Ancient Anatolia by Lucia Novakova
Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 16, 2023
Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 16, 2023, p. 93 – 106
The development of sepulchral art and ... more Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 16, 2023, p. 93 – 106
The development of sepulchral art and architecture in Western Anatolia underwent notable evolution from the sixth to the 4th century B.C. The study highlights the social and political importance of funerary structures, which served not only as burial sites but also as symbols of dynastic power. The research emphasizes the long-term cultural interactions and stylistic shifts, leading to a standard mausoleum form by the 4th century B.C. This provides insight into varied influences on local burial customs.
Journal Of Hellenic Religion 16, 2023
Journal Of Hellenic Religion , 2023 , Vol. 16 , p.1 - 26 .
Anatolia was a crucial nexus in Greek ... more Journal Of Hellenic Religion , 2023 , Vol. 16 , p.1 - 26 .
Anatolia was a crucial nexus in Greek mythology, highlighting the dynamic interactions with its diverse populations. Myths served as cultural cornerstones, strengthening identity through generational storytelling. Greek myths often focused on foundational narratives and ethnic origins, while Anatolian traditions showcased a syncretic nature, integrating local, Greek, and Persian elements. This cultural interplay is vividly reflected in funerary art, combining different motifs, and in the evolving founding myths that increasingly adopted Greek aspects. The resulting identity of Anatolia's inhabitants was distinctly formed through the amalgamation and adaptation of varied cultural influences.
Studies on the history and archaeology of Lydia from the Early Lydian period to Late Antiquity, 2023
Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté http://presses-ufc.univ-fcomte.fr Ly dia, lying between t... more Presses universitaires de Franche-Comté http://presses-ufc.univ-fcomte.fr Ly dia, lying between the Aegean coast and the Anatolian plateau, has been associated since Antiquity with the Pactolus river, which carried gold from the Tmolus mountain, and with the wealth of Croesus. Populated by Lydians and Maeonians, and marked by the presence of Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines, it has attracted the attention of researchers since the end of the 18th century. This book aims to cover the chronology of Lydian studies from the protohistoric period to the beginning of the Byzantine period and to bring together the contributions of international researchers and scholars from a wide range of disciplines that includes history, archeology, epigraphy, and numismatics, and from different perspectives. The various studies discuss society, social structures, military aspects, economy, religion, arts, architecture, and material culture. This diachronic approach makes it possible in particular to question continuity and discontinuity between the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, as well as with those that preceded them. Ouvrage publié avec le concours de l'Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l' Antiquité (UFC-UR 4011).
From archaeology of objects to archaeology of idea, 2020
Nováková, L. 2020/2021. „Being Anatolian: archaeology and written sources.“ In From archaeology o... more Nováková, L. 2020/2021. „Being Anatolian: archaeology and written sources.“ In From archaeology of objects to archaeology of idea, ed. by B. Gediga, S. Nowaczyk, H. Dąbrowski and M. Olszta, p. 189-212. Biskupin- Wroclaw: Archaeological museum in Biskupin- Wroclaw branch of Polish academy of sciences.
Anatolia was one of the most diverse areas of the ancient world, whether in terms of ethnicity, topography, climate or history. Anatolian efforts toward self-determination, whether cultural, political or religious, were intensified with the arrival of the Persians, which was also reflected in the sphere of funerary rites. The Greeks, especially under the influence of the events following the Ionian Revolt, began to emphasize their own difference from others. The Anatolians, on the other hand, tried to show their own identity by combining native, Greek and even Persian cultural elements.
Nunc decet caput impedire myrto Studies Dedicated to Professor Piotr Dyczek on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, 2021
The fact that the Achaemenids controlled Anatolia for two centuries provokes a question about the... more The fact that the Achaemenids controlled Anatolia for two centuries provokes a question about the extent of Greek, Anatolian, and Persian contacts and exchange during this period. The growing
evidence for foreign domination has been accompanied by new and revised evidence of the region’s acculturation, which appears to have been a natural process. Archaeological finds from funerary contexts provide
a large amount of information and testify to the cosmopolitan art and culture. Artists and craftsmen spread their artistic styles far and wide along with iconographic norms closely connected to exchange networks, circulation of people, and common lifeways.
Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Bronzes from Anatolia and Neighbouring Regions, 2021
https://www.barpublishing.com/greek-roman-and-byzantine-bronzes-from-anatolia-and-neighbouring-re... more https://www.barpublishing.com/greek-roman-and-byzantine-bronzes-from-anatolia-and-neighbouring-regions.html
Commemorative bronze equestrian statues of rulers and important individuals from the Hellenistic period were widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean world. None of these pieces has survived to present day, except for certain inscribed statue bases along with the corresponding literary record. Early Hellenistic honourific decrees issued by the Greek cities of Anatolia seem to partially complete the picture as to how the statues of rulers on horseback became an integral part of official royal portraits. The equestrian model was probably derived from the depiction of a victorious leader who, following Alexander´s example, led his army into battle on the back of horse and conquered his enemies. Persons thus awarded were generally kings and members of their families, or royal officials designated as guests or friends of rulers. Despite the fact that today these bronzes are irrevocably lost, their significance can be seen by the enhancement of similar types of monuments in subsequent periods.
Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333., 2019
https://www.habelt.de
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monumen... more https://www.habelt.de
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt. ISBN 978-3-7749-4216-5.
The Greek civilization, whose legacy remains visible to the present day, developed in several places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks often came into contact with different, sometimes significantly older and more developed cultures that helped them to advance in the sciences, arts and trade. One such crossroads of civilizations was Anatolia, a land that was the literal meeting place of east and west with an incredibly diverse population. This was reflected in the diversity of its cultures, languages and religions. There is a growing volume of new research – papers, articles and monographs – aimed at determining at least in part how these ancient societies defined themselves. The answer to this relatively complex question can only be sought in the written and archaeological evidence. We can get to know the Hellenes from written sources and their unique artistic heritage, while grave art helps to fill in the rich mosaic of their Anatolian neighbors. The term “Greeks dwelling beyond the sea” is a paraphrase of the name for the Greeks in foreign sources (Yaunā), which referred to the inhabitants of the distant lands beyond the western frontier of the Persian Empire. In this case, the term refers to the Greeks who crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the Anatolian mainland and nearby islands.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.09.34/
http://www.habelt.de
Preserving of local customs is visible in Karia and neigboring regions, as w... more http://www.habelt.de
Preserving of local customs is visible in Karia and neigboring regions, as well as the effort to enforce new ideas and fashion in funerary architecture. The continuity of chosen types of burying and keeping up the local elements continued also in the Hellenistic period, even if Karian language and culture assimilated into the Greek. One of the examples is the appearance of heroa that was unlike the common tombs and burials, situated directly or close to urban structures. Funerary structures of this type are in part given into correlation with ancestor cult and afterlife deification of local rulers. Karia is also characteristic by the presence of representative temple-like tombs and burial precincts that appeared to be separated from the profane country. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by maintenance of native tradition as well as inspiration of foreign customs, both in a broad geographical and chronological scale. Especially notable appears proximity of Karian and Lykian material culture, becoming increasingly apparent in current scholar works. It is reflected in similar types of funerary buildings, importance of dynastic monuments, long-term tradition of heroa or modification of foreign stimuli according own needs. The common sign of identified heroa in the whole south-western Anatolia in the Hellenistic period was a combination of elements of several building types. Particularly significant seems to be so called temple tombs, which are nowadays understood as implication of older Anatolian tradion in funerary culture. Their origin, as well as the model of their façades, has been long debated, while it seems to be accepted now that they were shaped in order to reflect some kind of monumental, probably dynastic, buildings, rather than Greek temples. However, religious importance should not be omitted. It is important to point out assorted meaning of tombs, connected with position of dead person within society. In Hellenistic period an increasing emphasis on certain ritual activities can be observed.
http://www.habelt.de/
Od Tróje k Termopylám. Príbeh archaického Grécka, 2019
https://www.perfekt.sk/kniha/od-troje-k-termopylam#kniha
Grécka civilizácia, ktorej prínos je vi... more https://www.perfekt.sk/kniha/od-troje-k-termopylam#kniha
Grécka civilizácia, ktorej prínos je viditeľný do dnešných dní, sa rozvíjala v rôznych oblastiach Stredozemného mora. Gréci často prichádzali do kontaktu s odlišnými, v niektorých prípadoch značne staršími a rozvinutejšími kultúrami, ktoré im pomohli dosiahnuť pokrok v oblasti vedy, umenia alebo obchodu. Archaické obdobie gréckych dejín bolo charakteristické formovaním jedinečného prostredia, ktoré spolu s Grékmi tvorili tiež príslušníci rôzneho etnického, náboženského či kultúrneho pôvodu. Bolo to obdobie vzájomných bojov, ale aj výmeny umeleckých stimulov a rozvinutého medzinárodného obchodu. Grécke obce vo východnom Stredomorí, ktoré patrili medzi najvyspelejšie centrá svojej doby, zažili aj vďaka týmto kontaktom nebývalý ekonomický a kultúrny rozkvet. Dovtedy známy grécky svet značne rozšírili kolonizačné aktivity. Za Grékmi v tomto smere ničím nezaostávali Feničania, ktorí sa stali ich obchodnými partnermi i mocenskými rivalmi zároveň. Počas niekoľkých storočí vzájomných vzťahov sa zmenil vzťah Helénov k sebe samým, ale aj k tým, ktorých začali nazývať barbarmi (barbaroi). Tento postoj, spočiatku priateľský, ale postupom času čoraz viac poznačený stereotypnými predstavami, sa zmenil predovšetkým pod vplyvom pohnutých historických udalostí, ktoré charakterizovali mocenské boje Grékov s inými národmi.
