This study describes fourteen Anglicisms that are homonyms with a taboo word (a word which is nor... more This study describes fourteen Anglicisms that are homonyms with a taboo word (a word which is normally not used in certain social contexts) in Spanish or that give a taboo meaning from English to another word present in U.S. Spanish. The Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (ANLE: North American Academy of the Spanish Language) recommends against the use of those Anglicisms, along with hundreds of others that are characteristic of U.S. Spanish in the three volumes of Hablando bien se entiende la gente (HBSELG 1 2010, 2 2014, 3 2021). The ANLE is one of the 24 corresponding language academies of the Spanish-speaking world affiliated with the Real Academia Española (RAE: Royal Spanish Academy), the norm-setting organization for the Spanish language. This study wishes to shed light on how and why these taboo expressions can enter Spanish, if they truly are unique to the Spanish of the U.S., and how they fit into the debate about differential dictionaries of -isms.
El inglés y el español en contacto en los Estados Unidos, 2020
López García-Molins (2016) y Moreno-Fernández (2017) propusieron dos modelos diglósicos para desc... more López García-Molins (2016) y Moreno-Fernández (2017) propusieron dos modelos diglósicos para describir el uso del español e inglés por hispanos bilingües en los Estados Unidos. Este artículo recoge anécdotas sobre el repertorio lingüístico, centrándose en el español y el inglés, en una ciudad pequeña de Nueva York. Unas historias acerca del nombre de un nuevo restaurante dominicano, conflictos léxicos entre hispanos de diversos orígenes, reflexiones sobre el uso del español e inglés en la casa y la entrevista en español de un reportero con jugadores de béisbol muestran las luchas entre las variedades del español popular de la ciudad, la existencia de un registro formal del español (el español general estadounidense), y el uso del español popular como seña de identidad y código de solidaridad. Como lengua alta, el inglés domina los ámbitos públicos de la ciudad, dificultándoles la vida a los hispanohablantes, sobre todo en el sistema sanitario y en el sistema jurídico. Se han creado nuevos negocios de interpretación para resolver este problema. Con todo, muchos hispanohablantes se enfrentan a una vida difícil en la ciudad si no tienen conocimientos del inglés.
Palabras clave: el español de los EE.UU., el espanglish, el bilingüismo, la mezcla bilingüe, diglosia
Pluricentric Theory beyond Dominance and Non-dominance: A Critical View, 2020
The field of education was well represented in the Spanish spoken in Utica, New York. Five Anglic... more The field of education was well represented in the Spanish spoken in Utica, New York. Five Anglicisms were selected: high school, elementary school, university, kindergarten, and scholarship. The sets of denotational synonyms (terms that refer to the same concept) for each were determined for Utica, United States, Puerto Rican and Dominican Spanish. This study seeks to determine whether the intense contact situation between English and Spanish is helping to form a new variety of Spanish in Utica and the United States. Quantitative measurements will be used to assess the impact of English and the uniformities and divergence among the varieties using sociometric methods.
Pluricentric languages and non-dominant varieties worldwide: New pluricentric languages-old problems., 2018
Analysis of samples of Spanish spoken in Utica, New York gave 150 lone English language items. Th... more Analysis of samples of Spanish spoken in Utica, New York gave 150 lone English language items. These include established loanwords, nonce borrowings, and code switches. Very few are present in Spanish dictionaries. This study seeks to determine whether these Anglicisms are unique to Utica or present in other varieties of Spanish. The Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual (CREA) database shows that 96 of them are present in many varieties of Spanish. The more frequent and diffused words and the nonce borrowings are more likely to be found in CREA. The paper reveals the centrality of Anglicisms in characterizing US Spanish but their ubiquitous presence in Spanish outside of the US.
eHumanista: Places of Encounter: Language, Culture, and Religious Identity in Medieval Iberia, 2019
Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos, helps us to study lang... more Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos, helps us to study language contact between Arabic and Romance in the Iberian Peninsula between the 14th and 16th centuries. Three pieces in particular from Manuscript 4953 of the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, Spain and transcribed by Ottmar Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos (1981) permit a view on how the Moriscos continued to practice Islam. This paper explores how religion acts as a sociolinguistic factor in motivating language contact and lexical transfer.
The Hispanic population of Utica, a small city in central New York State, has grown rapidly in t... more The Hispanic population of Utica, a small city in central New York State, has grown rapidly in the last fifty years. Simultaneously, the number of Spanish-speakers and the visibility of the Spanish language in the public sphere have grown. This essay summarizes the presence of Spanish in public places in Utica and then describes two anecdotes about Spanish in the linguistic landscape of the city. Symbols were erased in one case, and in the other, one word was changed. This essay analyzes these two episodes in the history of the Hispanic community of Utica and what they mean regarding the language and identity of that group. (La población hispana de Utica, una ciudad pequeña en el centro del estado de Nueva York, ha crecido considerablemente en los últimos cincuenta años. Simultáneamente ha crecido el número de hispanohablantes y ha aumentado la visibilidad de la lengua española en el ámbito público. Este ensayo resume la presencia del español en los espacios públicos de Utica y luego describe dos anécdotas sobre el español en el paisaje lingüístico de la ciudad. Se borraron los símbolos en un caso; en el otro, se cambió una palabra. Este ensayo analiza estos dos episodios en la historia de la comunidad hispana de Utica y lo que significan respecto a la lengua e identidad de ese grupo.)
Paredes García, Florentino, Ana M. Cestero Mancera e Isabel Molina Martos (eds.) (2017): Investig... more Paredes García, Florentino, Ana M. Cestero Mancera e Isabel Molina Martos (eds.) (2017): Investigaciones actuales en Lingüística. Vol. V: Sobre variación geolectal y sociolingüística, Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá, Servicio de Publicaciones.
