Stefanov (2021). The Emergence of the Islamic Messiah Al Mahdi and his “Ideal” State. Center for Open Access in Science, Belgrade – https://www.centerprode.com/ojsp.html Open Journal for Studies in Philosophy, 2021, 5(2), 41-50. ISSN (Online) 2560-5380 https://doi.org/10.32591/coas.ojsp.0502.01041c This study aims to present the emergence of the Islamic Messiah Al Mahdi and his “ideal” state. Many modern preachers, clerics and thinkers are trying to find the signs of the appearance of the expected messiah given by Sharia tests and their interpretations by Islamic legal authorities. Thus, they create their own geopolitical versions, explaining modern political dynamics, based on their aspirations to build the ideal state formed under the light of the crescent. The dispositions of the Sharia norms are explained in a way that forms a logicallooking version of the emergence of a universal just state, led by the expected savior – Imam Mahdi. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Mahdi (Arabic: ‫سن ْٱل َم ْهدِي‬ َ ‫ ُم َح َّمد ابْن ْٱل َح‬, Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Mahdi) is believed by Twelver Shia to be the Mahdi, who has two other eschatologists with Jesus (Jesus) to fulfill their mission to bring peace and justice to the world. The Shivers of Twelver believe that al-Mahdi was born on the 15th of Sha’ban in 870 AD / 256 AH and adopted the Imam at the age of almost four after the assassination of his father, Hassan al-Askari. In the early years of his Imam, he is believed to have had contact with his followers only through the Four Deputies. This period was known as the Small Occult ( ‫ص ْغ َر ى‬ ُّ ‫ ) ْٱلغَ ْي َبة ٱل‬and lasted from 873 to 941. A few days before the death of his fourth deputy Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Mohammed al-Samari in 941, he is believed to have sent a letter. to his followers. In this letter from Al-Samari, he announced the beginning of the main occult ( ‫) ْٱلغَ ْي َبة ْٱل ُكب َْر ى‬, during which the Mahdi was not to have direct contact with his followers, but had instructed them to follow the pious high clergy he had mentioned. some distinctive merits. Cloud, David W. (2015). The Antichrist and the Third Temple. Way of Life Literature. The Antichrist and the Third Temple (wayoflife.org) accessed 15 February 2023 Cohen, Shaye (2014). From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, Third Edition (p. 274). Presbyterian Publishing Corporation. Kindle Edition. This is the third edition of Shaye J. D. Cohen’s important and seminal work on the history and development of Judaism between 164 BCE to 300 CE. Cohen’s synthesis of religion, literature, and history offers deep insight into the nature of Judaism at this key period, including the relationship between Jews and Gentiles, the function of Jewish religion in the larger community, and the development of normative Judaism and other Jewish sects. 97 Resources Cohen offers students more than just history, but an understanding of the social and cultural context of Judaism as it developed into the formative period of rabbinic Judaism. This new edition includes a brand-new chapter on the parting of ways between Jews and Christians in the second century CE. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah remains the clearest introduction to the era that shaped Judaism and provided the context for early Christianity. Cohn, Norman (1970) The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages, Revised and Expanded Edition. Oxford University Press. PDF The end of the millennium has always held the world in fear of earthquakes, plague, and the catastrophic destruction of the world. At the dawn of the 21st millennium the world is still experiencing these anxieties, as seen by the onslaught of fantasies of renewal, doomsday predictions, and New Age prophecies. This fascinating book explores the millenarianism that flourished in western Europe between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. Covering the full range of revolutionary and anarchic sects and movements in medieval Europe, Cohn demonstrates how prophecies of a final struggle between the hosts of Christ and Antichrist melded with the rootless poor’s desire to improve their own material conditions, resulting in a flourishing of millenarian fantasies. The only overall study of medieval millenarian movements, The Pursuit of the Millennium offers an excellent interpretation of how, again and again, in situations of anxiety and unrest, traditional beliefs come to serve as vehicles for social aspirations and animosities. Cullmann, Oscar (1955). The significance of the Qumran texts for research into the beginnings of Christianity. Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume LXXIV, Part 4, December 1995, pages 213-226 Encyclopaedia Britannica (2019) Religious Syncretism. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 30 August 2019. https://www.britannica.comhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/religious-syncretism Encyclopaedia Britannica (2024). Jewish mysticism. Judaism - Kabbalah, Hasidism, Mysticism | Britannica accessed 10 February 2024 Evans, Craig A; Flint, Peter W. (1997). Eschatology, Messianism, and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Eerdmans. The New Testament is of prime importance for understanding early Jewish and Christian messianism and eschatology. Yet often the New Testament presumes a background and context of belief without fully articulating it. Early Jewish and Christian messianism and eschatology, after all, did not emerge in a vacuum; they developed out of early Jewish hopes that had their roots in the Old Testament. A knowledge of early Jewish literature, and especially of the Dead Sea Scrolls from Qumran, is essential for understanding the shape of these ideas at the turn of the era. In this book, the inaugural volume in the Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature series, Craig Evans and Peter Flint have assembled eight essays from outstanding scholars who address this issue from a variety of 98 Resources angles. After an introduction by the editors, successive essays deal with the Old Testament foundations of messianism; the figure of Daniel at Qumran; the Teacher of Righteousness; the expectation of the end in the Scrolls; and Jesus, Paul, and John seen in light of Qumran. Festinger, Leon; Riecken, Henry W.; Schachter, Stanley (2008). When prophecy fails. Pinter and Martin Fitzmyer, Joseph (2000). The Dead Sea Scrolls and Christian Origins. Eerdmans Gathers recent research that provides background to the Bible and Christianity. This volume by Joseph Fitzmyer, a pioneer in the field of Dead Sea Scrolls research, collects twelve of his recent studies on the Scrolls, including a new essay on Qumran messianism. Well known for his landmark work in Aramaic studies and on the Semitic background of the New Testament, Fitzmyer explores how the Scrolls have shed light on the interpretation of biblical themes and on the rise of early Christianity. All of the articles in this volume have been updated to take into account current discussions. Fitzmyer, Joseph (2009). The Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Paulist Press (Kindle edition) The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which are texts not discovered in the Dead Sea itself, but in caves and holes along the northwest shore of the Dead Sea between 1947 and 1963, has had an enormous impact on human intellectual life, in particular the fields of biblical studies and archaeology. The Dead Sea Scrolls have influenced not only the study of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Scriptures, but also the history of Judaism in Judea, the study of the ancient languages of Aramaic and Hebrew, and the interpretation of many New Testament writings. Fortna, Robert T.; Thatcher, Tom, editors. Jesus in Johannine Tradition (2001). Westminster John Knox Press. Twenty-seven authors from a variety of backgrounds contribute essays concerning the distance, historically and theologically, between the historical Jesus and the Gospel of John to this collection. Part One discusses issues related to the historical and ideological context in which the Fourth Gospel was produced. Part Two explores the possibility of oral and written sources that John may have utilized. Part Three compares the Fourth Gospel with early noncanonical literature to identify various ways in which Jesus’ traditions were appropriated by early Christians. Freedman, David Noel; Kuhlken, Pam Fox (2007). What are the Dead Sea Scrolls and do they matter? Eerdmans Freedman, David Noel; Kuhlken, Pam Fox (2007). What are the Dead Sea Scrolls and do they matter? Eerdmans Friebel, Kelvin G. (1981). Biblical interpretation in the pesharim of the Qumran community. Hebrew Studies, vol. 22, 1981, pp. 13–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27908695 accessed 7 Feb. 2024 Frölich, Ida (2011). Qumran biblical interpretation in the light of Ancient Near Eastern historiography in Lange, A; Tov, E; Weigold, M (2011), The Dead Sea Scrolls in Context. (99+) Qumran Biblical Interpretation in the Light of Ancient Near Eastern Historiography | Ida Fröhlich - Academia.edu accessed 10 February 2024 99 Resources Gärtner, Bertil (1965). The Temple and The Community in Qumran and The New Testament: A comparative study in the temple symbolism of the Qumran texts and the New Testament. Cambridge University Press Dr Gärtner’s purpose is to follow in detail the parallels between the New Testament and Qumran writings in their concept of the community – Christian or Essene – as a spiritual temple. The whole complex of relationships between Qumran and the early Church is studied with the purpose of extending our knowledge of the Jewish background of the New Testament. Dr Gärtner’s conclusions lend strong support to the view that it is from this Qumran type of Judaism that the Christian Church arose. Hägerland, Tobias (2011). Jesus and the Forgiveness of Sins: An Aspect of His Prophetic Mission. Cambridge University Press. The Gospels record that Jesus purported to forgive sins. What significance would such a claim have had for his contemporaries and what would the implications have been for his identity as a first-century popular prophet? Tobias Hägerland answers these questions and more as he investigates the forgiveness of sins in the mission of the historical Jesus. The Gospels are interpreted within the context of first-century Judaism as part of a broader reconstruction of Jesus’ career as a healer and prophet, and rhetorical criticism