AIZANOI IV. ÖZEL SAYI. ANADOLU’DA HELLENİSTİK VE ROMA DÖNEMLERİNDE ÖLÜ GÖMME ADETLERİ ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUMU, BİLDİRİ KİTABI (23 – 26 Temmuz 2018), ed. by Elif ÖZER, 2019
Nováková, L.: Ölüyü Övmek: Anadolu’daki Anıtsal Mezarların İncelenmesi. In: AIZANOI IV. ÖZEL SAYI... more Nováková, L.: Ölüyü Övmek: Anadolu’daki Anıtsal Mezarların İncelenmesi. In: AIZANOI IV. ÖZEL SAYI. ANADOLU’DA HELLENİSTİK VE ROMA DÖNEMLERİNDE ÖLÜ GÖMME ADETLERİ ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUMU, BİLDİRİ KİTABI (23 – 26 Temmuz 2018), ed. by Elif ÖZER, 691-720. Ankara 2019: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
Nováková, L.: Praising the Dead: Study of the Monumental Tombs in Anatolia. In: THE BOOK OF INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON BURIAL CUSTOMS IN ANATOLIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS (July 23 – 26, 2018), ed. by Elif ÖZER, 691-720. Ankara 2019: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları. In the multicultural region of Anatolia, the spread of new and the assimilation of older funerary rites and sepulchral monuments can be expected across a wider chronological span. Hellenistic period brought numerous important changes within Greek society. In sepulchral sphere, in terms of focusing on diversity and broad distribution of tombs types, especially important seems to be, with the expansion of the Greek world, an intersection of the Greek and non-Greek cultures, high mobility of groups or individuals, re-appearance of
(civic) elite or modification of private hero cults. Since the Late Classical period, memorials of wealthy members of society and euergetai had become more and more common. These civic monuments were probably inspired by building programs of local dynasts, tyrants or
aristocracy. Hellenistic monumental tombs in western Anatolia represent various types of above ground burials that became a prototype of later sepulchral structures. Funerary monuments of Early Imperial period followed previous architectural traditions. Common features include a
combination of architectural orders and a position at dominant locations, including viae sacrae or, in the case of heroa, temple temenoi. This tradition continued throughout antiquity in wide geographical sphere. The resulting hybrid funerary structures, usually referred to as maussoleia, connected high podia and monumental dimensions, probably of eastern origin, while the upper parts of tombs contained elements of Greek and local architecture, satisfying the desire of the owner to be remembered and displayed pretentiously.
Aktüel Arkeoloji , May 2018
http://www.aktuelarkeoloji.com.tr/
Anadolu’nun Arkaik ve Klasik dönemlerindeki mezar ikonograf... more http://www.aktuelarkeoloji.com.tr/
Anadolu’nun Arkaik ve Klasik dönemlerindeki mezar ikonografisine baktığımızda, Anadolu halkına, ağırlıklı olarak da genel halka özgü bir özellik olarak öne çıkan, ölen kişinin figürünü merkeze alan kabartmalarla bezenmiş mezarlarla karşılaşırız. Bu tür bezemelerle kaplı mezarlar, ölen kişinin fiziksel görüntüsünü yalnızca akrabalarından oluşan dar bir çevre için sergileme amacını taşımakla kalmayıp, bir tür kamusal ifade halini almıştır. Bu mezarlarda ne tür imgelerin kullanılacağı veya mezarın biçimi ve mezar yazıtında kullanılacak dilin seçimi gibi konuların hiçbiri rastlantısal değildir. Mezarlar üzerinde yer alan bezemeler, imgeler, yazıtların dili gibi tüm unsurlar, ölen kişinin belirli bir topluluğa bağlı olma durumunu, bu topluluğun iç dinamiklerini veya diğer etnik gruplar ile olan ilişkilerini yansıtır. Anadolu, Yunan ve Pers uygarlıklarının her biri, ölen kişilerin imgelerini kullanarak kendi güçlerini, zenginliklerini ve aynı zamanda diğer halklara olan üstünlüklerini göstermeyi hedeflemişlerdir. Anadolu halklarının kültürel, siyasi ve dini alanlarda kendi kaderlerini tayin etme çabalarının, Perslerin gelişi ile birlikte daha da ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Bunun yansımaları mezar tipolojisi ve ikonografisinde de kendini gösterir. Yunanların, özellikle İonia İsyanı sonrasında meydana gelen olayların etkisi ile birlikte, kendilerini barbaroi yani “barbarlar” olarak nitelendirdikleri halklardan ayırmaya başladıklarını görürüz. Öte yandan Anadolu halkları da, sahip oldukları yerel kültürel özellikleri, Yunan ve hatta Pers kültürlerine özgü özellikler ile birleştirerek kendilerine özgü bir kimlik yaratmış, ve bu kimliği gösterme çabası içinde bulunmuşlardır. Bugün elimizdeki yazılı kaynaklar ve eşsiz sanat eserleri Yunanlar hakkında son derece detaylı bilgiler sağlarken, mezar taşları ve taşlar üzerinde yer alan yazıt ve bezemeler de Anadolu halklarına ait bu çok çeşitli mozaiğin tamamlanmasını sağlar.
ÇAĞLAR BOYUNCA ÜRETİM VE TİCARET: Prehistorya’dan Bizans Dönemi’ne, edited by O. Dumankaya, 255-280, 2019
Nováková, L. 2019: Trade, Contacts and Production in Iron Age Anatolia: Testimony from Beyond the... more Nováková, L. 2019: Trade, Contacts and Production in Iron Age Anatolia: Testimony from Beyond the Grave. In: ÇAĞLAR BOYUNCA ÜRETİM VE TİCARET: Prehistorya’dan Bizans Dönemi’ne, edited by O. Dumankaya, 255-280. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
Nováková, L. 2019: Trade, Contacts and Production in Iron Age Anatolia: Testimony from Beyond the Grave. In: PRODUCTION AND TRADE THROUGH THE AGES: From Prehistory to the Byzantine Period, edited by O. Dumankaya, 255-280. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
In the Archaic period of Greek history, a unique environment developed in which Greeks lived alongside peoples of varied ethnic, religious and cultural backgrounds. It was a time of many conflicts, but also the exchange of artistic inspiration and extensive international trade. Such contacts enabled the Greek communities of the eastern Mediterranean, which were amongst the most advanced centers of their time, to achieve unprecedented economic and cultural prosperity. This was supported by the invention of coinage, retail and a dense trading network not just in the Anatolian hinterland but also around the Mediterranean Sea. The then known Greek world significantly expanded its colonization activity. No less active than the Greeks in such activity were the Phoenicians, who became the Greeks’ business partners and power rivals at the same time. The intensive commercial, diplomatic and cultural contacts linking Anatolia, Egypt and the Middle East returned to the levels that had existed before the collapse of the Late Bronze Age civilizations. Evidence pointing to the luxurious lifestyles of the local elites in Anatolia comes from many finds at burial sites as well as written sources.
Memento Mori. Ölüm ve Ölüm Uygulamalari, 2019
Anados, Studies of the Ancient World 14/2014, 2019
Nováková, L. and H. Kılınçoğlu “Between Anatolia and mainland Greece: elite, tombs, temples.” Pro... more Nováková, L. and H. Kılınçoğlu “Between Anatolia and mainland Greece: elite, tombs, temples.” Proceedings of the International Conference Ancient communities and their elites from Bronze Age to Late Antiquity (Central Europe – Mediterranean – Black Sea), Trnava, 6th – 8th October 2017. Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 14/2014, 67 – 80. Trnava 2019. ISSN 1338-5410.
Throughout history, the Aegean Sea has enabled lively communications between the Greek mainland, the islands, and western Anatolia. The migration of artists led to the mutual exchange of new concepts, ideas and technologies, which was reflected in the field of the manufacture and decoration of tombstones. The fourth century B.C. introduced a great range of tombs in both Greek and non-Greek environments. Diverse traditions of funerary monuments in mainland Greece and Anatolia, differing in architectural style and iconography, were recognized for a long time. Greek artists, working for both Greek and non-Greek customers, experimented for a long period with the architectural form and decorative elements of private and public monuments. In the Late Classical period, an adapting of temple forms to tombs took place in Anatolia, reflected in their sumptuous funerary monuments consisting of a niche filled with sculpture and framed by pilasters and a pediment. New types of sepulchral buildings emerged when fusing the tradition of Greek public art with the form of non-Greek monumental tomb traditions. In the fourth century B.C., this experimentation found its way to mainland Greece.
