Papers by Vanessa Workman
Archaeological Excavations and Research Studies in Southern Israel Collected Papers 19th Annual Southern Conference, 2023
Hundreds of fragments of spun and woven goods were recovered from excavated sites in the Timna Va... more Hundreds of fragments of spun and woven goods were recovered from excavated sites in the Timna Valley, accumulating the largest assemblage of Levantine textile, cordage, and rope materials from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages to date. An extensive period of multidisciplinary study has produced an in-depth exploration into the production and consumption of these materials in the industrial setting of copper mining and extraction. In this article, we briefly detail the investigatory methods employed and the findings of these studies, looking at textile consumption at Timna and how it compares to the wider region.
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Eshel, E., Notarius, T., Dagan, A., Eniukhina, M., Workman, V., & Maeir, A. M. (2022). “Two Iron Age Alphabetic Inscriptions from Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath, Israel. Bulletin of the American Society of Overseas Research, 388(1):31-49. Two Iron Age Alphabetic Inscriptions from Tell es ̣ -Sâfi/Gath, Israel, 2022
This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell es ̣-... more This paper presents two brief alphabetic inscriptions from Area D in the lower city of Tell es ̣-S ̣âfi/ Gath, both deriving from Iron Age IIA contexts. The first is written in an Early Alphabetic script similar to an inscription previously published from the site (Maeir et al. 2008) and is interpreted as being related to the storage of wine. The second, written in later, "formalized" alphabetic script, is quite fragmentary and difficult to decipher, for which several possible interpretations are suggested. These two new inscriptions join the relatively large number of alphabetic inscriptions from Tell es ̣-S ̣âfi/Gath, second only in number to contemporaneous Tel Rehov, and provide additional evidence to the outstanding role of the site during the early Iron Age.
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Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Sou... more Conclusive evidence has surfaced for the production of iron objects in urban workshops in the Southern Levant during the early Iron Age. While nearly a dozen sites with metallurgical debris and technical ceramics dating to the 10th–8th c. BCE have contributed to the visibility of the craft, in situ high-temperature installations remain enigmatic in the archaeological record. Our ability to reconstruct the chaîne opératoire of iron production processes within each working context is restricted by the lack of this critical data. In this study we employ methods of experimental archaeology in order to investigate and interpret an assemblage of vitrified technical ceramics found in an early Iron Age metal workshop at the site of Tell es-Safi/Gath situated on the border between the southern coastal plain and the Judean foothills of Israel. As part of a broader research framework, iron smelting experiments were carried out in a simple, clay-built bowl furnace. Materials analogous to the archaeological ceramics were employed to address high temperature alterations occurring in a single installation. Using structural mineralogical and chemical analyses (FTIR, pXRF and SEM-EDS) we characterize the experimental and archaeological technical ceramics to identify the processes that affect and transform these materials during iron production activities. Results were then utilized to interpret production processes and the implementation of technical ceramics in ironworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath. Based on our observations, we address the specialized preparation of technical ceramics in early ironworking, possible reasons for the alteration and preservation of metallurgical installations following their abandonment and attempt to improve the interpretation and classification of vitrified ceramic waste from ancient metallurgical contexts.
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An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated
to the mid-late Iron II... more An iron and bronze workshop in the lower city of Tell es-Safi/Gath, dated
to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.
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In this article, we focus on the analysis of dyed textile fragments uncovered at an early Iron Ag... more In this article, we focus on the analysis of dyed textile fragments uncovered at an early Iron Age (11 th-10 th centuries BCE) copper smelting site during new excavations in the Timna Valley conducted by the Central Timna Valley (CTV) Project, as well as those found by the Arabah Expedition at the Hathor Temple (Site 200), dated to the Late Bronze/early Iron Ages (13 th-11 th centuries BCE). Analysis by HPLC-DAD identified two organic dyestuffs, Rubia tinctorum L. and indigotin, from a plant source (probably Isatis tinctoria L.). They are among the earliest plants known in the dyeing craft and cultivated primarily for this purpose. This study provides the earliest evidence of textiles dyed utilizing a chemical dyeing process based on an industrial dyeing plant from the Levant. Moreover, our results shed new light on the society operating the copper mines at the time, suggesting the existence of an elite that was interested in these high quality textiles and invested efforts in procuring them by long-distance trade.
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Articles and book chapters - main list by Vanessa Workman
By the hand of the smelter: tracing the impact of decision-making in bloomery iron smelting, 2022
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and s... more Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag produced in different phases of the smelt, are exceedingly rare. The present study investigates the effect of an iron smelter’s decision-making and skills on the products of the smelting process: iron and slag. Four smelting experiments were carried out in a shaft furnace with slag tapping using iron ores from the Southern Levant. Using various analytical techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence, optical and electron microscopy, metallography, and hardness tests enabled us to correlate the properties of the final products with adjustment of various parameters during the smelting process. The latter include airflow and charging rate, temperature, residence time in the reducing zone, ore-charcoal ratio, and control of the slag characteristics. Results obtained allowed us to empirically demonstrate the direct impact of decisions made by the smelter during the complex technological practice of bloomery smelting. Analysis also highlights the benefits of moderately reducing conditions controlled by the smelter to produce good-quality, low-carbon iron, which is particularly relevant within the geological setting of the Southern Levant.
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Reviewed papers by Vanessa Workman
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences , 2022
Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and s... more Slag analyses from archaeological iron smelting sites are common. Rigorous analyses of iron and slag from successful experimental smelting, however, are still rare. Furthermore, thorough analyses from a series of smelts, and of the slag produced in different phases of the smelt, are exceedingly rare. The present study investigates the effect of an iron smelter's decision-making and skills on the products of the smelting process: iron and slag. Four smelting experiments were carried out in a shaft furnace with slag tapping using iron ores from the Southern Levant. Using various analytical techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence, optical and electron microscopy, metallography, and hardness tests enabled us to correlate the properties of the final products with adjustment of various parameters during the smelting process. The latter include airflow and charging rate, temperature, residence time in the reducing zone, ore-charcoal ratio, and control of the slag characteristics. Results obtained allowed us to empirically demonstrate the direct impact of decisions made by the smelter during the complex technological practice of bloomery smelting. Analysis also highlights the benefits of moderately reducing conditions controlled by the smelter to produce good-quality, low-carbon iron, which is particularly relevant within the geological setting of the Southern Levant.
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Papers by Vanessa Workman
to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.
Articles and book chapters - main list by Vanessa Workman
Reviewed papers by Vanessa Workman
to the mid-late Iron IIA, contributes new data on the chronology, organization, and practice of metal production in the urban Philistine setting. Analyses show that iron objects were likely produced and maintained on a large scale, alongside bronze, employing regionally unique forms of crucibles and tuyères. The material culture of metalworking is discussed in relation to contemporaneous iron production sites in the region, building a more robust picture of the adoption of iron metallurgy in the Levant versus the status of bronze and iron.