Professor and clinical counsellor. Career outdoor educator, nature-based therapist, researcher, author and consultant in all things outdoors and therapy or education.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
Objective: To report on the role of nature in outdoor therapies through review and summary of exi... more Objective: To report on the role of nature in outdoor therapies through review and summary of existing systematic and meta-analytic reviews in an effort to articulate a theoretical framework for practice. Materials and methods: An umbrella review was conducted following systematic protocols PRISMA guidelines. Results: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria and represented five self-identified approaches: nature-based therapies, forest therapy, horticultural therapy, wilderness therapy, and adventure therapy. Clear and comprehensive descriptions of theory, program structure, and activity details with causal links to outcomes were mostly absent. Conclusions: A rigorous and determined program of research is required in order to explicit in-depth theories of change in outdoor therapies. Conversely, or maybe concurrently, a holistic theory of integrated relatedness may be developed as a parallel expression of support for nature in therapy while the explanatory science catches up.
Risky play is defined as thrilling and challenging forms of play that have the potential for phys... more Risky play is defined as thrilling and challenging forms of play that have the potential for physical injury and has been linked to developmental and health benefits for children in the early years. Currently, in Western contexts, children's opportunities for risky play is decreasing. Social factors such as practitioner and parental attitudes and beliefs have been found to impact children's opportunities to engage in risky play. In risky play research and literature, Norway is regarded as a less risk-adverse Western country. Therefore, this research aimed to understand the impact of social factors on children's affordances for risky play in a Norwegian Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) context. Research was conducted at a Norwegian ECEC institution and participants included 28 children, aged 3 to 4 years, and 4 ECEC practitioners and 5 parents. The study employed participant observation field notes and semi-structured interviews with parents and practitioners. This research identified themes in social factors that may contribute to children's affordances in risky play in ECEC, including assumptions about childhood, parents and practitioner attitudes, and pedagogical practices.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2019
Mindfulness can be successfully combined with adventure education but the area is understudied. T... more Mindfulness can be successfully combined with adventure education but the area is understudied. This longitudinal quasi-experimental study investigated whether an 8-day Outward Bound Mindfulness Program in nature would increase levels of positive affect, savouring, and mindfulness. Results indicate the experimental group experienced a statistically significant increase in mindfulness, positive affect and savouring compared to the control group post-intervention, and that the increase was maintained at 3-months post-intervention. These results illuminate the lasting impact of an intervention which combines mindfulness with adventure education, and highlight the potential which natural environments may play in educational and therapeutic processes. Study limitations and need for further research are shared.
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2019
Background: The aim of this study was to examine the lived experiences
of teachers and administra... more Background: The aim of this study was to examine the lived experiences of teachers and administrators at two schools (one elementary Kindergarten-Grade 5 and one middle school, grades 6–8) following the ‘naturalizing’ of a portion of their schoolyard. Methods: A qualitative case study design was used. Focus groups and interviews allowed participants to express their rationale, identify implementation facilitators and barriers and critical processes/steps for realizing their naturalization goals. Researcher questions explored (1) factors which led to naturalizing the schoolyard, (2) key planning and process steps (3) challenges and successes experienced, and, (4) lessons learned. Findings: Six themes were identified as rationale for naturalizing including: re-integration of outdoor play into children’s daily lives, proactive mental health, opportunity for inclusion, nature as a positive space for learning, it fit with our values and principles, we had a need. Implementation was facilitated by having champions and support from multiple levels, adopting a phased approach, resources and having the buy-in to persevere over time. Significant challenges and ‘how to’ steps were also identified. Conclusions: Naturalizing schoolyards does not happen without a supportive context, significant time and effort. Implementation steps and issues were those commonly found in other school-based health promotion efforts.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2022
Children and youth in contemporary western society spend less time outdoors compared to previous ... more Children and youth in contemporary western society spend less time outdoors compared to previous generations. Increased use of technology, lack of green space, and concerns for risk and safety have contributed to a generation of children spending too much time indoors. A disconnection between children and nature has occurred. Our team conducted a research synthesis review of several empirically defined non-traditional literacies (physical literacy, media literacy, health literacy, nutrition literacy, and ecological literacy) to identify common components used to conceptualize, define, and describe a new nature-based literacy. Findings included four common components: (a) Motivation, (b) Knowledge, (c) Competence, and (d) Confidence. Operationalizing nature-based literacy into a set of capability domains are described as a practical way of re-engaging children and youth with the natural world. Recommendations for future research and practice are shared.