Iliria International review, 2017
Self-definition of ancient Greeks was created under the influence of socio-historical events, ref... more Self-definition of ancient Greeks was created under the influence of socio-historical events, reflecting both, the relationship between Hellenes themselves and attitudes towards others. The influencing factors for self-definition of ancient Greeks were a shared myth of descent, a shared territory, and a shared sense of history. Many scholars assume, that a sense of Greekness among Dorians, Ionians, Aiolians and others was finally crystallized throughout the number of military conflicts in which they were involved during the Classical period. Its seems probable that Athens played a major role both in the invention of the barbarian concept and in the substitution of cultural for ethnic criteria in the self-definition of Greeks. In their self-definition, Greeks seem to be deliberately stylized as antinomy to what they considered to be typical for others. Similarly, as a response to the strong pressure from the Persians, the national awareness of the Anatolians was formed. Interestingly, in some cases local ethnic groups had chosen cultural elements that had been associated with Greeks or Persians for their self-definition.
Biskupiner Archäologische Arbeiten Nr. 13. Arbeiten der Archäologischen Kommission Nr. 22. , 2018
In Inspiracje i funkcje sztuki pradziejowej i wczesnośredniowiecznej (Inspirationen und Funktion ... more In Inspiracje i funkcje sztuki pradziejowej i wczesnośredniowiecznej (Inspirationen und Funktion der Ur- und Frühgeschichtlichen Kunst), ed. by B. Gediga, A. Grossman and W. Piotrorski. Biskupiner Archäologische Arbeiten Nr. 13. Arbeiten der Archäologischen Kommission Nr. 22. Biskupin- Wroclaw , 227-242.
Outstanding bloom of art and culture, which took a place in western Anatolia during the Archaic period, contributed substantially to the development of Classical civilization. Economic and cultural prosperity of the Greek cities happened at a time of their power- dependence on Lydian and later Persian empire. The process of cultural development was not unilateral, and the continuous mutual interference of Greek and local, non-Greek communities is presumed. A new cultural revival that began in the fourth century BC, in many aspects resembled thriving Ionian Enlightenment. While cultural and economic boom of the Ionian Renaissance took place during the reign of local Karian satraps (395–334 BC), it is not possible to say when it ended. The ideas and styles of the movement, especially in the case of architecture, developed and continued into the post-Classical periods, influenced both by local and Greek ethnics. The older dynastic architecture was an inspiration for the construction of various sepulchral monuments whose owners belonged to the ruling royal or “civic” elite of the Hellenistic period in western Anatolia. As well as tomb buildings, the number of honorific monuments within city-centers increased.
Above-ground burials in south-western Anatolia can be seen as result of the influence of both an ... more Above-ground burials in south-western Anatolia can be seen as result of the influence of both an older, local Lycian and the Persian-Anatolian tradition. Their adaptation within Greek part of population emerged new structural and decorative elements in funerary architecture. Rock-cut tombs can be found not only in the Lyco-Carian borderland, but also in central Caria, i.e. in areas where a substantial representation of the Carian ethnic group is attested. Among very common iconographic motifs are funeral feasts and offering ceremonies as well as depictions of riders or warriors (seeking to realism?). Banquet scenes are nowadays understood more in the context of social status than cult significance. However, at least partial cult meaning cannot be avoided. A space designated for cult activities (e.g. banqueting) is characteristic for almost all types of Hellenistic funerary monuments. The raised stepped podia of Hellenistic built tombs and al- tars elevated on pedestals (in the case of temenoi with an underground chamber) are similar in character to the rock-cut tombs carved above the ground. The presence of altars in front of rock-cut tombs can only be assumed in combined built and rock- cut tombs. However, the symbolism of offering (and consumption) is present as depiction of “funeral banquet” on the façades. On the other hand, in the case of built tombs, altars are important cult and decorative elements. Both an altar and a relief depiction of a funeral banquet can be understood as carriers of the same or similar ideological message. The tomb became not only a resting place of the deceased but also a place of “formal worship” - with perhaps more ideological than religious aspects.
Certain changes in understanding and organization of burial space, combining traditional view and... more Certain changes in understanding and organization of burial space, combining traditional view and new trends, can be traced in antiquity, even if variations happened slowly and gradually. Hellenistic period was not an exception, as it is demonstrated by findings from various localities. Numerous tombs can be considered as space devoted to specific activities in honor and memory of deceased. From this point, coexistence of poleis, mixed cities with various legal rights or numerous communities were crucial in western Anatolia. Modification of older ancestor cult in the burial customs was clearly visible yet in classical Caria or Lycia. Memorials of wealthy members of society and benefactors had become more and more common and popular in the following period. These monuments can be seen as partial and smaller scale inspiration of building programme of local dynasts, but their owners were more related to the aristocratic settings. Certain similarities were visible in the various types of arts in the Greek mainland, bearing message concerning public life, awareness, affiliation or legitimacy of ruling power already in pre-Classical period. This tradition had continued throughout antiquity in wide geographical sphere. Epigraphic evidence, presence of altars, iconography of built or rock-cut tombs in south-western Anatolia in the Hellenistic period suggest more emphasis on cult activities linked with sacrifice and banqueting. It may be indicated also by recent finds of Π-shaped tomb from Labraunda temenos.
Opera Facultatis philosophicae Universitatis Carolinae Pragensis vol. XVIII, 2018
https://e-shop.ff.cuni.cz/knihy/monografie/eudaimon_studies_in_honor_of_jan_bouzek-1677
The Anat... more https://e-shop.ff.cuni.cz/knihy/monografie/eudaimon_studies_in_honor_of_jan_bouzek-1677
The Anatolian Iron age landscape presents a spectacular variety of burial practices, funerary architecture and ancestry monuments as well as a rich iconography of the dead. Many top‑hill burial places of various dates are known from the regions of Phrygia, Ionia, Lykia or Karia. The western coast of Anatolia was a border region between Western and Eastern cultural influences, as is revealed in syncretic, even hybrid forms of art. Material culture reflected both foreign and local influences. Communities in south‑western Anatolia bustled to build sepulchral rather than sacral monuments. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by the maintenance of native tradition as well as the inspiration of foreign customs, both on a broad geographical and chronological scale. The tradition of above ground burials in the Classical and post‑Classical periods may be seen in the resemblance of older peak sanctuaries, preceding rock‑cut monuments, the Persian way of placing the dead or local architectural tradition in Karia or Lykia.
Zborník príspevkov o antických chrámoch, svätyniach a héroách je druhým exemplárom z plánovanej r... more Zborník príspevkov o antických chrámoch, svätyniach a héroách je druhým exemplárom z plánovanej rady ARCHITECTURA ARCHAEOLOGICA ANTICA, zameranej na antickú architektúru. V úvodnej časti je predstavená základná terminológia antických chrámov a nasledujú dva tematické okruhy zamerané na chrámy, svätyne a héroony na trase plánovanej exkurzie (Heliopolis, Petra) a na iných územiach Rímskej ríše (Pula, Aennona, Olbia). Architektúra svätýn, chrámov a héroonov pokrýva obdobie od klasického a helenistického obdobia až do neskorej antiky. Autori príspevkov sa nesústredili len na zachovanú architektúru, ale zhromaždili aj informácie o najvýznamnejších umeleckých pamiatkach, zmienkach u antických autorov či zobrazeniach chrámov v novoveku.
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Ancient Anatolia by Lucia Novakova
The development of sepulchral art and architecture in Western Anatolia underwent notable evolution from the sixth to the 4th century B.C. The study highlights the social and political importance of funerary structures, which served not only as burial sites but also as symbols of dynastic power. The research emphasizes the long-term cultural interactions and stylistic shifts, leading to a standard mausoleum form by the 4th century B.C. This provides insight into varied influences on local burial customs.
Anatolia was a crucial nexus in Greek mythology, highlighting the dynamic interactions with its diverse populations. Myths served as cultural cornerstones, strengthening identity through generational storytelling. Greek myths often focused on foundational narratives and ethnic origins, while Anatolian traditions showcased a syncretic nature, integrating local, Greek, and Persian elements. This cultural interplay is vividly reflected in funerary art, combining different motifs, and in the evolving founding myths that increasingly adopted Greek aspects. The resulting identity of Anatolia's inhabitants was distinctly formed through the amalgamation and adaptation of varied cultural influences.
Anatolia was one of the most diverse areas of the ancient world, whether in terms of ethnicity, topography, climate or history. Anatolian efforts toward self-determination, whether cultural, political or religious, were intensified with the arrival of the Persians, which was also reflected in the sphere of funerary rites. The Greeks, especially under the influence of the events following the Ionian Revolt, began to emphasize their own difference from others. The Anatolians, on the other hand, tried to show their own identity by combining native, Greek and even Persian cultural elements.
evidence for foreign domination has been accompanied by new and revised evidence of the region’s acculturation, which appears to have been a natural process. Archaeological finds from funerary contexts provide
a large amount of information and testify to the cosmopolitan art and culture. Artists and craftsmen spread their artistic styles far and wide along with iconographic norms closely connected to exchange networks, circulation of people, and common lifeways.
Commemorative bronze equestrian statues of rulers and important individuals from the Hellenistic period were widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean world. None of these pieces has survived to present day, except for certain inscribed statue bases along with the corresponding literary record. Early Hellenistic honourific decrees issued by the Greek cities of Anatolia seem to partially complete the picture as to how the statues of rulers on horseback became an integral part of official royal portraits. The equestrian model was probably derived from the depiction of a victorious leader who, following Alexander´s example, led his army into battle on the back of horse and conquered his enemies. Persons thus awarded were generally kings and members of their families, or royal officials designated as guests or friends of rulers. Despite the fact that today these bronzes are irrevocably lost, their significance can be seen by the enhancement of similar types of monuments in subsequent periods.
