Dobrochna Zielinska

After the collapse of the Meroitic Empire, three independent kingdoms arose within its former territory. Because of a lack of centralized political authority and artistic production, their early development, although based on the Meroitic inheritance, was determined by different sources of influence. From the 8th century two united northern kingdoms became a powerful state, which is also reflected in its art. Rising creativity from the 9th century onwards reflected local needs and ambitions. In the course of time, surrounded by Islamic neighbors, Nubian art on one hand remained independent in its forms of art, but on the other hand absorbed a new style and iconographic details, which is most visible in 12th-century wall painting. Most probably it reflected a changing lifestyle, inspired by the wider Middle Eastern world at that time. The late period, although characterized by much less activity and financial possibilities of individuals or communities, still shows flourishing activi...

With the submission of OINE volume 14, The Second Cataract Fortress of Dorginarti, by Lisa Heidorn, OINE volume 12, Cerre Matto, the Christian Period Churches, Houses, Workshops, and Cemetery, edited by Bruce Williams, and the major part of a catalog of beads by Joanna ThenObłuska, the OINE publication project has fully resumed. The year 2015–2016 has been a landmark for us, and each volume represents a new departure, both for the project and Nubian studies. The OINE Publication Project continues to have tasks in hand, some just begun, some partly completed, and some still to be planned in detail. Most immediately, Dorginarti and Cerre Matto’s Christian Period town are being modeled in three dimensions, and to forward that end, the architect, Nadejda Reshetnikova, stayed some time in Chicago to work with Lisa Heidorn and Bruce Williams, and to present preliminary models to the Publications Office for discussion and review. A database needs to be established, to furnish an ordered an...

ABSTRACT Analytical procedure for the comprehensive chemical characterization of samples from mediaeval Nubian wall-paintings by means of portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and Raman spectroscopy (RS) was proposed in this work. The procedure was used for elemental and molecular investigations of samples from archaeological excavations in Nubia (modern southern Egypt and northern Sudan). Numerous remains of churches with painted decorations dated back to the 7th - 14th century were excavated in the region of mediaeval kingdoms of Nubia but many aspects of this art and its technology is still unknown. Samples from the selected archaeological sites (Faras, Old Dongola and Banganarti) were analyzed in the form of transfers (n = 26), small fragments collected during the excavations (n = 35) and cross sections (n = 15). XRF was used to collect data about elemental composition, LA-ICPMS allowed mapping of selected elements, while RS was used to get the molecular information about the samples. The preliminary results indicated the usefulness of the proposed analytical procedure for distinguishing the substances, from both the surface and sub-surface domains of the wall-paintings. The possibility to identify raw materials from the wall-paintings will be used in the further systematic, archaeometric studies devoted to the detailed comparison of various historic Nubian centers.

Introduction The Kingdom of Alwa was described by Arab travellers as richer and more powerful than Makuria1 (Vantini 1975, 72, 162-63, 274-5, 613-4; Shinnie 1978, 256). This may reflect the greater agricultural potential of its territory in the Sahel and was perhaps also due to the important role it played in trade contacts between Egypt, the Red Sea ports, southern Sudan and the Ethiopian highlands. Arab writers recorded also that gold mines under Alwan control were plentiful (Vantini 1975, 167; Welsby 2002, 211, 213-215). Unfortunately the poorly preserved archaeological remains and the paucity of research allows us to say little about its material culture in a wider context. Owing to the generally extremely poor state of preservation, very few sites that can be dated to the period of the Kingdom of Alwa have been investigated so far. Aspects of its art can be discussed on the basis of the remains of a handful of sites, mainly Soba, the capital of the kingdom (Shinnie 1955; Welsby...

Multilayered fragments of murals were used to evaluate the usefulness of two laser-based instrumental methods: laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and laser ablation (LA) inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for elemental imaging of unique historic samples. Simultaneous LA/LIBS measurements with the use of 266nm Nd:YAG laser were performed on cross-sections of mediaeval Nubian objects with specific blue painting layers including either Egyptian blue (CaCuSiO) or lapis lazuli (NaAlSiOS). A combined use of both laser-based methods allowed for clear distinguishing of blue pigments based on visual imaging of a chemical composition of heterogeneous archaeological inorganic samples. The identification of the pigments was confirmed with Raman spectroscopy.