This article addresses the effects of a risk-averse Western society on healthy childhood developm... more This article addresses the effects of a risk-averse Western society on healthy childhood development. Forest and nature schools are specifically identified for their inclusion of outdoor risky play. Forest and nature schools are presented as idealized venues to investigate and understand the necessary balance of risk-taking and safety in child development. Forest and nature school is an environment in which risk of injury is inherent yet minimal. Although teachers/practitioners allow risk-taking, it may not be well understood outside of the context of the forest and nature school. Beck's risk-society is introduced and argued to hold steady influence-a shadow-over societal beliefs and practices, inducing fear of litigation in the minds of practitioners. Through recognizing and addressing unreasonable societal perception and acceptance of actual childhood risks, one can better estimate the value of the minimal risks forest and nature schools pose to children. The author proposes a reconceptualization of risk in child development and advocates for reform of policy and practices which prevent children from full exploration of their capacity and curiosity through outdoor risky play.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2020
Outdoor risky play provides developmental and health benefits for children, such as risk-assessme... more Outdoor risky play provides developmental and health benefits for children, such as risk-assessment skills, increased physical activity and wellbeing and promoting social competencies and resilience. Modern Western society is highly risk-averse and many children are protected from risks more commonly experienced by previous generations. Forest and nature schools (FS) are one approach encouraging unstructured outdoor play in natural environments including the inherent risks; falling, cuts and bruises, sun exposure, etc. Ten early childhood education FS practitioners were interviewed to explore their articulation of outdoor risky play, pedagogical practices pertaining to risk and how they navigate tensions between regulatory policies and idealized practice. This research serves to bring practitioners' voices to the literature on how the risk associated with outdoor play is being defined, rationalized, and enacted in FS programs. Findings from this study inform recommendations for practice and further inquiry into risky play and its benefits.
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 2019
Background and purpose: Participant state anxiety in outdoor therapeutic practices continues to r... more Background and purpose: Participant state anxiety in outdoor therapeutic practices continues to raise many questions. To help inform this important topic we present and discuss the results of an exploratory pilot study on participant day-today state anxiety throughout a Norwegian wilderness therapy intervention. Materials and methods: Thirty-three adolescents from six groups completed a total of 251 state sections of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Results: On average, there was a slight decrease in state anxiety as the program progressed and a significant reduction in anxiety between the first and final days. The between-subject range was large, and boys reported significantly lower anxiety than did girls. Conclusion: In light of the results, we discuss general understandings of day-today state anxiety, gender differences, group differences, the perception of risk, and the relationship between perceived autonomy and state anxiety. The paper concludes with implications for the outdoor therapy field at large.
Youth (aged 12-30) are the most likely age group to experience problematic substance abuse, yet t... more Youth (aged 12-30) are the most likely age group to experience problematic substance abuse, yet this population experiences relatively low rates of success in treatment and limited research and understanding exists regarding "client fit." This study explored how youth participation in one Canadian wilderness therapy program affects trait emotional intelligence (TEI) and readiness to change (RC) and how pretreatment client-level variables-presenting problems, sex, age, funding, digital interference in everyday life, or substance abuse severity-moderate these relationships. A case study design was engaged, and the intervention was found to produce statistically significant increases in RC but not in TEI. Relative to pretreatment client-level variables, participants who experienced interference in their everyday life due to video games or online activity before treatment had larger TEI change scores, while participants who experienced interference in their everyday life due to virtual relationships had larger changes in RC. No client-level pretreatment variables in this study significantly predicted increases in RC following wilderness therapy.
International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2017
This paper discusses how the increased urbanization and technification trends of our time may par... more This paper discusses how the increased urbanization and technification trends of our time may partly explain the considerable rise in adolescent maladjustment, typically expressed through symptoms of depression and anxiety. The authors argue that if living life increasingly disconnected from the natural world is part of the cause, then reversing, or at least moderating these trends and resultant pathology, must be part of the solution. Evidencebased wilderness therapy approaches have a long history of enabling optimal growth and personal development with adolescents. This article proposes how specific core elements of these often-complex therapeutic outdoor programs can be put to use on a broad scale throughout our communities. We provide examples supporting a three-stage approach to address the deleterious effects of urbanization and technification in adolescents; (1) changing beliefs, (2) education, and (3) planning. Finally we present some practical examples of possible antidote measures.
This paper is a direct response to a recent article in this journal by Gass et al. (JAMA 39: 291-... more This paper is a direct response to a recent article in this journal by Gass et al. (JAMA 39: 291-302) in which the authors describe an "ethical" model for the involuntary transport of youth into Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programs, often synonymously referred to as wilderness therapy in the literature. These authors suggest that international law supports involuntary transport and that their approach is research-based, trauma-informed, ethical, and does not interfere with client outcomes. We believe each of these claims to be in error: The international laws cited include strict rules about involuntary transport, professional codes of ethics forbid all but exceptional uses of force, and there is a large literature on the harms of involuntary transport and admission that appears to be ignored. We suggest that involuntary transport is almost always contraindicated for wilderness therapy and this practice is a symptom of what has been called the "troubled teen industry." Keywords Adolescent treatment • Involuntary treatment • Transport • Behavioral Healthcare • Ethics • Wilderness therapy Gass et al. (2021) claim to be describing an ethical framework for involuntary youth transport services (IYT) that is a Thank you to Ben Anderson-Nathe, Professor in Child, Youth, and Family Studies at Portland State University.