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt. ISBN 978-3-7749-4216-5.
The Greek civilization, whose legacy remains visible to the present day, developed in several places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks often came into contact with different, sometimes significantly older and more developed cultures that helped them to advance in the sciences, arts and trade. One such crossroads of civilizations was Anatolia, a land that was the literal meeting place of east and west with an incredibly diverse population. This was reflected in the diversity of its cultures, languages and religions. There is a growing volume of new research – papers, articles and monographs – aimed at determining at least in part how these ancient societies defined themselves. The answer to this relatively complex question can only be sought in the written and archaeological evidence. We can get to know the Hellenes from written sources and their unique artistic heritage, while grave art helps to fill in the rich mosaic of their Anatolian neighbors. The term “Greeks dwelling beyond the sea” is a paraphrase of the name for the Greeks in foreign sources (Yaunā), which referred to the inhabitants of the distant lands beyond the western frontier of the Persian Empire. In this case, the term refers to the Greeks who crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the Anatolian mainland and nearby islands.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.09.34/
Preserving of local customs is visible in Karia and neigboring regions, as well as the effort to enforce new ideas and fashion in funerary architecture. The continuity of chosen types of burying and keeping up the local elements continued also in the Hellenistic period, even if Karian language and culture assimilated into the Greek. One of the examples is the appearance of heroa that was unlike the common tombs and burials, situated directly or close to urban structures. Funerary structures of this type are in part given into correlation with ancestor cult and afterlife deification of local rulers. Karia is also characteristic by the presence of representative temple-like tombs and burial precincts that appeared to be separated from the profane country. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by maintenance of native tradition as well as inspiration of foreign customs, both in a broad geographical and chronological scale. Especially notable appears proximity of Karian and Lykian material culture, becoming increasingly apparent in current scholar works. It is reflected in similar types of funerary buildings, importance of dynastic monuments, long-term tradition of heroa or modification of foreign stimuli according own needs. The common sign of identified heroa in the whole south-western Anatolia in the Hellenistic period was a combination of elements of several building types. Particularly significant seems to be so called temple tombs, which are nowadays understood as implication of older Anatolian tradion in funerary culture. Their origin, as well as the model of their façades, has been long debated, while it seems to be accepted now that they were shaped in order to reflect some kind of monumental, probably dynastic, buildings, rather than Greek temples. However, religious importance should not be omitted. It is important to point out assorted meaning of tombs, connected with position of dead person within society. In Hellenistic period an increasing emphasis on certain ritual activities can be observed.
http://www.habelt.de/
Grécka civilizácia, ktorej prínos je viditeľný do dnešných dní, sa rozvíjala v rôznych oblastiach Stredozemného mora. Gréci často prichádzali do kontaktu s odlišnými, v niektorých prípadoch značne staršími a rozvinutejšími kultúrami, ktoré im pomohli dosiahnuť pokrok v oblasti vedy, umenia alebo obchodu. Archaické obdobie gréckych dejín bolo charakteristické formovaním jedinečného prostredia, ktoré spolu s Grékmi tvorili tiež príslušníci rôzneho etnického, náboženského či kultúrneho pôvodu. Bolo to obdobie vzájomných bojov, ale aj výmeny umeleckých stimulov a rozvinutého medzinárodného obchodu. Grécke obce vo východnom Stredomorí, ktoré patrili medzi najvyspelejšie centrá svojej doby, zažili aj vďaka týmto kontaktom nebývalý ekonomický a kultúrny rozkvet. Dovtedy známy grécky svet značne rozšírili kolonizačné aktivity. Za Grékmi v tomto smere ničím nezaostávali Feničania, ktorí sa stali ich obchodnými partnermi i mocenskými rivalmi zároveň. Počas niekoľkých storočí vzájomných vzťahov sa zmenil vzťah Helénov k sebe samým, ale aj k tým, ktorých začali nazývať barbarmi (barbaroi). Tento postoj, spočiatku priateľský, ale postupom času čoraz viac poznačený stereotypnými predstavami, sa zmenil predovšetkým pod vplyvom pohnutých historických udalostí, ktoré charakterizovali mocenské boje Grékov s inými národmi.
Nováková, L.: Praising the Dead: Study of the Monumental Tombs in Anatolia. In: THE BOOK OF INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON BURIAL CUSTOMS IN ANATOLIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS (July 23 – 26, 2018), ed. by Elif ÖZER, 691-720. Ankara 2019: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları. In the multicultural region of Anatolia, the spread of new and the assimilation of older funerary rites and sepulchral monuments can be expected across a wider chronological span. Hellenistic period brought numerous important changes within Greek society. In sepulchral sphere, in terms of focusing on diversity and broad distribution of tombs types, especially important seems to be, with the expansion of the Greek world, an intersection of the Greek and non-Greek cultures, high mobility of groups or individuals, re-appearance of
(civic) elite or modification of private hero cults. Since the Late Classical period, memorials of wealthy members of society and euergetai had become more and more common. These civic monuments were probably inspired by building programs of local dynasts, tyrants or
aristocracy. Hellenistic monumental tombs in western Anatolia represent various types of above ground burials that became a prototype of later sepulchral structures. Funerary monuments of Early Imperial period followed previous architectural traditions. Common features include a
combination of architectural orders and a position at dominant locations, including viae sacrae or, in the case of heroa, temple temenoi. This tradition continued throughout antiquity in wide geographical sphere. The resulting hybrid funerary structures, usually referred to as maussoleia, connected high podia and monumental dimensions, probably of eastern origin, while the upper parts of tombs contained elements of Greek and local architecture, satisfying the desire of the owner to be remembered and displayed pretentiously.
Anadolu’nun Arkaik ve Klasik dönemlerindeki mezar ikonografisine baktığımızda, Anadolu halkına, ağırlıklı olarak da genel halka özgü bir özellik olarak öne çıkan, ölen kişinin figürünü merkeze alan kabartmalarla bezenmiş mezarlarla karşılaşırız. Bu tür bezemelerle kaplı mezarlar, ölen kişinin fiziksel görüntüsünü yalnızca akrabalarından oluşan dar bir çevre için sergileme amacını taşımakla kalmayıp, bir tür kamusal ifade halini almıştır. Bu mezarlarda ne tür imgelerin kullanılacağı veya mezarın biçimi ve mezar yazıtında kullanılacak dilin seçimi gibi konuların hiçbiri rastlantısal değildir. Mezarlar üzerinde yer alan bezemeler, imgeler, yazıtların dili gibi tüm unsurlar, ölen kişinin belirli bir topluluğa bağlı olma durumunu, bu topluluğun iç dinamiklerini veya diğer etnik gruplar ile olan ilişkilerini yansıtır. Anadolu, Yunan ve Pers uygarlıklarının her biri, ölen kişilerin imgelerini kullanarak kendi güçlerini, zenginliklerini ve aynı zamanda diğer halklara olan üstünlüklerini göstermeyi hedeflemişlerdir. Anadolu halklarının kültürel, siyasi ve dini alanlarda kendi kaderlerini tayin etme çabalarının, Perslerin gelişi ile birlikte daha da ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Bunun yansımaları mezar tipolojisi ve ikonografisinde de kendini gösterir. Yunanların, özellikle İonia İsyanı sonrasında meydana gelen olayların etkisi ile birlikte, kendilerini barbaroi yani “barbarlar” olarak nitelendirdikleri halklardan ayırmaya başladıklarını görürüz. Öte yandan Anadolu halkları da, sahip oldukları yerel kültürel özellikleri, Yunan ve hatta Pers kültürlerine özgü özellikler ile birleştirerek kendilerine özgü bir kimlik yaratmış, ve bu kimliği gösterme çabası içinde bulunmuşlardır. Bugün elimizdeki yazılı kaynaklar ve eşsiz sanat eserleri Yunanlar hakkında son derece detaylı bilgiler sağlarken, mezar taşları ve taşlar üzerinde yer alan yazıt ve bezemeler de Anadolu halklarına ait bu çok çeşitli mozaiğin tamamlanmasını sağlar.
Nováková, L. 2019: Trade, Contacts and Production in Iron Age Anatolia: Testimony from Beyond the Grave. In: PRODUCTION AND TRADE THROUGH THE AGES: From Prehistory to the Byzantine Period, edited by O. Dumankaya, 255-280. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
In the Archaic period of Greek history, a unique environment developed in which Greeks lived alongside peoples of varied ethnic, religious and cultural backgrounds. It was a time of many conflicts, but also the exchange of artistic inspiration and extensive international trade. Such contacts enabled the Greek communities of the eastern Mediterranean, which were amongst the most advanced centers of their time, to achieve unprecedented economic and cultural prosperity. This was supported by the invention of coinage, retail and a dense trading network not just in the Anatolian hinterland but also around the Mediterranean Sea. The then known Greek world significantly expanded its colonization activity. No less active than the Greeks in such activity were the Phoenicians, who became the Greeks’ business partners and power rivals at the same time. The intensive commercial, diplomatic and cultural contacts linking Anatolia, Egypt and the Middle East returned to the levels that had existed before the collapse of the Late Bronze Age civilizations. Evidence pointing to the luxurious lifestyles of the local elites in Anatolia comes from many finds at burial sites as well as written sources.