is introduced as a tool for explaining how the gospel tradition about Jesus and forgiveness developed. Hägerland combines detailed exegesis and rigorous methodology with a holistic view of the historical Jesus, evaluating recent scholarship about first-century Jewish prophets and utilizing previously neglected textual evidence to present a thorough investigation of the theology of forgiveness in early Judaism and primitive Christianity. Henze, Matthias (2004). Biblical Interpretation at Qumran. Eerdmans. The Dead Sea Scrolls are an invaluable source of information about Jewish biblical interpretation in antiquity. This volume by preeminent scholars in the field examines central aspects of scriptural interpretation as it was practiced at Qumran and discusses their implications for understanding the biblical tradition. While many of the forms of biblical interpretation found in the Scrolls have parallels elsewhere in Jewish literature, other kinds are original to the Scrolls and were unknown prior to the discovery of the caves. These chapters explore examples of biblical interpretation unique to Qumran, including legal exegesis and the Pesher. Readers will also find discussion of such fascinating subjects as the “rewritten Bible,” views on the creation of humanity, the “Pseudo-Ezekiel” texts, the pesharim, and the prophet David. Jeffrey, Grant R. (2007). The New Temple and the Second Coming: The Prophecy That Points to Christ’s Return in Your Generation. The Doubleday Religious Publishing Group An array of new archaeological finds and revealing discoveries in the ancient city hidden beneath Jerusalem lead to a stunning conclusion: The generation alive today will witness the return of Christ. 100 Resources The evidence–uncovered by prophecy expert Grant R. Jeffrey–is breathtaking: Jewish authorities are preparing to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Quietly they have recovered lost artifacts from the ancient Temple and have recreated sacred worship vessels. The new Sanhedrin, now reconvened in Israel, is training Levite priests to reinstitute animal sacrifice. These remarkable developments have far-reaching prophetic significance. In this book you will examine the biblical prophecies and research data that together solve end-times mysteries, including: The search for lost Temple treasures revealing discoveries in underground Jerusalem. The process of recreating sacred Temple vessels Unexpected clues revealed in the Copper Scroll and the Ezekiel Tablets The latest plans for rebuilding the Temple. Join Dr. Jeffrey as he uncovers answers to questions that have perplexed students of prophecy for centuries. Answers that point to the unmistakable conclusion that this is truly the last generation. Kirsch, Jonathan (2006). A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization. HarperCollins. Kindle Edition. “[The Book of] Revelation has served as a “language arsenal” in a great many of the social, cultural, and political conflicts in Western history. Again and again, Revelation has stirred some dangerous men and women to act out their own private apocalypses. Above all, the moral calculus of Revelation—the demonization of one’s enemies, the sanctification of revenge taking, and the notion that history must end in catastrophe—can be detected in some of the worst atrocities and excesses of every age, including our own. For all of these reasons, the rest of us ignore the book of Revelation only at our impoverishment and, more to the point, at our own peril.” The mysterious author of the Book of Revelation (or the Apocalypse, as the last book of the New Testament is also known) never considered that his sermon on the impending end times would last beyond his own life. In fact, he predicted that the destruction of the earth would be witnessed by his contemporaries. Yet Revelation not only outlived its creator; this vivid and violent revenge fantasy has played a significant role in the march of Western civilization. Ever since Revelation was first preached as the revealed word of Jesus Christ, it has haunted and inspired hearers and readers alike. The mark of the beast, the Antichrist, 666, the Whore of Babylon, Armageddon, and the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are just a few of the images, phrases, and codes that have burned their way into the fabric of our culture. The questions raised go straight to the heart of the human fear of death and obsession with the afterlife. Will we, individually or collectively, ride off to glory, or will we drown in hellfire for all eternity As those who best manipulate this dark vision learned, which side we fall on is often a matter of life or death. Honed into a weapon in the ongoing culture wars between states, religions, and 101 Resources citizenry, Revelation has significantly altered the course of history. Kirsch, whom the Washington Post calls “a fine storyteller with a flair for rendering ancient tales relevant and appealing to modern audiences,” delivers a far-ranging, entertaining, and shocking history of this scandalous book, which was nearly cut from the New Testament. From the fall of the Roman Empire to the Black Death, the Inquisition to the Protestant Reformation, the New World to the rise of the Religious Right, this chronicle of the use and abuse of the Book of Revelation tells the tale of the unfolding of history and the hopes, fears, dreams, and nightmares of all humanity. Lange, A; Tov, E; Weigold, M (2011, vol 1). The Dead Sea Scrolls in Context: Integrating the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Study of Ancient Texts, Languages, and Cultures. Brill The Dead Sea Scrolls enrich many areas of biblical research, as well as the study of ancient and rabbinic Judaism, early Christian and other ancient literatures, languages, and cultures. With nearly all Dead Sea Scrolls published, it is now time to integrate the Dead Sea Scrolls fully into the various disciplines that benefit from them. This two-volume collection of essays answers this need. It represents the proceedings of a conference jointly organized by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the University of Vienna in Vienna on February 11–14, 2008. Longenecker, Richard (1999). Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period. Second edition. Eerdmans. Kindle edition The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Nag Hammadi texts, and new Targums has greatly increased scholarly interest in the relationship between the New Testament and first -century Judaism. This critically acclaimed study by Richard Longenecker sheds light on this relationship by exploring the methods the earliest Christians used to interpret the Old Testament. By comparing the first Christian writings with Jewish documents from the same period, Longenecker helps to discern both the key differences between Christianity and Judaism and the Judaic roots of the Christian faith. This revised edition of Biblical Exegesis in the Apostolic Period brings Longenecker’s valued work up to date with current research in this important field of study. Mason, Doug (2023). The Messiah is coming soon. (99+) THE MESSIAH IS COMING SOON | Doug Mason - Academia.edu The objective of this Paper is to examine each key element of the Coming of Messiah and trace its origin and journey. When every element is seen to be sound, this could validate a belief in a Coming. It is not the purpose of this Paper to identify, formulate or describe any sequence of Last-day events. It does not propose, suggest, recommend, or critique any of the wide range of proposed models. The wide and diverse range of models bears witness to the fact that none is literally mapped out in any Scripture. By considering the sources and the journeys of each key element – such as: Messiah, Temple, and Resurrection, this Paper considers their origins and the influences on them. For many fundamentalist Christians and Muslims, belief in the imminent Coming of the Messiah impacts their daily lives and their interpretation of the world. Each believes their actions and their influences determine 102 Resources how soon Messiah’s cataclysmic cosmic earth-shattering Coming is able to be manifest to the world. The influences of these commitments spread into the political arenas of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The religious views of the Coming of Messiah underscore conflicts throughout history, resulting in human impacts ranging from individual suicide attacks to multi-national wars. A soon-coming Messiah is not an academic, intellectual exercise. It has real-life consequences. Mathew, Shiju (nd). Qumran Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible & It’s Significance in Christian Writings. (99+) Qumran Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible & It’s Significance in Christian Writings | shiju mathew - Academia.edu accessed 7 February 2024 McKenzie, Steven (2005). How to Read the Bible: History, Prophecy, Literature--Why Modern Readers Need to Know the Difference, and What It Means for Faith Today. Oxford University Press, USA The book is extremely well written, and a great introduction to reading the Bible critically and as literature. The author is a professor, not a preacher, and approaches the reading of the Bible in a contextual format. The basic types of Biblical writings are discussed, examined and examples are given. McKenzie emphasizes the need to read the Bible within the cultural, historical and literary framework at the time of writing. This approach is likely to turn off a reader who is looking for a religious rather than a critical scholarly text. Strongly recommended as an approachable and readable introduction to scholarly Bible study. Pate, C. Marvin (2000). Communities of the Last Days: The Dead Sea Scrolls, the New Testament & the Story of Israel. Apollos In Communities of the Last Days, Marvin Pate explores the thesis that the Dead Sea Scrolls and the NT share many features because both were produced by communities which were essentially apocalyptic. Conversely, crucial differences in their apocalyptic viewpoints, notably their eschatology, serve to explain the differences between the two bodies of material. In arguing his case, Pate begins by outlining the history of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) and the Qumran group, discussing the various proposals for the relationship between the DSS and Qumran and the controversies over who the Qumran group actually were. He then explores the similarities and differences between the two bodies of material, allowing the NT to function as the frame of reference. This is helpful: rather than simply tracing parallels randomly, he works through the Matthean corpus, then the Lukan corpus, etc. As he does so, he examines areas such as the theology of restoration, messianism, the role of symbol and praxis, angelology, the relationship of covenant and eschatology and, crucially, the location of all these themes within the context of a sense of continued exile. As an introduction to the DSS and the questions that still surround them, the book is useful to any student. One caveat, however, is that the discussion of the debates surrounding the identification of the authors of the DSS (54–78) is rather convoluted and students may find it helpful to supplement Pate by reading the appropriate sections of E.P. Sanders’, Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 bce–63 ce, (London: SCM, 1992; 342–66) or of the excellent introduction in F. Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: the Qumran Texts in English (Leiden: Brill, 1996, 2nd edition). 103 Resources The great value of this book lies in its comparison of the DSS and the NT. In tracing the similarities back to a common apocalypticism, Pate’s work has an important apologetic function against the accusations made by John M. Allegro and, more recently, Robert H. Eisenman that the NT simply plagiarised the DSS. In so far as such ideas still persist at a popular level, Pate’s argument is useful for any Christian to understand. Furthermore, by stressing the extent to which apocalypticism affects the trajectory of NT thought, Pate’s work contributes to the growing awareness in current NT studies that a proper understanding of Jewish apocalypticism is essential to understanding the NT as a whole. The only criticism of note that may be brought against the work is that in drawing heavily on the work of NT. Wright, and in particular his emphasis on storysubversion, Pate may occasionally be charged with failing to note the subtlety of the NT use of OT and Jewish material. In subsuming everything under the heading ‘Subversion’, the issues of whether allusions are positive or negative, or whether some may simply be employed in order to resonate with a particular audience, are glossed over. This comment in no way detracts from the value of Pate’s work or conclusions; indeed, it may be an inevitable sacrifice in such a broad study. Rather, the comment is intended to say that there are subtleties still to be explored and work still to be done in this area. With that in mind we may return to praising Pate, for surely he has built a broad foundation upon which later research may be based. Porter, Stanley E.; Stanley, Christopher D. (2008). As It Is Written: Studying Paul’s Use of Scripture. Society of Biblical Literature All scholars recognize that Scripture plays a vital role in the theology and rhetoric of the apostle Paul. They disagree, however, about how best to make sense of the many marked and unmarked references to Scripture that permeate his letters. This book aims to move the discussion forward by examining the reasons behind these scholarly differences. The essays are united by a concern to show how scholarly opinions concerning Paul’s use of Scripture have been influenced by the application of divergent methods and conflicting presuppositions regarding Paul, his audiences, and the role of biblical references in his letters. The book also seeks to extend the boundaries of the discussion by applying the insights of deconstruction, postcolonial theory, and feminist criticism to the study of Paul’s use of Scripture. Together these essays show what can be accomplished when scholars take the time to discuss their differences and try out new approaches to old problems. Ruark, Michael (2021). The Mahdi – “the rightly guided one”. The Mahdi – “the rightly guided one” – Michael Ruark accessed 31 January 2023 Schiffman, Lawrence H. (1995). Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity. Doubleday This in-depth examination of the Dead Sea Scrolls reveals their true heart: a missing link between ancient and modern Judaism. Because the Dead Sea Scrolls include the earliest known manuscripts of the Bible as well as Jewish documents composed just after the Hebrew biblical period, they contain a gold mine of information about the 104 Resources history of Judaism and the early roots and background of Christianity. Schiffman refocuses the controversy from who controls access to the Scrolls today to what the Scrolls tell us about the past. He challenges the prevailing notion of earlier Scrolls scholars that the Dead Sea Scrolls were proto-Christian, demonstrating instead their thorough-going Jewish character and their importance for understanding the history of Judaism. Schiffman shows us that the Scrolls library in the Dead Sea caves was gathered by a breakaway priestly sect that left Jerusalem in the aftermath of the Maccabean revolt. They were angry that their fellow Sadducees in the Temple were content to accommodate themselves to the victorious Hasmonaean rulers who had embraced the views of the Pharisees - forerunners of the talmudic rabbis. This loyal opposition, a band of pious Sadducee priests, retreated to the desert, taking up residence at Qumran. From this group, the Dead Sea sect developed. In addition to its own writings, the sect gathered the texts of related groups, placing them in its library along with numerous biblical and apocryphal texts. Those other works, some previously known, others unknown, were preserved here in the original Hebrew or Aramaic. Numerous prayer texts, either from the Dead Sea sect or other Jewish groups, were also preserved. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls puts into perspective the triumph of rabbinic Judaism after the Jewish military defeat by Rome. Readers will appreciate this lost chapter of Judaism, not only for its historical insights, but also for its parallels with modern Judaism on such issues as religious pluralism, sectarianism, Jewish identity, and spiritual questing. Finally, Schiffman maintains that a true understanding of the Scrolls can improve relations between today’s Jewish and Christian communities. Across the centuries, the Scrolls speak to us about our common roots, showing precisely how Christianity emerged from currents in ancient Judaism - currents that were much more widespread in that period than we previously imagined. Schröter, Jens (2020). Messiah: New Testament. Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception, Volume 18: Mass – Midnight. https://doi.org/10.1515/ebr.messiah ; Messiah (degruyter.com) Stegemann, Hartmut (1998). The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist and Jesus. Eerdmans The incredible discoveries at Qumran are unveiled in this compelling volume by one of the world’s foremost experts on biblical archaeology and the ancient Qumran community. Drawing on the best of current research and a thorough knowledge of all the Dead Sea Scrolls, Hartmut Stegemann analyzes the purpose of the Qumran settlement, paints a picture of how daily life was carried on there, explores the relation of the Qumran community to John the Baptist, to Jesus, and to early Christianity, and uncovers the true nature of the Qumran writings, which continue to have a profound impact on biblical studies today. 105 Resources Stendahl, Krister (1957). The Scrolls and the New Testament. Harper and Brothers. The scrolls and the New Testament : Stendahl, Krister, ed : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive accessed 11 February 2024 Tov, Emanuel (2008). The Biblical Texts from the Judaean Desert: An Overview and Analysis of the Published Texts (Revised Version): Hebrew Bible, Greek Bible, and Qumran, 128-154. (99+) 171*. “The Biblical Texts from the Judaean Desert: An Overview and Analysis of the Published Texts,” Revised version: Emanuel Tov, Hebrew Bible, Greek Bible, and Qumran (2008), 128–54. | Emanuel Tov - Academia.edu accessed 9 February 2024 Treier, Daniel; Elwell, Walter (2017). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology; Third Edition. Baker Academic. Kindle Edition This bestselling reference tool has been a trusted resource for more than 25 years with over 165,000 copies sold. Now thoroughly updated and substantially revised to meet the needs of today’s students and classrooms, it offers cutting-edge overviews of key theological topics. Readable and reliable, this work features new articles on topics of contemporary relevance to world Christianity and freshened articles on enduring theological subjects, providing comprehensive A-Z coverage for today’s theology students. The author base reflects the increasing diversity of evangelical scholars. Advisory editors include D. Jeffrey Bingham, Cheryl Bridges Johns, John G. Stackhouse Jr., Tite Tiénou, and Kevin J. Vanhoozer. Troyer, Kristin de; Lange, Armin (2005). Reading the present in the Qumran Library: The Perception of the Contemporary by Means of Scriptural Interpretations. Society of Biblical Literature How did ancient scribes interpret their own reality by means of scriptural exegesis? The essays in this volume explore this question from various perspectives by examining the earliest known exegetical texts of Jewish origin, namely, the exegetical texts from the Qumran library. Scholars have debated the precise nature of the exegetical techniques used in the Qumran texts. To bring clarity to the discussion, this book analyzes the phenomenon of reading the present in the Qumran library and asks how far comparable phenomena can be observed in authoritative literature in ancient Israel and Judah, in the textual tradition of the Hebrew and Greek Bible, in ancient Judaism, and in early Christian literature. VanderKam, James C. (2015). The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament. Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 2015. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament - The BAS Library (biblicalarchaeology.org) accessed 7 February 2024 Zahn, Molly (2011). Rethinking Rewritten Scripture: Composition and Exegesis in the 4QReworked Pentateuch Manuscripts. Brill The Qumran discoveries have demonstrated that much of the earliest interpretation of Hebrew Scripture was accomplished through rewriting: production of revised editions of biblical books, or composition of new works drawing heavily upon Scripture for their organization and content. This study advances our understanding of the nature and purpose of such rewriting 106 Resources of Scripture by examining the compositional methods and interpretive goals of the five Reworked Pentateuch manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4 (4Q158, 364–367). This analysis, along with a comparison of the 4QReworked Pentateuch manuscripts to the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Temple Scroll, provides a clearer picture of how early Jewish communities read, transmitted, and transformed their sacred textual traditions. 