Background: College students generally participate in study abroad experiences (SAE) at times of ... more Background: College students generally participate in study abroad experiences (SAE) at times of identity and value development as emerging adults. SAE has been criticized as perpetuating colonial acts through the project of globalization. Purpose: This research examined how participants construct meaning about place(s) and how this meaning relates to their sense of self during a 3-week expedition-style SAE in the Bolivian Andes. Methodology/Approach: SAE included place-based learning activities, cultural immersion, service projects, adventure travel, and two concurrent academic courses. Data were gathered from eight participants through written journal assignments, researcher observations, and field notes. Findings/Conclusions: Five themes emerged: personal growth, a multiplicity of meaning, privilege and global perspective, an urban-rural effect, and a taste for more. The social context and comfort-discomfort continuum are discussed as influencing factors. Implications: Findings suggest a place-based SAE can influence value formation and reflective practice of emerging adults. While findings echo SAE as a privileged experience, the question of latent effects of SAE on emerging adult social justice perspectives is raised.
Background: Teaching experientially in postsecondary education has challenges; institutional cons... more Background: Teaching experientially in postsecondary education has challenges; institutional constraints, neoliberal management, and a colonized learning environment. We discuss playing as a form of experiential education. Purpose: We challenge conventional teaching and offer an alternative to enrich and broaden conventional pedagogies. We argue for the benefits of playfulness and how this leads to creativity, wellness, and improved graduate employability. Methodology/ Approach: As provocation to the consequences of neoliberalism in education, we examine the literature from a biased position as advocates of play and experiential education. We argue for faculty to adopt an ontology and pedagogy of play. Findings/ Conclusions: Play is well represented in the literature; contributing positively to a range of health and educational outcomes. As play manifests in numerous forms in postsecondary education, faculty would benefit from a clear educational rationale for an ontology and pedagogy of play. We share examples from our practice which highlight spontaneous and planned play and playful attitudes/behaviors and suggest how play may be integrated as planned curriculum. Implications: Ideally, these concepts resonate with faculty allowing them to challenge conventional pedagogies and confirm play in practice with the underpinning of experiential education research.
Background: Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) was popularized in the mid-1990s to improve client o... more Background: Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) was popularized in the mid-1990s to improve client outcomes in psychotherapy, though implementation in clinical practice has been slow. Although increased outcome research in adventure therapy (AT) in the last decade has demonstrated AT as a viable treatment option, recent reviews have found worrying trends regarding research methodology and poorly substantiated claims of superiority. Purpose: The purpose of this article is to explore the potential for ROM in AT. Methodology/Approach: We conducted a brief review of the literature on ROM and offered a discussion that positions principles of ROM with the nascent knowledge base of AT. Findings/Conclusions: We propose ROM is a viable next step in AT research and practice. ROM can explore when change is likely to occur during an AT program and provide a platform for improving client engagement and outcomes. Implications: We recommend implementation of ROM in AT and that future AT research explore therapist effects and important therapeutic factors, such as the therapeutic alliance and deterioration.
The physical and psychosocial adversity presented by isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) enviro... more The physical and psychosocial adversity presented by isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) environments has historically been framed in terms of psychological risk. A more comprehensive understanding of positive psychological ICE-related impacts is warranted to optimize growth versus risk potential following exposure to ICE environments. The primary aim of this systematic review was to explore potential contributors to post-expedition psychological Growth (PEG) following prolonged (i.e., ≥1 month) exposure to ICE environments. A secondary goal was to investigate the scope and methodology of extant studies measuring ICE-related PEG. A standardized search protocol was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Study quality was determined by the Appraisal Tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS). N = 12 eligible studies were identified, with the majority reflecting polar expeditions and mixed methods approaches of moderate quality. Perceived stress, agreeableness, and openness to experience were found to be the most predictive of PEG. Individuals appear to perceive lasting benefits in some domains following ICE exposure. That said, an understanding of why and how these changes occur has yet to be thoroughly examined and requires further research. A fuller understanding of PEG following ICE exposure and risk may help promote greater mental health following experiences in various ICE contexts (e.g., space travel, harrowing terrestrial endeavors).