Revista galega de filoloxía: Aproximacións á variación lexical no domino galego-portugués, 2017
O obxectivo deste estudo é elaborar unha lista de empréstimos léxicos exclusivos do galego para b... more O obxectivo deste estudo é elaborar unha lista de empréstimos léxicos exclusivos do galego para botar luz sobre posibles situacións de contacto lingüístico no pasado entre galegofalantes e falantes do árabe andalusí ou do romandalusí. A presenza de arabismos directos axudará a identificar situacións de contacto únicas entre o galego e as linguas faladas en Al-Andalus. A partir do Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance de Corriente (1999), atópanse dezasete entradas exclusivas do galego. Só sete son arabismos directos. Os demais son romandalusismos, evolucións dentro do galego e un berberismo. Discútense a etimoloxía, a relación coas demais linguas peninsulares, especialmente o castelán e o portugués, a actualidade de uso e a evolución semántica de cada vocábulo. A comparación da etimoloxía dos empréstimos cos seus campos semánticos e con certos eventos socio-históricos axuda a descubrir unha situación de contacto entre falantes de árabe e falantes de galego que resultou na incorporación destes vocábulos no galego. Palabras chave Sociolingüística, linguas en contacto, empréstimos léxicos, arabismos, galego Sumario 1. Introdución. 2. Metodoloxía. 3. Resultados. 3.1. Evolucións dentro do galego e vocábulos do latín. 3.2 Romandalusismos. 3.3. Arabismos. 4. Discusión. 5. Conclusión.
Arabisms in Galician? Abstract The objective of this study is to prepare a list of exclusive loanwords in Galician in order to shed light on possible situations of linguistic contact in the past among speakers of Galician and speakers of Andalusian Arabic or Andalusian Romance. The presence of direct Arabisms will help to identify unique situations of contact between Galician and the languages spoken in Al-Andalus. Starting from Corriente’s Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance (1999), seventeen entries, unique to Galician, are found. Only seven are direct Arabisms. The rest are loanwords from Andalusian Romance, evolutions within Galician and one Berberism. Each word’s etymology, relation to other peninsular languages, especially Castilian Spanish and Portuguese, current use and semantic evolution are discussed. The comparison of the loanwords’ etymology with their semantic fields and with some socio-historical events helps to describe a situation of contact among Arabic speakers and Galician speakers which lead to the incorporation of this vocabulary in Galician. Key words Sociolinguistics, languages in contact, loanwords, Arabisms, Galician language Contents 1. Introduction. 2. Methodology. 3. Results. 3.1. Evolutions within Galician and words from Latin 3.2 Words from Andalusian Romance. 3.3. Arabisms. 4. Discussion. 5. Conclusion.
This work is a sequel to a previous study (Thomas 2016a) on the 441 Anglicisms pres... more This work is a sequel to a previous study (Thomas 2016a) on the 441 Anglicisms present in the recordings of sixteen Hispanics who live and work in Utica, a small city in a rural area of New York State. Using the data on frequency, diffusion, adaptation and a comparative variationist study on the determiner, it was concluded that code-switching as well as nonce borrowing are part of the linguistic behavior of Hispanic bilinguals from Utica. This essay shows all the lone English words picked out from the interviews and compares them to the entries in the Diccionario de la lengua española (DLE) and the Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), with the objective of figuring out which are established loanwords, regardless of their status as code-switches or nonce borrowings. The problems with using the comparative variationist study to identify loanwords are discussed. The DAA is extremely helpful in clarifying the status of several words in Utica Spanish as established loanwords
.Este trabajo parte de un estudio previo (Thomas 2016a) de los 441 anglicismos presentes en las grabaciones de dieciséis hispanos que viven y trabajan en Utica, una pequeña ciudad en una zona rural del estado de New York. Mediante los datos de la frecuencia, difusión, adaptación y un estudio variacionista comparativo sobre el determinante, se concluyó que tanto el cambio de códigos como el préstamo momentáneo forman parte del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües hispanos de Utica. El presente ensayo expone todas las palabras discretas del inglés recogidas de las entrevistas y las compara con las entradas en el Diccionario de la lengua española(DLE) y el Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), con el objetivo de averiguar cuáles son préstamos establecidos, independientemente de su estatus como cambios de código o préstamos momentáneos. Se discuten los problemas con el estudio variacionista comparativo a la hora de identificar préstamos. El DAA es de suma utilidad para aclarar la condición de varios vocablos del español de Utica como préstamos establecidos.
Travaux du 19ème Congrès International des Linguistes, 2016
Utica, NY is located a rural county that has recently experienced a substantial increase in Hispa... more Utica, NY is located a rural county that has recently experienced a substantial increase in Hispanic population. This study is based on 10.5 hours of oral interviews with 16 bilingual members of the local Hispanic community. The objective is to describe the code-switching behavior and some morphosyntactic parameters of the Spanish spoken in Utica. The data are compared quantitatively and qualitatively to other studies of U.S. Spanish, as well as to monolingual Spanish-speaking communities outside the U.S. The comparisons will help determine not only whether Utica Spanish is an isolated, migrant variety but also to comment about the nature of U.S. Spanish in general.