107 DETAILED CONTENTS Table of Contents JUDAISM’S PERIOD OF RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM .................................................................... 4 Religious Syncretism ....................................................................................................................... 4 Particularly prevalent during the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE) ...................... 4 Myth and legend in the Persian period......................................................................................... 4 Myth and legend in the Hellenistic period ................................................................................... 5 Historiated Bibles and legendary histories .............................................................................. 5 Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha ............................................................................................... 5 Further reading on Judaism’s religious syncretism .................................................................... 6 A Spirit World .................................................................................................................................. 6 Conception of the Great Religions ................................................................................................. 6 Dead. Resurrected. Saved in the Second Temple period ............................................................ 6 Installation of Yahweh Alone (updated January 2024) ............................................................... 6 Satan. Lucifer. Devil. Assumptions and Presumptions .............................................................. 6 Second Temple period Literature UPDATED .............................................................................. 6 Second Temple period Mysticisms and Mysteries ...................................................................... 6 Second-Temple Period Messiahs (updated 2022) ........................................................................ 7 The Messiah is coming soon ........................................................................................................... 7 The Originators of Judaism. Christianity, and Islam .................................................................. 7 Transforming the Messiahs: Earthly Monarchs and High Priests to Celestial Liberators ..... 7 Why Daniel, Why? The answers reveal fresh understanding ................................................... 7 ESTABLISHING HOLINESS IN QUMRAN’S WILDERNESS ...................................................... 8 The Qumran community attempted to set itself up as the true Israel .................................. 8 The Qumran community replaced the temple of Jerusalem; they were the 'new temple' 8 The community called itself 'the Holy place' and 'the Holy of holies’ ................................. 8 The Qumran community protested the corruption of the temple cult................................. 9 The Qumran community was largely concentrated on establishing the holiness necessary for winning God's favour in the last days ................................................................................ 9 The members of the Qumran community were commanded to be 'perfect' in the exercise of their cultic functions ................................................................................................................ 9 Each was to offer a spiritual sacrifice of a life lived in perfect obedience to the Law ........ 9 Apostle Paul wrote that God had removed himself from the official Jerusalem temple to the 'new' people of God, the Christian Church........................................................................ 9 THE QUMRAN SECT SAW ITSELF AS THE FULFILMENT OF SCRIPTURE ....................... 10 108 Resources Literature provides a glimpse into the exegetical mind-set and practices of a Jewish sect that existed around the rise of Christianity ............................................................................ 10 The Torah (God’s word) and the commentary (pesher) were directed only to the Qumranites ................................................................................................................................. 10 The aim of pesher was to show that the biblical verses referred to the history of the Qumran group ............................................................................................................................ 10 Qumranites considered the selected Scriptures were exclusively concerned with them 10 Qumran applied biblical prophecies in precise terms to current and contemporary events ...................................................................................................................................................... 10 Prophetic texts were applied to the life and theology of the community .......................... 11 The Qumranites believed that the prophets prophesied about their time, the latter days, and about the Qumranites’ place ............................................................................................. 11 Qumranites used the prophets to explain their own history, that the prophets were speaking about or alluding to the time of the Qumranites, the latter days ....................... 11 The Qumranites argued that the prophecies of Habakkuk and Nahum, as well as the “prophecies” of the Psalms, were fulfilled in the sect’s history .......................................... 11 THE PESHARIM LEGACY CREATED AT QUMRAN ................................................................. 12 Qumran’s legacy ............................................................................................................................ 12 Pesher (singular); pesharim (plural), literally means “interpretation” .............................. 12 The pesharim were composed at Qumran ca. 100 to 40 B.C.E ............................................ 12 Pesher means “solution” or “interpretation” .......................................................................... 12 Qumranites wrote commentaries now known as pesharim, and in the singular as pesher ...................................................................................................................................................... 12 The pesharim are a form of Scriptural exegesis and hermeneutics created at Qumran .. 13 Pesher interpretations speak in veiled terms (for example, using nicknames for real persons) about the history of the community ........................................................................ 13 Pesher interpretations relate to the events and persons of the age of the author of the interpretation .............................................................................................................................. 13 Because the men at Qumran believed they were living in the time that had been made sacred, they created something new, the pesharim .............................................................. 14 For the Qumranites, the pesharim were necessary to complete Scripture ........................ 14 The sectarians at Qumran composed the pesharim with their distinctive exegetical style and content.................................................................................................................................. 14 The pesharim, more than Qumran’s other types of interpretative material, reflect their distinctives .................................................................................................................................. 14 A Biblical text is followed by a gloss introduced by the phrase “the interpretation of the passage” or “the interpretation of it concerns”........................................................................ 15 Scripture’s ideas of pešer and raz, along with imminent “end times”, provided Qumran with an adequate basis for selecting the term pešer............................................................... 15 109 Resources Qumranites treated Scripture in a “this is that” fashion ...................................................... 15 Pesher interpretation of Scripture is pneumatic, eschatological, and “fulfillment interpretation” ............................................................................................................................ 15 The pesharim are distinct from other contemporaneous Jewish histories ........................ 16 Jewish historiography in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.E. tends to be creative historiography, with past events presented with creative imagination ............................. 16 Central to the Qumranites was what might be called the raz (mystery)-pesher (interpretation) revelational motif ........................................................................................... 16 God communicated the raz to the prophet while its pesher was made known to the Teacher of Righteousness, founder of the Qumran community ........................................................ 16 The prophets received “mysteries” that dealt with the things to come upon the last generation.................................................................................................................................... 17 The “latter days” were the “mysteries” that God communicated to the prophets; but these were not understood until the “interpretation” was given .................................................. 17 The “interpretation” and the “mystery” are given to two separate parties, and they cannot be understood until they are brought together...................................................................... 17 RIGHTEOUS TEACHERS................................................................................................................. 18 Qumran’s unique prophet teacher leader .................................................................................. 18 The Righteous Teacher was the “inspired interpreter” ........................................................ 18 Only Qumran’s Righteous Teacher had received God’s full disclosure of all the mysteries ...................................................................................................................................................... 