Dignity is a universal principle that requires us to treat every person as having worth beyond wh... more Dignity is a universal principle that requires us to treat every person as having worth beyond who a particular person is or what they do. Dignity is a complex and sometimes contested idea, that at times can be compromised in health care and allegedly also within the practice of outdoor therapy. Outdoor therapies comprise a range of therapeutic approaches including nature-based therapy, adventure therapy, animalassisted therapy, forest therapy, wilderness therapy, surf therapy, and more. Within the literature of outdoor therapies there has been limited research on ethics related to common understandings of care concepts such as relational dignity and human rights. The aim of this paper is therefore to unravel briefly whether dignity in general, and relational qualities of dignified care more particularly, might be a useful concept to apply in order to support an ethical practice in outdoor therapies.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2022
Despite the recognized positive effects attributed to outdoor adventure education programs, few s... more Despite the recognized positive effects attributed to outdoor adventure education programs, few studies have examined the mechanisms involved therein, particularly with regard to factors that influence group process. The purpose of this qualitative research was to examine an outdoor adventure education program utilizing Yalom's helping factors in relationship to established groupwork intervention stages. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 23 individuals who participated in an 18-day outdoor adventure expedition. Findings shared include the conditions and group stages that helping factors emerge and suggest the relevance of offering adventure-based programs in nature settings for effective groupwork.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2022
We analyze how gender intersects with risk processes and practices in outdoor adventure education... more We analyze how gender intersects with risk processes and practices in outdoor adventure education. Language, binary logic, and societal norms work together to gender risk and offer three ways that risk may be gendered in the context of outdoor adventure education courses with youth. First, hierarchical language and the gendering practices of order, labeling, and omission place girls and girls' needs as external or additional to a "neutral" masculine norm. Second, adherence to a rigid binary in the definition and conceptualization of risk parallels and perpetuates a gender binary that prioritizes masculinity and boys above femininity, girls, and non-binary youth. Third, societal norms influence stereotypes, assumptions, and expectations that gender risk on outdoor adventure education courses. We conclude by offering practical suggestions for how this research can be applied to outdoor adventure education and youth programming more broadly.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2022
What does it mean to grow up? Why is it important? How does one measure it, and what factors make... more What does it mean to grow up? Why is it important? How does one measure it, and what factors make it so difficult to realize? This paper explores how one's experience in an outdoor adventure education program may be observed, understood, and potentially maximized through the lens of Robert Kegan's constructive-developmental theory. This paper shares the theoretical foundation of constructive-developmental theory and related literature relevant to understanding how a program participant makes meaning of their outdoor adventure experience. The constructivedevelopmental perspective can help inform understanding of participant experiences of change and may direct practices underpinning outdoor adventure programming. Kegan's theory may provide cogent understandings of change, how it is facilitated and measured, and insight as to why some youth thrive and others struggle in outdoor adventure programs.
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 2018
Background: Adventure therapy (AT) is a term that includes therapies such as wilderness therapy a... more Background: Adventure therapy (AT) is a term that includes therapies such as wilderness therapy and adventure-based counseling. With growing empirical support for AT, the diversity of studies make it difficult to attribute outcomes to specific treatment factors. Objectives: Researchers explored whether AT, often perceived as an alternative therapy, works because of AT's unique components, or whether factors shared by all therapies were responsible. Methods: A scoping review was undertaken utilizing a search of major databases, unpublished dissertations, and a hand search for direct comparison trials matching AT with another therapeutic intervention. Results: 881 publications were identified. 105 quantitative studies were included following a title and abstract review. Only 13 met the full inclusion criteria. Little to no differences were found to isolate specific therapeutic factors. Conclusions: We discuss the implications of these results considering the movement toward evidencebased practice and recommend future research to eclipse our current understanding of AT.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
Objective: To report on the role of nature in outdoor therapies through review and summary of exi... more Objective: To report on the role of nature in outdoor therapies through review and summary of existing systematic and meta-analytic reviews in an effort to articulate a theoretical framework for practice. Materials and methods: An umbrella review was conducted following systematic protocols PRISMA guidelines. Results: Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria and represented five self-identified approaches: nature-based therapies, forest therapy, horticultural therapy, wilderness therapy, and adventure therapy. Clear and comprehensive descriptions of theory, program structure, and activity details with causal links to outcomes were mostly absent. Conclusions: A rigorous and determined program of research is required in order to explicit in-depth theories of change in outdoor therapies. Conversely, or maybe concurrently, a holistic theory of integrated relatedness may be developed as a parallel expression of support for nature in therapy while the explanatory science catches up.