La literatura aljamiada, compuesta en romance con grafía árabe por moriscos antes de su expulsió... more La literatura aljamiada, compuesta en romance con grafía árabe por moriscos antes de su expulsión de España en el siglo XVII, nos ayuda a estudiar el contacto lingüístico entre el árabe y el romance. El objetivo de este estudio es cuantificar y clasificar los arabismos y los casos de alternancia de códigos en 31 obras aljamiadas: el estudio del Poema de Yúçuf de Menéndez Pidal, el manuscrito 4953 de la Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analizado por Ottmar Hegyi en Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, y una colección de cuentos de personajes bíblicos elaborada por Vespertino Rodríguez en Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. Los ejemplos de alternancia de códigos llegan a 77 palabras individuales y 54 ejemplos intra y extraoracionales. Los arabismos (más de 2000) y las largas citas de oraciones y azoras atestiguan la influencia árabe en el romance de los autores, pero la repetición de las mismas citas y unas características lingüísticas como la doble expresión del artículo definido, uno árabe y otro romance, delatan menos competencia en árabe que en romance. Cabe señalar que no se registra ni siquiera un uso de Dios ni de Jesús, sino Al.lah e ˤĪçā. Esta observación, junto con el uso de la grafía árabe, los arabismos y las expresiones formularias árabes, indica que el árabe servía como símbolo de fidelidad al pasado islámico de los moriscos. Palabras clave: contacto lingüístico, alternancia de códigos, bilingüismo, arabismos, sociolingüística histórica, literatura aljamiada
ABSTRACT Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos before their explusion from Spain in the seventeenth century, helps us to study the language contact between Arabic and Romance. The objective of this study is to quantify and to classify the Arabisms and examples of code switching in 31 aljamiado works: Menéndez Pidal´s study of El poema de Yúçuf, Manuscript 4953 from the Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analyzed by Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, and a collection of stories about biblical characters compiled by Vespertino Rodríguez in Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. The examples of code switching include 77 single words and 54 examples of intra and inter sentential code switches. The Arabisms (more than 2000) and the long quotations from prayers and suras witness the influence of Arabic on the Romance of the authors, but the repetition of the same quotations and some linguistic characteristics such as the double use of the definite article, one Arabic and the other Romance indicate less competency in Arabic than in Romance. It is worthy of note that not even one use of Dios nor Jesús is found, but rather Al.lah and ˤĪçā. This observation along with the use of the Arabic alphabet, the Arabisms and the formulaic Arabic expressions indicate that the use of Arabic served as a symbol of faithfulness to the Islamic past of the Moriscos. Keywords: language contact, code switching, bilingualism, Arabisms, historical sociolinguistics, Aljamiado literature
Pluricentric languages and non-dominant varieties worldwide: Volume 2: The pluricentricity of Portuguese and Spanish: New concepts and descriptions
The Spanish language in the United States is growing in number of speakers and in its use in ... more The Spanish language in the United States is growing in number of speakers and in its use in mass media broadcast from the US to the rest of the world. Paradoxically, it is not recognized as a national variety nor does it have an explicitly codified standard. This study hopes to contribute information about real Spanish language use in the US byquantifying tokens of the expression preposition + article + que. Elision of the required preposition is known as queísmo. This syntactic variable willbe studied in the Spanish written and spoken in Utica, NY. The Spanish in Utica provides a good test case for examining the vitality of Spanish on a national level. The results will be compared to those of other studies and will be used to discuss queísmo as an indicator of Spanish pluricentricity.
Typical of many non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages, U.S. Spanish does not have a co... more Typical of many non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages, U.S. Spanish does not have a codified standard. In earlier studies, the author described the code-switching, subject pronoun use, nominal possession and verbal system which characterize the Spanish spoken in Utica, NY, U.S. Although those parameters do not constitute a prescriptive standard, they could form a type of "linguistic standard and quasi codification set through usage" (Muhr, 2013: 30). The present study continues to explore what might be a standard for Utica Spanish, and U.S. Spanish, in general, and compares the parameters mentioned above with those of written Spanish obtained from El despertar hispano-americano, a column published in the Utica newspaper Observer-Dispatch (O-D). The parameters exhibit very different values which might be explained by the existence of different standards which govern communicative functions.
Exploring linguistic standards in non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages/ Explorando estándardes lingüísticos en variedades no dominantes de lenguas pluricéntricas , 2013
The work presented here is based on 400 Spanish loanwords attested in Altamura's Dizionario diale... more The work presented here is based on 400 Spanish loanwords attested in Altamura's Dizionario dialettale napoletano, one of the first etymological works in Neapolitan. Thirteen semantic fields have been identified, which have a direct relationship with certain groups of Spaniards and represent the linguistic legacy left in Naples by the Spanish masters. The soldiers and sailors left loanwords related to the semantic fields of the armed forces, aggression, robbery, insults, sexual practices and the camorra. The aristocrats left vocabulary associated with clothing, work-industry and the court. Other fields include loanwords used by all Spaniards: animals, food, administration, and leisure. This study shows that the loanwords themselves enclose information about their users and by extension, information about the type of social and linguistic contact among Spaniards and Neapolitans.
his study aims to identify the two principal reasons why college students choose a certain langua... more his study aims to identify the two principal reasons why college students choose a certain language to satisfy a general education second language requirement by polling 172 students enrolled in first-year language courses in 13 languages at a large Northeastern research university. Students answered a questionnaire and chose the two main reasons from 10 choices articulated in sentimental, value, instrumental, and communicative dimensions. Cross-tabulations by SPSS showed significant statistical relationships between the attitudinal factors and the language studied. Spanish students strongly favored an instrumental orientation for both first and second choices. Danish, Dutch, French, Arabic, Russian, and German students also indicated instrumental preferences, but their second choices fell into other domains. Portuguese, Italian, Hebrew, Japanese, and Korean students favored communication factors, while Chinese students selected sentimental and communication reasons for their first and second choices, respectively.
Este trabajo describe los resultados de una encuesta metalingüística completada por veinte co... more Este trabajo describe los resultados de una encuesta metalingüística completada por veinte costarricenses sobre el uso del pronombre de tratamiento (vos, tú o usted) en varios contextos sociales. En esta investigación, se ha valido del programa S.P.S.S. para cruzar las respuestas del uso pronominal con las variables sociales de género, estado civil, edad, ingresos, estudios y provincia de nacimiento. La forma de tratamiento no-marcada en todas las situaciones estudiadas es el pronombre usted, tanto en ámbitos de solidaridad (familiaridad, amistad y confianza) como en los de distanciamiento y de poder. Los encuestados indican el empleo del vos, siempre la forma marcada y de uso minoritario, en ciertas relaciones de confianza y amistad, por ejemplo, con miembros de la familia, amigos y, a veces, con compañeros de trabajo. La prueba chi-cuadrado de Pearson muestra una dependencia significativa entre el empleo del vos en contextos de confianza y las variables independientes de género y edad. El uso costarricense del vos no equivale ni al vos de otras regiones voseantes ni tampoco al tú. El tratamiento con tú, pronombre tradicionalmente ajeno al sistema costarricense, aparece con escasa frecuencia entre las respuestas.