18 The Righteous Teacher, chosen by God, helped the Qumranites comprehend that God’s Word was directed only to their time, and only to them ..................................................... 18 God made known to the Teacher of Righteousness all the mysterious revelations of his servants the prophets................................................................................................................. 18 God will rescue them because of their suffering and their loyalty to the Teacher of Righteousness ............................................................................................................................. 19 Numerous pesharim focus on the Righteous Teacher .......................................................... 19 Through the hermeneutics of pesher, the Qumranites explained that the Righteous Teacher is he who “has been sent” .......................................................................................... 19 According to the pesharim, only the Qumranites or the Righteous Teacher, not the authors of Scripture, knew the meaning of the prophetic books ........................................ 19 The Righteous Teacher taught his followers to think only in their own special history and only in their own lives, now and in the near future .............................................................. 19 The Gospels’ unique prophet teacher leader ............................................................................. 20 Jesus was the Teacher of Scripture and its object................................................................... 20 Jesus was anointed as God’s messenger ................................................................................. 20 Jesus heard from God and was sent by Him .......................................................................... 20 110 Resources Jesus was the unique manifestation of God’s thoughts and words .................................... 20 The Anointed Jesus was given both prophetic and royal attributes ...................................... 20 In John, Jesus is presented as the king .................................................................................... 20 Nathanael said Jesus was King of Israel ................................................................................. 20 The people called Jesus “the King of Israel” who came in the name of the Lord ............. 21 As the Messiah, Jesus is a teacher; discerner of secrets; a restorer; a new Moses ............. 21 Jesus said he was anointed by the Spirit of the Lord to bring good news ......................... 21 Jesus, the eschatological messianic redeemer of Israel ......................................................... 21 Like Qumran’s Teacher, Jesus was in an exclusive relationship with God............................ 22 Jesus knows God ........................................................................................................................ 22 Jesus is the exalted Lord, acting in an exclusive relationship with God and with is authority ...................................................................................................................................... 22 While in the Father’s presence, Jesus received personal instructions................................. 22 Keep Jesus’ words, and you will never see death ................................................................. 22 Heaven’s angels announced Jesus’ birth as the Saviour, the Lord .................................... 22 A voice from heaven declared and confirmed Jesus’ divine Sonship ................................ 23 QUMRAN’S PESHER IN THE CONTEMPORARY BOOK OF DANIEL .................................. 24 On thirty occasions, Qumran’s pesher (“interpretation”) is used in the Aramaic portion of the Book of Daniel ...................................................................................................................... 24 In Daniel and at Qumran, pešer denotes the “interpretation” of those things which are hidden and it is linked with “mystery” (raz) ......................................................................... 24 Most of Daniel 2:4-7:28 can be classed as “Theme and Variations on the Raz-Pesher Motif” ...................................................................................................................................................... 24 The Qumranites recreated the Danielic pattern of interpretation, rather than follow a rabbinic mode of exegesis ......................................................................................................... 24 Jeremiah’s promise was repurposed by the author of Daniel to the promise of restoration of Israel after the depredations of Antiochus Epiphanes ..................................................... 24 The Book of Daniel incorporated the “Watchers” from the 2nd century BCE apocryphal Book of Enoch ............................................................................................................................. 25 NEW TESTAMENT AUTHORS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING ............................... 26 Hebrew prophecy in its original setting was not concerned with the distant future ....... 26 Four headings of 1st century Jewish exegesis were: literalist, midrashic, pesher, and allegorical .................................................................................................................................... 26 The authors of the pesharim and the authors of the New Testament books shared a similar means of interpreting the same Scriptures ............................................................................. 26 In the pesharim of Qumran and the pesher of the New Testament, the words of Scripture are perceived as fulfilled in the life of each community....................................................... 26 111 Resources Isaiah 7 reinterpreted ................................................................................................................. 26 Isaiah 9 reinterpreted ................................................................................................................. 27 Isaiah 11 reinterpreted ............................................................................................................... 28 Prophecies in the book of Micah were reapplied to later situations ................................... 28 Pesher in Acts.............................................................................................................................. 29 GOSPEL AUTHORS SAID JESUS APPLIED PESHER UNDERSTANDING OF SCRIPTURE TO HIMSELF ...................................................................................................................................... 30 The Gospels’ authors were familiar with the Essenes .............................................................. 30 It does not appear that Jesus had personal contact with the Essenes, but the early Christians did ............................................................................................................................. 30 The Gospels say that Jesus employed Qumran’s pesher form of interpretations................. 30 Jesus often treated selected biblical texts in a fashion we have learned of late to call pesher ...................................................................................................................................................... 30 Jesus’ most characteristic use of Scripture is a pesher “this is that” interpretation.......... 30 Jesus was engaged in a creative interpretation of Scripture, applying its importance to himself in a pesher fashion ....................................................................................................... 30 In typical pesher fashion, Jesus is represented as the fulfilment of Scripture ................... 31 In pesher fashion, Jesus applied the words of the prophet to his own ministry .............. 31 Jesus applied the fulfilment of Scriptures directly to himself.............................................. 31 Jesus applied Scriptures to his teaching and to his ministry in particular ........................ 31 Jesus applied to himself, in pesher fashion, a correspondence-in-history theme ............. 31 Moses was writing about Jesus ................................................................................................ 31 Jesus said that his hearers had heard Isaiah 61 being fulfilled ............................................ 32 Luke 4:17-24, NRSV: .................................................................................................................. 32 Jesus applied the Scriptural lament, “hated without a cause” to himself .......................... 32 Jesus saw his own activity as literally fulfilling some of Isaiah’s eschatological prophecies ...................................................................................................................................................... 32 Abraham was glad he would witness Jesus’ day .................................................................. 32 Jesus saw that his rejection and exaltation fulfilled the psalmist’s words ......................... 32 When Jesus rebuked the scribes and Pharisees, he applied the Scripture passage in pesher fashion ......................................................................................................................................... 33 Jesus applied the lament of David to his betrayal by Judas, “in order that the scripture might be fulfilled” ...................................................................................................................... 33 After the Last Supper, Jesus directly invoked a “this is that” pesher motif ...................... 33 QUMRAN AND THE NEW TESTAMENT .................................................................................... 34 Similarities, but very different...................................................................................................... 34 A tremendous chasm between Qumran thought and Christianity .................................... 34 112 Resources There is nothing like the Christian gospel in the Qumran literature.................................. 35 The differences between Jesus and the Essenes outweigh the similarities ........................ 35 The Essenes were not Christians, and the Christians were not Essenes ............................ 