After the collapse of the Meroitic Empire, three independent kingdoms arose within its former territory. Because of a lack of centralized political authority and artistic production, their early development, although based on the Meroitic inheritance, was determined by different sources of influence. From the 8th century two united northern kingdoms became a powerful state, which is also reflected in its art. Rising creativity from the 9th century onwards reflected local needs and ambitions. In the course of time, surrounded by Islamic neighbors, Nubian art on one hand remained independent in its forms of art, but on the other hand absorbed a new style and iconographic details, which is most visible in 12th-century wall painting. Most probably it reflected a changing lifestyle, inspired by the wider Middle Eastern world at that time. The late period, although characterized by much less activity and financial possibilities of individuals or communities, still shows flourishing activities of Nubian artists. Christian Nubian culture ended almost simultaneously with the Byzantine empire, leaving almost one thousand years of its unique heritage.

co-authors: Olga Syta, Karol Rozum, Marta Choińska, Grażyna Zofia Żukowska, Agnieszka Kijowska, Barbara Wagner
Analytical procedure for the comprehensive chemical characterization of samples from medieval Nubian wall-paintings by means of portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and Raman spectroscopy (RS) was proposed in this work. The procedure was used for elemental and molecular investigations of samples from archeological excavations in Nubia (modern southern Egypt and northern Sudan). Numerous remains of churches with painted decorations dated back to the 7th–14th century were excavated in the region of medieval kingdoms of Nubia but many aspects of this art and its technology are still unknown. Samples from the selected archeological sites (Faras, Old Dongola and Banganarti) were analyzed in the form of transfers (n = 26), small fragments collected during the excavations (n = 35) and cross sections (n = 15). XRF was used to collect data about elemental composition, LA-ICPMS allowed mapping of selected elements, while RS was used to get the molecular information about the samples. The preliminary results indicated the usefulness of the proposed analytical procedure for distinguishing the substances, from both the surface and sub-surface domains of the wall-paintings. The possibility to identify raw materials from the wall-paintings will be used in the further systematic, archeometric studies devoted to the detailed comparison of various historic Nubian centers.

The "Good Shepherd" from Masida. An image in the context of the changing cultural landscape of the Third Cataract of the Nile. Near the modern village of Masida, at the Third Cataract in Sudanese Nubia, remains survive of an isolated church that hides in itself a rock-drawing that probably dates back to the late Meroitic period (3 rd century AD?), three centuries before this region was converted to Christianity. The rock-drawing shows a male person in what seems royal attire, who holds two rams and a spear or staff. The interesting point is that the building was constructed in such a way that this representation became the main focus of attention, in the sanctuary of the church. A certain similarity with the well-known representation of the 'Good Shepherd' in early Christian art became a starting point for the whole project. This is an intriguing situation that asks for an explanation. No similar constructions are known from Nubia so far. If scholars want to solve the questions concerning this monument, action has to be taken soon, because the remains of the church are deteriorating very fast. In order to understand the reasons for the building of this church and the circumstances in which it took place, the wider context has to be investigated and understood. First there is the spatial context: the region of the Third Cataract has numerous graffiti and rock-drawings. The Third Cararact is natural barrier, that was also on a provincial border in Meroitic times. Then, for at least three centuries it was on the border between the kingdoms of Makuria (south) and Nobadia (north), and even after these kingdoms merged into one, it remained on a cultural borderline between North and South. Until the present day this border is present, since north and south different dialects are spoken. The demarcation of this border and the traffic (trade routes?) passing this point may be a reason for the location of both the rock-drawing and the church. The second context is the time-span in which the drawing was made, viewed, respected and possibly venerated. Its meaning must have undergone a transformation between the late Meroitic period and the time when it became a focus of attention for Christian inhabitants of the region and travellers. So far it is unknown whether this was a gradual process of transformation, or whether the drawing was forgotten and 'rediscovered' in the 9 th or 10 th century, when the church was probably built. The drawing and the church stand on a geographical border and they abridge a border in time, linking the pre-Christian period to the Christian era. Modern scholars often try to draw sharp division lines in order to mark periods, categoriesand cultures. It is known that borders in antiquity had different meanings and especially in Africa anthropologists have noticed completely dfifferent approaches to the concept of 'border'. A proper understanding of the rock-drawing and church of Masida requires a deeper study of the borders in time and space that mark this small, but remarkable monument. The project investigates the changing meaning of a landmark by surveying the wider context of the Third Cataract and the stretch of time in which the drawing has undergone a change in meaning and function. This period lasts until the present day. The local population attaches meaning to remains of the past and the activity of the research team will be the last phase in this process. A multidisciplinary team of archaeologists, an art-historian, an epigraphist, and an ethnologist will investigate the questions surrounding a relatively small monument, but the outcomes will have significance for the study of Nubian culture in a wider sense: the period between the collapse of Meroë and the heyday of Christian culture and the cont inuity and transformation of culture. In fact such processes have always taken place everywhere and at any time.