Keywords: Costa Rica, voseo, vos, formas de tratamiento, actitudes, tú, usted
DOI: 10.1075/sic.5.2.03tho
This study describes fourteen Anglicisms that are homonyms with a taboo word (a word which is nor... more This study describes fourteen Anglicisms that are homonyms with a taboo word (a word which is normally not used in certain social contexts) in Spanish or that give a taboo meaning from English to another word present in U.S. Spanish. The Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (ANLE: North American Academy of the Spanish Language) recommends against the use of those Anglicisms, along with hundreds of others that are characteristic of U.S. Spanish in the three volumes of Hablando bien se entiende la gente (HBSELG 1 2010, 2 2014, 3 2021). The ANLE is one of the 24 corresponding language academies of the Spanish-speaking world affiliated with the Real Academia Española (RAE: Royal Spanish Academy), the norm-setting organization for the Spanish language. This study wishes to shed light on how and why these taboo expressions can enter Spanish, if they truly are unique to the Spanish of the U.S., and how they fit into the debate about differential dictionaries of -isms.
El inglés y el español en contacto en los Estados Unidos, 2020
López García-Molins (2016) y Moreno-Fernández (2017) propusieron dos modelos diglósicos para desc... more López García-Molins (2016) y Moreno-Fernández (2017) propusieron dos modelos diglósicos para describir el uso del español e inglés por hispanos bilingües en los Estados Unidos. Este artículo recoge anécdotas sobre el repertorio lingüístico, centrándose en el español y el inglés, en una ciudad pequeña de Nueva York. Unas historias acerca del nombre de un nuevo restaurante dominicano, conflictos léxicos entre hispanos de diversos orígenes, reflexiones sobre el uso del español e inglés en la casa y la entrevista en español de un reportero con jugadores de béisbol muestran las luchas entre las variedades del español popular de la ciudad, la existencia de un registro formal del español (el español general estadounidense), y el uso del español popular como seña de identidad y código de solidaridad. Como lengua alta, el inglés domina los ámbitos públicos de la ciudad, dificultándoles la vida a los hispanohablantes, sobre todo en el sistema sanitario y en el sistema jurídico. Se han creado nuevos negocios de interpretación para resolver este problema. Con todo, muchos hispanohablantes se enfrentan a una vida difícil en la ciudad si no tienen conocimientos del inglés.
Palabras clave: el español de los EE.UU., el espanglish, el bilingüismo, la mezcla bilingüe, diglosia
Pluricentric Theory beyond Dominance and Non-dominance: A Critical View, 2020
The field of education was well represented in the Spanish spoken in Utica, New York. Five Anglic... more The field of education was well represented in the Spanish spoken in Utica, New York. Five Anglicisms were selected: high school, elementary school, university, kindergarten, and scholarship. The sets of denotational synonyms (terms that refer to the same concept) for each were determined for Utica, United States, Puerto Rican and Dominican Spanish. This study seeks to determine whether the intense contact situation between English and Spanish is helping to form a new variety of Spanish in Utica and the United States. Quantitative measurements will be used to assess the impact of English and the uniformities and divergence among the varieties using sociometric methods.
Pluricentric languages and non-dominant varieties worldwide: New pluricentric languages-old problems., 2018
Analysis of samples of Spanish spoken in Utica, New York gave 150 lone English language items. Th... more Analysis of samples of Spanish spoken in Utica, New York gave 150 lone English language items. These include established loanwords, nonce borrowings, and code switches. Very few are present in Spanish dictionaries. This study seeks to determine whether these Anglicisms are unique to Utica or present in other varieties of Spanish. The Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual (CREA) database shows that 96 of them are present in many varieties of Spanish. The more frequent and diffused words and the nonce borrowings are more likely to be found in CREA. The paper reveals the centrality of Anglicisms in characterizing US Spanish but their ubiquitous presence in Spanish outside of the US.
eHumanista: Places of Encounter: Language, Culture, and Religious Identity in Medieval Iberia, 2019
Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos, helps us to study lang... more Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos, helps us to study language contact between Arabic and Romance in the Iberian Peninsula between the 14th and 16th centuries. Three pieces in particular from Manuscript 4953 of the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, Spain and transcribed by Ottmar Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos (1981) permit a view on how the Moriscos continued to practice Islam. This paper explores how religion acts as a sociolinguistic factor in motivating language contact and lexical transfer.
The Hispanic population of Utica, a small city in central New York State, has grown rapidly in t... more The Hispanic population of Utica, a small city in central New York State, has grown rapidly in the last fifty years. Simultaneously, the number of Spanish-speakers and the visibility of the Spanish language in the public sphere have grown. This essay summarizes the presence of Spanish in public places in Utica and then describes two anecdotes about Spanish in the linguistic landscape of the city. Symbols were erased in one case, and in the other, one word was changed. This essay analyzes these two episodes in the history of the Hispanic community of Utica and what they mean regarding the language and identity of that group. (La población hispana de Utica, una ciudad pequeña en el centro del estado de Nueva York, ha crecido considerablemente en los últimos cincuenta años. Simultáneamente ha crecido el número de hispanohablantes y ha aumentado la visibilidad de la lengua española en el ámbito público. Este ensayo resume la presencia del español en los espacios públicos de Utica y luego describe dos anécdotas sobre el español en el paisaje lingüístico de la ciudad. Se borraron los símbolos en un caso; en el otro, se cambió una palabra. Este ensayo analiza estos dos episodios en la historia de la comunidad hispana de Utica y lo que significan respecto a la lengua e identidad de ese grupo.)
Paredes García, Florentino, Ana M. Cestero Mancera e Isabel Molina Martos (eds.) (2017): Investig... more Paredes García, Florentino, Ana M. Cestero Mancera e Isabel Molina Martos (eds.) (2017): Investigaciones actuales en Lingüística. Vol. V: Sobre variación geolectal y sociolingüística, Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá, Servicio de Publicaciones.