35 Pauline theology is fundamentally different from that of the Qumran ............................. 35 Qumran’s Scrolls shed light on the New Testament ................................................................. 36 The Scrolls are Jewish texts and their teachings are Jewish to the hilt ............................... 36 Much in the New Testament is characteristic of the Judaism of that time......................... 36 The ideas held by Qumran must have been fairly widespread in certain Jewish circles 36 Striking details in the Scrolls shed light on the New Testament writings ......................... 36 The Qumran Scrolls are a rich aid to understanding the New Testament and early Christianity ................................................................................................................................. 36 Qumran’s scrolls and the New Testament reveal a store of shared interpretive and theological traditions ................................................................................................................. 37 Apocryphon of Daniel and the New Testament ........................................................................ 37 The silence of Qumran’s Scrolls and Jesus ................................................................................. 38 There is nothing in Qumran’s Scrolls about Jesus of Nazareth or his story nor any interpretation of him.................................................................................................................. 38 The Scrolls help us to better comprehend Pauline teaching .................................................... 38 Paul was echoing the phrase current in the Judaism of his day, “the righteousness of God” ...................................................................................................................................................... 38 Paul, in relating “works of the Law” to the pursuit of “righteousness”, manifests he was coping with current Palestinian Jewish ways of thinking .................................................... 38 The Christological title “Son of God”.......................................................................................... 39 Luke’s titles “Son of God” and “Son of the Most High” were in use in contemporary Judaism; they were at home on Palestinian soil .................................................................... 39 The Christian belief that Jesus of Nazareth was God's “Messiah” was a development of the 2nd century BCE understanding ....................................................................................... 40 Melchizadek in the New Testament book: To the Hebrews ....................................................... 40 Qumrans’ exaltation of Melchizedek helps to explain why the Epistle to the Hebrews says that Christ is “a priest according to the order of Melchizedek” .......................................... 40 THE QUMARANITES WERE LIVING IN THE TIME OF GOD’S “LAST DAYS” ................... 42 The eschatological literature in the Dead Sea Scrolls reflects the community’s apocalyptic self-understanding ..................................................................................................................... 42 The authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls fully believed they were living at the verge of the End of Days ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Qumran’s calculation for the timing of the Last Judgment ................................................. 42 The Dead Sea communities were convinced that the “End of Days” was imminent....... 44 113 Resources The Essenes thought they were living in the last days and they interpreted Scripture in terms of current events .............................................................................................................. 44 For the communities of the Dead Sea, signs had begun to make clear the impending arrival of the End of Days ......................................................................................................... 44 Apart from the communities of the Dead Sea, humankind failed to grasp that the End of Days was really at hand ............................................................................................................ 44 The Qumran sect placed great emphasis on eschatology, with documents dedicated almost completely to the End of Days .................................................................................... 45 For the Qumran sect, the messianic age would be heralded by the great war, and after 40 years of wickedness, the elect would attain glory ................................................................. 45 Living on the verge of the End of Days, the Qumran community were convinced that the messianic era would happen in their life-time ...................................................................... 45 The Dead Sea communities prepared themselves for the final battles when the End of Days dawned .............................................................................................................................. 45 The Dead Sea sectarians felt confident that the coming of the Romans would trigger the great eschatological battle ......................................................................................................... 46 Believing they were living near the end time, The Qumranites took a vivid interest in eschatological speculations ....................................................................................................... 46 The pesharim were composed at the culmination of God’s time........................................ 46 Qumranites considered themselves the divinely elected community of the final generation before the eschatological consummation ............................................................ 46 The community understood that it was God’s righteous remnant in the period of eschatological consummation .................................................................................................. 46 Qumran interpreted a prophet’s references to people and events of his own time as cryptic messages for their own time........................................................................................ 47 Qumran was only concerned with the relationship that a biblical text had to their own time............................................................................................................................................... 47 Biblical passages considered to refer to the “latter days” were correlated by Qumran to their own contemporary happenings ...................................................................................... 47 Through the pesharim, the Qumranites affirmed that the divine promises, predictions and prophecies had been fulfilled in their special Community .......................................... 47 The pesharim interpreted current events in light of Qumran’s eschatology, which was currently taking place ................................................................................................................ 47 The Qumranites believed they were in the wilderness preparing for the fulfillment of God’s latter days in their own time ......................................................................................... 47 The Voice had called the Qumranites into the wilderness................................................... 48 The divine Voice had called them to prepare the Way in the wilderness, so they studied the Torah and composed pesharim ......................................................................................... 48 The Qumranites were to suffer “in the wilderness”, preparing the Way of the Lord (Isaiah 40:3) .............................................................................................................................................. 48 114 Resources The pesher on Isaiah promised eschatological victory over the Kittim (Rome) ............... 48 On the day of judgment, the Qumranites alone would be rewarded by God................... 48 NEW TESTAMENT EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....................... 49 Paul and the writers of the gospels expected Jesus’ coming to take place during their lifetimes ....................................................................................................................................... 49 Paul and the Gospels assure their followers that at least some of them will shortly see the end of the world with their own eyes ..................................................................................... 49 John the Baptist announced the imminent appearance of the messianic kingdom (Evangelical commentary) ........................................................................................................ 49 John addressed his embattled flock with the eschatological promise that Christ’s return was imminent ............................................................................................................................. 49 Jesus saw himself as an eschatological Jewish prophet, expecting the imminent onset of a new world ................................................................................................................................... 49 Jesus’ disciples expected the imminent return of Jesus as God’s eschatological King and Judge ............................................................................................................................................ 50 Evangelical acknowledges that from the very start, the return of Christ was expected to be imminent ................................................................................................................................ 50 1 Thessalonians 1: “You Thessalonians … wait for God’s Son from heaven” ................... 50 1 Thessalonians 4: “We [– Paul and the Thessalonians –] who remain alive until the coming of the Lord” ................................................................................................................... 50 1 Corinthians 10: “us, on whom the ends of the ages have come” ..................................... 50 1 Corinthians 1: “You [Corinthians] wait for the revealing [apokalypsis] of our Lord Jesus Christ”.......................................................................................................................................... 50 1 Corinthians 15: “We will not all die for the trumpet will sound, the dead will be raised and we will be changed” ........................................................................................................... 