Nováková, L.: “Ölüleri Anmak: Geç Klasik Dönemde Anadolu ve Yunan Ana Karasında Kültürel İlişkiler ve Ölüm İle Bağlantılı Gelenekler.” In Memento Mori. Ölüm ve Ölüm Uygulamalari, edited by A.M. Büyükkarakaya and E. Başak Aksoy, 397-418. Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari 2019.
Throughout history, the Aegean Sea has enabled lively communications between the Greek mainland, the islands, and western Anatolia. The migration of artists led to the mutual exchange of new concepts, ideas and technologies, which was reflected in the field of the manufacture and decoration of tombstones. The fourth century B.C. introduced a great range of tombs in both Greek and non-Greek environments. Diverse traditions of funerary monuments in mainland Greece and Anatolia, differing in architectural style and iconography, were recognized for a long time. Greek artists, working for both Greek and non-Greek customers, experimented for a long period with the architectural form and decorative elements of private and public monuments. In the Late Classical period, an adapting of temple forms to tombs took place in Anatolia, reflected in their sumptuous funerary monuments consisting of a niche filled with sculpture and framed by pilasters and a pediment. New types of sepulchral buildings emerged when fusing the tradition of Greek public art with the form of non-Greek monumental tomb traditions. In the fourth century B.C., this experimentation found its way to mainland Greece.
Outstanding bloom of art and culture, which took a place in western Anatolia during the Archaic period, contributed substantially to the development of Classical civilization. Economic and cultural prosperity of the Greek cities happened at a time of their power- dependence on Lydian and later Persian empire. The process of cultural development was not unilateral, and the continuous mutual interference of Greek and local, non-Greek communities is presumed. A new cultural revival that began in the fourth century BC, in many aspects resembled thriving Ionian Enlightenment. While cultural and economic boom of the Ionian Renaissance took place during the reign of local Karian satraps (395–334 BC), it is not possible to say when it ended. The ideas and styles of the movement, especially in the case of architecture, developed and continued into the post-Classical periods, influenced both by local and Greek ethnics. The older dynastic architecture was an inspiration for the construction of various sepulchral monuments whose owners belonged to the ruling royal or “civic” elite of the Hellenistic period in western Anatolia. As well as tomb buildings, the number of honorific monuments within city-centers increased.
The Anatolian Iron age landscape presents a spectacular variety of burial practices, funerary architecture and ancestry monuments as well as a rich iconography of the dead. Many top‑hill burial places of various dates are known from the regions of Phrygia, Ionia, Lykia or Karia. The western coast of Anatolia was a border region between Western and Eastern cultural influences, as is revealed in syncretic, even hybrid forms of art. Material culture reflected both foreign and local influences. Communities in south‑western Anatolia bustled to build sepulchral rather than sacral monuments. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by the maintenance of native tradition as well as the inspiration of foreign customs, both on a broad geographical and chronological scale. The tradition of above ground burials in the Classical and post‑Classical periods may be seen in the resemblance of older peak sanctuaries, preceding rock‑cut monuments, the Persian way of placing the dead or local architectural tradition in Karia or Lykia.
The development of sepulchral art and architecture in Western Anatolia underwent notable evolution from the sixth to the 4th century B.C. The study highlights the social and political importance of funerary structures, which served not only as burial sites but also as symbols of dynastic power. The research emphasizes the long-term cultural interactions and stylistic shifts, leading to a standard mausoleum form by the 4th century B.C. This provides insight into varied influences on local burial customs.
Anatolia was a crucial nexus in Greek mythology, highlighting the dynamic interactions with its diverse populations. Myths served as cultural cornerstones, strengthening identity through generational storytelling. Greek myths often focused on foundational narratives and ethnic origins, while Anatolian traditions showcased a syncretic nature, integrating local, Greek, and Persian elements. This cultural interplay is vividly reflected in funerary art, combining different motifs, and in the evolving founding myths that increasingly adopted Greek aspects. The resulting identity of Anatolia's inhabitants was distinctly formed through the amalgamation and adaptation of varied cultural influences.
Anatolia was one of the most diverse areas of the ancient world, whether in terms of ethnicity, topography, climate or history. Anatolian efforts toward self-determination, whether cultural, political or religious, were intensified with the arrival of the Persians, which was also reflected in the sphere of funerary rites. The Greeks, especially under the influence of the events following the Ionian Revolt, began to emphasize their own difference from others. The Anatolians, on the other hand, tried to show their own identity by combining native, Greek and even Persian cultural elements.
evidence for foreign domination has been accompanied by new and revised evidence of the region’s acculturation, which appears to have been a natural process. Archaeological finds from funerary contexts provide
a large amount of information and testify to the cosmopolitan art and culture. Artists and craftsmen spread their artistic styles far and wide along with iconographic norms closely connected to exchange networks, circulation of people, and common lifeways.
Commemorative bronze equestrian statues of rulers and important individuals from the Hellenistic period were widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean world. None of these pieces has survived to present day, except for certain inscribed statue bases along with the corresponding literary record. Early Hellenistic honourific decrees issued by the Greek cities of Anatolia seem to partially complete the picture as to how the statues of rulers on horseback became an integral part of official royal portraits. The equestrian model was probably derived from the depiction of a victorious leader who, following Alexander´s example, led his army into battle on the back of horse and conquered his enemies. Persons thus awarded were generally kings and members of their families, or royal officials designated as guests or friends of rulers. Despite the fact that today these bronzes are irrevocably lost, their significance can be seen by the enhancement of similar types of monuments in subsequent periods.
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments. Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt. ISBN 978-3-7749-4216-5.
The Greek civilization, whose legacy remains visible to the present day, developed in several places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks often came into contact with different, sometimes significantly older and more developed cultures that helped them to advance in the sciences, arts and trade. One such crossroads of civilizations was Anatolia, a land that was the literal meeting place of east and west with an incredibly diverse population. This was reflected in the diversity of its cultures, languages and religions. There is a growing volume of new research – papers, articles and monographs – aimed at determining at least in part how these ancient societies defined themselves. The answer to this relatively complex question can only be sought in the written and archaeological evidence. We can get to know the Hellenes from written sources and their unique artistic heritage, while grave art helps to fill in the rich mosaic of their Anatolian neighbors. The term “Greeks dwelling beyond the sea” is a paraphrase of the name for the Greeks in foreign sources (Yaunā), which referred to the inhabitants of the distant lands beyond the western frontier of the Persian Empire. In this case, the term refers to the Greeks who crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the Anatolian mainland and nearby islands.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.09.34/
Preserving of local customs is visible in Karia and neigboring regions, as well as the effort to enforce new ideas and fashion in funerary architecture. The continuity of chosen types of burying and keeping up the local elements continued also in the Hellenistic period, even if Karian language and culture assimilated into the Greek. One of the examples is the appearance of heroa that was unlike the common tombs and burials, situated directly or close to urban structures. Funerary structures of this type are in part given into correlation with ancestor cult and afterlife deification of local rulers. Karia is also characteristic by the presence of representative temple-like tombs and burial precincts that appeared to be separated from the profane country. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by maintenance of native tradition as well as inspiration of foreign customs, both in a broad geographical and chronological scale. Especially notable appears proximity of Karian and Lykian material culture, becoming increasingly apparent in current scholar works. It is reflected in similar types of funerary buildings, importance of dynastic monuments, long-term tradition of heroa or modification of foreign stimuli according own needs. The common sign of identified heroa in the whole south-western Anatolia in the Hellenistic period was a combination of elements of several building types. Particularly significant seems to be so called temple tombs, which are nowadays understood as implication of older Anatolian tradion in funerary culture. Their origin, as well as the model of their façades, has been long debated, while it seems to be accepted now that they were shaped in order to reflect some kind of monumental, probably dynastic, buildings, rather than Greek temples. However, religious importance should not be omitted. It is important to point out assorted meaning of tombs, connected with position of dead person within society. In Hellenistic period an increasing emphasis on certain ritual activities can be observed.
http://www.habelt.de/
Grécka civilizácia, ktorej prínos je viditeľný do dnešných dní, sa rozvíjala v rôznych oblastiach Stredozemného mora. Gréci často prichádzali do kontaktu s odlišnými, v niektorých prípadoch značne staršími a rozvinutejšími kultúrami, ktoré im pomohli dosiahnuť pokrok v oblasti vedy, umenia alebo obchodu. Archaické obdobie gréckych dejín bolo charakteristické formovaním jedinečného prostredia, ktoré spolu s Grékmi tvorili tiež príslušníci rôzneho etnického, náboženského či kultúrneho pôvodu. Bolo to obdobie vzájomných bojov, ale aj výmeny umeleckých stimulov a rozvinutého medzinárodného obchodu. Grécke obce vo východnom Stredomorí, ktoré patrili medzi najvyspelejšie centrá svojej doby, zažili aj vďaka týmto kontaktom nebývalý ekonomický a kultúrny rozkvet. Dovtedy známy grécky svet značne rozšírili kolonizačné aktivity. Za Grékmi v tomto smere ničím nezaostávali Feničania, ktorí sa stali ich obchodnými partnermi i mocenskými rivalmi zároveň. Počas niekoľkých storočí vzájomných vzťahov sa zmenil vzťah Helénov k sebe samým, ale aj k tým, ktorých začali nazývať barbarmi (barbaroi). Tento postoj, spočiatku priateľský, ale postupom času čoraz viac poznačený stereotypnými predstavami, sa zmenil predovšetkým pod vplyvom pohnutých historických udalostí, ktoré charakterizovali mocenské boje Grékov s inými národmi.