Revista galega de filoloxía: Aproximacións á variación lexical no domino galego-portugués, 2017
O obxectivo deste estudo é elaborar unha lista de empréstimos léxicos exclusivos do galego para b... more O obxectivo deste estudo é elaborar unha lista de empréstimos léxicos exclusivos do galego para botar luz sobre posibles situacións de contacto lingüístico no pasado entre galegofalantes e falantes do árabe andalusí ou do romandalusí. A presenza de arabismos directos axudará a identificar situacións de contacto únicas entre o galego e as linguas faladas en Al-Andalus. A partir do Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance de Corriente (1999), atópanse dezasete entradas exclusivas do galego. Só sete son arabismos directos. Os demais son romandalusismos, evolucións dentro do galego e un berberismo. Discútense a etimoloxía, a relación coas demais linguas peninsulares, especialmente o castelán e o portugués, a actualidade de uso e a evolución semántica de cada vocábulo. A comparación da etimoloxía dos empréstimos cos seus campos semánticos e con certos eventos socio-históricos axuda a descubrir unha situación de contacto entre falantes de árabe e falantes de galego que resultou na incorporación destes vocábulos no galego. Palabras chave Sociolingüística, linguas en contacto, empréstimos léxicos, arabismos, galego Sumario 1. Introdución. 2. Metodoloxía. 3. Resultados. 3.1. Evolucións dentro do galego e vocábulos do latín. 3.2 Romandalusismos. 3.3. Arabismos. 4. Discusión. 5. Conclusión.
Arabisms in Galician? Abstract The objective of this study is to prepare a list of exclusive loanwords in Galician in order to shed light on possible situations of linguistic contact in the past among speakers of Galician and speakers of Andalusian Arabic or Andalusian Romance. The presence of direct Arabisms will help to identify unique situations of contact between Galician and the languages spoken in Al-Andalus. Starting from Corriente’s Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance (1999), seventeen entries, unique to Galician, are found. Only seven are direct Arabisms. The rest are loanwords from Andalusian Romance, evolutions within Galician and one Berberism. Each word’s etymology, relation to other peninsular languages, especially Castilian Spanish and Portuguese, current use and semantic evolution are discussed. The comparison of the loanwords’ etymology with their semantic fields and with some socio-historical events helps to describe a situation of contact among Arabic speakers and Galician speakers which lead to the incorporation of this vocabulary in Galician. Key words Sociolinguistics, languages in contact, loanwords, Arabisms, Galician language Contents 1. Introduction. 2. Methodology. 3. Results. 3.1. Evolutions within Galician and words from Latin 3.2 Words from Andalusian Romance. 3.3. Arabisms. 4. Discussion. 5. Conclusion.
This work is a sequel to a previous study (Thomas 2016a) on the 441 Anglicisms pres... more This work is a sequel to a previous study (Thomas 2016a) on the 441 Anglicisms present in the recordings of sixteen Hispanics who live and work in Utica, a small city in a rural area of New York State. Using the data on frequency, diffusion, adaptation and a comparative variationist study on the determiner, it was concluded that code-switching as well as nonce borrowing are part of the linguistic behavior of Hispanic bilinguals from Utica. This essay shows all the lone English words picked out from the interviews and compares them to the entries in the Diccionario de la lengua española (DLE) and the Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), with the objective of figuring out which are established loanwords, regardless of their status as code-switches or nonce borrowings. The problems with using the comparative variationist study to identify loanwords are discussed. The DAA is extremely helpful in clarifying the status of several words in Utica Spanish as established loanwords
.Este trabajo parte de un estudio previo (Thomas 2016a) de los 441 anglicismos presentes en las grabaciones de dieciséis hispanos que viven y trabajan en Utica, una pequeña ciudad en una zona rural del estado de New York. Mediante los datos de la frecuencia, difusión, adaptación y un estudio variacionista comparativo sobre el determinante, se concluyó que tanto el cambio de códigos como el préstamo momentáneo forman parte del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües hispanos de Utica. El presente ensayo expone todas las palabras discretas del inglés recogidas de las entrevistas y las compara con las entradas en el Diccionario de la lengua española(DLE) y el Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), con el objetivo de averiguar cuáles son préstamos establecidos, independientemente de su estatus como cambios de código o préstamos momentáneos. Se discuten los problemas con el estudio variacionista comparativo a la hora de identificar préstamos. El DAA es de suma utilidad para aclarar la condición de varios vocablos del español de Utica como préstamos establecidos.
Travaux du 19ème Congrès International des Linguistes, 2016
Utica, NY is located a rural county that has recently experienced a substantial increase in Hispa... more Utica, NY is located a rural county that has recently experienced a substantial increase in Hispanic population. This study is based on 10.5 hours of oral interviews with 16 bilingual members of the local Hispanic community. The objective is to describe the code-switching behavior and some morphosyntactic parameters of the Spanish spoken in Utica. The data are compared quantitatively and qualitatively to other studies of U.S. Spanish, as well as to monolingual Spanish-speaking communities outside the U.S. The comparisons will help determine not only whether Utica Spanish is an isolated, migrant variety but also to comment about the nature of U.S. Spanish in general.