Risky play is defined as thrilling and challenging forms of play that have the potential for phys... more Risky play is defined as thrilling and challenging forms of play that have the potential for physical injury and has been linked to developmental and health benefits for children in the early years. Currently, in Western contexts, children's opportunities for risky play is decreasing. Social factors such as practitioner and parental attitudes and beliefs have been found to impact children's opportunities to engage in risky play. In risky play research and literature, Norway is regarded as a less risk-adverse Western country. Therefore, this research aimed to understand the impact of social factors on children's affordances for risky play in a Norwegian Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) context. Research was conducted at a Norwegian ECEC institution and participants included 28 children, aged 3 to 4 years, and 4 ECEC practitioners and 5 parents. The study employed participant observation field notes and semi-structured interviews with parents and practitioners. This research identified themes in social factors that may contribute to children's affordances in risky play in ECEC, including assumptions about childhood, parents and practitioner attitudes, and pedagogical practices.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2019
Mindfulness can be successfully combined with adventure education but the area is understudied. T... more Mindfulness can be successfully combined with adventure education but the area is understudied. This longitudinal quasi-experimental study investigated whether an 8-day Outward Bound Mindfulness Program in nature would increase levels of positive affect, savouring, and mindfulness. Results indicate the experimental group experienced a statistically significant increase in mindfulness, positive affect and savouring compared to the control group post-intervention, and that the increase was maintained at 3-months post-intervention. These results illuminate the lasting impact of an intervention which combines mindfulness with adventure education, and highlight the potential which natural environments may play in educational and therapeutic processes. Study limitations and need for further research are shared.
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2019
Background: The aim of this study was to examine the lived experiences
of teachers and administra... more Background: The aim of this study was to examine the lived experiences of teachers and administrators at two schools (one elementary Kindergarten-Grade 5 and one middle school, grades 6–8) following the ‘naturalizing’ of a portion of their schoolyard. Methods: A qualitative case study design was used. Focus groups and interviews allowed participants to express their rationale, identify implementation facilitators and barriers and critical processes/steps for realizing their naturalization goals. Researcher questions explored (1) factors which led to naturalizing the schoolyard, (2) key planning and process steps (3) challenges and successes experienced, and, (4) lessons learned. Findings: Six themes were identified as rationale for naturalizing including: re-integration of outdoor play into children’s daily lives, proactive mental health, opportunity for inclusion, nature as a positive space for learning, it fit with our values and principles, we had a need. Implementation was facilitated by having champions and support from multiple levels, adopting a phased approach, resources and having the buy-in to persevere over time. Significant challenges and ‘how to’ steps were also identified. Conclusions: Naturalizing schoolyards does not happen without a supportive context, significant time and effort. Implementation steps and issues were those commonly found in other school-based health promotion efforts.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2022
Children and youth in contemporary western society spend less time outdoors compared to previous ... more Children and youth in contemporary western society spend less time outdoors compared to previous generations. Increased use of technology, lack of green space, and concerns for risk and safety have contributed to a generation of children spending too much time indoors. A disconnection between children and nature has occurred. Our team conducted a research synthesis review of several empirically defined non-traditional literacies (physical literacy, media literacy, health literacy, nutrition literacy, and ecological literacy) to identify common components used to conceptualize, define, and describe a new nature-based literacy. Findings included four common components: (a) Motivation, (b) Knowledge, (c) Competence, and (d) Confidence. Operationalizing nature-based literacy into a set of capability domains are described as a practical way of re-engaging children and youth with the natural world. Recommendations for future research and practice are shared.
This article addresses the effects of a risk-averse Western society on healthy childhood developm... more This article addresses the effects of a risk-averse Western society on healthy childhood development. Forest and nature schools are specifically identified for their inclusion of outdoor risky play. Forest and nature schools are presented as idealized venues to investigate and understand the necessary balance of risk-taking and safety in child development. Forest and nature school is an environment in which risk of injury is inherent yet minimal. Although teachers/practitioners allow risk-taking, it may not be well understood outside of the context of the forest and nature school. Beck's risk-society is introduced and argued to hold steady influence-a shadow-over societal beliefs and practices, inducing fear of litigation in the minds of practitioners. Through recognizing and addressing unreasonable societal perception and acceptance of actual childhood risks, one can better estimate the value of the minimal risks forest and nature schools pose to children. The author proposes a reconceptualization of risk in child development and advocates for reform of policy and practices which prevent children from full exploration of their capacity and curiosity through outdoor risky play.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2020
Outdoor risky play provides developmental and health benefits for children, such as risk-assessme... more Outdoor risky play provides developmental and health benefits for children, such as risk-assessment skills, increased physical activity and wellbeing and promoting social competencies and resilience. Modern Western society is highly risk-averse and many children are protected from risks more commonly experienced by previous generations. Forest and nature schools (FS) are one approach encouraging unstructured outdoor play in natural environments including the inherent risks; falling, cuts and bruises, sun exposure, etc. Ten early childhood education FS practitioners were interviewed to explore their articulation of outdoor risky play, pedagogical practices pertaining to risk and how they navigate tensions between regulatory policies and idealized practice. This research serves to bring practitioners' voices to the literature on how the risk associated with outdoor play is being defined, rationalized, and enacted in FS programs. Findings from this study inform recommendations for practice and further inquiry into risky play and its benefits.