Nováková, L.: Praising the Dead: Study of the Monumental Tombs in Anatolia. In: THE BOOK OF INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON BURIAL CUSTOMS IN ANATOLIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS (July 23 – 26, 2018), ed. by Elif ÖZER, 691-720. Ankara 2019: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları. In the multicultural region of Anatolia, the spread of new and the assimilation of older funerary rites and sepulchral monuments can be expected across a wider chronological span. Hellenistic period brought numerous important changes within Greek society. In sepulchral sphere, in terms of focusing on diversity and broad distribution of tombs types, especially important seems to be, with the expansion of the Greek world, an intersection of the Greek and non-Greek cultures, high mobility of groups or individuals, re-appearance of
(civic) elite or modification of private hero cults. Since the Late Classical period, memorials of wealthy members of society and euergetai had become more and more common. These civic monuments were probably inspired by building programs of local dynasts, tyrants or
aristocracy. Hellenistic monumental tombs in western Anatolia represent various types of above ground burials that became a prototype of later sepulchral structures. Funerary monuments of Early Imperial period followed previous architectural traditions. Common features include a
combination of architectural orders and a position at dominant locations, including viae sacrae or, in the case of heroa, temple temenoi. This tradition continued throughout antiquity in wide geographical sphere. The resulting hybrid funerary structures, usually referred to as maussoleia, connected high podia and monumental dimensions, probably of eastern origin, while the upper parts of tombs contained elements of Greek and local architecture, satisfying the desire of the owner to be remembered and displayed pretentiously.
Anadolu’nun Arkaik ve Klasik dönemlerindeki mezar ikonografisine baktığımızda, Anadolu halkına, ağırlıklı olarak da genel halka özgü bir özellik olarak öne çıkan, ölen kişinin figürünü merkeze alan kabartmalarla bezenmiş mezarlarla karşılaşırız. Bu tür bezemelerle kaplı mezarlar, ölen kişinin fiziksel görüntüsünü yalnızca akrabalarından oluşan dar bir çevre için sergileme amacını taşımakla kalmayıp, bir tür kamusal ifade halini almıştır. Bu mezarlarda ne tür imgelerin kullanılacağı veya mezarın biçimi ve mezar yazıtında kullanılacak dilin seçimi gibi konuların hiçbiri rastlantısal değildir. Mezarlar üzerinde yer alan bezemeler, imgeler, yazıtların dili gibi tüm unsurlar, ölen kişinin belirli bir topluluğa bağlı olma durumunu, bu topluluğun iç dinamiklerini veya diğer etnik gruplar ile olan ilişkilerini yansıtır. Anadolu, Yunan ve Pers uygarlıklarının her biri, ölen kişilerin imgelerini kullanarak kendi güçlerini, zenginliklerini ve aynı zamanda diğer halklara olan üstünlüklerini göstermeyi hedeflemişlerdir. Anadolu halklarının kültürel, siyasi ve dini alanlarda kendi kaderlerini tayin etme çabalarının, Perslerin gelişi ile birlikte daha da ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Bunun yansımaları mezar tipolojisi ve ikonografisinde de kendini gösterir. Yunanların, özellikle İonia İsyanı sonrasında meydana gelen olayların etkisi ile birlikte, kendilerini barbaroi yani “barbarlar” olarak nitelendirdikleri halklardan ayırmaya başladıklarını görürüz. Öte yandan Anadolu halkları da, sahip oldukları yerel kültürel özellikleri, Yunan ve hatta Pers kültürlerine özgü özellikler ile birleştirerek kendilerine özgü bir kimlik yaratmış, ve bu kimliği gösterme çabası içinde bulunmuşlardır. Bugün elimizdeki yazılı kaynaklar ve eşsiz sanat eserleri Yunanlar hakkında son derece detaylı bilgiler sağlarken, mezar taşları ve taşlar üzerinde yer alan yazıt ve bezemeler de Anadolu halklarına ait bu çok çeşitli mozaiğin tamamlanmasını sağlar.
Nováková, L. 2019: Trade, Contacts and Production in Iron Age Anatolia: Testimony from Beyond the Grave. In: PRODUCTION AND TRADE THROUGH THE AGES: From Prehistory to the Byzantine Period, edited by O. Dumankaya, 255-280. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları.
In the Archaic period of Greek history, a unique environment developed in which Greeks lived alongside peoples of varied ethnic, religious and cultural backgrounds. It was a time of many conflicts, but also the exchange of artistic inspiration and extensive international trade. Such contacts enabled the Greek communities of the eastern Mediterranean, which were amongst the most advanced centers of their time, to achieve unprecedented economic and cultural prosperity. This was supported by the invention of coinage, retail and a dense trading network not just in the Anatolian hinterland but also around the Mediterranean Sea. The then known Greek world significantly expanded its colonization activity. No less active than the Greeks in such activity were the Phoenicians, who became the Greeks’ business partners and power rivals at the same time. The intensive commercial, diplomatic and cultural contacts linking Anatolia, Egypt and the Middle East returned to the levels that had existed before the collapse of the Late Bronze Age civilizations. Evidence pointing to the luxurious lifestyles of the local elites in Anatolia comes from many finds at burial sites as well as written sources.
Nováková, L.: “Ölüleri Anmak: Geç Klasik Dönemde Anadolu ve Yunan Ana Karasında Kültürel İlişkiler ve Ölüm İle Bağlantılı Gelenekler.” In Memento Mori. Ölüm ve Ölüm Uygulamalari, edited by A.M. Büyükkarakaya and E. Başak Aksoy, 397-418. Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari 2019.
Throughout history, the Aegean Sea has enabled lively communications between the Greek mainland, the islands, and western Anatolia. The migration of artists led to the mutual exchange of new concepts, ideas and technologies, which was reflected in the field of the manufacture and decoration of tombstones. The fourth century B.C. introduced a great range of tombs in both Greek and non-Greek environments. Diverse traditions of funerary monuments in mainland Greece and Anatolia, differing in architectural style and iconography, were recognized for a long time. Greek artists, working for both Greek and non-Greek customers, experimented for a long period with the architectural form and decorative elements of private and public monuments. In the Late Classical period, an adapting of temple forms to tombs took place in Anatolia, reflected in their sumptuous funerary monuments consisting of a niche filled with sculpture and framed by pilasters and a pediment. New types of sepulchral buildings emerged when fusing the tradition of Greek public art with the form of non-Greek monumental tomb traditions. In the fourth century B.C., this experimentation found its way to mainland Greece.
Outstanding bloom of art and culture, which took a place in western Anatolia during the Archaic period, contributed substantially to the development of Classical civilization. Economic and cultural prosperity of the Greek cities happened at a time of their power- dependence on Lydian and later Persian empire. The process of cultural development was not unilateral, and the continuous mutual interference of Greek and local, non-Greek communities is presumed. A new cultural revival that began in the fourth century BC, in many aspects resembled thriving Ionian Enlightenment. While cultural and economic boom of the Ionian Renaissance took place during the reign of local Karian satraps (395–334 BC), it is not possible to say when it ended. The ideas and styles of the movement, especially in the case of architecture, developed and continued into the post-Classical periods, influenced both by local and Greek ethnics. The older dynastic architecture was an inspiration for the construction of various sepulchral monuments whose owners belonged to the ruling royal or “civic” elite of the Hellenistic period in western Anatolia. As well as tomb buildings, the number of honorific monuments within city-centers increased.
The Anatolian Iron age landscape presents a spectacular variety of burial practices, funerary architecture and ancestry monuments as well as a rich iconography of the dead. Many top‑hill burial places of various dates are known from the regions of Phrygia, Ionia, Lykia or Karia. The western coast of Anatolia was a border region between Western and Eastern cultural influences, as is revealed in syncretic, even hybrid forms of art. Material culture reflected both foreign and local influences. Communities in south‑western Anatolia bustled to build sepulchral rather than sacral monuments. Above ground tombs and burials may be explained by the maintenance of native tradition as well as the inspiration of foreign customs, both on a broad geographical and chronological scale. The tradition of above ground burials in the Classical and post‑Classical periods may be seen in the resemblance of older peak sanctuaries, preceding rock‑cut monuments, the Persian way of placing the dead or local architectural tradition in Karia or Lykia.