La literatura aljamiada, compuesta en romance con grafía árabe por moriscos antes de su expulsió... more La literatura aljamiada, compuesta en romance con grafía árabe por moriscos antes de su expulsión de España en el siglo XVII, nos ayuda a estudiar el contacto lingüístico entre el árabe y el romance. El objetivo de este estudio es cuantificar y clasificar los arabismos y los casos de alternancia de códigos en 31 obras aljamiadas: el estudio del Poema de Yúçuf de Menéndez Pidal, el manuscrito 4953 de la Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analizado por Ottmar Hegyi en Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, y una colección de cuentos de personajes bíblicos elaborada por Vespertino Rodríguez en Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. Los ejemplos de alternancia de códigos llegan a 77 palabras individuales y 54 ejemplos intra y extraoracionales. Los arabismos (más de 2000) y las largas citas de oraciones y azoras atestiguan la influencia árabe en el romance de los autores, pero la repetición de las mismas citas y unas características lingüísticas como la doble expresión del artículo definido, uno árabe y otro romance, delatan menos competencia en árabe que en romance. Cabe señalar que no se registra ni siquiera un uso de Dios ni de Jesús, sino Al.lah e ˤĪçā. Esta observación, junto con el uso de la grafía árabe, los arabismos y las expresiones formularias árabes, indica que el árabe servía como símbolo de fidelidad al pasado islámico de los moriscos. Palabras clave: contacto lingüístico, alternancia de códigos, bilingüismo, arabismos, sociolingüística histórica, literatura aljamiada
ABSTRACT Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos before their explusion from Spain in the seventeenth century, helps us to study the language contact between Arabic and Romance. The objective of this study is to quantify and to classify the Arabisms and examples of code switching in 31 aljamiado works: Menéndez Pidal´s study of El poema de Yúçuf, Manuscript 4953 from the Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analyzed by Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, and a collection of stories about biblical characters compiled by Vespertino Rodríguez in Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. The examples of code switching include 77 single words and 54 examples of intra and inter sentential code switches. The Arabisms (more than 2000) and the long quotations from prayers and suras witness the influence of Arabic on the Romance of the authors, but the repetition of the same quotations and some linguistic characteristics such as the double use of the definite article, one Arabic and the other Romance indicate less competency in Arabic than in Romance. It is worthy of note that not even one use of Dios nor Jesús is found, but rather Al.lah and ˤĪçā. This observation along with the use of the Arabic alphabet, the Arabisms and the formulaic Arabic expressions indicate that the use of Arabic served as a symbol of faithfulness to the Islamic past of the Moriscos. Keywords: language contact, code switching, bilingualism, Arabisms, historical sociolinguistics, Aljamiado literature
Pluricentric languages and non-dominant varieties worldwide: Volume 2: The pluricentricity of Portuguese and Spanish: New concepts and descriptions
The Spanish language in the United States is growing in number of speakers and in its use in ... more The Spanish language in the United States is growing in number of speakers and in its use in mass media broadcast from the US to the rest of the world. Paradoxically, it is not recognized as a national variety nor does it have an explicitly codified standard. This study hopes to contribute information about real Spanish language use in the US byquantifying tokens of the expression preposition + article + que. Elision of the required preposition is known as queísmo. This syntactic variable willbe studied in the Spanish written and spoken in Utica, NY. The Spanish in Utica provides a good test case for examining the vitality of Spanish on a national level. The results will be compared to those of other studies and will be used to discuss queísmo as an indicator of Spanish pluricentricity.
Typical of many non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages, U.S. Spanish does not have a co... more Typical of many non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages, U.S. Spanish does not have a codified standard. In earlier studies, the author described the code-switching, subject pronoun use, nominal possession and verbal system which characterize the Spanish spoken in Utica, NY, U.S. Although those parameters do not constitute a prescriptive standard, they could form a type of "linguistic standard and quasi codification set through usage" (Muhr, 2013: 30). The present study continues to explore what might be a standard for Utica Spanish, and U.S. Spanish, in general, and compares the parameters mentioned above with those of written Spanish obtained from El despertar hispano-americano, a column published in the Utica newspaper Observer-Dispatch (O-D). The parameters exhibit very different values which might be explained by the existence of different standards which govern communicative functions.
Exploring linguistic standards in non-dominant varieties of pluricentric languages/ Explorando estándardes lingüísticos en variedades no dominantes de lenguas pluricéntricas , 2013
The work presented here is based on 400 Spanish loanwords attested in Altamura's Dizionario diale... more The work presented here is based on 400 Spanish loanwords attested in Altamura's Dizionario dialettale napoletano, one of the first etymological works in Neapolitan. Thirteen semantic fields have been identified, which have a direct relationship with certain groups of Spaniards and represent the linguistic legacy left in Naples by the Spanish masters. The soldiers and sailors left loanwords related to the semantic fields of the armed forces, aggression, robbery, insults, sexual practices and the camorra. The aristocrats left vocabulary associated with clothing, work-industry and the court. Other fields include loanwords used by all Spaniards: animals, food, administration, and leisure. This study shows that the loanwords themselves enclose information about their users and by extension, information about the type of social and linguistic contact among Spaniards and Neapolitans.
his study aims to identify the two principal reasons why college students choose a certain langua... more his study aims to identify the two principal reasons why college students choose a certain language to satisfy a general education second language requirement by polling 172 students enrolled in first-year language courses in 13 languages at a large Northeastern research university. Students answered a questionnaire and chose the two main reasons from 10 choices articulated in sentimental, value, instrumental, and communicative dimensions. Cross-tabulations by SPSS showed significant statistical relationships between the attitudinal factors and the language studied. Spanish students strongly favored an instrumental orientation for both first and second choices. Danish, Dutch, French, Arabic, Russian, and German students also indicated instrumental preferences, but their second choices fell into other domains. Portuguese, Italian, Hebrew, Japanese, and Korean students favored communication factors, while Chinese students selected sentimental and communication reasons for their first and second choices, respectively.
Este trabajo describe los resultados de una encuesta metalingüística completada por veinte co... more Este trabajo describe los resultados de una encuesta metalingüística completada por veinte costarricenses sobre el uso del pronombre de tratamiento (vos, tú o usted) en varios contextos sociales. En esta investigación, se ha valido del programa S.P.S.S. para cruzar las respuestas del uso pronominal con las variables sociales de género, estado civil, edad, ingresos, estudios y provincia de nacimiento. La forma de tratamiento no-marcada en todas las situaciones estudiadas es el pronombre usted, tanto en ámbitos de solidaridad (familiaridad, amistad y confianza) como en los de distanciamiento y de poder. Los encuestados indican el empleo del vos, siempre la forma marcada y de uso minoritario, en ciertas relaciones de confianza y amistad, por ejemplo, con miembros de la familia, amigos y, a veces, con compañeros de trabajo. La prueba chi-cuadrado de Pearson muestra una dependencia significativa entre el empleo del vos en contextos de confianza y las variables independientes de género y edad. El uso costarricense del vos no equivale ni al vos de otras regiones voseantes ni tampoco al tú. El tratamiento con tú, pronombre tradicionalmente ajeno al sistema costarricense, aparece con escasa frecuencia entre las respuestas.
