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The use of lime in building construction began at least 10,000 years ago, with debated evidence o... more The use of lime in building construction began at least 10,000 years ago, with debated evidence of earlier uses. The focus of academic research to date has been on historical and archaeological use of lime in Europe and the Near East. This work is an attempt to provide a summary of the history of lime as a building material in China, India, Africa, and Central and South America, based on available literature resources. Patterns of functional evolution suggest beginnings in small-scale, domestic surface coating evolving later to more widespread use linked to societal development in the regions considered. Commonalities exist in material characteristics and usage between different societies, linked to technological progress rather than absolute chronology.
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The value of lime mortar has, until recently, been overlooked in favour of cement. Now with the i... more The value of lime mortar has, until recently, been overlooked in favour of cement. Now with the importance of compatible restoration being recognised internationally, there has been a resurgence in the demand for the understanding of such material. One only has to look on the internet to discover the large number of workshops offered to teach people the long forgotten skills involved in working with lime.
This project focuses on the study of mortar within Scotland, and although the building styles and ages may differ from those in the USA, the techniques and materials used do not. Many of the masons travelling from the European countries would have taken with them a knowledge passed down to them by their predecessors, a knowledge which we are only now rediscovering after a hiatus in the dissolution of oral information partly caused by the world wars and partly by the predisposition to prefer concrete over lime mortar.
Historic lime mortars generally consist of a finely crystalline calcitic matrix, aggregate grains and lime lumps. Lime lumps manifest themselves as spherical particles between 10μm – 3cm in size. They are primarily white – yellow in colour with internal cracks, no traces of aggregate and are chemically and texturally different to the binder. Lime lumps are considered the only component within a historic mortar that reflects the original chemistry and texture of the source limestone.
The project is the result of collaboration between the University of the West of Scotland, Historic Scotland and the British Geological Survey, which has been initiated to study in further detail these lime lumps. It is thought that by examining the relic textures of limestones found within these lime lumps it will be possible to determine the source limestone used to create the mortar. Little is understood in regards to lime lumps and how they affect the final properties of mortars as they are not found within modern replacement mortar. It is for this reason that their mineralology and chemistry will be studied using a variety of techniques including petrography, SEM analysis, Porosimetry testing and LA-ICPMS. The primary mortar samples will be sourced from Stirling Palace and Portencross Castle amongst others.
Many questions will be answered throughout this study. Some will relate purely to the success or failure of the petrographical and chemical analysis of mortar as well as to the methods of sample preparation. Others will be focused upon a historical analysis of the results.
An overview of this project along with an outline of the research conducted and any relevant interim results will be provided as will the results of a present study of the effects of petrography, burning conditions, and sample size upon quicklime reactivity.
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It is known that lime lumps appear in many different historic mortars and are independent of age ... more It is known that lime lumps appear in many different historic mortars and are independent of age and geographical location. Many theories exist relating to their development, however none have been conclusively proven and no studies show whether they appear during manufacture or are a residue of an existing product.
These lime lumps have been seen to contain microfossils and relict textures of limestones. It is not known exactly how these textures come to be preserved within lime lumps and if their appearance is restricted by any conditions established during the manufacture of the mortar.
An experiment will be conducted to analyse the changes that a limestone undergoes as it is calcined into quicklime, slaked into a hydroxide and carbonated as part of a mortar. The experiment will be split into several smaller experiments based upon two key categories; these are, the calcination of limestone, and the effects of slaking techniques upon a mortar. These two key areas will be examined as it is thought that they have the most effect upon the development of lime lumps within a mortar.
This article will examine the results produced during the calcination of limestone. The experiment will involve the burning of several limestone samples at varying temperatures in a furnace. At a series of temperature levels, a sample of the limestone will be removed from the furnace, cooled, impregnated and made into a thin section. The thin sections should then show the alteration in the texture of the limestone in relation to the heat of the kiln and if there is any evidence relating to the formation of lime lumps within a mortar. This initial experiment will also allow a comparison of the reactivity of different limestones and how this varies with chemical content. A map of reactivity against factors such as temperature and time may be produced to illustrate the best selection factors for the burning of a limestone.
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Teaching Documents by Dorn Carran
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Thesis Chapters by Dorn Carran
This thesis aims to characterise a series of lime mortar samples removed from Stirling Castle, Sc... more This thesis aims to characterise a series of lime mortar samples removed from Stirling Castle, Scotland. Additional limestone samples were collected from potential quarry sites identified through archival analysis. An additional sample from Falkland Palace was selected for use due to its constrained source material locations.
The samples were petrographically analysed using macro analysis, polarised light microscopy, point counting and XRD analysis. Chemical analysis was performed on the plaster and limestone samples
using ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS.
The aims of the analyses were to determine the provenance of the original source limestone and aggregate used to create the plasters, and to determine the age of the samples. The archival investigation allowed a preliminary provenance determination to be made, which was further
investigated through the use of the petrographic and chemical analysis.