cases of houses of the Early Greece, when the direct knowledge of environments that constitute the living
space is more noticeable, especially through the echo of the rhapsodic tradition expressed in the Homeric poems. The first written works of Greek literature became the basis of the then education and knowledge. Some salient passages, taken above all the Odyssey and limited to the descriptions of domestic space, are presented. The main attention is paid to the geographic area that goes from the Greek peninsula to the insular areas up to the island of Crete
Predložený prvý diel obsahuje definíciu, chronologický rámec, dejiny bádania, pramene, prehľad základnej metodológie a terminológie klasickej archeológie, významné inštitúcie i zaužívané princípy písania a citovania. Ďalšie kapitoly sú venované minojskej a mykénskej civilizácii egejskej doby bronzovej. Prechádzajú od charakteristiky doby, topografiu a chronológiu a archeologické pramene. Predstavujú stavebné zvyšky minojských palácov, víl a mykénskych „hradov“ i obydlia prostých osadníkov až po miesta ich posledného odpočinku na pohrebiskách, ktoré vypovedajú o pohrebných obradoch a ríte. K svedectvám o živote obidvoch kultúrnych entít, náboženstve – a civilizačnej úrovni vôbec, patrilo aj prvé písmo v európskom priestore. Početnú skupinu v množstve nálezov predstavuje keramika: úžitková a dekoratívna, neraz kultového dosahu, akou bola aj drobná hlinená plastika – ľudská a zvieracia. Významnú súčasť nálezového fondu tvorí glyptika i honosné šperky z drahého kovu vedúcej vrstvy miestnych vládcov. V ich palácoch a hradoch zostali zvyšky nástenných malieb a iného materiálu, o. i. hlinené tabuľky s lineárnym písmom B. Sú dôležitou informáciou o palácovom hospodárstve, o slávených sviatkoch a obetných daroch. Spomínajú po mene aj prvé božstvá, známe neskôr z gréckeho pantheonu. Sú svedectvom o rozvrstvení spoločnosti, najmä v dobe čiastočného zaujatia minojskej Kréty Mykénčanmi. Za bohatstvo a moc nepochybne vďačili obchodu a rozvoju vodnej dopravy na člnoch, na počiatku s minojskou thalasokratiou na mori.
Pri tvorbe koncepcie bola zvolená jednotná štruktúra učebnice, čiastočne prispôsobená špecifikám uvedených civilizácií. Predložený diel obsahuje dejiny bádania a základnú chronológiu gréckej civilizácie, jej kultúru a umenie, doplnenú o geografickú charakteristiku antického Grécka. Metodologické prístupy sú vysvetlené v kapitolách venovaných písomným prameňom a základným pojmom umeleckohistorickej klasifikácie a analýzy. Ťažisko spočíva na chronologickom prehľade umeleckej činnosti, v ktorej sa naplno prejavila tvorivosť a originalita starých Grékov. Zahŕňa nálezy gréckej keramiky, vrátane vázového maliarstva v rôznych oblastiach na pobreží Stredozemného a Čierneho mora, svedčiace o rozvinutých obchodných a kultúrnych kontaktoch gréckeho sveta.
Podľa antických autorov boli pre Grékov ich zvyklosti, náboženstvo a kultúra dôležité a záväzné rovnako na materskom území ako v kolóniách. Ich kolonizačné aktivity výrazným spôsobom prispeli k hospodárskemu či kultúrnemu rozvoju vtedajšieho sveta. Grécki sochári a architekti spočiatku v mnohom vďačili blízkovýchodným a egyptským predlohám. Onedlho ich však premenili na jedinečné diela, ktoré obdivujeme dodnes. Pripomína nám to aténska akropola, ktorá slúžila na oslavu azda najväčšieho výdobytku antických Grékov, aténskej demokracie. Veľké množstvo gréckych sôch pritom poznáme len z nálezov rímskych kópií, ktoré nie vždy zachovali vernosť originálu. Platí to aj pre nástenné maľby a mozaiky, ktoré sa zachovali len vo veľmi malej miere. Zmenu osídlenia, migráciu obyvateľstva či sociálno-historické premeny gréckej spoločnosti dokladá pohrebný rítus. O tom, že grécka civilizácia nám stále nie je vzdialená, svedčí doteraz pretrvávajúci záujem o jej spoznávanie.
Current archaeological research has expanded the known repertoire of the Late Classical and Hellenistic tombstones, which represent unique building structures. These include square or rectangular tombs with a stepped base, traditionally referred to as epitymbia. They may represent a local variant of a tower-like tomb with pyramid roof that appeared in monumental form along the eastern Mediterranean shores and adjacent areas. In order to present a study on the “monumental” necropoleis of the Hellenistic age identified in the north-eastern cusp of Sicily, two cases of great importance for the particular characteristics of organization, structure and monumentality will be discussed: the Abakainon (Tripi) and the Zancle-Messana (Messina) necropoleis.
Despite their having settled in various places throughout the Mediterranean, the ancient Greeks maintained close relations and cultural unity among themselves, especially during the Classical period. Sicily, due to its advantageous strategic location, became an object of interest first to the Phoenicians of the Levant, and later to the Carthaginians, who had established several colonies mainly in its western region, thus coming into direct, not always friendly contact with the Greek colonists. As with other areas of Greek settlement, cultural exchange – not only between Greeks and other settlers, but between Greeks and native ethnics – resulted in the creation of unique works of art. Various types of large-scale public buildings – and later, private memorials – became a means of self-expression for ancient Greeks living anywhere in the Mediterranean. Interactions between eastern and western Greek architects can be seen already in the Archaic period. The predominance of the Doric style in Sicily is associated with the increased power of Doric poleis during the Classical period, but in this case it is also possible to spot the incorporation of Ionian elements, or even direct inspiration from Ionian buildings. The resulting structures – usually combining Greek and foreign architectural features – became, as in other parts of the Greek world, a means of legitimizing the power or self-representation of tyrants and civic communities.
http://www.vhu.sk/31-sk/archiv/
Militarism and Religious Rituals in Ancient Greece I
Part I. Vojenská história, 3, 22, 2018, pp 8-38, Bratislava.
The first part of the study deals with the analysis of the sacrificial rituals and their impact on the militarism of ancient Greece. The oracles, as the part of the army, together with military commanders, determined the strategy before the important decisions to align them with the “will of the gods” based on the oracles’ signs. These included not only situations during the military campaigns themselves but also ahead of them. In this case, the oracles played a significant role, in particular the one in Delphi. However, the sacrifices were also important during crossing borders or rivers, along with the significant role of atmospheric phenomena such as the Solar or Moon eclipse.
Náboženské predstavy ešte donedávna ovplyvňovali život človeka v omnoho väčšej
miere, než je tomu dnes. Tieto pohľady na svet, jeho fungovanie a miesto človeka v ňom sú nám však už dnes do značnej miery vzdialené. Pri hodnotení vojenstva v minulosti, a to nielen v prípade starovekého Grécka, má dnešný človek tendenciu prehliadať, resp. marginalizovať vtedajší vzťah spoločnosti ku kultom a náboženským predstavám, ktoré sa prejavovali pri obetovaní bohom, veštení alebo vykladaní rôznych znamení. Odmietame to často ako podvod na oklamanie poverčivých či nevzdelaných zo strany kňazov. Je totiž ťažké si predstaviť, že nad taktickými a inými vojenskými hľadiskami mali často navrch, pre nás úplne nepochopiteľné záležitosti, ako napr. pozorovanie obetných znamení (semeia, hiera) či – najmä v archaickom období – veštenie z letu vtákov (oiónizomai). Veštenie (mantiké, mantosuné, chresmos) totiž predstavovalo základný prostriedok komunikácie s bohmi.
Throughout history, the Aegean Sea has enabled lively communications between the Greek mainland, the islands, and western Anatolia. The migration of artists led to the mutual exchange of new concepts, ideas and technologies, which was reflected in the field of the manufacture and decoration of tombstones. The fourth century B.C. introduced a great range of tombs in both Greek and non-Greek environments. Diverse traditions of funerary monuments in mainland Greece and Anatolia, differing in architectural style and iconography, were recognized for a long time. Greek artists, working for both Greek and non-Greek customers, experimented for a long period with the architectural form and decorative elements of private and public monuments. In the Late Classical period, an adapting of temple forms to tombs took place in Anatolia, reflected in their sumptuous funerary monuments consisting of a niche filled with sculpture and framed by pilasters and a pediment. New types of sepulchral buildings emerged when fusing the tradition of Greek public art with the form of non-Greek monumental tomb traditions. In the fourth century B.C., this experimentation found its way to mainland Greece.
http://www.shnnitra.ff.ukf.sk/2018-roc-22-c-2/
Greek city- states included a comprehensive social system with regard to the political and socio-economic aspects of their inhabitants. Polis, regarded as political and religious group of people, living in a particular area, was made up by three basic components: citizens, political constitution and territory. Citizens had been involved in the construction of public buildings as well as in various other activities. This is probably why the role of communites, which directly defined polis, was accentuated. Egalitarian character of the Greek society, dominated by Athenians, limited possibilities of portraying a particular individual. Tumultuous events of the Classical period brought to the forefront primarily military commanders and politicians. This trend was further deepend in the next centuries. While promoting equality, poleis appreciated beneficial acts and remarkable deeds of their citizens. Public places were filled by typified statues of andres agathoi. This statuary landscape of the Greek cities, partially preserved in epigraphic finds, almost dissapeared. Importance of euergetism increased in the Late Classical period, becoming one of the main funds for the maintenance of public life. Individual citizens were rewarded by honorific inscriptions, where other honors were often given (erecting a statue, giving a wreath, proclamation of praise, seats in the first place in cultural and sporting agones etc.). Hellenistic poleis – maintaining autonomy in the outermost sense - granted various honours and privileges to the members of royal dynasties and their close dignitaries. Particular emphasis was focused on military memorials, including equestrian statues, which became an integral part of the public monuments in antiquity.