51 1 Corinthians 7: “The appointed time has grown short … the present form of this world is passing away ........................................................................................................................... 51 Romans 13: The night is far gone, the day is near ................................................................. 51 Romans 16: Shortly, Satan will be crushed under Romans’ feet ......................................... 51 Philippians 1: Confidence that the good work on the Philippians will be completed by the day of Jesus Christ ..................................................................................................................... 51 1 Timothy 6: Timothy, you must “keep the commandment without spot or blame until the manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ” ........................................................................................ 51 Acts 2: The manifestations at the Day of Pentecost were spoken of by prophet Joel as “the last days” ..................................................................................................................................... 51 Matthew 24: Truly, this generation will not pass away until all these things have taken place, just as Jesus’ words will not pass away ....................................................................... 52 Matthew 10: The Son of Man would come before Jesus’ twelve followers had finished telling the house of Israel that the Kingdom was near ......................................................... 52 115 Resources Matthew 16: “Truly”, some standing before Jesus will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom ........................................................................................ 52 Luke 21: The generation that sees Jerusalem surrounded by armies will see the son of Man coming in a cloud with power and great glory ............................................................ 52 Hebrews 9: Jesus appeared “at the end of the age” .............................................................. 53 Hebrews 10: They were seeing the Day approaching ........................................................... 53 Hebrews 10: The Coming will be in a very little while, and it will not be delayed .......... 53 James 5: The coming of the Lord is near. … The Judge is standing at the doors! ............. 53 Jude: Prophets of the Lord, including Enoch, spoke of intruders in the midst of first century Christians, who were living “in the last time” ........................................................ 53 1 John 2: “It is the last hour! … It is the last hour.” ............................................................... 53 1 Peter 1: Jesus “was revealed at the end of the ages” .......................................................... 54 1 Peter 4: “The end of all things is near” ................................................................................. 54 Revelation 1: Jesus Christs’ revelation of “what must soon take place” ............................ 54 Revelation 1: Keep what is written in the Book of Revelation, “for the time is near” ...... 54 Revelation 3: I am coming soon to keep you from the hour of trial that is coming ......... 54 Revelation 22: The trustworthy and true words show that the Alpha and Omega is coming soon with his rewards ............................................................................................................... 54 GOD’S “LAST DAYS” CONTINUED TO BE FOREVER IMMINENT ....................................... 55 Christians in each age have wrongly identified “predictions” with their own age (Evangelical commentary) ........................................................................................................ 55 Readers explain away past failed prophecies of Revelation, yet every generation urgently believes that its own times are the end-times ........................................................................ 55 In each age of Christian history, people have repeatedly incorrectly applied apocalyptic predictions to their own age ..................................................................................................... 55 In every generation, new predictions have been made of the precise date when some of Revelation’s prophecies will finally come to pass ................................................................. 55 Millenarian sects and movements have formed with the widest possible range of attitudes ...................................................................................................................................................... 55 Apocalyptic belief is durable and it is highly adaptable. Specifics change while the underlying thematic structures remain .................................................................................. 56 Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism believed prophecies referred to future times ........... 56 Revelation has always been the “text of choice” for religious eccentrics who see their own time as the end-time................................................................................................................... 57 Christianity and Judaism made accommodations and adjustments to the fact that the end did not come as each had expected ......................................................................................... 57 FIRST MILLENNIUM EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ................... 58 116 Resources About 172 A.D., Montanus said the Last Judgment was at hand and New Jerusalem was about to descend ........................................................................................................................ 58 The earliest Christians, including the Montanists and the authors of the Book of Revelation, expected the Coming to happen ‘shortly’ .......................................................... 58 Irenaeus (ca. 130-ca. 200) patterned his prophetic timetable on the six days of Creation 58 Victorinus, third-century Bishop of Pettau, was a confirmed millennialist ....................... 58 Quite abruptly, in the 4th century CE, iconic symbols of the end-times begin to appear ...................................................................................................................................................... 58 In the 5th century CE, wars, earthquakes, and a solar eclipse were seen as fulfillments of the prophecies of Revelation .................................................................................................... 59 Theologians of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages thrilled at the notion that they were living in the seventh and final age ................................................................................. 59 Augustine (354- 430) rejected the millennialism of his day.................................................. 59 In 431, the Council of Ephesus condemned millennialism .................................................. 59 Medieval (500-1500 ce) expectations of God’s imminent “Last Days” ................................... 59 In the Middle Ages, Eschatology was a central concern of intellectuals ............................ 59 Apocalyptic speculation flourished at all levels of medieval society ................................. 60 End-time events figured prominently in miracle plays of the later Middle Ages ............ 60 11TH AND 12TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 61 Between 1097 and 1270, apocalyptic belief fuelled support for the Crusades .................. 61 Joachim of Fiore (ca. 1135-1202) was the most influential medieval apocalypticist ......... 61 12th century Joachim of Fiore’s scheme of history anticipated, in a form, the dispensationalism popularized several centuries later ........................................................ 61 Visions of end-time events by a 12th century abbess Hildegard of Bingen enjoyed a wide influence ...................................................................................................................................... 61 13TH AND 14TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 62 Germany’s Frederick II, who ruled from 1220 to 1250, was the “Emperor of the Last Days” who would usher in the Millennium ...................................................................................... 62 The so-called Spiritual Franciscans foresaw that the Age of the Spirit would arrive in in 1260............................................................................................................................................... 62 Francis of Assisi was “the Angel of the Sixth Seal,” while he and the founder of the Dominican order were the two witnesses of the end-times ................................................. 62 Late 13th century intense university debates on prophetic interpretation ........................ 62 A 13th Century encyclopedia presented the nightmarish visions of Hildegard of Bingen as “future history”, rather than mystical speculation ........................................................... 63 14th century monk Rupescissa saw the Saracens, Turks, and Tartars as the satanic armies that were gathering for the final battle of Armageddon ....................................................... 63 15TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 64 117 Resources In early 15th century Bohemia, radical social movements were fuelled by apocalypticism ...................................................................................................................................................... 64 In the fifteenth century, The Taborites prepared for the millennial kingdom that would replace kings and priests alike ................................................................................................. 64 For the Taborites, Christ will appear as a warrior at the head of an army of angels........ 64 Outbreaks of revolutionary millenarianism took place against a background of disaster ...................................................................................................................................................... 65 Confronted with the Black Death, intellectuals avidly drew on prophetic belief about the End Times.................................................................................................................................... 65 Christopher Columbus became convinced he was fulfilling prophecies in preparation for the end of the world................................................................................................................... 