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 2019
Background and purpose: Participant state anxiety in outdoor therapeutic practices continues to r... more Background and purpose: Participant state anxiety in outdoor therapeutic practices continues to raise many questions. To help inform this important topic we present and discuss the results of an exploratory pilot study on participant day-today state anxiety throughout a Norwegian wilderness therapy intervention. Materials and methods: Thirty-three adolescents from six groups completed a total of 251 state sections of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Results: On average, there was a slight decrease in state anxiety as the program progressed and a significant reduction in anxiety between the first and final days. The between-subject range was large, and boys reported significantly lower anxiety than did girls. Conclusion: In light of the results, we discuss general understandings of day-today state anxiety, gender differences, group differences, the perception of risk, and the relationship between perceived autonomy and state anxiety. The paper concludes with implications for the outdoor therapy field at large.
Youth (aged 12-30) are the most likely age group to experience problematic substance abuse, yet t... more Youth (aged 12-30) are the most likely age group to experience problematic substance abuse, yet this population experiences relatively low rates of success in treatment and limited research and understanding exists regarding "client fit." This study explored how youth participation in one Canadian wilderness therapy program affects trait emotional intelligence (TEI) and readiness to change (RC) and how pretreatment client-level variables-presenting problems, sex, age, funding, digital interference in everyday life, or substance abuse severity-moderate these relationships. A case study design was engaged, and the intervention was found to produce statistically significant increases in RC but not in TEI. Relative to pretreatment client-level variables, participants who experienced interference in their everyday life due to video games or online activity before treatment had larger TEI change scores, while participants who experienced interference in their everyday life due to virtual relationships had larger changes in RC. No client-level pretreatment variables in this study significantly predicted increases in RC following wilderness therapy.
International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2017
This paper discusses how the increased urbanization and technification trends of our time may par... more This paper discusses how the increased urbanization and technification trends of our time may partly explain the considerable rise in adolescent maladjustment, typically expressed through symptoms of depression and anxiety. The authors argue that if living life increasingly disconnected from the natural world is part of the cause, then reversing, or at least moderating these trends and resultant pathology, must be part of the solution. Evidencebased wilderness therapy approaches have a long history of enabling optimal growth and personal development with adolescents. This article proposes how specific core elements of these often-complex therapeutic outdoor programs can be put to use on a broad scale throughout our communities. We provide examples supporting a three-stage approach to address the deleterious effects of urbanization and technification in adolescents; (1) changing beliefs, (2) education, and (3) planning. Finally we present some practical examples of possible antidote measures.
This paper is a direct response to a recent article in this journal by Gass et al. (JAMA 39: 291-... more This paper is a direct response to a recent article in this journal by Gass et al. (JAMA 39: 291-302) in which the authors describe an "ethical" model for the involuntary transport of youth into Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programs, often synonymously referred to as wilderness therapy in the literature. These authors suggest that international law supports involuntary transport and that their approach is research-based, trauma-informed, ethical, and does not interfere with client outcomes. We believe each of these claims to be in error: The international laws cited include strict rules about involuntary transport, professional codes of ethics forbid all but exceptional uses of force, and there is a large literature on the harms of involuntary transport and admission that appears to be ignored. We suggest that involuntary transport is almost always contraindicated for wilderness therapy and this practice is a symptom of what has been called the "troubled teen industry." Keywords Adolescent treatment • Involuntary treatment • Transport • Behavioral Healthcare • Ethics • Wilderness therapy Gass et al. (2021) claim to be describing an ethical framework for involuntary youth transport services (IYT) that is a Thank you to Ben Anderson-Nathe, Professor in Child, Youth, and Family Studies at Portland State University.
Background: College students generally participate in study abroad experiences (SAE) at times of ... more Background: College students generally participate in study abroad experiences (SAE) at times of identity and value development as emerging adults. SAE has been criticized as perpetuating colonial acts through the project of globalization. Purpose: This research examined how participants construct meaning about place(s) and how this meaning relates to their sense of self during a 3-week expedition-style SAE in the Bolivian Andes. Methodology/Approach: SAE included place-based learning activities, cultural immersion, service projects, adventure travel, and two concurrent academic courses. Data were gathered from eight participants through written journal assignments, researcher observations, and field notes. Findings/Conclusions: Five themes emerged: personal growth, a multiplicity of meaning, privilege and global perspective, an urban-rural effect, and a taste for more. The social context and comfort-discomfort continuum are discussed as influencing factors. Implications: Findings suggest a place-based SAE can influence value formation and reflective practice of emerging adults. While findings echo SAE as a privileged experience, the question of latent effects of SAE on emerging adult social justice perspectives is raised.
