Coenaerts Jan

This paper presents the lead isotopic composition of potential clay sources for pottery production, collected in the four major geological zones of Cyprus (Troodos Ophiolite, Circum Troodos Sedimentary Succession, Mamonia Terrane, Kyrenia Terrane) and evaluates its usefulness in Cypriote pottery provenance studies. The clay isotopic signatures from the four zones are compared to each other and to the isotopic composition of various utilitarian pottery wares from three Late Bronze Age sites, respectively located in southern Cyprus (Alassa-Pano Mandilaris), east Cyprus (Enkomi), and southeast Cyprus (Hala Sultan Tekke). It also explores the potential of this method to better discriminate between potential raw materials used for the production of Base-ring ware, one of the most characteristic fine pottery of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, which was widely spread in the Eastern Mediterranean (Courtois, 1981; Vaughan, 1991, 1994). Results show that three main lead isotopic fields can be distinguished among the Cypriote clay sources and the comparison of Plain sherds with the clay sources allows discrimination between local products and imports. They also clearly indicate that all the Base-ring sherds analyzed in this study were made of the clays from the Kathikas Formation that crops out in only limited parts of southwest Cyprus.

Lead isotopic compositions were measured for 65 sherds from five pottery wares (Plain White, Coarse, Canaanite, White Slip and Base-ring) excavated from the Late Bronze Age site of Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus). The elemental composition and isotopic signature of the sherds were compared with those of 65 clay samples collected in south-east Cyprus, mainly in the surroundings (<20 km) of Hala Sultan Tekke. This work shows the effectiveness of using lead isotopic analysis in provenance studies, along with other analytical techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray detection (EDX) facility, to identify the composition of pottery wares and the clay sources used for pottery ware production.

South-east (SE) Cyprus is traditionally represented with three major coastal sites (Kition, Hala Sultan Tekke, and Pyla), and their hinterlands. The three coastal polities share an extensive and fertile hinterland along river drainages (Pouzi, Tremithos, and Arkhangelos) in Larnaca Bay. I examined the long-term fluctuations of the SE Cypriot occupation patterns in order to explain the mechanisms of politico-economic formation and the attractiveness of this region from the end of Middle Cypriot III to the end of Late Cypriot.

The general theoretical models of Late Cypriot site patterning (Catling 1962; Knapp 1995; Keswani 1996) represent the SE Cypriot site organisation in an inert way pertaining to Late Cypriot IIC at the end of a local development, ignoring the formation and development processes. The site classifications and dominant hierarchical focus of the theoretical models are not observed in SE Cypriot sites. The local topography is not fully taken into account as a major constituent, while the SE Cypriot sites are distributed along rivers, land, and sea routes. A final problem are the incoherent and unbalanced datasets of sites known from survey and 19th century explorations (most of the hinterland sites) and well-documented stratified deposits (Hala Sultan Tekke, Kition, and Pyla).

27 sites in SE Cyprus show LC evidence. The site histories were derived from archival sources, site visits and material study. The chronologies of the SE Cypriot sites were determined by looking at the presence or absence of Late Cypriot pottery wares, especially since many sites are only known from surface sherd material or unrecorded activities.

I analysed the chronological evolution and site structuring in order to grasp the long-term site occupation processes. The analysis included a close look at the relation between the regional distribution of the sites in relation to the topographical features, land, and sea connectivity, and neighbouring regions. The SE Cypriot occupation patterns were confronted with the Late Cypriot economic framework by looking at the sites’ material culture. In this way, a dynamic image of the origin, formation, and development of the SE Cypriot site patterning and organisation could be traced.

The life-spans of the SE Cypriot sites indicate a gradual site patterning process: from the formative stage during Middle Cypriot III-Late Cypriot I, over a development and climax during Late Cypriot IIC, and finally to a demise during Late Cypriot IIIA-B. The available archaeological evidence and topographical setting clearly show that three sites, i.e., Hala Sultan Tekke, Kition, and Pyla, held an elevated position within the SE Cypriot site ranking.

In SE Cyprus, Early Cypriot-Middle Cypriot inland villages involved in a fairly pastoral and egalitarian society change fairly quick during Middle Cypriot III-Late Cypriot I to a heterarchical organised society with the emergence of coastal centres and associated hinterland systems. This is especially visible in the Pouzi and Tremithos river valleys partaking in the copper exchange within an Eastern Mediterranean framework. During Middle Cypriot III-Late Cypriot, new SE Cypriot sites were established mainly in close proximity to natural resources (copper) and transport possibilities (land- and searoutes). An analysis of a selection of the SE Cypriot material assemblages confirms the early participation of Hala Sultan Tekke and its hinterland (especially Arpera) in the Eastern Mediterranean exchange systems. The analysis indicates that the economy is the prime mover in the societal changes at the beginning of Late Cypriot, which is also visible in the growing social stratification as shown in the mortuary evidence.
The Late Cypriot IIA-B periods are characterised by a continuation of the hinterland systems linked around the Pouzi, Tremithos, and Arkhangelos rivers. The remodeling of Hala Sultan Tekke and Pyla, and the emergence of Kition as urban (fortified) centres during Late Cypriot IIC mark the slow decline of the hinterland systems toward the second half of Late Cypriot IIC. Simultaneously, the influence on the hinterland sites becomes stronger, possibly coinciding with the increasing influence of an economic elite in the urban centres indicating a more hierarchical organised society.
The region has a large autonomy already during Middle Cypriot III-Late Cypriot I. The area has its own resource area for copper and partakes in foreign trade networks from the beginning, which indicates that SE Cyprus did not fall under the island-wide control of Enkomi. The development of the site organisation and the rise of several large coastal sites in close proximity during Late Cypriot IIC suggest the existence of different regional authorities operating within one region. Enkomi, however, was perhaps considered as the moral leader based on the earlier foundation and social stratification.
To conclude, I demonstrate that the traditional static perception of the site organisation in SE Cyprus during Late Cypriot with three major coastal centres and their adjoining hinterland, was in fact diverse, dynamic and complex. It is clear that the location and topography are determinant for understanding the SE Cypriot site patterns and site organisation.

For a full version, please contact me at following address: Jan.Coenaerts@vub.be