65 Thomas Müntzer invoked biblical apocalypticism to goad the rebels in the violent Peasant’s War .............................................................................................................................. 65 16TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 67 Anabaptists were united in their conviction that the return of Christ was near .............. 67 Jan Matthys declared the end of the world would take place on the following day........ 67 Anabaptist Bockelson accepted the title of Messiah, proclaiming Christ’s imminent return, with Münster as forerunner of the millennial kingdom .......................................... 67 The Reformation leaders took strong and vicious action in response to the apocalyptic movements .................................................................................................................................. 67 The reactions to millennialism by the Reformation’s leaders shaped their eschatological thinking ....................................................................................................................................... 68 Michael Stifel announced that the end-times would begin at 8:00 AM on October 19, 1533. Anabaptists also selected 1533 ................................................................................................. 68 17TH AND 18TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ....... 69 Prophetic exegesis in 16th and 17th century England had a profound effect on early American thought ...................................................................................................................... 69 In 1606, Nicholas Raimarus employed chronological proof that the Last Day will come within 77 years............................................................................................................................ 69 The dedication of the 1611 King James Version of the Bible thanked the King for his effort to identify “the Man of Sin”...................................................................................................... 69 The 16th century inventor of logarithms applied his mathematical skills, predicting that the current age would end in 1688 .......................................................................................... 69 17th century England’s prophetic concern focused on the Papacy, the Turkish Ottoman Empire, and Islam ...................................................................................................................... 69 The expansion of the Ottoman Turks into eastern Europe and the Middle East affected the early Protestant leaders’ eschatology ............................................................................... 70 The followers of Cromwell saw their military conflict as a sign that the millennial kingdom of Jesus Christ was soon to begin............................................................................ 70 118 Resources In 1648, Sabbatai Zevi proclaimed himself the promised Messiah. Nothing happened and he accepted 1666 from Christians ............................................................................................ 70 Puritan poet John Milton invested his current events with high eschatological significance ...................................................................................................................................................... 71 Sir Isaac Newton and his successor William Whiston were heavily invested in prophetic studies. ......................................................................................................................................... 71 The 17th century Puritans and those who came after them tinkered with the scenario of Revelation and created story lines of their own invention .................................................. 71 The migrating Puritans were fully involved with the eschatological hopes ..................... 71 American Puritans increasingly found prophetic meaning in their own history ............. 72 17th century speculation of America’s prophetic destiny as a forerunner of the New Jerusalem ..................................................................................................................................... 72 After calculations involving the Ottoman Empire and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Cotton Mather tentatively predicted the end in 1697 ............................................. 72 In the 17th century, Mather predicted that the Jewish people would be brought into their own land again and convert to Christianity ........................................................................... 72 Mather expected “our glorious LORD, will have an Holy city in AMERICA, a City, the Street whereof will be Pure Gold” ........................................................................................... 72 Mather concluded that the end was near ............................................................................... 73 Mather was an inveterate date setter, including 1697, 1716, and 1736 ............................... 73 Increase [Mather] (1639-1723) wrote that the saints would “be caught up into the Air” before the final conflagration.................................................................................................... 73 Date-setting books loosely grounded in biblical apocalyptic were big sellers in the American colonies ...................................................................................................................... 73 George Bell announced that Jesus Christ would descend on February 28, 1763 .............. 73 As the eighteenth century closed, … the eschatological vision was never long absent from colonial and revolutionary America ........................................................................................ 73 19TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 74 Adventism sprang up in the 1830s .......................................................................................... 74 “Adventism” continues to be significant in the Christian tradition .................................... 74 Darby’s 19th century ideas became prominent in American fundamentalism ................. 74 John Darby introduced the new idea that the final salvation of Christians depends on the destiny that God has assigned to the Jewish people ............................................................. 74 20TH CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................ 75 The Balfour Declaration of 1917 was interpreted as the beginning of a series of events that would establish God’s kingdom here upon earth ................................................................. 75 The gathering of the Jewish people in their ancient homeland came to be seen as a sign and as a precondition of the Coming ...................................................................................... 75 119 Resources In the late 1960s, Lindsey and his collaborator, C. C. Carlson, went public with his prediction that the end was near ............................................................................................. 75 Hal Lindsay’s 1960s book restates John Darby’s 19th century doctrine of dispensational premillennialism ........................................................................................................................ 76 In 1970, Hal Lindsay suggested the Rapture will take place in 1981 followed in 1988 by Armageddon and the coming of Jesus Christ ........................................................................ 76 21ST CENTURY EXPECTATIONS OF GOD’S IMMINENT “LAST DAYS” ............................. 78 Evangelical (2007): “We are living in the generation that will witness the Second Coming” ...................................................................................................................................................... 78 The hazards depicted by modern prophecy writers are very different from the earlier accounts of God’s own wrath ................................................................................................... 78 Modern prophecy writers are merely the latest participants in a discourse that had been under way for nearly four centuries ........................................................................................ 79 Modern prophetic scenarios are updated versions of very ancient ones ........................... 79 ISLAMIC EXPECTANT ESCHATOLOGY ..................................................................................... 80 The Mahdi is an Islamic eschatological Messianic figure who will rid the earth of evil and injustice ........................................................................................................................................ 80 The Mahdi is a messianic figure in Islamic eschatology....................................................... 80 Belief in the promised Mahdi exists in other religions as well ............................................ 80 There is a strong renaissance of apocalyptic beliefs in the Shiite world, with the main focus on the state of Israel ......................................................................................................... 81 God will permit the Mahdi to launch his final revolution when general conditions have become favourable to the rulership of the truth .................................................................... 82 Islamic preachers, clerics and thinkers are trying to find the signs of the expected messiah ...................................................................................................................................................... 83 The Dajjal is an evil figure in Islamic Eschatology, similar to the Antichrist of Christianity ...................................................................................................................................................... 83 For Iranian clerics, appearance of the messiah is linked to the destruction of Israel ....... 83 People will oblige the Messiah to accept Muslim devotion ................................................. 83 PAPERS AT ACADEMIA EDU BY DOUG MASON .................................................................... 84 RESOURCES ....................................................................................................................................... 95 DETAILED CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. 108 120