Background: Teaching experientially in postsecondary education has challenges; institutional cons... more Background: Teaching experientially in postsecondary education has challenges; institutional constraints, neoliberal management, and a colonized learning environment. We discuss playing as a form of experiential education. Purpose: We challenge conventional teaching and offer an alternative to enrich and broaden conventional pedagogies. We argue for the benefits of playfulness and how this leads to creativity, wellness, and improved graduate employability. Methodology/ Approach: As provocation to the consequences of neoliberalism in education, we examine the literature from a biased position as advocates of play and experiential education. We argue for faculty to adopt an ontology and pedagogy of play. Findings/ Conclusions: Play is well represented in the literature; contributing positively to a range of health and educational outcomes. As play manifests in numerous forms in postsecondary education, faculty would benefit from a clear educational rationale for an ontology and pedagogy of play. We share examples from our practice which highlight spontaneous and planned play and playful attitudes/behaviors and suggest how play may be integrated as planned curriculum. Implications: Ideally, these concepts resonate with faculty allowing them to challenge conventional pedagogies and confirm play in practice with the underpinning of experiential education research.
Background: Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) was popularized in the mid-1990s to improve client o... more Background: Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) was popularized in the mid-1990s to improve client outcomes in psychotherapy, though implementation in clinical practice has been slow. Although increased outcome research in adventure therapy (AT) in the last decade has demonstrated AT as a viable treatment option, recent reviews have found worrying trends regarding research methodology and poorly substantiated claims of superiority. Purpose: The purpose of this article is to explore the potential for ROM in AT. Methodology/Approach: We conducted a brief review of the literature on ROM and offered a discussion that positions principles of ROM with the nascent knowledge base of AT. Findings/Conclusions: We propose ROM is a viable next step in AT research and practice. ROM can explore when change is likely to occur during an AT program and provide a platform for improving client engagement and outcomes. Implications: We recommend implementation of ROM in AT and that future AT research explore therapist effects and important therapeutic factors, such as the therapeutic alliance and deterioration.
The physical and psychosocial adversity presented by isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) enviro... more The physical and psychosocial adversity presented by isolated, confined, and extreme (ICE) environments has historically been framed in terms of psychological risk. A more comprehensive understanding of positive psychological ICE-related impacts is warranted to optimize growth versus risk potential following exposure to ICE environments. The primary aim of this systematic review was to explore potential contributors to post-expedition psychological Growth (PEG) following prolonged (i.e., ≥1 month) exposure to ICE environments. A secondary goal was to investigate the scope and methodology of extant studies measuring ICE-related PEG. A standardized search protocol was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Study quality was determined by the Appraisal Tool for Cross-Sectional Studies (AXIS). N = 12 eligible studies were identified, with the majority reflecting polar expeditions and mixed methods approaches of moderate quality. Perceived stress, agreeableness, and openness to experience were found to be the most predictive of PEG. Individuals appear to perceive lasting benefits in some domains following ICE exposure. That said, an understanding of why and how these changes occur has yet to be thoroughly examined and requires further research. A fuller understanding of PEG following ICE exposure and risk may help promote greater mental health following experiences in various ICE contexts (e.g., space travel, harrowing terrestrial endeavors).
Dignity is a universal principle that requires us to treat every person as having worth beyond wh... more Dignity is a universal principle that requires us to treat every person as having worth beyond who a particular person is or what they do. Dignity is a complex and sometimes contested idea, that at times can be compromised in health care and allegedly also within the practice of outdoor therapy. Outdoor therapies comprise a range of therapeutic approaches including nature-based therapy, adventure therapy, animalassisted therapy, forest therapy, wilderness therapy, surf therapy, and more. Within the literature of outdoor therapies there has been limited research on ethics related to common understandings of care concepts such as relational dignity and human rights. The aim of this paper is therefore to unravel briefly whether dignity in general, and relational qualities of dignified care more particularly, might be a useful concept to apply in order to support an ethical practice in outdoor therapies.
Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2022
Despite the recognized positive effects attributed to outdoor adventure education programs, few s... more Despite the recognized positive effects attributed to outdoor adventure education programs, few studies have examined the mechanisms involved therein, particularly with regard to factors that influence group process. The purpose of this qualitative research was to examine an outdoor adventure education program utilizing Yalom's helping factors in relationship to established groupwork intervention stages. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 23 individuals who participated in an 18-day outdoor adventure expedition. Findings shared include the conditions and group stages that helping factors emerge and suggest the relevance of offering adventure-based programs in nature settings for effective groupwork.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2022
We analyze how gender intersects with risk processes and practices in outdoor adventure education... more We analyze how gender intersects with risk processes and practices in outdoor adventure education. Language, binary logic, and societal norms work together to gender risk and offer three ways that risk may be gendered in the context of outdoor adventure education courses with youth. First, hierarchical language and the gendering practices of order, labeling, and omission place girls and girls' needs as external or additional to a "neutral" masculine norm. Second, adherence to a rigid binary in the definition and conceptualization of risk parallels and perpetuates a gender binary that prioritizes masculinity and boys above femininity, girls, and non-binary youth. Third, societal norms influence stereotypes, assumptions, and expectations that gender risk on outdoor adventure education courses. We conclude by offering practical suggestions for how this research can be applied to outdoor adventure education and youth programming more broadly.
Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education, 2022
What does it mean to grow up? Why is it important? How does one measure it, and what factors make... more What does it mean to grow up? Why is it important? How does one measure it, and what factors make it so difficult to realize? This paper explores how one's experience in an outdoor adventure education program may be observed, understood, and potentially maximized through the lens of Robert Kegan's constructive-developmental theory. This paper shares the theoretical foundation of constructive-developmental theory and related literature relevant to understanding how a program participant makes meaning of their outdoor adventure experience. The constructivedevelopmental perspective can help inform understanding of participant experiences of change and may direct practices underpinning outdoor adventure programming. Kegan's theory may provide cogent understandings of change, how it is facilitated and measured, and insight as to why some youth thrive and others struggle in outdoor adventure programs.
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 2018
Background: Adventure therapy (AT) is a term that includes therapies such as wilderness therapy a... more Background: Adventure therapy (AT) is a term that includes therapies such as wilderness therapy and adventure-based counseling. With growing empirical support for AT, the diversity of studies make it difficult to attribute outcomes to specific treatment factors. Objectives: Researchers explored whether AT, often perceived as an alternative therapy, works because of AT's unique components, or whether factors shared by all therapies were responsible. Methods: A scoping review was undertaken utilizing a search of major databases, unpublished dissertations, and a hand search for direct comparison trials matching AT with another therapeutic intervention. Results: 881 publications were identified. 105 quantitative studies were included following a title and abstract review. Only 13 met the full inclusion criteria. Little to no differences were found to isolate specific therapeutic factors. Conclusions: We discuss the implications of these results considering the movement toward evidencebased practice and recommend future research to eclipse our current understanding of AT.
Uploads
Papers
of teachers and administrators at two schools (one elementary
Kindergarten-Grade 5 and one middle school, grades 6–8) following
the ‘naturalizing’ of a portion of their schoolyard.
Methods: A qualitative case study design was used. Focus groups and
interviews allowed participants to express their rationale, identify implementation facilitators and barriers and critical processes/steps for realizing their naturalization goals. Researcher questions explored (1) factors which led to naturalizing the schoolyard, (2) key planning and process steps (3) challenges and successes experienced, and, (4) lessons learned. Findings: Six themes were identified as rationale for naturalizing including: re-integration of outdoor play into children’s daily lives, proactive
mental health, opportunity for inclusion, nature as a positive space for learning, it fit with our values and principles, we had a need. Implementation was facilitated by having champions and support from
multiple levels, adopting a phased approach, resources and having the
buy-in to persevere over time. Significant challenges and ‘how to’ steps
were also identified. Conclusions: Naturalizing schoolyards does not happen without a supportive context, significant time and effort. Implementation steps and issues were those commonly found in other school-based health promotion efforts.
of teachers and administrators at two schools (one elementary
Kindergarten-Grade 5 and one middle school, grades 6–8) following
the ‘naturalizing’ of a portion of their schoolyard.
Methods: A qualitative case study design was used. Focus groups and
interviews allowed participants to express their rationale, identify implementation facilitators and barriers and critical processes/steps for realizing their naturalization goals. Researcher questions explored (1) factors which led to naturalizing the schoolyard, (2) key planning and process steps (3) challenges and successes experienced, and, (4) lessons learned. Findings: Six themes were identified as rationale for naturalizing including: re-integration of outdoor play into children’s daily lives, proactive
mental health, opportunity for inclusion, nature as a positive space for learning, it fit with our values and principles, we had a need. Implementation was facilitated by having champions and support from
multiple levels, adopting a phased approach, resources and having the
buy-in to persevere over time. Significant challenges and ‘how to’ steps
were also identified. Conclusions: Naturalizing schoolyards does not happen without a supportive context, significant time and effort. Implementation steps and issues were those commonly found in other school-based health promotion efforts.