The art of portrait in the ancient Greek world was the result of bringing together several, at first glance opposing artistic trends, aspiring to idealized, but also realistic imagery. Artists, on the one hand, used abstraction and forms clearly defined already in the Geometric period, on the other, searched for inspiration in nature, desiring to reflect reality as closely as possible. Another key feature of the Greek portraiture art was its communal character. Individual artworks, exhibited almost exclusively in public places, helped to create desired identity of the ancient Greeks. The egalitarian character of the Greek society, dominated by Athens, limited the possibilities of portraying a particular individual. Was it really true? It seems that there were also exceptions. Major changes in portraiture came in the fourth century B.C. In displaying of particular members of society, two main artistic perceptions dominated. The first, related to the public art, extended types of displayed characters. The second, associated with an emphasis on individuals, tried to highlight their uniqueness. Even if images remained typified. In this case, a kind of reduction of the public nature of the Greek portraiture appeared that - perhaps for the first time – freed from its ideological content.
http://www.vhu.sk/5323-sk/2/
Second part of the study deals with sacrifice and signs as a camouflage, i.e. either downright frauds of the military leaders or adaptation thereof to their own intentions, with the aim to positively influence the ethics of their battalions. What was particularly important were the natural and astronomical phenomena considered as divine signs. These included mainly the Moon and Sun eclipses as well as earthquakes which often paralysed the military activity and usually resulted in stopping or postponing the military campaigns. An irreplaceable position in the Greek army was also held by the oracles who often intervened in the battle directly. They could also influence the military affairs by interpreting dreams, mainly in the case of dreams of military leaders and other significant personalities. Sacrifice and interpretation of signs before the battle itself played an important role. Especially the Spartans did not go into battle until favourable sacrificial signs were revealed to their king. Often, these were the sacrifices of the sfagia type, the king could repeat until the requested signs appeared.
Military History. Ancient Greece. Sacrifice Frauds, Natural and Astronomic Signs, Pre-battle Sacrifices and Signs.
http://www.vhu.sk/data/att/11162.pdf
Roháč, P. – Nováková, L. 2020: Vojenské rituály v antickom Grécku: ďakovné obety a oslava víťazstva. Vojenská história 1/24: 6-30.
The study deals with the votive offerings after victories and various forms of votive gifts as the tithes promised to deities. This could include building of a temple, statues of the military leaders or gods considered as the architects of their success as well as weapons and items, often made of precious metals, most frequently devoted to Apollo in Delphi. Of particular significance were the tropaia, the victorious monuments built on the site of a battle as well as reports on the burials of the fallen. The conclusion touches symbolically on the subject of fate of some of the memorials to the aforementioned Greek victories.
The celebration of victory, along with the demonstration of power and invincibility, was one of the key elements of public art in advanced ancient civilizations. Ancient Greece was no exception. Classical Athenian art was largely funded by the Athenians' military booty and the members of the Delian League. Every piece of work was designed to make the unity and power of the Greek world visible, led by Athens, to emphasize the difference between Greeks and those they called barbarians. Permanent monuments, tropaia, served to constantly remind people of the great triumphs of the Hellenes over defeated enemies. They began to appear during the Greco-Persian Wars. These were community works that later became a model for the propaganda repertoire of the Romans and other nations. However, there were not the only Greek memorials celebrating victory. In individual city-states and temple districts were buildings, sculptures and paintings celebrating the power of Hellenes that were complemented by literary works of poets and playwrights. The effort to make military power and superiority more visible in art was also characterized by the fratricidal battles of the Greeks during the Peloponnesian Wars.
https://ff.truni.sk/ucebne-texty/environmentalna-archeologia-clovek-priroda-v-staroveku-i
https://ff.truni.sk/ucebne-texty/environmentalna-archeologia-clovek-priroda-v-staroveku-ii
The collection of papers on ancient aqueducts is the third copy of the planned series ARCHITECTURA ARCHAEOLOGICA ANTICA, focusing on ancient architecture. The introductory part presents the basic terminology of ancient aqueducts, the way they were constructed, and the sources of information on which we can draw today. The main body of the text includes examples of water extraction and management in the Mediterranean area, including Rome, and beyond the Roman Empire. The authors have not only concentrated on the surviving architecture, but have also gathered information on the most important artistic monuments, mentions in ancient authors or depictions of aqueducts on other monuments.
VODA PRE KLÍMU - NÁVRHY OPATRENÍ NA ZMIERNENIE DOPADOV KLIMATICKEJ ZMENY V TRNAVSKOM REGIÓNE, ed. by I. Matušek, 17-18. Trnava: Aragart.
- klimatická zmena a jej globálne aspekty
- klimatická situácia Trnavského regiónu
- mestá a poľné sytstémy ako tepelné ostrovy a vplyv na lokálnu klímu
- opatrenia pre zmiernenie a adaptáciu na klimatickú zmenu pre Trnavský región
- komplexný manažment vody obce Horné Orešany
This article sums up latest items of information about the medieval buildings of the town of Šamorín, the results of research at the Gazdovský rad location. This has revealed the foundations of several brickwork buildings, the remains of a timber house, heating devices including a solitary-standing cupola-type furnace and plentiful ceramic material. The finds span the high Middle Ages and the modern age. The objective of the research has been to expand knowledge of a location that has yet to be archeologically investigated, despite its long history. The processing of the results involved dendrochronological analysis.
The study provides insights into the funerary heritage of Kharg Island in the Persian Gulf. Throughout the Parthian and Sassanid eras, it served as a pivotal center for trade and religious activities. It is home to two noteworthy tombs, previously attributed to Palmyrene merchants, but recent evidence suggests that they actually belonged to local Iranian rulers. The Eastern tomb is strongly linked to Ananias, a merchant active in Spasinou Charax, who eventually became the ruler of Adiabene. The Southern tomb, dating back to the 2nd century AD, is believed to be the final resting place of Mithradates, a Parthian prince and ruler of Characene.
which can serve as a model for today’s society. These include the traditional watersources of Persian antiquity, qanats. The paper summarizes archaeological finds from a little-known area of eastern Iran, where some above-ground building structures associated with underground water channels, were found.
in population and settlements. The other finds included 3 dams, 3 caravanserais, 3 ice-cellar buildings, 3 watchtowers, 3 ancient cemeteries, 6 water storage pools, 9 watermills, 1 windmill, 7 gardens and 1 dwelling, 10 mosques, 5 pictographs, 2 colonial buildings, 19 forts, 2 inscriptions, and 59 sites containing pottery or other archaeological remains.
Mud-bricks are the most common architectural media in the Syrian Jezireh and throughout Mesopotamia since neolitic
time. Their use persist in the countryside to the present day almost in unchanged way. They are atested in upper Mesopotamian
since prepottery neolitic A/B (10 000–8700 BC). From the earliest phase in the region it was appreciated that the soils avaliable there were generally excellent for building purposes. Mud-brick provide a very acceptable substitute for stone as a building material. According to enviromental features we can presume that its origin and employment envolved independently of the oldest settlements in middle Anatolia and south Mesopotamia. Cultural centres with monumental sacral and palatial architecture interfered – via such data channels as rivers Euphrat and Khabur – innovation techniqes from the end of 3rd
millenium BC. Wall decoration either in modelled clay or in paint survived untill now in limited amount. One of the evidences of wall
decoration are archaeological finds of cone-shaped objects, used in various ways to protect and to decorate walls. During the
Late Uruk period was this technique spread across the Near East. Evidence for this prehistoric form of cone mosaic was
recovered in Uruk, while three main types of cones were recognized. First – relatively small with coloured ends, which were
used to form geometric patterns on walls. They were pressed into the plaster spread on the face of mudbrick walls. Second –
cones with hollowed-out blunt ends. Third – hollow, coarse – ware cones (like potery vessels in appaerance) inserted in rows
into walls. This mosaics first appeared in the late Ubaid period and survived into Uruk III. The appearance of cones may be
chronologically deceptive. This cones were particularly applied to free-standing columns and to the walls with butresses and
recesses. The decorative funktion of cones may be secondary to a primary fuktion of protecting walls against wind and water
erosion. The presence of various types of cone mosaic along the upper Euphrates and its tributaries in north-eastern Syria (Tell
Brak) indicate the colonial expansion of Uruk in this area. Their origin is inherited from weave/quilts or stone mosaic, which
we know from south Mesopotamian shrines.
Mesopotamia since Neolithic time. Their use persist in the countryside untill the present day almost
in unchanged way (Fig. 1). In upper Mesopotamian plain are atested since Prepottery Neolithic A/B
(10 000-8700 BC). According to the environmental features we can presume their origin and employment
evolved independently of the oldest settlements in middle Anatolia and southern Mesopotamia. Cultural
centres with monumental sacral and palatial architecture provided– via such information channels as
rivers Euphrates and Khabur - innovation techniqes since the 2nd millenium BC
Dear Colleagues,
we cordially invite you to participate in an international conference in memoriam of our esteemed friend, colleague and mentor, Prof. Klára Kuzmová.
The conference aims to explore a wide array of topics within the realms of archaeology, ancient history, art, and religion, with a special emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches. It will also be an occasion to reflect on and celebrate the profound impact and contributions of Prof. Kuzmová in these fields.