Keywords: Costa Rica, voseo, vos, formas de tratamiento, actitudes, tú, usted
DOI: 10.1075/sic.5.2.03tho
This is the first of two volumes that present part of the outcome 9th World Conference on Plurice... more This is the first of two volumes that present part of the outcome 9th World Conference on Pluricentric Languages that took place from August 26-28 2021. The volume contains fourteen contributions. The conference was organised by the “Working Group on Non-Dominant Varieties of Pluricentric Languages” (WGNDV), this time hosted by the Austrian German Research Centre in Graz. Due to the pandemic, the conference was held online via ZOOM much to the satisfaction of all participants. The conference had three main topics: (1) Pluricentric languages in the Americas; (2) The localisation of global audiovisual and print media in pluricentric language ar-eas. (3) Pluricentric languages worldwide. The papers of this volume refer to topic (1) while the papers of theme (3) are published in volume (2). All articles of this volume deal with pluricentric languages that exist in the Americas. It is the first volume of this kind that has been ever published on this topic. There are papers dealing with the indigenous language Quechua and the Guarani-Tupi language family. Spanish and Portuguese as well as Dutch and Arcadian French in Canada are also dealt with.
Pluricentric Languages and Non-Dominant Varieties Worldwide Part II: The Pluricentricity of Portuguese and Spanish. New Concepts and Descriptions, 2016
This diary narrates the story of the Latino community in Utica, New York and the challenges that ... more This diary narrates the story of the Latino community in Utica, New York and the challenges that have accompanied its fast growth since the 1960s. While large metropolitan areas have traditionally been the destinations of Hispanic migration in the U.S., the census of 2010 showed that rural areas and small cities like Utica were the most quickly growing centers of Latino population. The story of the Utica Hispanic community is an important contribution in describing a type of community that has received little attention in U.S. Latino studies. Utica's Hispanics have faced the same obstacles as all Latinos in the country (such as inaccessibility to social services and language and educational barriers), but several unique conflicts have arisen within the local community. Although the language demands have been answered in large part, even up to the present day, social justice issues continue to arise in the workforce, educational and governmental settings.
International Journal of the Linguistic Association of the Southwest, 2021
Nuevas voces sobre el spanglish: una investigación polifónica. De Silvia Betti y Enrique Serra Al... more Nuevas voces sobre el spanglish: una investigación polifónica. De Silvia Betti y Enrique Serra Alegre (eds.). Nueva York: Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (ANLE) & Universitat de València-Estudi General (UVEG), 2016. Pp. 153. ISBN 978-0996782135.
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Palabras clave: el español de los EE.UU., el espanglish, el bilingüismo, la mezcla bilingüe, diglosia
(La población hispana de Utica, una ciudad pequeña en el centro del estado de Nueva York, ha crecido considerablemente en los últimos cincuenta años. Simultáneamente ha crecido el número de hispanohablantes y ha aumentado la visibilidad de la lengua española en el ámbito público. Este ensayo resume la presencia del español en los espacios públicos de Utica y luego describe dos anécdotas sobre el español en el paisaje lingüístico de la ciudad. Se borraron los símbolos en un caso; en el otro, se cambió una palabra. Este ensayo analiza estos dos episodios en la historia de la comunidad hispana de Utica y lo que significan respecto a la lengua e identidad de ese grupo.)
Palabras chave
Sociolingüística, linguas en contacto, empréstimos léxicos, arabismos, galego
Sumario
1. Introdución. 2. Metodoloxía. 3. Resultados. 3.1. Evolucións dentro do galego e vocábulos do latín. 3.2 Romandalusismos. 3.3. Arabismos. 4. Discusión. 5. Conclusión.
Arabisms in Galician?
Abstract
The objective of this study is to prepare a list of exclusive loanwords in Galician in order to shed light on possible situations of linguistic contact in the past among speakers of Galician and speakers of Andalusian Arabic or Andalusian Romance. The presence of direct Arabisms will help to identify unique situations of contact between Galician and the languages spoken in Al-Andalus. Starting from Corriente’s Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance (1999), seventeen entries, unique to Galician, are found. Only seven are direct Arabisms. The rest are loanwords from Andalusian Romance, evolutions within Galician and one Berberism. Each word’s etymology, relation to other peninsular languages, especially Castilian Spanish and Portuguese, current use and semantic evolution are discussed. The comparison of the loanwords’ etymology with their semantic fields and with some socio-historical events helps to describe a situation of contact among Arabic speakers and Galician speakers which lead to the incorporation of this vocabulary in Galician.
Key words
Sociolinguistics, languages in contact, loanwords, Arabisms, Galician language
Contents
1. Introduction. 2. Methodology. 3. Results. 3.1. Evolutions within Galician and words from Latin 3.2 Words from Andalusian Romance. 3.3. Arabisms. 4. Discussion. 5. Conclusion.
the Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), with the objective of figuring out which are established loanwords, regardless of their status as code-switches or nonce borrowings. The problems with using the comparative variationist study to identify loanwords are discussed. The DAA is extremely helpful in clarifying the status of several words in Utica Spanish as established loanwords
.Este trabajo parte de un estudio previo (Thomas 2016a) de los 441 anglicismos presentes en las grabaciones de dieciséis hispanos que viven y trabajan en Utica, una pequeña ciudad en una zona rural del estado de New York. Mediante los datos de la frecuencia, difusión, adaptación y un estudio variacionista comparativo sobre el determinante, se concluyó que
tanto el cambio de códigos como el préstamo momentáneo forman parte del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües hispanos de Utica. El presente ensayo expone todas las palabras discretas del inglés recogidas de las entrevistas y las compara con las entradas en el Diccionario de la lengua española(DLE) y el
Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), con el objetivo de averiguar
cuáles son préstamos establecidos, independientemente de su estatus como cambios de código o préstamos momentáneos. Se discuten los problemas con el estudio variacionista comparativo a la hora de identificar préstamos. El DAA es de suma utilidad para aclarar la condición de varios vocablos del español de Utica como préstamos establecidos.
