Tanja Ratilainen

TIILIEN JA KATTOTIILIEN ALKUPERÄN
TUNNISTAMINEN pXRF-MENETELMÄLLÄ
– TAPAUSTUTKIMUS KESKIAJAN TURUSTA
Tutkimuksessa selvitetään alkuaineanalyysien avulla, valmistettiinko muuri- ja
muototiiliä 1200-luvun lopulla ja 1300-luvun alkupuoliskolla Turun seudulla vai
tuotiinko niitä muualta Koroisten jaTurun kaupungin rakennushankkeisiin.
Lisäksi tarkastellaan sitä, miten tiilien hankinta (muuritiilet, muototiilet, kattotiilet)
kehittyi 1300- ja 1400-lukujen aikana. Kyseessä on ensimmäinen suomalainen
tutkimus, jossa tiilien ja kattotiilien alkuainekoostumuksen tutkimiseen käytettiin
kannettavaa röntgenfluoresenssianalysaattoria (pXRF). Työssä analysoitiin 20 tiiltä Koroistenniemeltä sekä 17 tiiltä ja 3 kattotiiltä Turun kaupungin alueelta. Koroisten tiilet oli taltioitu Juhani Rinteen kaivauksissa (1900–1902) ja kaupungin tiilet Varhainen Turku -hankkeen kaivauksissa (2005–2006). Vertailuaineisto (40 kpl) koostui paikallisista ja tuoduista saviastioista ja tiilistä. Tuloksia verrattiin myös paikallisten savien geologisiin koostumusanalyyseihin. Tulosten tulkinnassa otettiin huomioon mm. ympäröivien maakerrosten mahdollisesti korkeat raskasmetallipitoisuudet sekä kaliumin ja kalsiumin liukeneminen tiilen pinnasta. Tämän vuoksi useista alkuaineista koostuvien ryhmien katsottiin yhdessä
osoittavan tiilen vierasta alkuperää. Vertai luaineiston perusteella ainoastaan raudan
ja kalsiumin tulkittiin yksin osoittavan tuontia. Aineistossa oli vähintään 9, mutta
todennäköisesti kaikkiaan 13 tuotua tiiltä. Näiden joukossa oli muototiiliä, mutta
myös tavallisia muuritiiliä. Tiiliä tuotiin tiilenkäytön varhaisvaiheista lähtien, 1200-
luvun toiselta puoliskolta 1300-luvun alkupuoliskolle, mutta edelleen käytön yleistyessä 1300-luvun toisella puoliskolla ja 1400-luvulla. Tiiliä valmistettiin alusta
lähtien myös paikallisesti. Tutkimusaineistossa oli vain kolme
kattotiiltä, minkä perusteella ei juurikaan voida tehdä luotettavia johtopäätöksiä kattotiilien hankinnasta. Vaikuttaa kuitenkin siltä, että 1400-luvulla kattotiiliä hankittiin
sekä paikallisesti valmistamalla (73) että tuomalla muualta (66?,67). Kattotiilien
pinnoitteena käytettiin luultavasti lyijy- ja kuparipohjaista (66, 67) sivelyä.
Tutkimuksen perusteella Turun seudulle ei keskiajalla saapunut ainoastaan
tiilentekijöitä ja muurareita, vaan myös tiiliä. On mahdollista, että tiiliä tuotiin,
koska tänne ei saatu tarpeeksi taitavia tiilenlyöjiä tai että paikallinen tuotanto ei
riittänyt täyttämään tarvetta. Tiilien harvinaisuus tai kalleus ei liene ollut syynä
tuontiin. XRF-menetelmän käytön etuihin voidaan laskea se, että näytteitä ei tarvitse
kuljettaa analysaattorin luo, mikä esimerkiksi mahdollistaa laitteen käytön kentällä.
Näytteitä saadaan myös analysoitua suhteellisen nopeasti isoja määriä. Toisaalta
kannettavat XRF-analysaattorit ovat edelleen melko hintavia, ja käyttäjän on toimittava
Säteilyturvakeskuksen valvonnan alaisena. Lisäksi eri laitevalmistajien laitteiden
tulokset eivät ole suoraan vertailukelpoisia keskenään.

The remains of an assumed 13th-century episcopal church and associated brick structures at the Cape of Koroinen, southwest Finland, were excavated in 1898–1902. The structures may constitute the first occurrence of masonry buildings, and the use of brick in mainland Finland. Such conclusions, however, have also been questioned. The evaluation of the discoveries has been difficult, because the excavation results were never thoroughly published. The present article re-examines the findings, and discusses their importance for the understanding of Koroinen. The first wooden church at Koroinen had a rectangular nave measuring probably 20 by 10.5 m, and a narrow choir, 4.5 by 4.5 m in size. Inside the choir, a brick altar and brickwalled grave 2 may have been built. The altar foundation measured ca 1.2 by 1.1 m and was possibly erected entirely of bricks. These two structures were mainly constructed of ordinary wall bricks. The nave of the second wooden church measured ca 27.5 by 14.5 m, and it had a narrow choir as well. A brick podium for a baptismal font, as well as a sub-surface drain made mostly of bricks, was presumably connected with the second church. It seems likely that also a brick-walled grave 1 was built into the wooden choir. The wooden church was located at the same place where a choir of stone was later built. Apparently the masonry choir represented the first construction phase of a stone church. It was not planned to be tower-height, and it is not certain whether it was ever completed. Based on the archaeological finds, it seems that site was no longer used in the Late Middle Ages.