It was found that the binder in the lime plasters from Stirling Castle’s Palace Block were sourced within a five mile radius of the Castle, from a nodular limestone and a nearby outcrop of Murrayshall limestone. The outcrop of limestone was exposed along the Bannock Burn and was used from a West to East direction. Once the source became exhausted, the nodular limestone was employed. The aggregates were determined to be locally sourced from the River Forth.
The samples were all found to represent a range of dates from the late 17 th Century to the early 19 th Century, representing the period of alteration performed to allow the Castle to host a garrison.
The analysis also showed how the source of limestone altered over time and allowed for a sphere of influence to be determined based on the distances from which the material needed to produce the
lime mortar, was sourced.
This thesis will contribute new knowledge to the lack of data that exists in regards to the study of provenance using binder characterisation and isotopic analysis, in particular the use of LA-ICP-MS and ICP-MS. As such a new methodology for the examination of lime mortars by ICP-MS has been developed. Additionally this thesis will address a lack of knowledge that exists in regard to the materials used in the construction of Stirling Castle and the social implication implied by the results.
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This project focuses on the study of mortar within Scotland, and although the building styles and ages may differ from those in the USA, the techniques and materials used do not. Many of the masons travelling from the European countries would have taken with them a knowledge passed down to them by their predecessors, a knowledge which we are only now rediscovering after a hiatus in the dissolution of oral information partly caused by the world wars and partly by the predisposition to prefer concrete over lime mortar.
Historic lime mortars generally consist of a finely crystalline calcitic matrix, aggregate grains and lime lumps. Lime lumps manifest themselves as spherical particles between 10μm – 3cm in size. They are primarily white – yellow in colour with internal cracks, no traces of aggregate and are chemically and texturally different to the binder. Lime lumps are considered the only component within a historic mortar that reflects the original chemistry and texture of the source limestone.
The project is the result of collaboration between the University of the West of Scotland, Historic Scotland and the British Geological Survey, which has been initiated to study in further detail these lime lumps. It is thought that by examining the relic textures of limestones found within these lime lumps it will be possible to determine the source limestone used to create the mortar. Little is understood in regards to lime lumps and how they affect the final properties of mortars as they are not found within modern replacement mortar. It is for this reason that their mineralology and chemistry will be studied using a variety of techniques including petrography, SEM analysis, Porosimetry testing and LA-ICPMS. The primary mortar samples will be sourced from Stirling Palace and Portencross Castle amongst others.
Many questions will be answered throughout this study. Some will relate purely to the success or failure of the petrographical and chemical analysis of mortar as well as to the methods of sample preparation. Others will be focused upon a historical analysis of the results.
An overview of this project along with an outline of the research conducted and any relevant interim results will be provided as will the results of a present study of the effects of petrography, burning conditions, and sample size upon quicklime reactivity.
These lime lumps have been seen to contain microfossils and relict textures of limestones. It is not known exactly how these textures come to be preserved within lime lumps and if their appearance is restricted by any conditions established during the manufacture of the mortar.
An experiment will be conducted to analyse the changes that a limestone undergoes as it is calcined into quicklime, slaked into a hydroxide and carbonated as part of a mortar. The experiment will be split into several smaller experiments based upon two key categories; these are, the calcination of limestone, and the effects of slaking techniques upon a mortar. These two key areas will be examined as it is thought that they have the most effect upon the development of lime lumps within a mortar.
This article will examine the results produced during the calcination of limestone. The experiment will involve the burning of several limestone samples at varying temperatures in a furnace. At a series of temperature levels, a sample of the limestone will be removed from the furnace, cooled, impregnated and made into a thin section. The thin sections should then show the alteration in the texture of the limestone in relation to the heat of the kiln and if there is any evidence relating to the formation of lime lumps within a mortar. This initial experiment will also allow a comparison of the reactivity of different limestones and how this varies with chemical content. A map of reactivity against factors such as temperature and time may be produced to illustrate the best selection factors for the burning of a limestone.
Teaching Documents by Dorn Carran
Thesis Chapters by Dorn Carran
The samples were petrographically analysed using macro analysis, polarised light microscopy, point counting and XRD analysis. Chemical analysis was performed on the plaster and limestone samples
using ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS.
The aims of the analyses were to determine the provenance of the original source limestone and aggregate used to create the plasters, and to determine the age of the samples. The archival investigation allowed a preliminary provenance determination to be made, which was further
investigated through the use of the petrographic and chemical analysis.
It was found that the binder in the lime plasters from Stirling Castle’s Palace Block were sourced within a five mile radius of the Castle, from a nodular limestone and a nearby outcrop of Murrayshall limestone. The outcrop of limestone was exposed along the Bannock Burn and was used from a West to East direction. Once the source became exhausted, the nodular limestone was employed. The aggregates were determined to be locally sourced from the River Forth.
The samples were all found to represent a range of dates from the late 17 th Century to the early 19 th Century, representing the period of alteration performed to allow the Castle to host a garrison.