Palabras clave: contacto lingüístico, alternancia de códigos, bilingüismo, arabismos, sociolingüística histórica, literatura aljamiada
ABSTRACT
Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos before their explusion from Spain in the seventeenth century, helps us to study the language contact between Arabic and Romance. The objective of this study is to quantify and to classify the Arabisms and examples of code switching in 31 aljamiado works: Menéndez Pidal´s study of El poema de Yúçuf, Manuscript 4953 from the Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analyzed by Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, and a collection of stories about biblical characters compiled by Vespertino Rodríguez in Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. The examples of code switching include 77 single words and 54 examples of intra and inter sentential code switches. The Arabisms (more than 2000) and the long quotations from prayers and suras witness the influence of Arabic on the Romance of the authors, but the repetition of the same quotations and some linguistic characteristics such as the double use of the definite article, one Arabic and the other Romance indicate less competency in Arabic than in Romance. It is worthy of note that not even one use of Dios nor Jesús is found, but rather Al.lah and ˤĪçā. This observation along with the use of the Arabic alphabet, the Arabisms and the formulaic Arabic expressions indicate that the use of Arabic served as a symbol of faithfulness to the Islamic past of the Moriscos.
Keywords: language contact, code switching, bilingualism, Arabisms, historical sociolinguistics, Aljamiado literature
Keywords: Costa Rica, voseo, vos, formas de tratamiento, actitudes, tú, usted
DOI: 10.1075/sic.5.2.03tho
Palabras clave: el español de los EE.UU., el espanglish, el bilingüismo, la mezcla bilingüe, diglosia
(La población hispana de Utica, una ciudad pequeña en el centro del estado de Nueva York, ha crecido considerablemente en los últimos cincuenta años. Simultáneamente ha crecido el número de hispanohablantes y ha aumentado la visibilidad de la lengua española en el ámbito público. Este ensayo resume la presencia del español en los espacios públicos de Utica y luego describe dos anécdotas sobre el español en el paisaje lingüístico de la ciudad. Se borraron los símbolos en un caso; en el otro, se cambió una palabra. Este ensayo analiza estos dos episodios en la historia de la comunidad hispana de Utica y lo que significan respecto a la lengua e identidad de ese grupo.)
Palabras chave
Sociolingüística, linguas en contacto, empréstimos léxicos, arabismos, galego
Sumario
1. Introdución. 2. Metodoloxía. 3. Resultados. 3.1. Evolucións dentro do galego e vocábulos do latín. 3.2 Romandalusismos. 3.3. Arabismos. 4. Discusión. 5. Conclusión.
Arabisms in Galician?
Abstract
The objective of this study is to prepare a list of exclusive loanwords in Galician in order to shed light on possible situations of linguistic contact in the past among speakers of Galician and speakers of Andalusian Arabic or Andalusian Romance. The presence of direct Arabisms will help to identify unique situations of contact between Galician and the languages spoken in Al-Andalus. Starting from Corriente’s Diccionario de arabismos y voces afines en iberorromance (1999), seventeen entries, unique to Galician, are found. Only seven are direct Arabisms. The rest are loanwords from Andalusian Romance, evolutions within Galician and one Berberism. Each word’s etymology, relation to other peninsular languages, especially Castilian Spanish and Portuguese, current use and semantic evolution are discussed. The comparison of the loanwords’ etymology with their semantic fields and with some socio-historical events helps to describe a situation of contact among Arabic speakers and Galician speakers which lead to the incorporation of this vocabulary in Galician.
Key words
Sociolinguistics, languages in contact, loanwords, Arabisms, Galician language
Contents
1. Introduction. 2. Methodology. 3. Results. 3.1. Evolutions within Galician and words from Latin 3.2 Words from Andalusian Romance. 3.3. Arabisms. 4. Discussion. 5. Conclusion.
the Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), with the objective of figuring out which are established loanwords, regardless of their status as code-switches or nonce borrowings. The problems with using the comparative variationist study to identify loanwords are discussed. The DAA is extremely helpful in clarifying the status of several words in Utica Spanish as established loanwords
.Este trabajo parte de un estudio previo (Thomas 2016a) de los 441 anglicismos presentes en las grabaciones de dieciséis hispanos que viven y trabajan en Utica, una pequeña ciudad en una zona rural del estado de New York. Mediante los datos de la frecuencia, difusión, adaptación y un estudio variacionista comparativo sobre el determinante, se concluyó que
tanto el cambio de códigos como el préstamo momentáneo forman parte del comportamiento lingüístico de los bilingües hispanos de Utica. El presente ensayo expone todas las palabras discretas del inglés recogidas de las entrevistas y las compara con las entradas en el Diccionario de la lengua española(DLE) y el
Diccionario de americanismos (DAA), con el objetivo de averiguar
cuáles son préstamos establecidos, independientemente de su estatus como cambios de código o préstamos momentáneos. Se discuten los problemas con el estudio variacionista comparativo a la hora de identificar préstamos. El DAA es de suma utilidad para aclarar la condición de varios vocablos del español de Utica como préstamos establecidos.
Palabras clave: contacto lingüístico, alternancia de códigos, bilingüismo, arabismos, sociolingüística histórica, literatura aljamiada
ABSTRACT
Aljamiado literature, composed in Romance with Arabic writing by Moriscos before their explusion from Spain in the seventeenth century, helps us to study the language contact between Arabic and Romance. The objective of this study is to quantify and to classify the Arabisms and examples of code switching in 31 aljamiado works: Menéndez Pidal´s study of El poema de Yúçuf, Manuscript 4953 from the Biblioteca Nacional de Historia analyzed by Hegyi in Cinco leyendas y otros relatos moriscos, and a collection of stories about biblical characters compiled by Vespertino Rodríguez in Leyendas aljamiadas y moriscas sobre personajes bíblicos. The examples of code switching include 77 single words and 54 examples of intra and inter sentential code switches. The Arabisms (more than 2000) and the long quotations from prayers and suras witness the influence of Arabic on the Romance of the authors, but the repetition of the same quotations and some linguistic characteristics such as the double use of the definite article, one Arabic and the other Romance indicate less competency in Arabic than in Romance. It is worthy of note that not even one use of Dios nor Jesús is found, but rather Al.lah and ˤĪçā. This observation along with the use of the Arabic alphabet, the Arabisms and the formulaic Arabic expressions indicate that the use of Arabic served as a symbol of faithfulness to the Islamic past of the Moriscos.
Keywords: language contact, code switching, bilingualism, Arabisms, historical sociolinguistics, Aljamiado literature
Keywords: Costa Rica, voseo, vos, formas de tratamiento, actitudes, tú, usted
DOI: 10.1075/sic.5.2.03tho