"Brick use in Turku in the 14th century
According to current research, during the construction of Turku Cathedral brick was used in the sacristy’s door jambs and vaults in the 14th century and to a larger extentin the nave at the beginning of the 15th century (Drake). Possibly a gate building
or some other structure on the south-eastern side of the cathedral was built of brick at the end of the 14th century (Ratilainen). The town’s earliest masonry building
for secular rulers was probably the town hall, which was built at the beginning of the 14th century. The first reliable evidence of brick use dates from as late as the town hall’s second building phase in the 1350s–1430s (Uotila). According to current
knowledge, the oldest private masonry building, which had brick-built vaults, was constructed in the 1390s (Uotila). Construction of masonry/brick buildings became
more frequent in Turku in the 15th century (Uotila), and the Dominican convent’s buildings were possibly also erected at this time (Hiekkanen). During the excavations of The Early Phases of Turku project an unusual fireplace laid with unfired brick (adobe) was discovered; so far there is no knowledge of a similar fireplace dating to the Middle Ages. Yet this fireplace and a few other stoves and ovens indicate that brick has been used in fireplaces already since the early 14th
century. We can perhaps claim that brick was particularly suited for constructing fireplaces and that this is why it was used in them before stone and brick construction became more common in the town in general. On the other hand, we can ask why people would have taken the trouble to make or import a few bricks just to build fireplaces. In my opinion, it is more likely that bricks were either brought to or made in the town in larger quantities for specific building projects, and that fireplaces were
constructed with bricks that were left over or dismantled from other structures. Also the brick fragments discovered in layers that are older than the adobe fireplace, in addition to a few other examples, indicate that brick has been used and perhaps even
made in the town as early as the first decades of the 14th century."

The aim of the ongoing research is to study the brick building techniques of the Holy Cross Church at Hattula. Questions asked are: How did the bricklayers proceed in their work? Is it possible to identify masons? Was it a single project concluded in a relatively short period of time? In this article I will
briefly present the digital surveying methods applied with the focus being on a selection of results concerning
the building techniques.
Building archaeological surveying methods such as stratigrafic analysis of the walls and photogrammetry
(PhoToPlan, iWitness) and laser scanning were applied in co-operation with Muuritutkimus Ltd and the Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing of the Aalto University and the Geodetic Institute. Studying the building archaeological record showed that bricks were probably assorted after firing and in some cases the colour of the brick revealed where the masons proceeded horizontally. The brick measurements suggest that there was a change in the brick producing process and therefore possibly a break or a delay in the building project. However, analyzing the bonding technique it seems that the same group of masons built the whole church. Studying of the putlog holes showed that the masons working on
both sides of the walls proceeded at a slightly different pace that the planks of the putlog scaffolding were probably taken down as the works progressed and that several types of scaffolding were applied during the building project.


Keywords: Brick, building techniques, church archaeology, digital surveying methods, Middle Ages.

Before the town was built the area located southwest to the present cathedral was under cultivation. At the beginning
of the 14th century the base of a stove measuring 2 x 2 metres and made of unfired bricks was built on the old field.
Timber walls were built around it. The stove is one of the oldest and most curious hearths in the Town of Turku. The
choice of building material, unfired brick, is unknown in the rest of Finland or Northern Europe. Why the bricks were
not fired is, for now, a mystery.
Kirkkokatu (Church Street) was built southeast to the timber building. It was one of the most important streets in
the medieval Kirkkokortteli (Church quarter), which is to say the district between the Cathedral and Suurtori (the
Old Great Market). Among other things, Kirkkokatu was a route for religious processions on holy days. In literary
sources it is mentioned for the first time in 1443. Studies revealed that the street ran at the same location already at the
beginning of the 14th century. In the 15th century the street was covered with wood and it was first paved with stones
by the beginning of the 16th century at the latest. In the mid-17th century Iso Kirkkokatu (Great Church Street) was
built parallel south to the Kirkkokatu. Thereafter Vanha Kirkkokatu (Old Church Street) was no longer the only main
artery through the town to Suurtori.
During the 14th and 15th centuries five to six timber buildings were constructed on the plot on the river side of
Kirkkokatu, but they were destroyed in numerous fires. At the end of the Medieval period a stone building was
constructed on the plot. It was in use up until the last great town fire of 1827. Based on earlier research it was known
that the foundations of the stone house measured approximately 19 metres long and 14 metres wide and it contained
seven to eight rooms. In the southern corner room here investigated a number of floor levels were discovered. Under the
oldest of them a hoard of coins was found, probably left there in the 1520s. It was enough money to buy, for example,
70 - 80 litres of beer.
No information has survived on the medieval inhabitants of the plot known as Rappangården, or Rappana House. It
is likely that the plot was owned by the Church. The finds suggest that the residents were wealthy. One of the most
famous later residents was the father of Finnish history, Henrik Gabriel Porthan, who lived on the plot towards the end
of the 18th century."