The analysis also showed how the source of limestone altered over time and allowed for a sphere of influence to be determined based on the distances from which the material needed to produce the
lime mortar, was sourced.
This thesis will contribute new knowledge to the lack of data that exists in regards to the study of provenance using binder characterisation and isotopic analysis, in particular the use of LA-ICP-MS and ICP-MS. As such a new methodology for the examination of lime mortars by ICP-MS has been developed. Additionally this thesis will address a lack of knowledge that exists in regard to the materials used in the construction of Stirling Castle and the social implication implied by the results.
This project focuses on the study of mortar within Scotland, and although the building styles and ages may differ from those in the USA, the techniques and materials used do not. Many of the masons travelling from the European countries would have taken with them a knowledge passed down to them by their predecessors, a knowledge which we are only now rediscovering after a hiatus in the dissolution of oral information partly caused by the world wars and partly by the predisposition to prefer concrete over lime mortar.
Historic lime mortars generally consist of a finely crystalline calcitic matrix, aggregate grains and lime lumps. Lime lumps manifest themselves as spherical particles between 10μm – 3cm in size. They are primarily white – yellow in colour with internal cracks, no traces of aggregate and are chemically and texturally different to the binder. Lime lumps are considered the only component within a historic mortar that reflects the original chemistry and texture of the source limestone.
The project is the result of collaboration between the University of the West of Scotland, Historic Scotland and the British Geological Survey, which has been initiated to study in further detail these lime lumps. It is thought that by examining the relic textures of limestones found within these lime lumps it will be possible to determine the source limestone used to create the mortar. Little is understood in regards to lime lumps and how they affect the final properties of mortars as they are not found within modern replacement mortar. It is for this reason that their mineralology and chemistry will be studied using a variety of techniques including petrography, SEM analysis, Porosimetry testing and LA-ICPMS. The primary mortar samples will be sourced from Stirling Palace and Portencross Castle amongst others.
Many questions will be answered throughout this study. Some will relate purely to the success or failure of the petrographical and chemical analysis of mortar as well as to the methods of sample preparation. Others will be focused upon a historical analysis of the results.
An overview of this project along with an outline of the research conducted and any relevant interim results will be provided as will the results of a present study of the effects of petrography, burning conditions, and sample size upon quicklime reactivity.
These lime lumps have been seen to contain microfossils and relict textures of limestones. It is not known exactly how these textures come to be preserved within lime lumps and if their appearance is restricted by any conditions established during the manufacture of the mortar.
An experiment will be conducted to analyse the changes that a limestone undergoes as it is calcined into quicklime, slaked into a hydroxide and carbonated as part of a mortar. The experiment will be split into several smaller experiments based upon two key categories; these are, the calcination of limestone, and the effects of slaking techniques upon a mortar. These two key areas will be examined as it is thought that they have the most effect upon the development of lime lumps within a mortar.
This article will examine the results produced during the calcination of limestone. The experiment will involve the burning of several limestone samples at varying temperatures in a furnace. At a series of temperature levels, a sample of the limestone will be removed from the furnace, cooled, impregnated and made into a thin section. The thin sections should then show the alteration in the texture of the limestone in relation to the heat of the kiln and if there is any evidence relating to the formation of lime lumps within a mortar. This initial experiment will also allow a comparison of the reactivity of different limestones and how this varies with chemical content. A map of reactivity against factors such as temperature and time may be produced to illustrate the best selection factors for the burning of a limestone.
The samples were petrographically analysed using macro analysis, polarised light microscopy, point counting and XRD analysis. Chemical analysis was performed on the plaster and limestone samples
using ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS.
The aims of the analyses were to determine the provenance of the original source limestone and aggregate used to create the plasters, and to determine the age of the samples. The archival investigation allowed a preliminary provenance determination to be made, which was further
investigated through the use of the petrographic and chemical analysis.
It was found that the binder in the lime plasters from Stirling Castle’s Palace Block were sourced within a five mile radius of the Castle, from a nodular limestone and a nearby outcrop of Murrayshall limestone. The outcrop of limestone was exposed along the Bannock Burn and was used from a West to East direction. Once the source became exhausted, the nodular limestone was employed. The aggregates were determined to be locally sourced from the River Forth.
The samples were all found to represent a range of dates from the late 17 th Century to the early 19 th Century, representing the period of alteration performed to allow the Castle to host a garrison.
The analysis also showed how the source of limestone altered over time and allowed for a sphere of influence to be determined based on the distances from which the material needed to produce the
lime mortar, was sourced.
This thesis will contribute new knowledge to the lack of data that exists in regards to the study of provenance using binder characterisation and isotopic analysis, in particular the use of LA-ICP-MS and ICP-MS. As such a new methodology for the examination of lime mortars by ICP-MS has been developed. Additionally this thesis will address a lack of knowledge that exists in regard to the materials used in the construction of Stirling Castle and the social implication implied by the results.