Monasteries have played an important role in the culture of Eastern Churches. Although the word literally means 'place of isolation', they have often played an important role in the process of gathering and distributing knowledge. They were places of pilgrimage, where visitors would gather, collect inspiration and travel on. Not only lay people, also monks visited each other and exchanged knowledge and experiences. Egypt and Syria are countries where monasticism started. The oldest Christian monasteries in the world are to be found here and some have been inhabited till the present day. One of these is Deir al-Surian (literally: Monastery of the Syrians). It was founded in the middle of the 7 th century by Coptic monks and from the 9 th till the 16 th centuries they shared the monastery with a community of Syrian-Orthodox monks. This cohabitation probably started after Syrian monks helped in restoring the monastery after it had been plundered and damaged by Bedouins at the beginning of the 9 th century. In the following centuries the monastery flourished, not in the last place because Syrian monks made important donations and commissioned renovations in the church. The monastery collected a library that belonged to the most important ones of its time. The church was renovated and redecorated by skilful artists several times and as a result some of the paintings were made after older ones were plastered over. In the 18 th century the glory days of the monastery were over. There were no more Syrian monks who could read the Syriac manuscripts and most of the books in the library were sold to western collectors. In this way many of them ended up in the Vatican Library, the British Library and the Library of St. Petersburg. The church was renovated once more, but no skilled painters could be found or afforded and so its interior was covered in grey lime-plaster. It lasted until 1991. Then, after a fire that damaged one of the still visible paintings in the western part of the church, an underlying painting was discovered and in the following years more discoveries were made. A internationally composed team of restorers, philologists and art historians under responsibility of Leiden University started uncovering wall-paintings and inscriptions that were hidden under the grey 18 th century plaster. Not only did the church become more colourful again, like before, but the sequence of layers of painting, the inscriptions, some of them dated, opened a vast source of information concerning the history of the monastery, the development of the decorations in the church. From this it became evident that the Syriac influence on life and culture in the monastery was in fact more important than was presumed so far. Names that were already known from manuscripts from the monastery occurred in inscriptions on the walls and some pieces off puzzles fell into place. So far only a part of the 18 th century plaster has been removed and many more paintings and inscriptions are waiting to be uncovered. Specialists from several countries are continuing the work in the church in a cooperation framework of the University of Warsaw and Leiden University. This will certainly shed more light on questions concerning the interaction between the Syriac and Coptic communities in the monastery, but also on the contacts with the region of origin of the Syriac monks, Mosul and Tikrit (now in Iraq, a region systematically ransacked by the so-called Islamic State). The paintings in Deir al-Surian are the oldest surviving ones from a Syriac tradition in the Middle East and in a period that (especially Christian) cultural heritage is more and more under threat, these deserve full attention.

The papers in this volume are the results of an extensive programme of research
based on investigations of samples of Nubian mural paintings from the Middle
Nile Valley dating from the 6th to the 14th century AD. The samples came mainly
from museum collections such as the National Museum, Khartoum, the National
Museum in Warsaw and the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, as well as
current archaeological excavations in Sudan.
The composition of plasters, pigments and binders and lime washes are reported
in detail together with an overview of previous and present conservation and
transfer procedures. The data collected show the changes in painting methods and materials used in the Nubian medieval kingdoms over time and the possible associated implications in terms of the inspirations and aspirations of the Nubians concerning patronage, trading links and economy.
Medieval Nubian Wall Paintings Techniques and Conservation