"Holy Cross Church of Hattula in Häme (Sw.: ‘Tavastland’), located approximately 100 kilometres north of Helsinki (Sw.: ‘Helsingfors’), is the only preserved medieval church in Finland that was originally completely made of brick. In addition to its building material, the church is famous for its colourful and rich paintings completed at the beginning of the 16th century.

The main object of the research is to discover what kind of building technique was used and how the builders proceeded in the 15th century when the church was constructed. In addition, the research is designed to see if the building technique could shed some light on the debated issue of whether the church was built in a single construction phase or not.

When I first studied the church for my Master’s thesis in 2000-2001, my main problem was that it was not well documented. There were no brick-by-brick drawings on which to mark my observations. Using digitized but unscaled photographs, I was able to cope. Since the beginning of this century, the possibilities of using digital surveying methods have improved considerably, including for buildings archaeologists.

In this article, I briefly discuss the different methods of producing 2- and 3D digital research material for buildings archaeologists’ needs. Firstly the image based survey techniques: the close range photogrammetry and producing rectified photos and orthophotos (based on DSM) are discussed. Secondly the non-image based survey techniques: total station and laser scanning and their possibilities are dealt with. This is followed by a comparison of the methods.

In co-operation with the private buildings archaeological company Muuritutkimus Ltd. and the Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing of the Helsinki School of Technology, I am using the image based and non-image based survey techniques to produce the research material for my lisenciate thesis."

"Terrakottamaskerna i Heliga korsets kyrka i Hattula
Av Tanja Ratilainen

I denna artikel jämförs de sex terrakottamaskerna i Heliga korsets kyrka i Hattula med masker i andra medeltidskyrkor i Finland. I jämförelsen dryftas deras ursprung, vad de föreställer och vad de kan betyda.
Att masken utgör en valvkonsol eller placeras på den yttre muren är rätt sällsynt i Finlands medeltida stenkyrkor. Förutom i Hattula förekommer terrakottamasker åtminstone i Nagu, Korpo, Pernå och Vittis.
Hinrich Brunsberg-skolans inflytande på korbygget i Åbo domkyrka och på förmedlingen av dekorationselementen i detta kor via slottet i Tavastehus till Hattula kyrka utgör en ny möjlig förklaring till maskernas ursprung. Det är troligt att byggnadsarbetarna visste vad maskerna användes till och att de kände till deras symbolik.
Utgående från maskernas ansiktsdrag kan det antas att två av dem är kvinno- eller helgonfigurer. Tre masker, som möjligen är mansfigurer, är ganska primitivt och enkelt gjorda, medan den fjärde är omsorgsfullare gjord. Nyckeln till att förstå maskerna kan finnas i deras miner och placering."

This dissertation focuses on the earliest traces of brick use on the mainland of medieval Finland, when and where the brick use and brick building started, the form in which it firstappeared, and how it seems to have developed. In addition, the actors behind the building projects as well as meaning of the brick is shortly discussed. This study goes through threedifferent sites, along with their brick materials and structures: the Koroinen site, where the bishop's see was located in the 13th century; the Early Phases of Turku excavation site aroundTurku Cathedral; and a standing brick building in the Häme region, the Holy Cross Church of Hattula. All of these sites, excavated or studied through archaeology and buildingarchaeology, are unique and are the first in medieval Finland in their own way; Koroinen wasthe first ecclesiastical centre and Turku the oldest town. Holy Cross Church is the only—and thus, the first—parish church built in brick. This material will be discussed in light of new scientific dating and pXRF results and in the context of other sites with brick structures andbuildings, as well as in a larger perspective in the Baltic Sea Region. The dating methods applied are dendrochronology, optically stimulated luminescence, radiocarbon dating and wiggle matching. Materials dated are brick, wood, burnt bone and mortar.

Brick use started on the mainland of medieval Finland in the second half of the 13th century at Koroinen. Bricks were applied in various ways in several different structures,but the first brick buildings were erected only in the second half of the 14th century. Not only roof tiles but also ordinary wall bricks and moulded bricks were imported, but all of them were also locally produced. The bishop was the first to employ brick, likelybecause he wanted to promote Koroinen as an ecclesiastical centre. Right after foundingTurku, brick was applied in the hearths and floors of wooden buildings, which suggeststhat it was also available to other actors in town. On the other hand, bricks, including thespecial raw bricks dealt with in this study, were hardly acquired for just a few modest structures, but it seems likely that a large-scale building project was going on in town inthe early 14th century. In Häme, brick use also probably started in the 14th century. Themain building material of the Häme Castle may have been brick already at the end of the14th century or early 15th century. The Crown seems to have launched brick use in Häme since the Holy Cross Church of Hattula was built only in the second half of the 15th century at the earliest. In the Åland Islands, brick may have been introduced only in the early 14th century. Compared to the Baltic Sea region, brick building was launched modestly in medieval Finland, but as seen in the overview of the known traces and remains, it is richer, more varied and earlier than recently believed.